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THE NATURALIST'S GUIDE
TO THE AMERICAS

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NATURALIST'S GUIDE
TO THE AMERICAS

PREPARED BY THE

Committee on the Preservation of Natural Conditions

of The Ecological Society op America
with assistance from numerous organizations and individuals

ASSEMBLED AND EDITED BY THE CHAIRMAN

VICTOR E. SHELFORD

Universiti/ of Illinois and Illinois Stale
Natural History Survey

PUBLICATION EDITOR

FORREST SHREVE

Desert Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution

ASSOCIATES AND SPECIAL EDITORS
E. LUCY BRAUN CLARENCE F. KORSTL\N

University of Cincinnati Appalachian Forest Experiment Station
Botany Forestry

A ssembled and Edited A ssembled ana Edited

parts on V^ts on

National Parks and Monuments National Forests of the

of the United States United States

LEE R. DICE ROBERT B. MILLER

Museum of Zoology, University of Michirjan Illinois Natural History Survey

Mammals Forestry

LYNDS JONES HELEN T. GAIGE

Oberlin College Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan

Birds Reptiles

FRANK C. BAKER

Natural History Museum, University of Illinois
Zoology

BALTIMORE

THE WILLIAMS & WILKINS COMPANY

192()

Copyright 1926

THE WILLIAMS & WILKINS COMPANY

Made in United States of America

Published February, 1926

COMPOSED AND PRINTED AT THE

WAVERLY PRESS

FOR

The Williams & Wilkins Company
baltimore, md., c. 8. a.

CHAIRMAN'S PREFACE

The Ecological Society of America is a national organization of approxi-
mately 500 members, the majority of whom are connected with universities,
colleges, and other educational or research institutions. The membership
includes a larger proportion of persons interested in the preservation of
natural conditions for research in pure science and for educational work
than any other of our national scientific societies. It publishes the jour-
nal Ecology, which is largely devoted to contributions on the original
flora and fauna and on their conditions of existence.

In 1917 a committee was charged with the listing of all preserved and
preservable areas in North America in which natural conditions persist.
The original committee included about twentj^-five members, scattered
throughout the United States and Canada. The first work was to make
the list and when this had made some progress, to urge the reservation of
such important areas as demanded immediate attention. The whole
problem of securing the preservation of areas, which is one of the objects
of the committee work, is very complex. At the outset the committee
felt the lack of any definite guides in carrying on the work. The organiza-
tion which produced the Naturalist's Guide has been a growth; committee
membership is limited to those willing to do some kind of work, and
includes about seventy-five members. It is a committee on the preserva-
tion of nature. Its efforts are directed toward the preservation of natural
areas with original flora and fauna (or as nearly so as may obtain) and the
maintenance of the natural biotic balance in existing preserves.

During the preparation of the present volume the committee aimed to
have two members in each state (and province of Canada). These mem-
bers (1) supplied information relative to natural areas, etc. in their terri-
tory and (2) undertook to interest one local organization concerned with
pure science, e.g., a state academy or natural history society, in the preser-
vation of natural areas, commonly indicated by the appointment of a
committee. This constitutes a permanent organization charged, among
other things, with the keeping of the guide up to date. Other members
were engaged in investigating certain topics and writing reports, m interest-
ing pure science organizations to support the work of publication and dis-
tribution of information, and in selecting natural areas within existing

public forests.

The present volume has been prepared with the aid of various institu-
tions and organizations. The National Research Council granted ?300
in 1921-1922 which aided greatly in financing the requests for manuscripts

vi CHAIRMAN'S PREFACE

and also increased the interest in the project. The American Society of
Zoologists and the Botanical Society of America contributed $25.00 each
toward the classification of areas as to degree of modification from the
original condition.

The establishment of cooperation with the United States Forest Service
greatly reduced our financial and clerical burdens.

Acknowledgments are due the following institutions for encouraging
their staff members in editing or contributing to the work: United States
Forest Service; United States Biological Survey; University of Michigan
Museum; University of Illinois, Department of Zoology and Natural
History Survey; University of Cincinnati, Department of Botany; Oberlin
College, Department of Ecology; Northwestern University, Department of
Botany; New Hampshire College, Department of Zoology; and the Car-
negie Institution.

The following rendered important service in reading and correcting
manuscripts:

H. A. Gleason, New York Botanic Garden

H. Burrington Baker. University of Pennsylvania

A. H. Wright, Cornell University

C. C. Hamilton, University of Maryland

Vernon Bailey, U. S. Biological Survey

P. L. Bicker, U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry

A. H. Howell, U. S. Biological Survey

W. L. McAtee, U. S. Biological Survey

H. P. Loding, Mobile, Alabama

F. L. Mulford, U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry

W. L. Bray, Syracuse University

W. H. Osgood, Field Museum, Chicago

E. A. Goldman, U. S. Biological Survey

I. H. Blake, University of Maine

Samuel Eddy, James Millikin University

The associate editors did very much to improve the general character of
the work, but credit should be especially given Dr. E. Lucy Braun who read
the entire manuscript on states and provinces, making important general
criticisms. She added greatly to the plant material and verified the
scientific names. Dr. L. R. Dice made a similar careful study of the
manuscript on states and provinces and contributed materially to the
accounts of mammals.

Several questionnaires regarding the nomenclature to be used for the
various communities and concerning the mapping of natural regions were
sent out. The names of the contributors of these subjects are in connec-
tion with the lists of natural regions and maps of them.

The taxonomic nomenclature for plants in the states and provinces
is mainly according to Sudworth's Check List for trees, and for other

CHAIRMAN'S PREFACE vii

plants follows Britton and Brown's Illustrated Flora, Coulter and
Nelson's Manual, Piper's Flora of Washington, and other state floras.
Common usage has been deemed more important than adherence 1o
supposedly universal codes of nomenclature. The nomenclature on am-
phibians and reptiles in the states and provinces is after L. Stejneger and
T. Barbour: Checkhst of North American Amphibians and Reptiles,
second edition. Names of mammals are from G. S. Miller, Jr. : List of
North American Recent Mammals, 1923, U. S. National Museum Bulletin
128; and those of the birds follow the American Ornithological Union
check list. In the case of most animals and plants, scientific name and
common name are used together the first time the name of the species
appears in a state or provincial account, thereafter in the same article, the
common name stands alone. The birds are an exception to this, as scientific
names of species breeding or resident north of Mexico are used only in the
list at the close of the volume. The common names of birds are fully as
well established as the scientific ones.

The absence of data on invertebrate or lower vertebrate life is, of course,
striking all through the guide. This is perhaps unavoidable. The princi-
pal users will be students of mammals, birds, or general ecology including
plants. As a matter of fact, little work has been done on the invertebrates
as regards ecology, excepting in aquatic work, which is seldom mentioned
by the authors. As regards the Mollusca, F. C. Baker states that little
work has been done except in certain states, state lists being usually syste-
matic, and not ecologic. He has added here and there a note on inverte-
brate life, but little can be done at present to strengthen this side of the
zoology.

The data included in the guide had been brought together in the form of
manuscripts during seven years of more or less continuous effort, and when
turned over to the Publication Editor, the principal task appeared to be
rendering of nomenclature and organization somewhat more uniform. ^ The
extent and character of the Publication Editor's work is indicated in the

second preface.

V. E. Shelford.

Champaign, May 7, 1924.

PUBLICATION EDITOR'S PREFACE

The manuscript of the NaturalisVs Guide first came to my hands in an
advanced stage of preparation, after the members of the compiling com-
mittee had given several years and much hard work to the planning of its
scope, the selection of contributors, and the arrangement of the material
secured.

My own part of the production of the Guide has been the small one
of reading the manuscript with reference to the coordination of certain
features of the treatment, and the unification of typographic style. While
many minor changes have been made, it has seemed best to preserve in
each chapter the individuality of style and treatment of each of the various
authors, chosen for their recognized famiharity with the areas which had
been assigned to them. Nothing has been done by way of attempting to
recast into a uniform mould all of the chapters which relate to regions of
such diverse character, known with such varjang degrees of completeness.

The latest work of incorporating rewritten and fresh material, as well as
the final revision of the manuscript, has been in the hands of Dr. V. E.
Shelf ord, by whom the project of such a guide was conceived, and to whom
the major share of credit will belong for the hoped-for utihty of this

product of man}^ hands.

Forrest Shreve.

Tucson, January, 1925.

IX

^/Tb-

CONTENTS

I. Introduction. V. E. Shelford 1

II. Uses, Values, and Management of Natural Areas 5

A. Artistic and Literary Uses 7

1. The Value of Natural Areas to Literature and Art. S. L. Whit-

comb, University of Kansas 7

2. The Value of Natural Preserves to the Landscape Architect.

S. H. White, University of Illinois 8

B. Scientific and Practical Uses and Values 10

1. The Value to Silviculture of Reserved Areas of Natural Forest

Types. W. W. Ashe, United States Forest Service 10

2. The Value of Aquatic Preserves to Fisheries. A. S. Pearse,

University of Wisconsin 11

3. The Importance to Geography of the Preservation of Natural

Areas. S. S. Visher, Indiana University 12

4. The Importance of Natural Areas to Biology and Agriculture.

V. E. Shelford, University of Illinois 13

C. Forces Making for the Destruction or Preservation of Natural Areas. . 15

1. Forest Laws and Regulations and the Preservation of Natural

Conditions. R. B. Miller, Illinois Natural History Survey. . 15

2. The Preservation of Natural Conditions in the National Forests.

C. F. Korstian, United States Forest Service 17

3. Permanent Sample Plots in the National Forests. C. F. Kor-

stian, U. S. Forest Service 19

4. National Parks and National Monuments. E. Lucy Braun,

University of Cincinnati 20

- 5. Museums and Nature. F. C. Baker, University of Illinois.... 27

6. Game Preserves as Illustrated by Pennsylvania's Experience.

John M. Phillips, Pennsylvania Game Commission 28

7. The Relation of Shrubs and Trees to Wild Birds (.Quoted). F.

Smith, University of Illinois 31

8. Grazing in the National Forests. C. F. Korstian, United

States Forest Service 33

9. Fires in Relation to the Biota. R. H. Wolcott, University of

Nebraska *^

10. The Effect of Pollution on Animal Life. F. C. Baker, Uni-
versity of Illinois 38

D. Interests and Management *2

1. Union of Interests and Management of Natural Areas. V. E.

Shelford, University of Illinois 42

E. Administration of Wild Life 4o

1 The Administration of Wild Life in State and National Parks
(Quoted). Chas. C. Adams, New York State College of
Forestry

F. Duty of Scientific Men Vo' V.

1. The Duty of Scientific Men in Conservation. H. S. Graves,

Yale University "*•

xi

xii CONTENTS

III. Original Biota of the Americas North of the Amazon 55

A. Introduction. V. E. Shelford, University of Illinois 57

B. Descriptive List of North American Biota. V. E. Shelford, Uni-

versity of Illinois, L. Jones, Oberlin College, and L. R. Dice, Uni-
versity of Michigan 60

C. Life Zones. V. E. Shelford, University of Illinois, and G. T. Jones,

Oberlin College 76

D. Descriptive list of Middle American Biota. Forrest Shreve, Desert

Laboratory, and V. E. Shelford, University of Illinois 77

E. Provisional Table of Landscape Aspect and Life Zone Equivalents.

E. A. Goldman, United States Biological Survey 80

F. Bibliography. V. E. Shelford, University of Illinois 81

IV. Natural Areas and Regions 83

A. General Plan. V. E. Shelford, University of Illinois 85

B. Natural Regions and Natural Areas 87

Section 1. Northern North America: Ice Covered Areas, Tundra and

Northern Coniferous Forest 87

1. Northwest Greenland. W. Elmer Ekblaw, Clark University. 87

2. Danish Greenland. W. Elmer Ekblaw, Clark University 90

3. The American Arctic Archipelago. W, Elmer Ekblaw, Clark

University 98

4. Ungava and Labrador. W. Elmer Ekblaw, Clark University. . 102

5. Newfoundland. W. Elmer Ekblaw Ill

6. The Mackenzie Watershed; Northern Hudson Bay Region,

Upper Yukon Region, and the Arctic Islands. E. A. Preble,

U. S. Biological Survey 115

7. Alaska. W. H. Osgood, Field Museum 141

8. The National Forests of the Alaskan District. John D.

Guthrie, United States Forest Service 147

Section 2. Southern Canada and the United States 150

A. States, Provinces and Forest Districts, Chiefly Coniferous Forest. . . . 150

1. British Columbia. John Davidson, University of British

Columbia, P. Z. Caverhill, Provincial Forest Branch,
Edward A. Preble, United States Biological Survey, and
A. H. Hutchinson, University of British Columbia 150

2. Washington. G. B. Rigg, University of Washington, L. R. Dice,

Helen T. Gaige, University of Michigan and Horace Gun-
thorp, University of Washington 168

3. Oregon. Thornton T. Munger, United States Forest Service,

William E. Lawrence, Oregon Agricultural College, and
Howard M. Wight, Oregon Agricultural College 181

4. California. H. C. Bryant, University of California 193

5. National Forests of the North Pacific District (6). J. V. Hof-

mann, Pennsylvania Forest School 202

6. National Forests of the Northern District (1). J. A. Larsen,

Iowa State College 208

7. National Forests of California. Vegetational Types. E. N.

MuNNS, United States Forest Service 216

8. National Forests of the Intermountain District (4). F. S.

Baker and S. B. Locke, United States Forest Service 224

9. National Forests of the Southwestern District (3). G. A.

Pearson, United States Forest Service 232

10. National Forests of the Rocky Mountain District (2). C. G.

Bates, United States Forest Service 237

CONTENTS xiii

11. Idaho. R. A. Muttkowski, University of Idaho 249

12. Alberta. A. B. Connell, Dominion Forestry Branch 253

13. Saskatchewan. John Smith Dexter, College of Porto Rico.. 258

14. Manitoba. A. B. Connell, Dominion Forestry Branch 263

15. Minnesota. C. O. Rosendahl, University of Minnesota 267

16. Wisconsin. A. S. Pe.\rse, University of Wisconsin 284

17. Ontario. C. D. Howe and J. R. Dymond, University of Toronto 288

18. The Province of Quebec. G. D. Fuller, University of Chicago,

and Bro. Marie-Victorin, College de Longueuil 293

19. New Brunswick. B. E. Claridge, University of New Brunswick 299

20. Prince Edward Island. Committee Notes 302

21. Nova Scotia. A. H. M.^ckay, Nova Scotia, Department of

Education 303

22. Maine. A. O. Gross, Bowdoin College, and A. H. Nobton,

Portland Society of Natural History 305

B. States Chiefly Deciduous Forest 314

1. New Hampshire. K. W. Woodward and C. F. J.\ckson, New

Hampshire College 314

2. Vermont. Geo. P. Burns, University of Vermont 316

3. Massachusetts. Anna M. Starr, Mount Holyoke College 318

4. Connecticut. Geo. E. Nichols, Yale University 326

6. Rhode Island. Marion D. Weston, Rhode Island College of

Education 330

6. New York. W. L. Bray, Syracuse University 332

7. Pennsylvania. John W. Harshberger, University of Pennsyl-

vania 338

8. West Virginia. W. E. Rumsey, West Virginia University 341

9. Tennessee. R. S. Maddox, Tennessee Bureau of Forestry 347

10. Kentucky. A. R. Middleton, University of Louisville, W. R.

JiLLSON, F. T. McFarland and M. A. Anderson, Jr., Uni-
versity of Kentucky 349

11. Ohio. E. Lucy Braun, University of Cincinnati, and Lynds

Jones, Oberlin College 354

12. Indiana. Will Scott, Indiana University 372

13. Michigan. L. R. Dice, University of Michigan, Ltnds Jones

and Helen T. Gaige, University of Michigan 377

14. National Forests of the Eastern District. E. H. Frothingham,

United States Forest Service 387

C. States with Deciduous Forest, Southeastern Coniferous Forest, and

Large Swamp Areas 394

1. New Jersey. T. C. Nelson, Rutgers College 394

2. Delaware. Frank Morton Jones 398

3. Maryland. C. C. H.\milton, N. J. Agricultural Experiment

Station ; •_ "^^^

4. Virginia. Ivey F. Lewis, University of Virginia 410

5! North Carolina. Z. P. Metcalf and B. W. Wells, North

Carolina State College ■ "^^^

6. South Carolina. Philip Luginbill, United States Bureau of

Entomology

7. Georgia. Henry Fox, U. S. Bureau of Entomology 4.^

8. Florida. J. R. Watson, University of Florida 427

9 Alabama. R. M. Harper, Alabama Geological Survey, M. S^

Johnson, University of Minnesota, and A. H. Howell, United
States Biological Survey ^^

xiv CONTENTS

10. Mississippi. Gladys Hoke, Converse College 454

11. Louisiana. G. W. Goldsmith, Carnegie Institution, Lenthall

Wyman, United States Forest Service, and H. H. Kopman,
Louisiana Department of Conservation 460

12. Arkansas. John T. Buchholz, University of Arkansas 464

Texas. (See page 502.)

D. States Chiefly Oak Grove Savanna 469

1. Illinois. T. H. Frison and R. B. Miller, Illinois Natural

History Survey 469

2. Iowa. L. H. Pammel, Iowa State College 480

3. Missouri. A. C. Burrill, Missouri Resources Museum 485

4. Oklahoma. H. H. Lane, University of Kansas 490

Texas. (See page 502.)

E. States Chiefly Grassland or Steppe 502

1. Texas. A. R. Cahn, University of Illinois 502

2. Kansas. J. W. McColloch, Kansas State Agricultural College. 515

3. Nebraska. R. H. Wolcott, University of Nebraska 519

4. Colorado. F. Ramaley and W. W. Robbins, University of

Colorado 524

5. Wyoming. John W. Scott, University of Wyoming 529

6. Montana. M. J. Elrod, University of Montana 537

7. North Dakota. J. T. Sarvis, United States Bureau of Plant

Industry, and J. E. Switzer, Indiana University 544

[S. South' Dakota. E. J. Petry, South Dakota State College, and

S. S. ViSHER, Indiana University 548

F. States Chiefly Desert and Semi-Desert 556

Oregon. (See under Coniferous Forest.)
California. (See under Coniferous Forest.)

1. Utah. C. F. KoRSTiAN, United States Forest Service 557

2. Nevada. C. F. Korstian, U. S. Forest Service 560

3. Arizona. G. A. Pearson, U. S. Forest Service, E. A. Goldman,

United States Biological Survey, Forrest Shreve, Carnegie
Institution, and Charles T. Vorhies, University of Arizona 562

4. New Mexico. A. O. Weese, University of Oklahoma 570

Section S. The Tropics North of the Equator 574

A. Mexico and Central America 574

1. Mexico. E. W. Nelson and E. A. Goldman, United States

Biological Survey 574

2. Guatemala. Wilson Popenoe, United States Department of

Agriculture 596

3. British Honduras. Karl P. Schmidt, Field Museum 600

4. Honduras. Karl P. Schmidt, Field Museum 601

5. The Republic of Salvador. P.4.UL C. Standlby, U. S. National

Museum 602

6. Nicaragua. Ludlow Griscom, American Museum of Natural

History 604

7. Costa Rica; Ludlow Griscom, American Museum of Natural

History 607

8. Panama. E. A. Goldman, United States Biological Survey, and

James Zetek, Custodian of the Barro Colorado Island Labo-
ratory, United States Bureau of Entomology 612

B. Northern South America 623

1. Colombia. Francis W. Pennell, Academy of Natural Sciences

of Philadelphia 623

CONTENTS XV

2. Venezuela. H. Pittier, Caracas, Ven, and H. B. Baker, Uni-

versity of Pennsylvania 637

3. The Guianas. Wm. Beebe, New York Zoological Society, and

H. A. Gleason, New York Botanical Garden 049

4. Ecuador. Wilson Popenoe, U. S. Department of Agriculture,

and H. E. Anthony, American Museum of Natural History. . 662

5. The Amazon Valley. Orland E. White, Brooklyn, Botanic

Garden 674

C. Islands in the Atlantic and Adjacent Waters 681

1. Bermudas. (Committee Notes.) 681

2. Bahamas. (Committee Notes.) 682

3. Cuba. Brother Leon, Colegio de la Salle, Havana 682

4. Haiti and Santo Domingo. G. Kingsley Noble, American

Museum of Natural History 695

5. Jamaica. Forrest Shreve, Carnegie Institution 698

6. Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands. N. L. Buitton, New York

Botanical Garden, G. N. Wolcott, Porto Rico Experiment
Station, and others 700

7. Dutch West Indies. H. B. Baker, University of Pennsylvania. 707

D. Pacific Islands 709

1. Galapagos Islands. (Committee Notes.) 709

2. Philippine Islands. F. T. McLean, Rhode Island College,

Kingston, Rhode Island 709

V. List of Organizations Interested in the Preservation of Natural

Conditions "21

A. List of State and Territorial Representatives. W. G. Waterman,

Northwestern University 723

B. Local Organizations. W. G. Waterman, Northwestern University.. 727

C. National Organizations. C. F. Jackson, New Hampshire College... 736
VI. Indices '^^^

1. Index of Scientific and Common Names of Birds 743

2. Index to Authors and Localities 759

I. INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

By V. E. Shelford

Biology has been characterized by
waves of interest in special fields cor-
responding to fads and similar phe-
nomena in himian activity generally.
One of these fields of special interest
is, or has been, evolution. One can
hardly help agreeing with writers who
state that it retarded the progress of
biology (botany and zoology). This
was due to the fact that it happened
to turn attention to types of work that
could be done in the museum and in the
laboratory. The doctrine of the sur-
vival of the fittest was accepted with
none but the crudest ideas of what
constitutes fitness. Most backward of
all was the knowledge of the environ-
ment. This, together with the ease
with which morphological features could
be fitted into the doctrines set forth
by Darwin, led to a period of empirical
speculation concerning adaptation,
coloration, mimicry, etc., which con-
tributed so little of scientific value
that much of it will be quite generally
ignored or forgotten in the near future.

In connection with this work observa-
tions which would show the function
or fitness of the parts of features specu-
lated about, were rare if not wanting.
The uses of the structures or colors were
often entirely assumed. We perhaps
know less about fitness than any other
biological subject. The "survival of
the fittest" as usually employed means
merely the survival of the survivors.
There can be no adequate knowledge of
fitness to environment without knowl-
edge of environment.

Knowledge of habitats and the rela-
tions of organisms to them cannot be
said to have seriously reached the ears
or constituted a part of the training of
more than a few of those engaged in the

older lines of botany and zoology.
Studies of genetics, evolution, physi-
ology, embryology, cytology, parasi-
tology and entomology still proceed
largely or at least far too often without
reference to the habitat relations of
the organisms studied.

Warming, who studied the plants of
the sanddunes of Denmark, discovered
orderly sequences and established the
fact that habitats and environment
may be interpreted by i)utting the
results of his studies into scientific
order. He thus answered the epithet
of a famous contemporary zoologist
who closed a discussion of habitats with
the words "developing hodge podge."
Modern ecology has shown that the
environment is orderly, proceeding in
a particular direction for long periods.
One of its outstanding and original
features is the study and orderly inter-
pretation of the habitats of organisms
and the organisms themselves. Further
experience has demonstrated what
Warming indicated: That knowledge
of habitats can be organized into science.

A branch of biological science which
obtains its inspiration in the natural
order in original habitats must depend
upon the preservation of natural areas
for the solution of many i)roblems.

It was the conviction of many mem-
bers of the Ecological Society soon
after its organization, that the society
should take steps to make available
for study as much of the original biota
of North America, as possible. An
inventory of available areas and the
extent to which they are modified is
naturally one of the early steps in the
preservation of suitable areas for eco-
logical study.

II. USES, VALUES AND MANAGEMENT
OF NATURAL AREAS

A. ARTISTIC AND LITERARY USES

1. THE VALUE OF NATURAL AREAS
TO LITERATURE AND ART

By Selden Lincoln Whitcomb

Some few early American poets wrote
of the skylark and the nightingale.
They followed the easy path of inherited
literary tradition, and did not seem to
realize the wealth of new natural ma-
terial at their very doors. Other poets,
however, very soon discovered the
poetic values of the whippoorwill, the
passenger pigeon, and the ruby-throated
humming-bird. Freneau, poet of the
American Revolution, has a well known
poem on the honeysuckle. A little
later Bryant's poem on the yellow violet
almost marks an epoch in the poetic
treatment of American flowers. Alex-
ander ^Yilson may be considered, in a
sense, as the last of the pioneers among
the American ■ writers _ on American
nature. In his poetry, as well as in
his letters and his Americcm Ornithol-
ogy, he has left wonderful records of
his personal observations of birds,
plants, and landscapes over a very
large section of the region east of the
Mississippi River.'

From the days of Wilson to the pres-
ent time, there has been, on the part
of American writers, an alert and
continuous interest in the varied as-
pects of American nature. Perhaps
no literature is richer than ours in the
literary presentation of local nature.
The "nature essay" is a very charac-
teristic and practically indigenous
literary type in this country. As
American territory expanded, our
writers accompanied or soon followed

iFor a fairly extended treatment of "Nature in
Early American Literature," see the writer 8 article
in The Sewanee Review, 1894.

the pioneers of the new regions. Our
literature now offers us entire volumes
of nature lore from the region Where
Rolls the Oregon (Dallas Lore Sharp)
to that of A Florida Sketch-Book (Brad-
ford Torrey) and from The Maine
Woods (Thoreau) to The Land of Little
Rain (Mary Austin). Dr. Neil E.
Stevens has an interesting article in
The Scientific Monthly for February,
1921, on "The Botany of the New Eng-
land Poets." There is abundance of
material for analogous articles— on the
botany or the zoology of writers— for
every section, 3^cs, for every state of
the Union.

The student of American literature
welcomes any reasonable movement
to preserve, in as nearly the original
state as possible, as many as possible
of the regions which have been observed,
loved, and described by our authors.
The present writer has visited the site
of Thoreau's famous cabin at Walden
Pond, and has followed the path of
Thoreau, with Cape Cod in his hand,
for miles and miles along the Cape.
(Incidentally, as the writer lay on high
land tracing the route from the book,
an unsuspicious fox came trotting to
within two yards or so of him.) Man-
kato, Minnesota, is a typical and beau-
tiful prairie town and it was the western
limit of Thoreau's only western trip.
Mankato has a wonderful system of
natural parks. The student of litera-
ture hopes that a section of prairie or
woodland, known to have been visited
by Thoreau, may yet be located and

preserved.

Among other places of somewhat
similar interest in American literary
biography, in the Middle West, these
may be suggested: haunts in Wisconfiin.

8

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

which inspired James Gates Percival
(poet as well as geologist) ; places in or
near Fort Gibson, Oklahoma, which
stimulated the pen of Washington
Irving; certain environs of Osage and
Clear Lake, Iowa, which were of notable
significance in the development of
Hamlin Garland, etc.

Here and there in the prairie country,
one finds small areas of open ground
still in their natural state. This is
sometimes the case with the railroad
right-of-way. Here may be found
plants, and, to a lesser extent, animals
which seem to have passed from the
neighboring regions. Such areas are
especially welcome to the lover of
literature. If their natural phenomena
are not yet known to our literature
proper, let us not destroy the oppor-
tunity for the writers of the future.
The natural forest edge also— let us
preserve as many sections of it as
possible. Here, where the prairie
meets the woods, were the original
haunts of many of our familiar herbs
and shrubs and birds— spring migrants :
white-throated sparrow, hermit thrush,
etc.; summer residents: thrasher, cat-
bird. Bell's vireo, etc.; winter visitants:
juncoes, tree sparrows, the great north-
ern shrike, etc.

We have already destroyed much
which cannot be replaced. No sane
student of literature will deny the
national importance of the lumber
industry or of the greatest possible ex-
tension of grain producing land. But
the same student is anxious to prove to
himself and to the world that America
is not entirely commercial in spirit.
He hopes for and believes in the Ameri-
can artist — painters, musicians, and
writers- — of the near and of the distant
future. For these artists and for those
thousands if not millions of citizens
whose lives are to be enriched by these
works of pen and brush, we should
preserve, all over the country, carefully
selected, representative areas, as nearly
in the primitive condition as is now
possible.

2. THE VALUE OF NATURAL PRE-
SERVES TO THE LANDSCAPE
ARCHITECT

By Stanley White
Inasmuch as one of the chief interests
of landscape architecture is the pres-
ervation of beautiful landscapes, noth-
ing can be more evident than the im-
portance to the profession and to those
deriving benefits from its works of
this movement to save various natural
regions from possible injury or de-
struction. Landscape architects have
always maintained a keen interest in
such movements: as private practi-
tioners in urging the development of
organizations interested in natural pre-
serves, and through their national
professional society in formally support-
ing the movements in defence of our
great national reservations against im-
proper exploitation.

Frederick Law Olmsted, in speaking
of our national parks, says:

The National Parks are set apart
primarily in order to preserve to the
people for all time the opportunity of a
peculiar kind of enjoyment and recrea-
tion, not measurable in economic terms
and to be obtained only from the re-
markable scenery which they contain—
scenery of these primeval types which
are in most parts of the world rapidly
vanishing for all eternity before the
increased thoroughness of the economic
use of land. In the National Parks
direct economic returns, if any— are
wholly secondary to the one dominant
purpose of preserving essential esthetic
qualities of their scenery unimpaired as
a heritage to the infinite numbers of the
generations to come.

One of the most notable achievements
in this direction was the creation of the
Boston Park system, with its rich
natural and semi-natural preserves
largely through the original idea and
subsequently the active work of Mr.
Charles Eliot, Landscape Architect,
concerning which there is an excellent
account in his biography. i Many other
instances could be cited, as the design

» Charles Eliot, Landscape Archiiect, by C. W.
Eliot.

USES OF NATURAL AREAS

d

of public areas is a considerable part
of the regular work of the profession.

President Emeritus Charles W. Eliot
of Harvard University, at the meeting
of the American Society of Landscape
Architects, Boston, 1911, made the
following remarks:

If I were asked to mention the most
important public movement of the last
twenty years, I should say it was the
movement to obtain for all classes of
society — indeed, for the entire popula-
tion— better means of health, rational
enjoyment, and real happiness. Much
sympathy has been expressed in these
later years for the unhappy condition
of large elements of the population.
Something more than economic remedies
must be found for the great evils which
beset modern society, and particularly
for the diseases, physical and moral,
which are caused by congestion of popu-
lation. This profession is called upon
to deal with all these problems of con-
gestion. You must take account of the
desires and hopes, tastes and purposes
of the population to be relieved; and
these sentiments and emotions will all
be found to be closely related to that
pursuit of happiness in which a free
people is always engaged in accordance
with their tastes and inclinations.
. . . The Declaration of Independ-
ence declares that all men have a right
to life, liberty, and the pursuit of
happiness. Now it is the pursuit of
public happiness which, I think, should
be the main standby of this profession
in urging the public to use the landscape
art, to seek its benefits, and to employ
its artists.

But the preservation of natural
beauty is not the only object sought
in saving the untouched tracts. Not
that their beauty is not a sufficient
object in itself, but other factors, not
less important but simply less apparent,
can be justly ascribed. The training
of the landscape architect begins not
only with pictorial composition and
practical design, but also with the
study of plants, of soils, of bodies of
water and of all the great natural forces
and influences that have shaped and

given character to the physiognomy
of the land and its vegetation. Now
the original sources of the literature in
all these vast fields of special sciences
have come from the many investigators
who have utilized the natural areas
not as an accessory to their mode of
study but as the supreme fundamental
basis of all determinations. Unlike the
investigators in other than the so-called
"Natural Sciences" whose laboratories
are often merely specially equipped
ordinary buildings, these workers
must depend on all out-doors for their
laboratories and particularly on the
few portions of the earth's surface still
remaining as an original record of the
earth's history. The plea of this work
is that these original tracts are so
rapidly becoming modified that steps
should be taken to save their destruc-
tion before too late. From the stand-
point of the landscape profession their
loss would be not a mere sentimental
misfortune, but a real catastrophe
reaching into every branch of science
which contributes to the development
of landscape study.

From these great sources of natural
beauty comes all our inspiration; from
them comes the unlimited store of fine
examples teaching us the arrange-
ment of our materials; from them comes
the lesson of growth, development and
natural strife that shows the way to
a permanent landscai)e; and finally,
from them comes the suggestion to the
layman of the value of beauty and the
desire for it in the surroundings of
human habitations. It is not enough
that we grow fine floral displays, well-
clipped hedges and smooth lawns. \\c
must bring to the most humble cottage
in all parts of the land at least a sug-
gestion of nature's charm, power and
delicacy, the inspiration for which,
unless these natural preserves are
secured, will disappear for all times in
spirit and in fact.

B. SCIENTIFIC AND PRACTICAL USES AND VALUES

1. THE VALUE TO SILVICULTURE OF

RESERVED AREAS OF NATURAL

FOREST TYPES

By W. W. Ashe

The setting aside of vestigial units
of the various forest types has three
important objects in view: First, to
supply the means for studying the
laws which control the distribution
of different species of trees. Second,
to ascertain the factors which deter-
mine forest types. Third, to note the
changes in such types induced by the
artificial conditions which result from
exploitation and silvicultural practice.

The practical silviculturist is princi-
pally concerned with the last named
of these objects. It is his function to
modify natural conditions, often to a
profound degree, in the interest of
increased yields of commercially de-
sirable species. In this, however, he
is constantly taking a chance, since his
crop is a slow growing one and he is
unable to wait for the results of the pains-
taking research, extended through the
life of a stand of timber, needed to sup-
ply the accurate results under which he
could proceed with complete confidence.
By determining these factors of dis-
tribution and using these vestigial
units as check plots, however, it may be
possible for him to prevent mistakes or
to rectify errors which may be made
through deviating too far from the
normal.

It is reasonable to suppose that each
site, the biotic corollary^ of which is
the forest type, bears in its natural
condition (unless modified by fires)
the heaviest stand which the native
species are capable of producing on

'Ashe, W. VV. "Forest Types of the Appala-
chians and White Mountains." Journal of the
Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, ZT: 1S3-1QS. 1922. 2 Op. cit.

10

that site. That is, nature has already
established that species or association
of species which is best suited for grow-
ing under the limiting edaphic and
meteorological conditions which are
termed site, among the most important
of such conditions being soil acidity,
rate of nitrification, maximum mois-
ture content, number and length of
critically dry periods, depth of soil,
and available heat units and their
distribution. The species forming the
type reproduce themselves, not invaria-
bly in a definite proportion, but definite
within a certain latitude, the oscilla-
tion of the type,2 and utilize the full
resources of the site, which is capable
of producing annually (or on an average)
a fixed amount of wood material (cel-
lulose). Silviculture seeks to modify
or increase this natural yield by cul-
tural methods. There may be an at-
tempt to concentrate increment in a
few select individuals or to simplify
the composition of the natural stand
by eliminating from it certain of the
components which are economically
or silviculturally less desirable; or to
replace the native species in whole or
in part with other species or by a single
species which is regarded as more desir-
able economically or silviculturally.

The problems which arise in connec-
tion with such changes can be met in
two ways. They can be solved empir-
ically for each site, as in connection
with the introduction of foreign species,
by experimental planting with a view
to determining what species or combina-
tion of species is more advantageous
than those in the original type. The
establishment of final conclusions by
this method may require many dec-
ades, during which time a portion of
the land might not be producing to

USES OF NATURAL AREAS

11

its full capacity or many irreparable
and costly errors may have been made.
This was the method emploj^ed in
testing the adaptability of certain
species in the plantations on the Bilt-
more Estate at Asheville, N. C. For
example, wild black cherry {Prunus
seroiina) was planted with a view to
its possibly becoming a timber tree.
We now know from a careful study of
the forest types within which this tree
attains commercial proportions that
there is no site on the Biltmore Estate
on which this species can be expected
to attain first size or to be more, in
fact, than a straggling slow growing
tree.

The other method of meeting these
problems is by a study of the funda-
mental factors which control each
forest type within the type itself. Some,
if not all, of these factors should be
determined on sites on which the type
is unmodified or least modified, for
whenever it has been materially modi-
fied, especially for a long period, there
has been an accompanying, though
possibly slight and temporary, modifi-
cation of the site.

When types formed of mixed stands
are cut over it is difficult and at times
impossible to determine their original
composition. For these reasons it is
urgently desirable that such unmodified
units of the different forest types be
located before the silvical conditions
are altered by repeated fellings and
that they be reserved for the study of
their controlling factors. In a few
years such vestigial units purposely
reserved will be the only unmodified
remnants of many of the forest types.
It will be only by the setting aside now
of such unmodified areas that there
can be any assurance of having these
plots of the various forest types availa-
ble for conducting such studies.

As has been stated in a previous paper
on this subject^* it is eminently unde-
sirable that there should be a possi-

»Ashe, W. W. "Reserved areas of principal
forest types as a guide in developing an American
silviculture." Journal of Forestry, 20: 276-2W.
1922.

bility of the development of American
silviculture being hampered by the
failure to reserve such vestigial units
of the important forest types as fields
for research, and as check plots by
means of which it will be possible to
note the changes which take place in
the same types under the stress of ex-
ploitation and silvical development.
As a prerequisite for making the highest
use of such reserved units and the
studies which may be made in them,
the areas of the different forests' types
should be carefully mapped after the
types have been standardized. Only
this procedure will establish similarity
of conditions and will permit the ex-
tension to them of the laws which are
found to control on the vestigial units.
The study of the unmodified areas,
in connection with those which are
modified, will indicate the extent to
which it will be possible to deviate from
the normal and yet retain the equilib-
rium necessary for maintaining the
factors of the locality. Such studies
will determine whether it will be pos-
sible economically to replace one species
by another; whether it will be advan-
tageous to substitute a pure coniferous
stand for one of mixed hardwoods, or
if not, as to what proportion of the
stand the conifers can occupy. The
natural areas must in large measure
serve as the means of developing our
silviculture; their elimination from
exploitation and their preservation is
essential to that end.

2. THE VALUE OF AQUATIC PRE-
SERVES TO FISHERIES

By a. S. Pearse

There are few "natural" environ-
ments for freshwater fishes in the
United States. Artificially stocked
streams, lakes, and ponds seldom pro-
duce such desirable fishes as are found
in localities where the wilderness has
not been disturbed by man. Great
natural preserves like the Great Lakes
and the Mississippi River should be

12

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

kept as near their original condition
as possible.

In general the larger a fish preserve
is, the better. It is highly desirable
to keep the environmental complexes
furnished by great rivers and lakes as
complete as possible. Variety of habi-
tats is necessary because many species
do not carry on their cycles of activities
in the same habitat. The bass feed
largely among plants, but require bare
bottom for spawning. The cisco lives
in the deep cool waters of lakes, but
comes into shallow water on stony
bottoms to breed. Many young fishes
frequent shoals, even though they live
elsewhere as adults.

Attempts to rear fishes in small
bodies of water are often without
success. In general the ecological suc-
cession in ponds eliminates the species
most desirable for man. A pond left
to "run" according to "nature" chokes
with aquatic vegetation and becomes
a swamp, populated by mud minnows,
sticklebacks, and bullheads. If game
fishes are desired, bare bottom is es-
sential. Fishes confined year after
year in a restricted area may be over-
run by parasites. One of the trout
hatcheries of the Wisconsin Conserva-
tion Commission is situated in an ex-
cellent locality and has an adequate
supply of fine spring water, but is of
little value because the trout are heavily
infected with a parasitic copepod.

Pollution may easily destroy the
value of a fish preserve. Poisons may
be introduced from natural sources or
from the byproducts of the industries
of man. Substances which use up oxy-
gen or produce other injurious gases
may be present. Minerals may be
precipitated from or dissolved in the
water by substances not in themselves
injurious to fishes.

If fishing is permitted in a preserve,
it should not be so restricted as to catch
certain fishes and allow others to in-
crease unduly. If angling only is
practised in a lake the game fishes
are most often caught and undesirable
species, like the carp, sucker, and dog-

fish, which seldom take a hook, become
too numerous. The restricted use of
fyke nets or seins for the capture of
the latter fishes is desirable in such a
locality.

It is doubtful if the suitability of a
body of water as a fish preserve can
ever be judged by any single criterion.
Two lakes may be of the same size and
depth. The one may be "plankton
poor," have a scanty bottom fauna,
contain undesirable mineral constit-
uents, lack oxygen, and have barren
shores, while the other furnishes a
favorable environment in all these es-
sentials. A river may change its whole
character as a habitat for fishes on
account of the introduction of factory
wastes, the building of a dam, or some
other apparently unimportant change
in a locality. Rush Lake, Wisconsin,
has abundant food and shelter and
furnishes excellent breeding grounds,
but is so shallow that its oxygen is
used up when it is covered by ice in
winter, hence it contains no large fishes.

The important features for a fish pre-
serve are: (1) sufficient size to permit
variety in habitats and to lessen the
dangers from contamination and rapid
fluctuations in temperature, (2) ade-
quate resources in the way of food,
shelter, and breeding grounds to main-
tain a sufficient number of fishes to
make the preserve profitable.

3. THE IMPORTANCE TO GEOG-
RAPHY OF THE PRESERVATION
OF NATURAL AREAS

By Stephen Sargent Visher

At least four of Geography's several
sub-divisions will be aided by the pres-
ervation of natural areas. These are
(1) Descriptive Geography, (2) His-
torical Geography, (3) Ecological Geog-
raphy, and (4) Economic Geography.

Descriptive geography is concerned
not alone with describing relief features
and the cultural additions. It con-
siders likewise the vegetation and
the characteristic animals. Preserved

USES OF NATURAL AREAS

18

areas, where natural conditions can
be studied readily facilitate good geo-
graphic descriptions in two ways. First
they afford examples of natural con-
ditions. Only after type areas have
been studied can a really good descrip-
tion of a region be written. Second,
the setting aside of definite areas for
preservation results indirectly in in-
creased information about the location
of typical areas, the methods of reaching
them, and other significant facts con-
cerning them. Fairly full information
is gathered and made available con-
cerning very few privately owned tracts
partly because the work and expense
entailed may soon have been in vain.
The owner may decide to keep out
even the most worthy scientists, or
else the natural biota may be largely
destroyed as by the cutting of the tim-
ber or otherwise altering the conditions.
Thus although many nearly natural
areas still remain, few geographers
know just where to go, how to get there,
and what they will find when they
arrive.

Teachers of descriptive geography
will benefit, also, from the presence
of preserved areas especially near
cities, for in such areas their students
can learn much in a short time about
natural conditions, the conditions the
pioneers encountered.

This leads to the advantage to his-
torical geography of the preservation
of natural areas. The specialists who
interpret the historical development of
any region must have a full appreciation
of conditions as they were in earlier
times. Carefully preserved natural
areas will aid greatly in understanding
primeval conditions.

Ecological geography differs from
plant and animal ecology chiefly in
being more comprehensive, including
both, and as the advantages to each
have been discussed at length elsewhere,
it is not necessary to consider the nu-
merous advantages to this phase of geog-
raphy which would result from the
preservation of numerous typical natural
areas. However, there are many prob-

lems which special students of eitlicr
plants or animals have not adequately
investigated but which the geographer,
with his more inclusive view wishes to
study. For example, the influence of
geographic factors which because of
their rareness, have not been considered
significant, such as the "free-air foehn,"
or the hurricane, need to be investi-
gated. The native flora and fauna may
show far plainer adjustments to such
influences than do the recently intro-
duced forms. Since it is probable that
in the future there will be a great in-
crease in the number of ecological
studies carried on by geographers, it
is advantageous to geography that
many areas be preserved now before
it is too late.

Economic geography with its interest
in all products of commercial impor-
tance is interested in the preservation
of natural areas especially because of
the probability that in the future new
uses will be found for native plants and
animals not now very useful. If many
are exterminated, as will surely result
unless numerous natural areas are pre-
served promptly, all possibility of their
ever being of economic importance will
have disappeared. After a form is
extinct, or practically extinct, it will
be very distressing to learn that it had
potentialities of great value had they
been taken advantage of. Until every
living form is well known, none should
be allowed to become extinct. Eco-
nomic geographers join with agricultur-
ists, physicians and students of many
other sorts, therefore, in advocating the
setting aside of areas where the native
forms can continue to live and ean be
advantageously studied.

4. THE IMPORTANCE OF NATURAL
AREAS TO BIOLOGY AND
AGRICULTURE

By V. E. Shelford

Some biological subjects are of course
only remotely related to habitat ques-
tions; others can hardly proceed to
certain conclusions without reference

14

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

to habitat relations. An adequate in-
terpretation of evolutionary relations
can hardly be made without knowledge
of environment. This is true even if
natural selection operating on charac-
ters which arise from internal causes,
is assumed to be the only cause of the
origin of new forms. The geneticists
have rarely separated environmental
effects from purely hereditary phenom-
ena. It is safe to assume that a
considerable part of the phenomena
described as hereditary is some form of
environmental effect. The results of
genetical study can hardly have impor-
tant evolutionary bearing until rela-
tions to environment have been brought
into it.

The relations of physiology to ecology
are more intimate under present condi-
tions; the general physiologists are inter-
ested in and are appreciative of ecological
work. The interpretation of physiolog-
ical characters in connection with en-
vironmental relations is a growing field.
Medical physiology is less intimately
related to environmental subjects but is
far from as remote as the present status
of various other biological subjects.

The purpose of pointing out the rela-
tions of the various branches of biology
to ecology and the study of natural
habitats, and of calling attention to
neglected relations is merely to indi-
cate that present interest in the pres-
ervation of natural habitats for scien-
tific purposes is far less than it may be
expected to be in the near future. It
is safe to predict that when the neglected
field of habitat relations comes to
attention a little more, not merely
ecologists, but all biologists will re-
quire preserves of natural conditions
in connection with their various scien-
tific interests. The relations of the pure

science of biology to natural conditions
is believed to be much more important
to future research than is generally
recognized.

Agricultural problems include the
development of new kinds of cultivated
plants and domestic animals, and the
destruction of pests of all kinds. In
understanding conditions which most
favor pests a knowledge of their original
habitat is often very important and
will save years of work on the part of
investigators. For example the chinch
bug was originally found on grasses
in waste places along the coast of the
Carolinas. Rainy, hot seasons similar
to those found in the original area are
favorable to the chinch bug. Knowl-
edge of the climate and other condi-
tions in the original habitat would
have saved much useless speculation
and misinterpretation. Knowledge of
the original conditions under which a
pest lives is usually important. Ac-
cordingly preserves of natural conditions
are important from the standpoint of
insect pests and equally important for
other plant and animal pests.

Domestic animals, especially sheep,
have been studied in relation to climate.
After thousands of years of domestica-
tion sheep still require conditions simi-
lar to those in which they are said to
have originally occurred — mountain
grassland- — and failure to supply these
conditions is one of the causes of diffi-
culty in the sheep industry. A reserva-
tion with sheep of the wild sort in their
natural conditions would have facili-
tated this study greatly. There are
many species now in a wild state which
may be utilized in the near future for
domestication or. crossing with domestic
species and they should be preserved
in their native haunts for this purpose.

C. FORCES MAKING FOR THE DESTRUCTION OR PRESERVA-
TION OF NATURAL AREAS

1. FOREST LAWS AND REGULA-
TIONS AND THE PRESERVATION
OF NATURAL CONDITIONS

By R. B. Miller

i. possibility of preserving natural
conditions under public as com-
pared with private ownership

While perhaps no state or national
forest laws deal directly with the pres-
ervation of natural conditions, there
are many forces working indirectly
to that end. At least, natural condi-
tions have a much better chance of
being preserved under public than under
private ownership, coupled as it is
with the danger of changing policies,
with fire, grazing and over-cutting.
In fact, the failure of private initiative
to properly protect its holdings is one
of the main reasons given for increasing
our acreage in national, state, county
and municipal forests.

Since the relation of fires to plant and
animal life is discussed by Wolcott
(page 34) and Korstian deals with
grazing on the national forests, (page
33) we may say just a word about
cutting regulations and their effect
upon the preservation of natural con-
ditions. On state forests there are
usually some restrictions as to the size
of trees which may be cut and certain
laws as to brush-disposal, leaving of
seed trees or size of trees to be cut.
Naturally, cutting by the shelterwood
and selection methods do much less
damage to soil and reproduction by too
sudden exposure to the drying effects
of the sun and wind than does clear
cutting, which in some cases may be
the wisest financial policy.

On the national forests, cutting regu-
lations arc enforced by a workable
policy— the requiring of the operator
to pay an additional price for his timber
when he does not conform to the pro-
visions of the timber-sale contract,
with the cancelling of the agreement
in extreme cases of violation of the
cutting regulations.

If the purchaser of timber does not
wish to follow Forest Service regula-
tions, he has the choice of doing his
logging elsewhere, probably paying
more for his stumpage while he is not
assured of a perpetual supply of timber
for his mill as he is when he depends
upon government owned timber. As
Korstiani points out, the forester will
soonbedeahng almost wholly with cut-
over timber lands and to him the great-
est value of preserving natural condi-
tions lies in sotting aside the best of
these tracts, which nature has left.
The chief purpose of these natural
areas will be for comparison and stand-
ardization. The chance for having the
greatest number of such tracts for
object lessons lies in national and
state ownership of timber in many
typical regions.

II. EXTENT TO WHICH FOREST LAWS

MAKE POSSIBLE PERMANENT

SAMPLE PLOTS

It is generally recognized that per-
manent sample plots are essential to
good forestry practice, serving not only
as places for carrj-ing on certain lines
of research such as experiments in c-ut-

1 Korstiiin, C. F. "The prescrvntion of nnturul
conditions in the national forests." This volume,
p. 17.

15

16

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

ting by different methods, the study of
succession after fires and the study of
reproduction and growth but also as
demonstration areas having a certain
educational value.

Speaking of the use of school forests
as research centers and the need of pro-
tection Prof. James W. Toumey, of
the Yale Forests School says: "Such
forests cannot perform their best ser-
vice as research stations unless they
are under a management which will
afford the greatest protection to per-
manent sample plots and make it rea-
sonably certain that investigations,
once begun, can be carried through."
The same may be said of private tracts.

While no special provision is made
for the protection of sample plots
outside of the enforcement of the usual
fire laws prevalent on state forests,
the setting aside of certain tracts to
serve as demonstration areas is a part
of the forest policy of many states and
is sometimes carried on in cooperation
with private owners. It stands to
reason that such cooperation under
state control will be a valuable aid in
protecting sample plots within such
demonstration forests from destruction.
These demonstration forests, says
Secretary Wallace, "might be estab-
lished in certain "key areas," where
Federal or state ownership would be of
special value in protecting stream
sources and giving the local people
a practical demonstration of fire pro-
tection and good forest management."

Korstian^ discusses the permanent
sample plots on the National Forests
(page 17) and their value to the fores-
ter, the biologist and the ecologist. He
divides these into silvicultural plots,
where succession and the effects of
different grades of cutting and thinning
can be studied; and plots which have
been established in connection with
range management to determine the ef-
fect of severity of grazing both upon

' Korstian, C. F. "The preservation ot natural
conditions in the national forests." This volume,
page 17.

herbaceous, shrubby and tree repro-
duction.

While the Conservation Commission
of Canada has ceased to function, this
organization must be given great credit
for the establishment of sample plots
in the various provinces under the
leadership of their forester, Mr. Clyde
N. Leavitt, assisted in the supervision
of field parties by Dean C. D. Howe,
of the Faculty of Forestry of the Uni-
versity of Toronto. These plots were
established in cooperation with some
of the provinces, lumber and paper
companies and on military reservations
so that they still have a good chance of
being perpetuated. It can be said
that the Commission went into greater
detail in measuring the individual
trees on these plots and recording the
data than any other organization which
preceded it, affording a stimulus to the
provinces and private companies in
sample plot work which cannot be over-
estimated.

On such plots, by periodically measur-
ing and recording the increase in size
of all specimens, from small saplings up
to mature individuals which have been
numbered and measured, figures can
be obtained which will be of great value
in making yield tables for pure or mixed
forests, while incidental changes taking
place in the life-history of the stand
can be accurately studied and recorded.
It is true that these plots are more or
less exposed to fires and windstorms
but under the frequent inspection of
foresters they stand a very good chance
for permanency.

III. EXTENT TO WHICH FOREST LAWS
AFFECT THE ESTABLISHMENT AND
MAINTENANCE OF GAME PRESERVES

While excellent fishing and game pre-
serves have been established by pri-
vate individuals, such as the Whitnej'^
tract in the Adirondacks and the vari-
ous fishing clubs and game clubs both
in Canada and the United States where
restrictions are made regarding fires

USES OF NATURAL AREAS

17

and poaching, with the land and streams
patrolled by guards and wardens, it
stands to reason that the preservation
of fish and game can best be accom-
plished on a broad scale under state or
national departments, with settled
policies and greater power for law
enforcement.

To what extent game protection shall
be connected with forestry is an unset-
tled question. Foresters may object
because where forests, fish and game
are combined into a large department
they feel that forestry is very likely to
receive secondary consideration. In
some of the states and Canadian prov-
inces, however, forestry and game
interests are associated under one de-
partment, either merged into a large
Department of Conservation, a Depart-
ment of Lands and Mines, or a Forest,
Fish and Game Commission as it was
for a long time in the state of New York,
this, however, having been superseded
by a Conservation Commission. In
the province of New Brunswick, for
example, all registered guides under the
Department of Lands and Mines are
sworn in as deputy fire wardens while
foresters and scalers also report viola-
tions of the game laws of the province.
New Brunswick has set aside about
600 square miles of territory on the
Nepisiguit River not only to serve as an
experimental area where the effects of
different methods of cutting may be
studied but also to serve as an immense
game refuge. Game preserves have
also been established by the state of
Pennsylvania and it has already been
demonstrated that these tracts serve
as breeding grounds whence game
flows over into contiguous areas. The
linking up of the state game preserves
with state forests is of great impor-
tance to lovers of wild life since the
protection of such tracts from fire under
the state forest fire laws will protect
not only animals and birds but fish
since it has been shown that fish have
been killed in large numbers by ashes
washed into streams by heavy rains.

2. THE PRESERVATION OF NATU-
RAL CONDITIONS IN THE
NATIONAL FORESTS

By C. F. Koustian

No fact in connection with the devel-
opment of our country is more evident
than the tremendous change which has
taken place in the original vegetation.
Many areas once covered with virgin
forests are now either productive farm
lands or are waste and desolate as the
result of lumbering and fire. We still
have left vestiges of the original growth;
but even these are threatened.

It is a trait of mankind to preserve
antiquities. Museums for their safe-
keeping and display are liberally main-
tained. Universities and scientific
schools of today must have them for
research in important fields. It is
just as true of our original forest con-
ditions, including all their biological
implications, as of any other of the
relics of the past, that science as well
as human interest demands the pres-
ervation of these samples. They can-
not be brought to the museum; they
must be their own living museums.
They are as necessar}'^ for the sound and
progressive development of the biolog-
ical sciences as they are for the art
and science of forestry. The education
of future generations demands them.

The forester will soon deal almost
wholly with cutover timberlands, j'et
— as has been clearly pointed out by
Ashe' and Pearson^' — if the highest
ideals of silviculture are to be attained
the forester must not be deprived of
the basic facts which Nature records
in the virgin forest. The practicing
forester, in the interest of the highest
use to the public through increased
production of the most valuable species,
often profoundly changes the natural
conditions and, as has been stated else-
where in this volume, these conditions
may also be readily modified by graz-

'Ashe, W. W. "The value to silviculture of
reserved areas of natural forest types." This vol-
ume, pp. 10.

2 Pearson, G. A. "Preservation of natural areas
in the National Forests." Ecolojy, 3: 2S4-287.
1922.

18

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

ing.' Timber exploitation also has a
disturbing effect on the animal life of
the forest, but under proper manage-
ment and control of predatory animals
the forester contends that the game
animals will increase. So far as the
forester is concerned, the main reason
for preserving natural areas is to retain
a standard of accomplishment of Nature
alone, to serve as a guide by which the
correctness of the forester's efforts to
improve on Nature may be gauged.

In addition to the justification of
these natural areas as objects of re-
search in forestry and other biological
sciences, there is another valid reason
for the preservation of representative
natural conditions in the National
Forests. This is the rapidly increasing
appreciation of such areas for scenic
and recreational purposes. It is the
aim of the United States Forest Service
in administering the National Forests
to devote every tract of forest land to
its highest use. It is not unduly
stretching the spirit of this announced
purpose to assume that it will embrace
the appropriate treatment of areas
which are chiefly valuable for scientific
study, esthetics or recreation.

For utilitarian reasons it is evident
that the Forest Service cannot be ex-
pected to satisfy every requirement
with natural virgin forest conditions.
The National Parks and National Monu-
ments, on the contrary, do in many
cases meet these requirements. The
forests embraced in them will undoubt-
edly be preserved, and the opportunity
is presented for establishing in them
definitely located study areas, subject
to the policy of administration, A
study of the accompanying map (figs. 1
and 2) will show that the reserved areas
are widely distributed over the country.
Doubtless areas representative of widely
prevailing natural conditions can be
found in them. This will make it pos-
sible to limit the number of such areas
within the National Forests to a scale
consistent with their administrative

' Korstian, C. F. "Grazing in the National
Forests." This volume, pp. 33-34.

policies, selecting only such locations
as will preserve and maintain typical
virgin conditions, and offer a home to
all forms of wild life within the forest
itself and yet not interfere materially
with important timber sales or other
large commercial developments. Be-
cause of their diversity of conditions
and types, National Forests offer to
ecologists untold opportunities for study.

Within the 157 million acres of
National Forests there are many areas
of wilderness of rugged and diversified
topography which have no great eco-
nomic importance for timber or forage,
but which possess high value both
for recreational and scientific purposes.
The Forest Service policy of best and
most appropriate use includes the
building of trails through these areas,
partly for fire protection and partly
to make them more accessible for just
such purposes as those mentioned. An
important step toward adequate pro-
tection of game would be the legisla-
tion— long urged by game conserva-
tionists— for the establishment, by
Presidential action, of federal game
refuges in the National Forests. Still
another important list of areas, on
which natural conditions are already
being preserved, are the municipal
watersheds, protected as sources of
city water supply. Furthermore, be-
cause of economic inaccessibility or
other such factors, vestiges of virgin
forest will doubtless remain untouched
indefinitely, although they may not be
formally incorporated in specifically
reserved areas.

With proper cooperation between the
various "wild life" and "natural con-
ditions" advocates the greater part of
their needs could be adequately met
without the reservation of a prohibi-
tively large acreage. The present quota
of National Parks, municipal water-
sheds and other forest areas which are
safeguarded against exploitation and
depredation are not wholly adequate.
There is still need for a few more areas
in each forest region which must be
carefully selected to insure a proper

'''-i2ai._ri?_;

AREAS WITHIN NATIONAL FORESTS WHERE

NATURAL CONDITIONS ARE PRESERVED

OR ARE PROPOSED FOR PRESERVATION

TEX.

A^

AREIAS NOW IN NATURAL CONDITION UNDEIR PRESEIRVATION
ARtAS IN NATURAL CONDITION PROPOSED FOR PRESERVATION

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

USES OF NATURAL AREAS

19

representation of all important forest
types. Such areas may now be found
in the National Forests. The longer
their economic use and development is
continued, the further will they depart
from a primeval condition.

The descriptions of the National
Forests in the following pages are
grouped according to the eight adminis-
trative districts. The forest types vary
widely between districts and also within
some of these districts. The accompany-
ing map (figs. 1 and 2) gives a general
idea of the location of the National
Forests and the approximate number of
areas on which the forest conditions are
being preserved in their natural and
semi-natural states. The areas within
the National Forests which are being
preserved in their natural condition are
chiefly those closed to grazing, timber
sales, and other commercial exploitation
because they possess unusual scenic
features, are the sources of important
municipal water supplies, or are for-
esters' permanent sample plots located
in virgin timber as a check on some
artificial cultural operation. The areas
being preserved in a semi-natural con-
dition comprise the federal and state
game preserves, the majority of the
permanent sample plots, experimental
forests, and areas on which some forms
of use are prohibited and others
permitted.

It is greatly to be regretted that, on
account of the prohibitive cost, the
Committee found it absolutely impos-
sible to publish the excellent maps
submitted by some of the contributors.
The map accompanying this paper
(figs. 1 and 2) is necessarily on too small a
scale to show these areas with the pre-
cision and detail of classification they
deserve. Anj^one desiring to visit any
of the National Forest areas, whether
for study or for pleasure, should com-
municate with the nearest District
Forester at the address given on the
map, who will gladly supply the desired
information in much more detail than
it could possibly be given here. Many
of the National Forests are reached by

highways, while good mountain roads
are available for extensive trips into
the higher portions. For the regions
inaccessible by automobile, trails are
avail,"blc which extend through(jut the
mountains in such a way as to bring tlic
greater part of them within reach.
Camping equipment is often necessary
and always desirable. Information re-
garding roads, means of transportaion
and subsistence can always be secured
at the office of the local Forest Super-
visor or from the Forest Rangers at the
ranger stations in the National Forests.
Few restrictions are imposed upon natu-
ralists in the National Forests and the
local Forest Officers are always willing
to give additional information as to
routes and methods of travel.

3. PERMANENT SAMPLE PLOTS IN
THE NATIONAL FORESTS

By C. F. Korstian

Within a few decades a large part of
our natural wild woods will be cut over
and the forest products needed in every-
day life will be supplied by second-
growth forests. It is, therefore, im-
portant to know what tree species these
lands are capable of growing and how
much timber they will yield. In order
to answer these questions the forester
must determine what kinds of trees are
coming in naturally, how fast they are
growing, the loss due to various causes,
including natural shading out of the
smaller and weaker trees, what may be
expected from those which live, and
whether the natural reproduction is
adequate to insure satisfactory stands
of valuable species of timber trees or
whether it needs to be supplemented by
artificial planting.

Some of the first permanent sample
plots in the National Forests wore
established on the Coconino and Tu-
sayan Forests by the Fort \'allcy Forest
Experiment Station, about IG years ago,
for the purpose of obtaining basic
scientific data on those questions.
There are now many such plols on the
National Forests throughout the West,

20

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

and also some on the less extensive
eastern Forests. In addition to these
silvicultural sample plots, hundreds of
permanent sample plots have been estab-
lished in the National Forests in con-
nection with the study of range manage-
ment. On these are being recorded the
changes occurring in the herbaceous
and shrubby vegetation and timber
reproduction as a result of total pro-
tection from grazing or the type of
grazing management in practice.

Relatively few of the permanent
sample plots on the National Forests
are in virgin forest and the silviculturist
cannot imagine keeping all of them in
such a condition, even if they are now.
A few plots, however, will be retained
in natural stands as a check on the
cultural operations of the forester.
Such plots in the virgin forest would be
valuable chiefly from the standpoint of
studying the natural succession of forest
vegetation and competition in its broad-
est sense, as between individuals, spe-
cies, and associations. Thus, while
permanent sample plots in the National
Forests will be primarily for silvicultural
purposes, there remains a huge problem
which will require intensive study by
the ecologist on areas left in a natural
condition.

Since the silviculturist is working in
part on such utilitarian problems as
the effects of different methods of
cutting or thinning and slash disposal
on the subsequent growth of the uncut
trees and on natural regeneration, the
reason why his permanent sample plots
must be located largely outside of
virgin forests is apparent. As a matter
of fact, most of these plots are on culled
or cutover lands where the conditions
are at most only semi-natural. In many
cases the original forest type is in time
re-established and in others a sub-climax
replaces it. These plots, however, will
ultimately prove extremely interesting
to the biologist because the forester
maintains a detailed record, through the
periodic measurement and examination
of the trees and the vegetation on the
areas, of all the changes taking place

between the time of the cutting of the
original stand and the maturity of the
subsequent crop. Protection from other
disturbing factors is usually provided.
These plots will give the ecologist the
complete history of the successional
phenomena recorded, which will enable
a more exact analysis and correlation
of the results by eliminating the neces-
sity for much interpolation and specula-
tion concerning some of the intermediate
phases.

It is therefore evident that the per-
manent sample plots in the National
Forests, although they may not all be
important from the standpoint of the
preservation of natural conditions, will
supply the forester, the ecologist, and the
biologist with much valuable scientific
information which cannot be secured in
any other way.

4. NATIONAL PARKS AND NA-
TIONAL MONUMENTS

By E. Lucy Braun

The United States government has,
by the establishment of national parks
and monuments, taken a foremost posi-
tion in the preservation of one of our
great economic and social assets —
unusual and superlative natural scenery.
The establishment of Yellowstone Na-
tional Park in 1872 marked the begin-
ning of a project which has grown to
great importance, and which has become
a world-wide influence in the establish-
ment of national reservations in other
parts of the world.

The first effort at conservation was
made in 1832, when Congress set aside
the Hot Springs Reservation, which has
since (in 1921) been made a national
park. From the establishment of Yel-
lowstone to the present time, the na-
tional park system has constantly
grown. It was not, however, until 1916,
that the National Park Service was
established as a separate bureau of the
Department of the Interior. There are
now under its control, 19 parks having a
total area of 11,372 sq. mi., and 29
monuments with total area of about

USES OF NATURAL AREAS

21

1820 sq. mi. In addition to these,
there are 7 national military parks and
3 monuments administered by the War
Department, and 13 national monuments
administered by the Department of
Agriculture .

A national park is created by act of
Congress, and j^early appropriations
made thereafter for its upkeep and
development. A national monument is
set aside by presidential proclamation;
no direct provision is made for its
development. Small yearly appropria-
tions are now granted by Congress for
protection and maintenance of the
national monuments. National monu-
ments are often, though not always, of
lesser importance and smaller area than
national parks. Areas of extreme im-
portance in remote areas are sometimes
set aside as monuments and later the
status changed to park. This was true
of the Grand Canyon and of Zion Can-
yon. The desired object — preservation
— is accomplished in the establishment of
the monument. A number of the na-
tional monuments have been established
to preserve relics of archaeological and
historical interest, as Montezuma Castle
and Gran Quivira; others, as Muir
Woods and Rainbow Bridge, preserve
natural features.

National monuments administered bj'
the Department of Agriculture, as
Mount Olympus, are situated in national
forests. That is, they are reservations
within national forests, where natural
conditions are to be preserved.

The integrity of the national parks
has been attacked time and time again.
Desire of commercial exploitation of
water resources for power and irrigation
projects, of grazing resources, and of
timber, by local interests more con-
cerned in their own financial advance-
ment than in the interests of the Nation,
must constantly be combated.

The act of Congress in 1916 establish-
ing the National Park Service, was a
distinct step in advance. In this act is
contained the following statement:

The service thus established shall
promote and regulate the use of the

Federal areas known as national parks,
monuments, and rcKorvations herein-
after specified by such means and meas-
ures as conform to the fundamental
purpose of the said parks, monuments,
and reservations, which purpose is to
conserve the scenery and the natural
and historic objects and the wild life
therein and to provide for the enjoy-
ment of the same in such manner and by
such means as will leave them unim-
paired for the enjoyment of future
generations.

As Congress still has the power to
modify park boundaries, and to grant
easements within the park boundaries,
it behooves the citizens of the United
States, to whom the parks belong, to
take an interested part in all questions
relating to our national parks, and to
express their disapproval of any plan
violating the purpose for which the
parks and monuments were created.

Irrigation and water power interests
have made the most insistent demands
for utilization of park resources. Yel-
lowstone, Glacier, and Yqsemite have
been attacked. The Sherburne irriga-
tion reservoir at Glacier and the de-
struction of the Iletch Iletchy Valley in
Yosemite, should be an object lesson in
the results of irrigation and water power
developments. The amendment of the
Federal water-power act (March, 1921),
which removed the national parks and
monuments already established from the
operation of the provisions of the water-
power act, makes difficult but not im-
possible, future projects of this sort.
A bill now pending calls for the erection
of a dam across the Yellowstone River,
which will raise the level of Lake Yel-
lowstone, thus flooding surrounding
land.

Grazing concessions present a question
of great importance. While djunage
inflicted by grazing is not as irreparable
as that produced by the buililing of
dams, it is nevertheless very serious.
Natural reproduction of trees and other
plants is hindered or prevented; erosion
is favored. Herbaceous growth is most
affected, which means that the flower
display is curtailed or entirely wiped
out. The fodder of native grazing

22

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

animals, as deer and elk, may be reduced
to the point where survival in periods of
extreme drought or in severe winters
may be difficult. And last, but not
least, sanitation is affected and the
water supply may be impaired. That
grazing has affected the appearance of
the Grand Canyon National Park is
evident from the report of the Director
of National Park Service for 1923.
"The park floral display below the
rims of the canyon is extremely varied
and beautiful in successive seasons, but
the lack of such display on the rims is
largely due to cattle grazing." Sheep
grazing is prohibited in all national
parks; cattle grazing is permitted in
some areas.

The national parks and monuments
comprise only one-third of one per cent
of the total area of our country. "Cer-
tainly as a Nation we are rich enough to
preserve from spoliation such a small
amount of native America intact for the
enjojonent of posterity."

National parks and monuments differ
radically from national forests. The
parks and monuments are intended to be
true preserves, where every effort should
be made to maintain natural conditions.
Timber cutting and grazing are not
permitted except in certain instances
and should be wholly prohibited. Hunt-
ing, except predatory animals, and
removal of any natural object by visitors
is prohibited, except that a certain
amount of angling is permitted. The
addition to any national park of plants
or animals which are not native should
not be permitted, for the addition of
foreign plants or animals would cer-
tainly not be in keeping with one of the
established purposes of the parks and
monuments — the conserving of the wild
life therein- — which should be inter-
preted to mean native wild life. This
question has been considered by the
Ecological Society of America (see
"Resolutions," Ecology, vol. Ill: 170).
The national forests, on the other hand,
are a valuable measure toward con-
servation, not complete preservation,
except in limited areas. Cutting of

mature timber is permitted, and thus the
composition of the forest is changed.
Tree planting is resorted to improve the
stands, or to increase the percentage of
commercially desirable trees; hunting
is permitted; grazing is general, even to
the point of over grazing. Outside
activities in the national forests are
regulated by the Forest Service. Thus,
while the national forests are great
conservers of our national resources,
it is in our national parks and monu-
ments that natural conditions are best
maintained at present.

The national parks policy, as an-
nounced in 1918, and reaffirmed recently
by Secretary Work, should maintain
our parks as the preserves of wild life
that they now are. Its three funda-
mental prnciples are: "First, that the
national parks must be maintained in
absolutely unimpaired form for the use
of future generations as well as those of
our own time; second, that they are set
apart for the use, observation, health,
and pleasure of the people; and third,
that the national interest must dictate all
decisions affecting public or private en-
terprise in the parks."

Following is a list of national parks
and monuments, arranged in order of
date of establishment. Descriptions of
most of these will be found in the state
accounts; the distinctive features of the
less important are given here.^

NATIONAL PARKS ADMINISTERED BY THE
NATIONAL PARK SERVICE

Hot Springs, Arkansas; 1832; 1| sq. mi.;

46 hot springs.
Yellowstone, Wyoming, Montana, and

Idaho; 1872; 3348 sq. mi.; Wyo.,

page 532.
Sequoia, California; 1890; 252 sq. mi.;

Calif., page 197.
Yosemite, California; 1890; 1125 sq. mi.;

Calif., page 197.
General Grant, California; 1890; 4 sq.

mi.; Calif., page 197.
Mount Rainier. Washington; 1899; 324

sq. mi.; Calif., page 175.
Crater Lake, Oregon; 1902; 249 sq.

mi.; Ore., page 191.

1 All quotations from Seventh Annual Report of
Director of National Park Service. 1923.

USES OF NATURAL AREAS

23

Wind Cave, South Dakota, 1903; 17 sq.

mi.; S. D., page 555.
Piatt, Oklahoma; 1902, 1904; U sq. mi.

Contains sulphur and other springs

of medicinal value; wooded area with

wild flowers and birds.
Sullys Hill, North Dakota; 1904; H-

sq. mi.; N. D., page 547.
Mesa Verde, Colorado; 190G, 1913; 77

sq. mi.; Colo., page 527.
Glacier, Montana; 1910; 1534 sq mi •

Mont., page 539. • •>

Rocky Mountain, Colorado; 1915, 1917;

397§ sq. mi.; Colo., page 527.
Hawaii, Hawaiian Islands; 191(5, 1922;

186 sq. mi., in three separate areas.'
Lassen Volcanic, California; 1916; 124

sq. mi.; Calif., page 198.
Mount McKinley, Alaska; 1917, 1922;

2645 sq. mi.
Grand Canyon, Arizona; 1908, 1919; 958

sq. mi.; Ariz., page 568.
Lafayette, Maine; 1916. 1919; 8 sq. mi.;

Me., page 310.
Zion, Utah; 1909, 1918, 1919; 120 sq. mi.;

includes former Mukuntuweap Na-
tional Monument; Utah, page 559.

NATIONAL MILITARY AND OTHER PARKS

ADMINISTERED BY THE WAR

DEPARTMENT

Chickamauga and Chattanooga, Georgia
and Tennessee; 1890; 6543 acres.
"Beautiful natural park. Embraces
battle fields of Chickamauga and
Missionary Ridge and scenes of other
conflicts of the Civil War fought in
the vicinity of Chattanooga during
1863."

Antietam Battle Field, Maryland; 1890;

50 acres. "Scene of one of the greatest

battles of the Civil War."
Shiloh, Tennessee; 1894; 3546 acres.

"Natural park embracing the battle

field of Shiloh near Pittsburg Land-

mg."

Gettysburg, Pennsylvania; 1895; 2451
acres. "Beautiful natural park.
Scene of Civil War combat. Probably
better marked than any other battle-
field in the world."

Vicksburg, Mississippi; 1899; 1323 acres.
"Beautiful natural pai'k. Scene of
the siege and surrender of Vicksburg
in 1863 during the Civil War."

Lincoln's Birthplace, Kentucky; 1916;
"Contains the l6g cabin and part of
the farm where Lincoln was born."

Guilford Courthouse, North Carolina;
1917; 125 acres. "Near Greensboro.
Scene of one of the great battles of
the Revolution; fought in 1781."

NATIONAL MONUMENTS ADMINISTERED
BY THE NATIONAL PARK SERVICE

Devils Tower, Wyoming; 1906; 1152
acres. "Remarkable natural rock
tower, of volcanic origin, 1200 ft. in
height."

IMontezuma Castle, Arizona; 1906; 160

acres. "Prehistoric cliff-dwcllii.g

y'lfi • • • of scenic and ethnologic
interest."

El Morro, New Mexico; 1906, 1917; 240
acres. "Enormous sandstone rock
eroded in form of a castle, upon which
inscriptions have been placed by
early Spanish explorers. Contains
chlf-dweller ruins. Of great historic
scenic, and ethnologic interest."

Petrified Forest, Arizona; 1906, 1911;
25,625 acres. "Abundance of petrified
coniferous trees, one of which forms
a small natural bridge."

Chaco Canyon, New Mexico; 1907;
20,629 acres. "Numerous cliff-dweller
ruins."

Muir Woods, California; 1908, 1921;
426.43 acres. (See Calif.)

Pinnacles, California; 1908, 1923; 2653.46
acres. (See Calif.)

Natural Bridges, Utah; 1908, 1909, 1916;
2740 acres. (See Utah.)

Lewis and Clark Cavern. Montana;
1908, 1911; 160 acres. Temporarily
closed to the public. "Immense lime-
stone cavern of great scientific in-
terest, magnificently decorated with
stalactite formations."

Tumacacori, Arizona; 1908; 10 acres.
Ruin of Franciscan mission.

Navajo, Arizona; 1909, 1912; 360 acres.
"Numerous pueblo or clitT-dwcller
ruins, in good preservation."

Shoshone Cavern, Wyoming; 1909; 210
acres. "Cavern of considerable ex-
tent, near Cody."

Gran Quivira, New Mexico; 1909. 1919.
560 acres. Early Spanish mission
ruins and pueblo ruins.

Sitka, Alaska; 1910; 57 acres. "Park of
great natural beauty and historic
interest as scene of massacre of
Russians by Indians. Contains 16
totem poles of best native workman-
ship."

Rainljow Bridge, Utah; 1910; 160 acres.
"Unique natural bridge of great
scientific interest and symmetry.
Height 309 feet above water, and span
is 278 feet, in shape of rainbow."

Colorado, Colorado; 1911; 13,SS3 acres;
"Many lofty monoliths, and is won-
derful example of erosion, and of
great scenic beauty and interest."

24

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Papago Saguaro, Arizona; 1914, 1922;
1940.43 acres. "Splendid collection
of characteristic desert flora and
numerous pictographs. Interesting
rock formations."

Dinosaur, Utah; 1915; 80 acres. (See
Utah.)

Capulin Mountain, New Mexico; 1916;
681 acres. "Cinder cone of geologi-
cally recent formation.

Verendrye, North Dakota; 1917; 253.04
acres. Includes Crowhigh Butte
SeeN. D.

Casa Grande, Arizona; 1889, 1909, 1918;
480 acres. "These ruins are one of
the most noteworthy relics of a pre-
historic age and people within the
limits of the United States. Dis-
covered in ruinous condition in 1694."

Katmai, Alaska; 1918; 1,088,000 acres.
"Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes."

Scotts Bluff, Nebraska; 1919; 2053.83
acres. "Region of historic and sci-
entific interest. Many famous old
trails traversed by the early pioneers
in the winning of the West passed over
and through this monument."

Yucca House, Colorado; 1919; 9.6 acres.
"Relic of prehistoric inhabitants."

Fossil Cycad, South Dakota; 1922;
320 acres. "Area containing deposits
of plant fossils."

Aztec Ruin, New Mexico; 1923; 4.6
acres. "Prehistoric ruin of pueblo
type containing 500 rooms."

Hovenweep, Utah-Colorado; 1923; 285.8
acres. "Four groups of prehistoric
towers, pueblos and cliff dwellings."

Pipe Spring, Arizona; 1923; 40 acres.
"Old stone fort and spring of pure
water in desert region."

Carlsbad Cave, New Mexico; 1923;
719.22 acres. Immense cavern; see
Nat. Geog. Mag., January, 1924.

NATIONAL MONUMENTS ADMINISTEEED

BY THE DEPARTMENT OF

AGRICULTURE

Gila Cliff Dwellings, New Mexico; 1907;
160 acres. "Numerous cliff-dweller
ruins of much interest and in good
preservation." In Gila National
Forest.

Tonto, Arizona; 1907; 640 acres; similar
to Gila Cliff Dwellings. In Tonto
National Forest.

Jewel Cave, South Dakota; 1908; 1280
acres. "Limestone cavern of much
beauty and considerable extent, limits
of which are as yet unknown." In
Harney National Forest.

Wheeler, Colorado; 1908; 300 acres. "Of
much interest from geological stand-
point as example of eccentric erosion

and extinct volcanic action. Of much
scenic beauty." In Cochetopa and
Rio Grande National Forests.

Mount Olympus, Washington; 1909,
1912, 1915; 299,370 acres. Contains
many objects of great and unusual
scientific interest, including many
glaciers. Is summer range and breed-
ing ground of the Olympic elk." In
Olympic National Forest.

Oregon Caves, Oregon; 1909; 480 acres.

"Extensive caves in limestone of

much beauty; magnitude not entirely

ascertained." In Siskiyou National

Forest.

Devil Postpile, California; 1911; 800
acres. "Spectacular mass of hexag-
onal basaltic columns, like an immense
pile of posts. Said to rank with
famous Giant's Causeway in Ireland."
In Sierra National Forest.

Walnut Canyon, Arizona; 1915; 960
acres. "Contains cliff -dwellings of
much scientific and popular interest."
In Coconino National Forest.

Bandelier, New Mexico; 1916; 22,075
acres. "Vast number of cliff-dweller
ruins, with artificial caves, stone
sculpture, and other relics of pre-
historic life." In Santa Fe National
Forest.

Old Kasaan, Alaska; 1916; 38.3 acres.
"Abandoned Indian village in which
there are numerous remarkable totem
poles and other objects of historical
interest." In Tongass National
Forest,

Lehman Caves, Nevada; 1922; 593.03
acres. "Limestone caverns of much
beauty and of scientific interest and
importance." In Nevada National
Forest.

Timpanogos Cave, Utah; 1922; 250
acres. Limestone cavern. In Wa-
satch National Forest.

Bryce Canyon, Utah; 1923; 7440 acres.
"Box canyon filled with countless
array of fantastically eroded pin-
nacles. Best exhibit of vivid coloring
of earth's materials." In Powell
National Forest.

Extensions of a number of parks are
advocated by the Director of the Na-
tional Park Service: Crater Lake to
include Diamond Lake; Yellowstone to
include the Teton Country to the south;
Rainier to include Ohanapecosh Hot
Springs, to the southeast; and the much
discussed extensions of Yosemite and
Sequoia, which involve elimination of
land now park territory, and inclu-

USES OF NATURAL AREAS

25

sion of scenic areas now outside park
limits.

The enlargement of Sequoia National
Park by the creation of Roosevelt-
Sequoia National Park, involves not
alone addition of desirable territory,
but exclusion from the park boundary of
parts of park territory. The addition
includes some of the finest Sierra coun-
try— Mt. Whitney, the Kings and Kern
Canyons and Tehipite Valley. The bill,
as it now stands, retains all but a small
part of the 3 southern townships whose
exclusion met with so much opposition
among naturalists. Most of the Sequoia
groves are retained. The inclusion of
the headwaters and canyons of the
Kings River, one of the finest valleys
of the Sierras, is meeting with strong
opposition from local irrigation districts.

The proposed change in Yosemite
National Park also involves the acquir-
ing of a section of the High Sierras, and
the exclusion of certain private lands
(10,959.89 acres) along the western
boundary. These private holdings cause
administrative difficulties, because of
grazing problems and the cutting of the
timber. In both cases, the territory
(not now privately owned) excluded
from the parks comes under the control
of the Forest Service.

Proposals for new parks and monu-
ments are constantly being made. All
must be investigated for availability and
desirability. The area must be one of
national, not merely local interest.
Areas of great local interest should be
taken care of as State parks. Only one
national park, Lafayette, is situated
east of the Mississippi River. It seems
desirable that the park system be in-
creased in this section of the country if
suitable areas can be secured. Among
proposals here, are Sand Dunes, ^ Mis-
sissippi Valley, Appalachia, Everglades,
Mount Katahdin, and Mammoth Cave.
In the West, where scenic features of
merit are more numerous, many propo-

2 "Report on the Proposed Sand Dunes National
Park, Indiana." Stephen T. Mather, Director of
the National Park Service. 1917. 113 pp.

sals have been made prominent among
which is the Glacier Bay region of
Alaska. Many worthy areas have also
been proposed as national monuments.
Proposals presented to the Sixty-
eighth Congress, include the following:

Mount Katahdin (Maine).

Killdeer Mountain (North Dakota).

Roosevelt (North Dakota).

Mammoth Cave (Kentucky).

Mississippi Valley (Wisconsin, Iowa).

Utah (Utah).

Appalachia (Virginia) — to include sum-
mit of High Knob Mountain.

Wonderland (South Dakota).

Lincoln (Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee)
— to include High Pinnacle Moun-
tain and Cumberland Gap.

Nicolet (Wisconsin) — an abandoned
military reservation; 1046 acres.

Battle of Bear's Paw (Montana) — as a
national monument.

Grand Coulee (Washington).

Yakima (Washington) — to include Mt.
Adams and surrounding territory.

Blue Knob (Pennsylvania).

An area in a National Forest reservation
in Georgia.

Many other bills to establish national
parks and monuments have been pre-
sented. All such areas have been or are
being investigated.

There has recently been appointed by
Secretary Work, a Southern Appalachian
Park Committee. This committee is
"to undertake a thorough study of the
Southern Appalachian Mountains for
the purpose of selecting the most worthy
site in that range as a national park,
in order to conserve the scenery and the
plant and animal life under established
national park policies for the use and
education of our people." They have
since recommended two areas, the
Shenandoah in Virginia and the Great
Smokies in Tennessee and North Caro-
lina.

The national park system will doubt-
less continue to expand, and to increase
in value as its parks and monuments
become increasingly popular as rec-
reational areas, and as natural areas
in which the study of native fauna and
flora may be carried on to advantage.

26

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

LITERATURE

Almost every periodical dealing with
travel or nature contains articles on one
or more of our national parks. The
following are of a more general nature :

A Guide to the National Parks of
America. Edited by Edward Frank
Allen. Robert McBride and Co.,
New York, revised edition, 1918.
338 pp., map and illustrations.

The National Parks Portfolio. Robert
Sterling Yard. 248 pp., 306 ill.
Gov. Pr. Office.

Your National Parks. Enos A Mills.

Glimpses of our National Parks. R. S.
Yard. 72 pp., 31 ill. Gov. Pr. Office.

General Information regarding the
National Monuments. (Contains
descriptions of all national monu-
ments administered by the Depart-
ment of the Interior, the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, and the War
Department.) Gov. Pr. Office.
(Out of print.)

Information Circulars for individual
parks. Free on request to Director,
National Park Service. (Available
for Crater Lake, Grand Canyon,
Hawaii, Hot Springs, Mesa Verde,
Mount Rainier, Rocky Mountain,
Sequoia and General Grant, Wind
Cave, Yellowstone, and Yosemite.

Automobile Road and Trail Maps.
Director, National Park Service.

Annual Reports of the Department of
the Interior and of the National
"Pt tIv i^prvicp

The Relation of Wild Life to the Public in
National and State Parks. Charles
C. Adams, Proc. 2nd Nat. Conf.,
State Parks, 1922.

Glacier National Park

Flora of Glacier National Park. Paul

C. Standley. Contr. U. S. Natl.

Herb., vol. 22, pt. 5. 1921.
Wild Animals of Glacier National Park.

The Mammals. Vernon Bailey ; The

Birds. Florence Merriam Bailey.

210 pp., 94 fig., 37 pi., 1 map. 1918.
Origin of the Scenic Features of Glacier

National Park. M. R. Campbell.

42pp., 25111. 1914. Gov. Pr. Office.
Glaciers of Glacier National Park. W.

C. Alden. 48 pp., 30 ill. 1914.

Gov. Pr. Office.
Some Lakes of Glacier National Park.

M. J. Elrod. 32 pp., 19 ill. 1912.

Gov. Pr. Office.
Glacier National Park. A Popular

Guide to Its Geology and Scenery.

M. R. Campbell. U. S. Geol. Surv.,
Bull. 600. 54 pp., 13 pi., map.
1914. Gov. Pr. Office.

Glacier National Park, Its Trails and
Treasures. Mathilde Edith Holz
and Katherine Isabel Bemis.

Tenting Tonight. Mary Roberts Rine-
hart. Houghton Mifflin Co. 1918.

Yellowstone National Park

Geological History of Yellowstone
National Park. Arnold Hague. 24
pp., 10 ill. 1912. Gov. Pr. Office.

Geysers. Walter Harvey Weed. 32 pp.,
23 ill. 1912. Gov. Pr. Office.

Fossil Forests of Yellowstone National
Park. F. H. Knowlton. 32 pp., 15
ill. 1914. Gov. Pr. Office.

Fishes of the Yellowstone National
Park. W. C. Kendall. 28 pp., 17
ill. 1915.

The Big'.Game''Animals"'of Yellowstone
National Park. Edmund Heller.
Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin, vol. 2,
no. 4: 405-467. 1925.

The Food of Trout in Yellowstone Na-
tional Park. Richard A. Muttkow-
ski. Roosevelt Wild Life Bulletin,
vol. 2, no. 4: 471-497. 1925.

The Birds of the Yellowstone National
Park. Milton P. Skinner. Roosevelt
Wild Life Bulletin, vol. 3, no. 1.
192 pp. 1925.

Grand Canyon National Park

The Shinumo Quadrangle, Grand
Canyon district, Arizona. L. F.
Noble, U. S. Geol. Surv., Bull. 549.
1914.

Rocky Mountain National Park

Geologic Story of Rocky Mountain

National Park. Willis T. Lee.

Mountaineering in Rocky Mountain

National Park. Roger W. Toll.

Lafayette National Park

The Sieur de Monts National Monu-
ment as a Bird Sanctuary.

The Coastal Setting, Rocks and Woods

! of the Sieur de Monts National

^' Monument.

An Acadian Plant Sanctuary.

The Sieur de Monts National Monument
as commemorating Acadia and early
French influences of Race and Set-
tlement in the United States.

Natural Bird Gardens on Mount Desert
Island.
(All the above from Director of N. P.

Service.)

USES OF NATURAL AREAS

27

Yosemite National Park

A Yosemite Fora. Hall.

Sketch of Yosemite National Park and
an Account of the Origin of Yose-
mite and Hetch Hetchy Valleys
F. E. Matthes. Gov. Pr. Office.

Forests of Yosemite, Sequoia, and
General Grant National Parks. C
L. Hill. Gov. Pr. Office.

The Secret of the Big Trees— Yosemite,
Sequoia, and General Grant National
Parks. Ellsworth Huntington.

Mount Rainier National Park

Features of the Flora of Mount Rainier

5; i National Park. J. B. Flett. Gov
Pr. Office.

Forests of Mount Rainier National
Park. G.F.Allen. Gov. Pr. Office.

Mount Rainier and Its Glaciers. F. E
Matthes. Gov. Pr. Office.

Mount Rainier, a Record of Explora-
tions. Edmond S. Meany. i^

Crater Lake National Park

Geological History of Crater Lake. J.

S. Diller. Gov. Pr. Office.
Forests of Crater Lake National Park.

J. F. Pernot. Gov. Pr. Office.

5. MUSEUMS AND NATURE

By Frank Collins Baker

Many well informed people have
thought that the elaborate habitat
groups in the modern museum can take
the place of first hand contact with the
animals in their natural environment.
These groups are indeed wonderfully
life-like, and in many cases faithfully
portray the life as it may be seen in
nature, and when scientifically accurate
and constructed with due regard to the
psychology of the museum visitor they
have both a value to ecology and an
interest for the visitor. But these
groups, good as they are, only interpret
certain phases of the life of the animals,
giving the average person a birds-eye
view of some of the phenomena which
go to make up the every-day occupation
of wild life. Such groups as the Vir-
ginia deer in the four seasons, on exhibi-
tion in the Field Museum of Natural
History, give the student a good idea
of the changes that take place in the
form and fur of these common animals:

but this simply interprets these phe-
nomena and cannot take the place of the
wild deer in their native haunts.

These museum groups, however, have
a real ecological value, not only in-
terpreting nature to those who may be
fortunate enough to be able to visit the
national parks and other wild places of
nature, and so make these visits of
more profit and pleasure, but they aLso
give to those individuals (who unfor-
tunately are in the majority) who cannot
leave the big centers of population and
enjoy wild life at first hand, a glimpse
of wild animal life as it is, or more
often, as it has been, before man took
complete possession of the land, lake,
and forest for his personal, and too often,
selfish use.

The preservation of natural areas for
the maintenance of wild life is emphati-
cally desired by, and necessary for,
the modern museum, for only by a
study of these natural areas can these
wonderful groups be made. It is be-
coming increasingly difficult to find
places near the cities where even the
smaller life can be studied for such
purposes. Lakes and streams adjacent
to towns and small cities (to say nothing
of these near the large metropolitan
cities, where almost everything is de-
spoiled) are either heavily polluted and
the fauna and flora killed or so changed
by modern life of the suburbanite as to
completely destroy all vestiges of origi-
nal wild life. The preservation of small
natural, more or less virgin, areas near
small towns and cities is imperative
and must be accomplished soon, or all
such places will be lost forever.

The large museums of the big cities
as well as the smaller nuiseums of towns,
small cities, and those connected with
universities, are in a position to aid
the movement for the preservation of
wild life sanctuaries by the intelligent
display of their material so that visitors
may become interested in wild life, and
thus be led to add their influence when
constructive legislation is urged by the
many societies fostering this subject.

28

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

The museum habitat group has now
become one of the chief features of in-
terest in all museums, and many very
good examples of this new art are scat-
tered over the country from the Atlantic
to the Pacific, notably at New York,
Pittsburg, Chicago, Milwaukee, Denver,
San Francisco, and other places, and
the tourist may happily visit these
places and later visit the native haunts
of the animals exhibited. The auto-
mobile has brought the city and the
wild places closer together, and one may
often pass in a few hours from the
museum halls to the wilds of a national
or state park. The modern museum
seeks to interpret the lives of wild
animals for the benefit of all people,
rather than to simply store up vast
hordes of material for the speciahst,
though the latter work must be carried
on also for the advancement of our
knowledge of life in general. The
museum is now, and always has been,
the champion of the conservation of
wild life.

6. THE GAME REFUGES AND

PUBLIC SHOOTING GROUNDS

OF PENNSYLVANIA

By John M. Phillips
Member- of the Board of Game Commis-
sioners of Pennsylvania, 1905 to 1924

Some 30 years ago, the thinking sports-
men of the State of Pennsylvania be-
coming alarmed at the rapid disap-
pearance of wild game generally in this
State, awoke suddenly to a realization
of the fact that if it was to be saved for
posterity immediate action was neces-
sary to secure its protection and pres-
ervation. It was recognized that in
order to attain results, a head to direct
and guide the efforts of the sportsmen
was necessary. After considerable agi-
tation, in 1895, by an Act of Legislature,
the Game Commission was created,
empowered to collect data and to recom-
mend legislation relating to the subject
of game and wild bird preservation, and
to enforce such laws as might be enacted.

The Commission was to consist of six
sportsmen, appointed by the Governor,
without regard to their political affilia-
tions, as it was intended to keep the
Game Commission a non-partisan body
and out of politics; the Commissioners
were to serve for love of the work and
without remuneration.

The cause was particularly fortunate
in the first Commission, as the men
appointed were enthusiasts on the
subject of wild game conservation;
besides, they had had considerable ex-
perience in protecting birds and animals
upon lands under their control. Soon
after taking office, the Commissioners
realized that in order to accomplish
results something more than good game
laws and their enforcement was neces-
sary, for while this might take care of
the game left in the State, no provision
was made for increasing the supply.

Having in mind the magnificent results
achieved by the Federal Government
through the establishment of National
Parks and Game Refuges in various
parts of the United States, and the
experiences of those in our State who
owned private game preserves, the Com-
missioners, some years later, hit upon
the idea of establishing in various parts
of the State, refuges or sanctuaries
into which game of all kinds and song
and insectivorous birds could retreat
and find safety when harassed by ene-
mies. It was thought that freedom from
disturbance, especially during the breed-
ing season, in an area where predatory
animals and birds could be extermi-
nated, and where a closed season would
be maintained perpetually, would result
in a marked increase in the birds and
animals in those sanctuaries.

A careful investigation of the subject
of game propagation satisfied the Com-
missioners that efforts to raise in cap-
tivity our native game birds, such as wild
turkey, ruffed grouse and quail had not
as yet met with material success. An-
other point that was seriously con-
sidered was that just as the introduction
of the English Sparrow and the German

usp:s of natural areas

29

Oarp had resulted disastrously to the
Nation, so might the importation of
foreign game birds and animals result
in more injury than good to the State.

After considering all phases of the
question, the idea of a game farm was
abandoned, and the Commissioners
turned with renewed conviction to the
refuge or sanctuary idea, by which
our native game birds and game could
multiply without assistance from man,
other than the systematic extermination
of predatory forms and the absolute
protection afforded by a perpetual closed
season.

Happily for the purpose of the Com-
mission, the movement for the conserva-
tion of our forests and water-supply was
well under way. Our State Department
of Forestry had already acquired large
tracts of land, located almost without
exception in our mountain counties,
at the head-waters of streams, consti-
tuting a forest reserve area and rec-
reation ground for our people, which,
at the present time, aggregates over a
million acres distributed over almost half
of the 67 Counties of the State. The
area of these forest reserves vary, ranging
from 1176 acres in Wyoming County to
128,085 acres in Clinton County.

By an Act of Legislature of May 11,
1905, the Game Commission was au-
thorized, with the consent of the Com-
missioner of Forestry, to establish Game
Refuges or sanctuaries upon the State
forest lands. The Legislature of 1907
limited the area of these Preserves to 9
mi. in circumference, while those of
1911 and 1915 increased their size and
provided that the greatest transverse
dimension should not exceed 10 mi. nor
should the area of the preserve exceed
2 of the total area of the tract of land
of the forestry reservation upon which
the preserve was located. In 1919, an
Act was passed, backed by the sports-
men, authorizing the Game Commission
to purchase with the surplus from the
Resident Hunters License Fund, lands
near our large centers of population,
where the Forestry Commission did not
already possess lands, for the purpose of

establishing game sanctuaries and hunt-
ing grounds, similar to those on State
lands. Also, an Act allowing the Game
Commission to provide auxiliary game
preserves of not less than 250 acres or
more than 4000 acres through the con-
sent of the owners or by lease. These
auxiliary preserves may consist of farm
lands.

These wild cut over and burnt over
lands, although, in the main, unsuit-
able for agriculture, are the natural
homes of the game it was desired to
attract and propagate and possess
the necessary summer and winter
feed, streams and cover for our birds,
bear, deer, squirrels, rabbits, etc.
Chestnuts, beech-nuts, acorns and many
other nuts, wild-grapes, haws and other
fruits, are abundant, together with an
almost endless variety of berries. So
long as the ground remained bare feed
would be plentiful, and with the coming
of the snows and ice many of the birds
could feed upon the buds of the beech,
birch and other trees, and, if necessary,
could be fed by the Preserve keepers.
Besides, some of the tracts possessed
waters upon which wild water-fowl
might find a resting place, at least in
their migratory flight.

Rather than establish a few Refuges
of large dimensions, it was deemed
advisable to create numerous small ones
of about 3000 acres each in extent, and
to locate them, as nearly as possible, in
the center of the forest reserves in
different counties. The purpose of so
locating the sanctuaries was to make
sure that the game propagated therein
would first spread to the State land
or land purchased with the sportsmen's
funds rather than to the property of any
individual or organization which might
be posted to prohibit hunting. In this
way, the game refuges would produce
an unending supply of game which would
naturally and inevitably spread to the
public forest lands from which no hunter
is barred.

It is thought wise to locate the ref-
uges in sections where the game had
formerly been plentiful but had been

30

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

practically exterminated, to gain by
such action the support and assistance
of the hunters in that region, rather
than to locate in territory containing
plenty of game, thereby incurring the
resentment of the hunters who would
feel that their best hunting grounds
has been taken away.

When the location of the Refuge has
been decided upon, the first thing nec-
essary is to exterminate the predatory
species, which destroy more game than
the hunters. The wildcat, weasel, fox,
skunk, mink, crow, hawk, owl, and the
prowling house-cat are, through the care-
ful use of strychnine, and by other
means, killed off. The next step is to
guard against the danger from fire, and
the brush is cleared from a strip of land
15 to 20 ft. wide around the outside of
the Preserve. In some instances, where
the danger from fire is pronounced, it is
also crossed with fire lines, thus creating
open roads where fires may be met and
extinguished.

Predatory animals having been ex-
terminated and provision made for
fighting forest fires, we next surround the
refuge with a single marking wire,
fastened to trees or posts, about waist
high on a man, the object being not to
enclose the game but to define the limits
of the refuge. This wire is usually
nine miles long and is placed inside the
fii'e lines surrounding the Refuge. At
frequent intervals, notices printed upon
muslin are tacked up along the line of
wire, fastened to trees or posts, calling
attention to the fact that the lands
inside the wire are a State refuge for
game, and asking for the cooperation
of all in seeing that the game is not
disturbed. The sanctity of these Pre-
serves, in almost 15 years, has only been
violated once, and then, it was claimed,
by mistake, showing that our sportsmen
appreciate their value.

The Refuge is now ready for the
game, and if it is not already, sufficiently
stocked, game of various kinds, such as
deer, elk, wild turkeys, fox squirrels,
etc., are purchased and placed in it. A
State Game Keeper is in charge of each

Refuge. His duties are to fight fires,
see that the Game is not molested, keep
the Refuge free from predatory ani-
mals, on which, as an incentive, he is
paid the regular bounties. In order to
supplement the natural feed in the
Refuges and attract and maintain wild
life, he is instructed to plant walnuts,
hickory nuts, mulberries, wild cherries,
mountain ash, apples, wild grapes and
other nut, fruit and berry producing
trees and shrubbery, buckwheat and
other grains. In addition to this, he
plants barberries, spruces, pines, etc.
for shelter and winter cover.

There are no fences around the Pre-
serves and, as stated above, the wire is
intended only as a marker, so that the
game is not confined in any way, but
can enter and leave the Refuge at will,
it being intended to reproduce as nearly
as possible the conditions under which
animals and birds thrive in a wild state.
Naturally, the herds and flocks inter-
mingle at pleasure and there is no in-
breeding with the consequent loss in
stamina that would occur in a fenced
enclosure.

Provided dogs and guns are left out-
side the wire, our Refuges are open to
the public except during the open season
for game when no person, save the officer
in charge, is allowed within the wire,
the purpose of this provision being to
prevent the driving of deer and other
game outside the Preserve onto the
Forest Reserve, where it may be killed
in the open season.

We now have 33 Game Refuges of
about 3000 acres each with a large area
surrounding them upon which men may
hunt. Ten of these Refuges were pur-
chased by the sportsmen's funds. Owing
to the almost universal posting of farms
against hunting and the hunter being a
tenant-at-will on State lands, the for-
ward-looking sportsmen of Pennsylvania
are now asking for an increase in the
Resident Hunters License Fee. This
increase to be used exclusively for
purchase of Game Refuges and Pub-
lic Shooting Grounds, preferably in
10,000 acre tracts, scattered throughout

USES OF NATURAL AREAS

31

the State, and to be under the absolute
control of the Game Commission, for
the purpose of propagating wild life and
bringing back our forests and waters.
The results attained have been so
evident and so uniformly successful
in all our Refuges as to demonstrate
beyond any question the value of this
idea. Our Preserves are no longer an
experiment. The steady increase in the
supply of game in them, on the large
public hunting-grounds surrounding
them, and in their neighborhood, has
been remarkable. The large northern
deer imported from other States and
placed in these Refuges have thrived
and multiplied so that localities in which
they were formerly plentiful but had
been exterminated are again populated
with these beautiful and useful creatures
of the woods.

Many stories are told regarding the
instinct or sagacity of the deer, espe-
cially old bucks, in eluding their pur-
suers by seeking safety in these refugees.
The grouse and turkeys are quick to
take advantage of these sanctuaries,
especially the former.

To our minds, this system of game
propagation in its habitat and environ-
ment under absolutely natural condi-
tions with protection from hunters and
predatory animals, is infinitely superior
to any plan which involves the breeding
of game in confinement. In fact, the
Pennsylvania Game Commission con-
siders it a patriotic duty to bend all its
energies and apply all its resources to the
conservation and perpetuation of our
native and useful wild life rather than
to import from foreign countries at
great expense birds and animals of
doubtful values.

Through the adoption of Pennsyl-
vania's constructive Game Refuge
policy, the million acres of State Forest
Reserve, on which a few years ago wild
life was almost extinct, are being gradu-
ally ^made into the greatest hunting
and recreation grounds ever contem-
plated for the benefit of the people of
any State.

7. THE RELATION OF OUR SHRUBS

AND TREES TO OUR WILD

BIRDS'

By F. Smith

Anyone who pays even slight attention
to the citizens of our bird world knows
that they show preferences for certain
kinds of surroundings. For some kinds
of birds one must go to the open fields;
for others, to the woodlands; while
many shore and water birds must be
sought along the water courses and in the
swamps. A somewhat further acquain-
tance leads to the knowledge that birds
of a given species may frequent very
different kinds of situations for feeding,
for nesting, and for refuge. Some spe-
cies, as the robins and grackles which
feed in the open fields, seek refuge and
nesting sites in the woodlands and in
shade trees. Still others, which may
feed and nest on the ground in open
fields, do not get very far from some
protecting shrubbery or hedge to which
they fly when disturbed.

Although certain kinds of birds are
ready to adapt themselves to quite
extensive changes in their surroundings,
others will simply disappear when such
changes occur. The cutting away of
the forests of several northern states is
known to have been followed by a
decrease of some of the forest-loving
species and an increase of those that
prefer the open fields or tiie shrubby
areas incident to new clearings. Re-
ports on the birds of several different
states are confirmatory of this statement.

\Vhen one learns the habits of all the
birds which are to be found during the
year in any one of our ordinary Illinois
localities and then makes a list of those
which are not dependent in any way on
trees or shrubs for food, nesting sites,

> From "Arbor and Bird Days," Illinois Cir.
No. 83, SprinKfickl. 1915.

W. L. McAtce states that there exists in most iwrta
of the United States either a superstition, ii con-
viction, or a legal requirement that roadsides bo
shorn of their vecetation at least once a year. So
far as the elTeot upon birds is concerned, there can
be no doubt that supprcs.<ion of roadside vcKCta-
tion is a potent factor in restricting their numbers.—
"Attracting Birds to Public and Scnii-publio Reser-
vations," U. S. D. A. Bull. 715.

32

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

or refuge, the list is found to be rela-
tively short, especially if the locality is
distant from a river or lake. From
several locality lists available to the
writer, each including from 85 to 170
species, it is evident that about 75 per
cent of the species listed are in one way
or another dependent on trees or shrubs.
Since, of course, the same ratio may not
hold for the number of individual birds
found, it is desirable to ascertain, if
possible, what share of the bird popula-
tion of an average Illinois locality is
independent in every way of trees and
shrubs. Fortunately a pretty close ap-
proximation to such knowledge is ob-
tainable from the very extensive and
useful data accumulated by Prof. S. A.
Forbes from the work of expert ornitho-
logical assistants in 1906, 1907 and 1909.
Two such observers, traveling in
straight lines and always 30 yards
apart, recorded all the birds flushed on
a strip of land 50 yards wide and those
that crossed the strip within 100 yards
ahead. They recorded also the char-
acter of the fields traversed and the
distances in each. Heavy timber in
which there was little chance of a com-
plete count was disregarded and the
record was, of course, deficient for water
birds. This work was carried on during
all seasons of the year and was nearly
equally distributed between the north-
ern, central and southern parts of the
state. The results show the numbers
and kinds of birds in samples of the
various sorts of environment in the
state, equivalent to a strip of land fifty
yards wide and over two thousand miles
long. Among these results we have
record of 48,558 birds from 39,940 acres.
There were 9199 English sparrows and
546 birds were not positively identified.
Deducting these latter two classes, we
have record of the identity of 38,813 wild
birds as distributed over farm lands,
orchards, and shrubby areas and open
woodlands. One hundred and seventy
species were represented, 44 of which
may be regarded as independent of
trees and shrubs — able, apparently, to
get along perfectly well without them.

Of these latter 24 species are birds of the
open field and the others are shore birds
or water birds. Of the remaining 126
species many will eventually disappear
altogether, and the others will be rep-
resented in reduced numbers in locali-
ties where trees and shrubs are de-
stroyed. About 69 per cent of the
individual wild birds recorded by the
foregoing observers belong to this group.
These ratios correspond very closely
with those from other available records
based on more limited data. Fully two-
thirds of the wild birds of ordinary
Illinois localities are in some way de-
pendent on trees and shrubbery. The
reasons for this dependence differ
greatly for various species. Many, in-
cluding some of the woodpeckers, are
wholly dependent on trees for food,
nesting sites and places of refuge. In
most cases the insects associated with
the trees supply the food, although to
some extent the seeds, buds and even
the cambium layer (in case of trees
visited by the yellow-bellied sapsucker)
may be eaten. Numerous other species,
while getting their food from the ground
or from the flying insects of the air,
depend on trees or shrubbery for nesting
sites or refuge or for lookout stations.
Here, again, there is great diversity,
since some kinds frequent mostly the
upper parts of the trees, others prefer
the lower parts, while still others are
limited to those woods in which the
ground is more or less covered with a
thick undergrowth. Comparatively few
species prefer the interior of the heavy
forest, but many more frequent the
forest margins or open woodlands, es-
pecially those with thickets. Shrubby
fields and hedges are preferred by a
number of species.

A large majority of the birds that pass
the winter with us and of those that
come from the south in the early part
of the spring migration are of the
thicket-and shrubbery-loving kinds. To
find them we must seek them in the
environment they prefer^ — along hedges,
in neglected berry patches, in shrubby
pastures, or in woods with plenty of

USES OF NATURAL AREAS

33

under growth. When such places are
all "cleaned up" the majority of the
winter birds and early spring migrants
disappear.

8. GRAZING IN THE NATIONAL
FORESTS

By O. F. Korstian

The policy which governs the adminis-
tration of the National Forests includes
not only the insurance of a perpetual
supply of timber and the preservation
of a forest cover to regulate the flow
of streams, but also the development
of the other resources contained in the
Forests for the greatest permanent good
to the general public. Of all these the
production and harvesting of the timber
crop is the most important primary
purpose defined by Congress. The for-
age resource, however, is of such im-
portance in many parts of the West that
its development through regulated graz-
ing is one of the necessary functions of
administration of the National Forests.
Its extent is determined by the other
objects of administration. The general
policy therefore involves the develop-
ment of the grazing resource to the
extent compatible with that of the other
National Forest resources and with a
view to maximum production of meat
and other animal products and maximum
stabilization of the livestock industry.

The grazing of livestock obviously
cannot be practiced without some modi-
fication of natural conditions. It may
either retard or promote the develop-
ment of the vegetative cover and cause
either retrogression or progression, but
in any case it tends to modify the types,
depending chiefly upon the closeness
with which the herbage is kept grazed
annually and upon the time of grazing.
In some instances unregulated grazing
has seriously interfered with the regener-
ation of the forests by consuming tree
reproduction along with the shrubby and
associated species. Continued grazing
of the range too early in the season or to
too great an extent not only favors

degeneration of the cover and ultimately
the destruction of the vegetation, but
also tends to impair the fertility of the
soil by favoring erosion. These extreme
adverse modifications of natural con-
ditions, however, are the results of the
abuse of the range.

Under scientific range management
these abuses will be practically elimi-
nated through the proper regulation of
grazing. The writer has reviewed else-
where* in some detail the consensus of
opinion of range management specialists
on the trend of grazing practice on the
National Forests in relation to the
preservation of natural conditions. The
composition of the herbaceous plant
associations will not, of course, be quite
the same as though no grazing had
occurred. The effects of grazing upon
plant succession depend not only on the
character and intensity of grazing, but
also upon the type of vegetation. Pro-
gressive succession is favored by the
system known as "deferred-and-rota-
tion" grazing; that is, the grazing of
parts of the depleted range only after
the maturity of the better forage and
the eventual extension of this practice
in rotation to all parts of the range.
This system is practiced in order to
maintain the ranges at their highest
producing capacity, as well as to revege-
tate the depleted ranges, since ordinar-
ily by its use more ready establishment
of valuable vegetation is secured than
by total protection from grazing. The
regulated grazing policy of the Forest
Service is to keep the areas in the climax
tj^pe of vegetation from the standpoint
of maximum meat production consistent
with the protection of watersheds and
timber reproduction. This may moan
occasionally a sub-climax ecological
stage of the shrubby and herbaceous
vegetation. Usually in the West, how-
ever, it will mean a climax ecological
stage of the shrubby and herbaceous
vegetation. This shouUl offer little or
no hindrance to the development of the

1 Korstian, C. F. "GraziiiR pn\cticc on the
National Forests an.l its cfTeot on natural condi-
tions " Scientific Monthly, 13: 27a-2hl. 1921.

34

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

climax forest type or association since,
when necessary, cut-over forest areas
are closed to grazing during the regener-
ation period. Further, grazing has in
many cases aided regeneration of the
forest by improving the seed bed,
trampling the seed into the soil, and
lessening the competition through crop-
ping of associated species. The aid to
more rapid revegetation by properly
regulated grazing has assisted in les-
sening erosion and in improving water-
shed protection.

Regulated grazing in the National
Forests is further supported by the
strong argument that it is beneficial in
the control of forest fires. The value
of grazing as a means of fire protection
is realized in the utilization of the annual
growth of grass which, if not so disposed
of, becomes dry and inflammable and a
serious fire hazard. The extensive work
in forest fire prevention and suppression
on the National Forests is a very im-
portant factor in promoting and main-
taining climax types of forest vegetation.

In rendering the secondary uses com-
patible with the primary uses of the
National Forests, and in harmonizing
the secondary uses, it frequently be-
comes necessary to close areas to graz-
ing as, for example, watersheds which
comprise important sources of munic-
ipal water supply; recreational areas
and those of unusual scenic attractive-
ness, such as the National Monuments;
areas on which the forage on the range
is needed for important game animals;
and some forest areas in the course of
regeneration. Many of the areas shown
on the map of the National Forests
(figs. 1 and 2) are in a semi-natural condi-
tion and fall within this category.

9. FIRES IN RELATION TO THE
BIOTA

By R. H. Wolcott

For a long time previous to the de-
velopment of ecology as a science fires
have been recognized as an important
ecological factor. Many scattered ref-
erences to their efifects upon animal

and plant life are found in all kinds of
literature, but few of these are based
upon exact data or represent the results
of continued observations.

A very full discussion of forest fires
as to their kind, occurrence, causes,
and methods of prevention will be
found in Chapter VII of Graves' Prin-
ciples of Handling Woodlands or in Chap-
ter XV of R. C. Hawley's The Practice
of Silviculture. At the end of these
chapters there is given a very excellent
bibliography on forest fires so that an
enumeration of these points seems out
of place here.

The damage caused by forest fires on
this continent is enormous. Plummer'
makes the statement that

Forest fires in the United States have
caused an annual loss of about seventy
human lives, the destruction of trees
worth at the very least $25,000,000 and
the loss of stock, crops, buildings and
other improvements to the amount of
many millions more. To these must be
added enormous losses from the destruc-
tion of young tree growth, deterioration
of the soil, damage to water courses and
adjacent property by low water and
flood, interruption of business and de-
preciation of property.

When to the loss by forest fires is
added the loss from prairie and other
fires it is seen that the total loss to this
continent from fires up to the present
time amounts to several billions of
dollars.

As to the injuries due to fires, we may
mention first, the destruction of the
plants themselves with whatever loss
that entails; second, the destruction of
the humus in the soil with the resulting
loss of fertility; third, the destruction
of lumber or other valuable products;
and fourth, the accumulation of dry
material which may serve to feed suc-
ceeding fires. In many of the forested
parts of the country the debris which
has accumulated from one fire after
another has resulted in the periodical
burning over of areas for long periods of
time.

1 Plummer, Fred G. Forest Fires, Bull. 117,
U. S. Forest Service, Washington, 1912.

USES OF NATURAL AREAS

There are certain benefits which may
be attributed to fires including: first,
favorable effects upon certain plants
which find a greater abundance of
nutrients in burned over tracts, such as
blueberries and huckleberries; second,
the improvement of forage by the re-
moval of the stiff stems of the previous
year's growth, permitting grazing ani-
mals to get at the young and succulent
herbage; and third, improvement of
reproduction by burning off grass or
heavy leaf litter, thus giving a better
chance for the germination of tree seeds.

Even "light burning" which has been
advocated by some in order to keep the
forest floor clean of litter, as a safeguard
against more serious fires, upon investi-
gation has been shown to bring about
injury due to removal of nitrogen from
the soil, change in soil texture, in-
creased evaporation, and the scarring
of trees, which paves the way for the
attacks of fungi and wood-boring in-
sects. It is decidedly a question if
fires can serve any useful purpose in
forestry, while on the other hand they
constitute an ever-present menace.

The relation of fires to plant succession
is obvious, but varies according to many
conditions. If the fire has been such
that the destruction of the vegetative
cover is complete there may occur
stages in its replacement corresponding
to a complete succession beginning with
the pioneer plants, but these are much
condensed if the soil is not destroyed.
This is most often observed after a gen-
eral and a very destructive forest fire.
In the destruction of bogs the soil may
be largely consumed.

Invasion from the adjacent areas may
occur and if the vegetation of these is
similar to that destroyed the result may
be the reestablishment of the former
conditions in a relatively short time. But
actuall}^ it must be understood that
any replacement takes many years. If
the destruction is not complete and roots
and seeds remain from which to develop
a new growth, the invaders from sur-
rounding areas maj^ take possession at
first, but these are gradually replaced

by the species which were destroyed
until finally the vegetation assumes the
character which it possessed before the
fire. In the case of forests, these in-
vaders serve to protect the more tender
forest vegetation until it has become
established, when they are replaced
by it.

If the fire affects only the secondary
species such as herbs and shrubs in a
forest in any plant formation then the
succession operates only within those
forms, and as a result the stages are
short and not well defined.

It is possible for the fire to do so little
damage, especially in grassland, as to
destroy none of the members of the
formation and give rise to no succession.

It has been remarked by others that
succession after fires usually operates
within water-content groups, due to
the fact that the alterations of the soil
are slight, except on slopes where the
burning of the vegetation allows erosion
to occur. Grasslands are replaced in
most cases by grasslands and forest
usually by forest.

The immediate effect of fires upon
animal life, as well as upon plant life,
is always destructive. Only those forms
escape that are of large size and have
effective means of rapid locomotion.
Before the advancing flames is driven a
horde of larger animals which under the
influence of terror lose all fear of man
and even invade towns and cities, while
the smaller and weaker forms perish if
exposed to the fire. Aquatic animals
are not exempt from destruction for it
is stated that in the great Miramichi
fire in New Brunswick in 1825 fish in the
streams were killed in such numbers as
to be afterward found in heaps on the
river banks.

The completeness of this destruction
of animal life varies with the character
of the fire. Since fires usually occur
when the soil is dry, earthworms and
moisture-loving forms will have re-
treated below the level affected or will
have resorted to wet places where the
fire is less severe. The numerous forms,
especially insects, which live in the sur-

36

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

face stratum will be affected in propor-
tion as this stratum is involved, while
those that hide beneath the trash which
litters the ground are almost sure to be
destroyed. In less severe fires, how-
ever, many species and numerous in-
dividuals escape by being hidden within
and beneath fallen logs, where neither
the flames, the heat, nor the poisonous
gases generated in the fire reaches them.
In the case of surface fires these three
agencies (heat, etc.) destroy many forms
in the forest canopy above but also
spare many, especially if these are pro-
tected by being in the crevices of the
bark, beneath it, or in cavities within
the trees.

Fires also affect animal life by remov-
ing the cover behind which they find
concealment, by destroying their nests
and young, or the animals themselves
in early stages of development, and by
eliminating their food supply. At the
same time a limited number of forms
that live upon dead organic matter may
find their opportunity in the half-
destroyed remains of animals killed by
the fire.

Succession operates among animals,
as among plants, and corresponding
invasion occurs. The succession is very
short in the case of grassland, where the
original conditions are more speedily
restored, but in the case of woodland
the succession is more extended and
occurs by several stages. First, in
forest regions, animals of open ground
may invade the burned area, later those
resorting to thickets find congenial sur-
roundings, and last the forest forms
themselves return. Here again, how-
ever, certain of the original species may
have disappeared never to return. For
a short time after a forest fire a fauna
flourishes, the existence of which is due
to the presence of dead standing timber.
This includes wood-boring insects and
the predaceous forms which prey upon
them. Woodpeckers find now both food
and nesting places in the dead trees,
while raptorial birds find the devastated
area a favorable hunting ground.

Not only is animal succession after a

fire dependent upon plant succession,
but in certain respects the latter is
affected by the former. For instance
forest-dwelling mammals such as squir-
rels, and also certain woodland birds,
which feed upon the seeds of coniferous
trees, being excluded, the cones within
the area which have escaped destruction
may open and reproduction begin by
means of the seeds which they have
enclosed and protected, whereas in the
undisturbed forest these would have
been found opened, and the seeds eaten
by the animals. In other cases seeds
buried by rodents are the only ones
left.

To one interested in the conservation
of wild life, forest and prairie fires are
sources of profound regret, not alone
because of the destruction of life, but
also because of the fact that the areas
burned over are rendered incapable for
some time of supporting an abundant
and varied fauna and flora. To the
ecologist fires mean the destruction of
the evidence upon which may be based
conclusions as to the history of the past
succession of both plant and animal
life, and the creation of new conditions,
which, though they present many in-
teresting problems, do not yield data of
general or fundamental value in the
determination of the principles of
ecology.

Fires due to natural causes are un-
avoidable and unpreventable but these
may be limited by constant watchfulness
especially on the part of fire wardens.
Those which are incendiary can only be
reduced in number by the faithful co-
operation of all the members of a com-
munity in the detection and bringing
to punishment of the persons responsible
for them. Those due to carelessness,
which constitute by far the largest
number, can be avoided in the degree
to which the public generally is aroused
to a realization of the damage resulting
from fires and educated to the need of
legislation and of care on the part of
every individual.

It is absolutely essential, if bird and
game refuges and all tracts set aside for

USES OF NATURAL AREAS

37

wild life conservation or for ecological
study are to fulfil the aims of those who
have established them, that fires be
entirely prevented. Aside from the ac-
tual loss of game animals which attends
a fire of any extent, if even a small fire
occur during the breeding season, there
is the destruction of nesting birds,
their eggs and young, the removal of
the grassy or shrubby "cover" upon
which they depend for concealment, and
the elimination of the carpet of decaying
leaves and rotting fallen logs which
create conditions favorable for the
development of a myriad of insects and
lower forms upon which birds and other
higher animals depend more or less
directly for food. Those who resort to
these preserves to satisfy their love of
nature or for scientific investigation
neither need nor desire the construction
of roads, paths, and clearings within the
tract, and such areas should be free from
the intrusions of all others and carefully
safeguarded from the danger of fires.
For the pleasure-loving public gener-
ally which desires opportunity for field
sports and games, picnicking, etc.,
numerous and well distributed parks
should be provided. The National Gov-
ernment is doing a service of inestimable
value to our citizens and of far greater
significance to future generations in the
establishment of large national parks so
situated as to include and preserve areas
of great scenic interest. The states
should supplement this effort by the
establishment of state parks so disposed
as to be accessible to the greatest num-
ber of people. Cities have long since
come to appreciate the economic and
social value of parks and every pro-
gressive community has a system of
public parks with carefully devised plans
for future expansion. Interest in birds,
wild flowers, and all wild life is aroused
and rapidly increasing and all such
parks, whether national, state, county
or municipal should offer opportunities
for the exercise of that interest. All
parks should, therefore, contain a cer-
tain proportion of wild land, which may
well include hill slopes, ravines, creek

valleys, and other tracts difficult to
cultivate. This part should be left in
a strictly natural state, with the native
vegetation, shrubbery, fallen leaves, rot-
ting logs, etc., undisturbed. With proper
care in landscaping, such areas could be
made very attractive, and would fur-
nish a refuge and breeding place for
birds which are most valuable in the
destruction of tree pests. The more
open portions of parks should never be
burned over and the greatest care should
be taken that fii-es made for the burning
of refuse or by picnickers be kept at a
safe distance from growing forests.
Liberal posting of notices and constant
watchfulness on the part of attendants
in local parks and by fire wardens in the
state and national parks will be neces-
sary to reduce the number of fires to
the minimum.

Earnest and continued efforts should
be made by all persons and associations
interested to educate the public gener-
ally, and especially campers and hunters,
in regard to the destructive results of
fires and the necessity of always ex-
tinguishing camp fires before leaving
them. The Boy Scout organizations can
do effective work here. In any region,
where there are extensive areas of public
lands or lands in a wild state, wise and
effective legislation is necessary, in-
cluding the enactment of proper regula-
tions, the posting of notices and the
development of an efficient fire warden
service.

All citizens should be urged to limit
the burning over of land and to dis-
courage unnecessary burning off of road-
sides, waste areas, groves, and wood-
lands, because of the injury done to
bird life and the damage to the soil
due to the destruction of hunnis and
consequent exposure to drying. It is
sometimes necessary to burn over grass-
land to destroy pests but in very many
cases at least the result may be more
perfectly attained by ploughing. From
the standpoint of the farmer it wouUl
be well if every bit of the land not
under cultivation were occupied by
grassland, shrubbery, or woodland.

38

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

While the burning over of land may be
the only practical method of cleaning
it under some circumstances, it should
be recognized that this involves a re-
duction in the future fertility of the
soil and is a method to be avoided so
far as possible. Unless scattering of
brush is necessary to prevent drying
out of the soil or to favor reproduction
it should be collected in piles and burned
in the late fall or winter. Railroads in
timbered country, operators of portable
saw mills and men using power logging
should be induced to adopt such safe-
guards as would prevent the occurrence
of fires or restrict the damage caused by
those which may occur from their
negligence. If necessary the aid of the
law should be invoked to these ends.
In conclusion, attention should be
called to the desirability of careful in-
vestigations on the precise changes in
the ecological conditions due to fires in
various types of habitat; to the need of
exact quantitative as well as qualitative
studies on succession in such habitats;
and especially to the almost untouched
field afforded by studies upon the fauna
in these tracts. Every student of
ecology who has available for study a
burned over area has in it an opportunity
which should not be neglected.

10. THE EFFECT OF POLLUTION ON
ANIMAL LIFEi

By Frank Collins Baker

Stream pollution may be broadly
divided into two main divisions: con-
tamination by organic sewage from
cities and towns and by chemical wastes
from factories and mines. Both are
inimical to life but the latter is espe-
cially fatal to animal life, causing wide
stretches of otherwise fertile streams
to become veritable deserts. Organic
sewage, in a crude or highly concen-
trated form, is also very injurious,
effectually eliminating most forms of
life from the polluted body of water.

1 The greater part of this topic is condensed from
a paper read before the Illinois State Academy of
Science, and published in Vol. XIII, of the Trans-
actions of that Society, pp. 271-279, 1920.

The importance and seriousness of
the problem of stream pollution in its
effect on the life of the rivers and
streams into which the contaminating
material is discharged has not, until
very recently, been given the attention
the subject demands. The diminishing
fish supply, and in many places the
very objectionable physical character
of the polluted waters, have caused the
authorities of several states to pass
laws governing the discharge of these
wastes into streams and the establish-
ment of penalties for disregarding these
laws. New York and Massachusetts
have led in the framing of these laws
and other states are following the good
example set by these two older com-
monwealths, where the conditions seem
to have reached a maximum of harm-
fulness (see Ward, 1918, 1919).

During recent years stream pollution
has enormously increased and the prob-
lems arising from this condition have
been investigated by many biologists
and sanitary engineers. The former
have studied the problem from the
viewpoint of its effect on the useful
animal life, especially fishes and river
mussels, and this phase probably bears
as close a relation to human welfare as
any other. Of course, from the stand-
point of health, the polution problem
is of paramount importance because of
its bearing on such diseases as typhoid
fever which may be caused by a pol-
luted water supply.

Perhaps the worst effect of chemical
pollution is to be found in the streams
of western Pennsylvania, where mine
water heavily loaded with oil or acid
water from coal mines is permitted to
flow into the rivers and streams of this
part of the state. Studies by Ortmann
(1909) show that whole stretches of
the Allegheny, Ohio, and Monongahela
rivers have been made into deserts,
as far as the animal life is concerned, by
the large amount of poisonous sub-
stances discharged into these streams
by the mines, oil industries, and chemi-
cal and other factories that border
these rivers. In the Susquehanna

usp:s of natural areas

39

River the same condition prevails in
many places (Leighton, 1904). Such
pollution causes a complete extermina-
tion of the fauna (and largely of the
chlorophyl-bearing flora) and leaves
the stream in such condition that re-
stocking by either natural or artificial
means is practically impossible, and
if attempted is a waste of money.

Pollution by sewage, when the pol-
luting material is of small percentage
as compared with the pure water of
the stream (as 200 to 1), causes little
inconvenience to the animal life and
is doubtless of some benefit because of
the additional food material that is
added (Forbes and Richardson, 1919,
p. 146). But the streams seldom remain
long in this innoxious condition, the
sewage becoming more and more concen-
trated and less diluted until the whole
stream may be supersaturated with
noxious substances, the amount of
oxygen in saturation reduced, and
the biota finally driven out or killed.

Pollution is worst and usually most
deadly to animal life during periods of
low water and in winter when the
amount of water in the stream is small
and the decomposing organic material
has less water to deprive of its dis-
solved oxygen. During times of floods
the putrescent material is also carried
down stream for many miles and con-
taminates areas not previously af-
fected.

While all clean-water forms of ani-
mal life are more or less affected by
sewage pollution, the decomposition of
the organic matter abstracting dissolved
oxygen from the water and rendering
it unsuitable for aquatic life, the fish,
river mussels, and crayfish are partic-
ularly affected, most fish being es-
pecially sensitive to contaminated water.
Some fish (as the brook silversides,
Labidesthes sicculus) are notably sensi-
tive, while others (as the black bull-
head, Ameiurus melas) will endure
water that is badly polluted (Shelford,
1918, p. 27; Wells, 1918, pp. 562 567).
Young fish are relatively more sensitive
than adult fish. It is noteworthy that

the more resistant species of fish arc
inhabitants of sluggish Ijodics of water,
as ponds and shallow lakes, while the
least resistant species live in running
streams. It seems to be a question
of the amount of oxygen necessary for
the well being of the fish.

The ill effect of sewage pollution is
most marked on the bottom of bodies
of water, where a sludge is formed,
often of great thickness (as much as
10 ft. in several cases), consisting of
a mass of soft, black, sediment, with
a high content of organic matter, in
which only a few organisms, normally
inhabitants of polluted streams, can
live (e.g., septic Protozoa and Rotifera,
foul-water algae, and slime-worms,
Tubificidae). This effect on the bot-
tom is perhaps the most serious phase
of stream pollution because the septic
condition of this area continues in
operation long after the original source
of contamination ceases to operate.
This sludge formation renders the
bottom unfit for clean-water life upon
which many fish depend for food. The
time necessary for the recovery of the
normal biota of such a stream will in
most cases be of long duration, and in
the case of a stream polluted with
wastes from mines and chemical nianu-
facturies, there may never be a return
to the original condition.

In the case of the Genesee River at
Rochester, N. Y., we have a striking
example of the history of a polluted
stream and its effect on one group of
the animal life. Previous to the stage
of great pollution there is a varied
fauna of moUusks very numerous in
individuals. In the course of 11
years the gill-bearing species are forced
out and after a lapse of 14 years
all moUuscan life ceases to live in this
part of the river. Seven years later
the greater amount of sewage is diverted
to another outlet. Two years after
this change we find that the mollusks
have returned in as great numbers as
before the maximum stage of pollution.
The significance of all this lies in the
fact of the early return of this life, and

40

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

strikingly indicates that streams may
become restocked with life in a short
period after pollution has ceased to be
of an unfavorable character. At the
present time the sturgeon, which for-
merly resorted to the river to feed and
breed, and had been driven out by the
polluted condition of the stream, has
returned, which is another indication
of improved conditions. It is quite
probable that the large fall in the river,
some 60 feet in height, has had a marked
effect in the return of these favorable
conditions.

A study of the Salt Fork of the Big
Vermilion River, indicates that all
clean water life, including mussels and
crayfishes, has been excluded from this
stream for a distance of fourteen miles,
and a normal fauna of these animals is
not encountered until a distance of
twenty miles has been traversed. The
shallowness of this stream has" evidently
provided a sufficient supply of dissolved
oxygen and it is apparent that in a
deeper stream the ill effects of sewage
pollution would be experienced for a
much greater distance.

Ecological reports from different
states show that wherever towns, cities,
mines, or manufacturing plants are
located near a stream, that body of
water sooner or later becomes polluted.
Little definite work has been done to
bring together all of the data concerning
river and stream pollution. That which
is available indicates a truly alarming
condition of affairs.

In South Carolina the fertilizer fac-
tories discharge wastes of many kinds,
including sulphuric acid, into the
streams, and oil-burning steamers per-
mit oil to run into the water of harbors
and bays. The State is taking action
againdt this practise.

In Idaho and Montana mine water
pollutes some of the streams. In West
Virginia, as in Pennsylvania, the lower
parts of the streams are polluted by
refuse from coal mines, pulp and paper
mills, chemical plants, and sewage
from cities and towns. In Ohio, large
streams are polluted by sewage and

mine wastes. Iowa and Missouri
streams are reported as badly polluted.
In Arkansas, in the Poteau River, fish
are being killed by mine wastes charged
with iron salts, whose rapid oxidation
suffocates the fish. In Minnesota, the
large streams are polluted by sewage
from the large cities. In Wisconsin,
sewage is polluting Lake Winnebago
from which the water supply of Osh-
kosh is derived. Manufacturing wastes
from match factories and paper mills
also pollute the waters of the Fox River,
These examples might be indefinitely
extended. The survey of present con-
ditions indicates that wherever stream
pollution occurs the clean-water ani-
mals are sooner or later driven out or
killed. Such a condition seriously af-
fects our food and game fishes, which
form so large a part of the meat of our
population, and the situation demands
immediate attention and early remedy.
It is a matter of great satisfaction to
scientific men that the authorities are
awakened to the seriousness of such
conditions and that in many cases they
are providing remedial measures.

LIST OF REFERENCES IN THE TEXT

Baker, Frank Collins

1920. Animal Life and Sewage in the
Genessee River, New York.
American Naturalist, LIV, pp.
152-161.

1922. The Molluscan Fauna of the Big
Vermilion River, Illinois.
With Special Reference to its
Modification as the Result of
Pollution by Sewage and
Manufacturing Wastes. Illi-
nois Biological Monographs,
VII, pp. 1-126, 6 pi.
Forbes, S. A., and Richardson, R. A.

1913. Studies on the Biology of the
Upper Illinois River. Bull.
III. State Lab. Nat. Hist.,
IX, pp. 481-574.

1919. Some recent changes in Illinois
River Biology. Bull. III. Nat.
Hist. Survey, XIII, pp. 137-156.
Leighton, Marshall O.

1904. Quality of Water in the Susque-
hanna River Drainage Basin.
Water Supply and Irrigation
Paper, No. 108, U. S. Geol.
Surv.y pp. 1-76.

USES OF NATURAL AREAS

41

Ortmann, Arnold E.

1909. The Destruction of the Fresh-
water Fauna in Western Penn-
sylvania. Proc. Amer. Phil.
Soc, XLVIII, pp. 90-110.

Shelford, Victor E.

1918. Ways and Means of Measuring
the Dangers of Pollution to
Fisheries. Bull. III. Nat.
Hist. Surv., XIII, pp. 23-42.

Ward, Henry B.

1918. The Elimination of Stream Pol-

lution in New York State.
Trans. Amer. Fisheries Soc,
XLVIII, pp. 1-25.

1919. Stream Pollution in New York

State. A Preliminary In-

vestigation of the Problem
from the Standpoint of a
Biologist. Report to N. Y.
Conservation Commission, pp.
1-79.

Whipple, George C.

1913. Report on the Sewage Dispo.sal
System of Rochester, N. Y.
By Edwin A. Fisher, City
Engineer, pp. 179 200.

Wilson, Charles B., and Clark II. Walton,
1912. The Mussel Fauna of the Mavi-
mee River. Bureau of Fisher-
ies, Document No. 757.
1912. The Mussel Fauna of the Kan-
kakee River. Bureau of Fish-
eries, Document No. 758.

D. INTERESTS AND MANAGEMENT

1. UNION OF INTERESTS AND

MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL

AREAS

By V. E. Shelpord

With the growth of population, the
destruction of forest and other original
types of vegetation, and the modifica-
tion of streams and lakes progresses
rapidly. We have no royalty or nobil-
ity whose hunting and fishing pre-
serves are being withheld from exploita-
tion. Many more reserves are needed,
but each year it becomes more difficult
to secure them. Such reserves as are
already created are continuously threat-
ened with partial exploitation.

Probably the only efifective way to
retain all the features of existing re-
serves and secure an adequate number
of new ones is to create and maintain
a public interest in each reserve as well
as in reserves in general. The public's
knowledge of the uses of preserves is
scanty. The interests which may com-
bine in one reserve have been too little
emphasized and may be classified as
follows :

A. INTERESTS IN PRIMEVAL AREAS

I. Scientific interests

1. Biology. There is a growing
tendency to make use of reserves of
original character as a check on various
laboratory operations, and in the study
of ecology, as well as in the older taxo-
nomic and natural history work.

2. Forestry. Natural areas will be
valuable to foresters as object lessons,
for comparison and standardization of
forestry practice. They will serve as
a standard of accomplishment of Nature
alone and as a guide by which the cor-
rectness of the foresters' efforts to
improve on Nature may be gauged.

Permanent sample plots, corresponding
to the "quadrats" of the ecologist, are
left in their original conditions for
comparison with adjacent plots vari-
ously treated, so that changes in the
composition, growth, and history of
natural forest stands, as compared
with modified stands, may be noted.
On some of the National Forests a
number of permanent plots are also
maintained for the study of herbaceous
vegetation and principles of range
management in order to compare con-
ditions on grazed and ungrazed areas.

3. Geography. Geographers require
a knowledge of original vegetation
and animals to interpret existing cul-
tures, to generalize on various climatic
and economic questions.

4. History. Historians require in-
formation similar to that sought by
the geographer, in the interpretation
of historical facts, and especially in
interpreting the events of pioneer
daj's.

II. Literary and artistic interest

1. Many pieces of literature cannot
be interpreted without a knowledge of
the original vegetation. Bryant's poem
"The Prairies" is an example. Not a
few teachers of literature make use of
preserves.

2. Many artists who are students of
nature use natural subjects.

III. Recreational interests

1. Sportsmen desire to increase the
amount of game and in many states
certain areas are set aside as game
sanctuaries. In Pennsylvania a game
sanctuary has a single wire stretched
around it and is kept carefully guarded
by wardens. No hunting is allowed
inside the wire. The game is allowed.

42

USES OF NATURAL AHEAS

43

to reproduce unmolested and overflows
into the surrounding territory where
hunting is permitted. The game in
the area is not likely to become very
much more numerous under such condi-
tions than it was originally with its
natural enemies, such as wolves, etc.,
roaming about. Thus perhaps within
the sanctuary the conditions of balance
of animal life is as nearly like the
original one as could be hoped.

2. Ornithologists are interested in
areas which afford protected nesting
places for birds.

3. Wild flower lovers desire to see
the flowers preserved and accordingly
are interested in natural areas, which
may act as seeding centers.

b. ixterests in modified areas
("second growth" op

ALL kinds)

1. Camping and related recreation.

2. Hunting.

3. Forestry operations leading to
the production of lumber and other
forest products.

4. Bird and game refuges.

5. Scientific study of succession of
organisms with the develo{)ment of a
new biota (e.g., natural reforestation).

c. economic interests

There are often tcatersheds which
sup-ply ivatcr to cities and water for
irrigation purposes which will always
be maintained and are available for
scientific study, sample plots, bird
preserves and perhaps game sanctuaries.
Forestry practice retains some of the
natural features. It is often possible
for several interested groups to combine
and make a strong plea for the setting
aside of areas bounded by natural
topographic features as preserves of
natural conditions to serve all the eight
or more purposes enumerated. The
diversity of interest is an asset which
makes the creation of preserves a far
less hopeless task than many of those
interested think.

/. Managemenl of preserves

1. Subdivision. Areas should be sul)-
divided into (a) public park, always
open to the public but kept as nearly
natural as possible, (b) tree growing
areas which if large enough may serve
for hunting and fishing, (c) natural
areas which will serve for the study
of biology, geography, history and art
and as wild life sanctuaries.

The accompanying plan (fig. 1) shows
a GO acre tract designed primarily for
a preserve of natural conditions. The
entire tract is surrounded by a drive
to prevent fires. The drive margin is
set with nalive shrubs such as grow at
the edges of woods, etc., designed to at-
tract a maximum number of birds.
The front portion adjacent to the public
highway containing about 14 acres, is a
public forest park with 3 circular drive-
ways within which fires may be built.
Behind is the preserve and this is an
area (with the keeper's house at the
center) surrounding it, designed for
silviculture, the chief object of which
is the demonstration of farm woodlot-
forestry. This is open to the public
with some restrictions. The central
area is a jireserve open only to those with
special interests and designed as a
game sanctuary, center of seeding,
for wild flowers, a bird sanctuary, etc.
Larger tracts may be similarly divided
following topographic features (fig. 2)
and even small city parts may maintain
natural areas.

2. Rotation and policing. Natural
parks are most easily obtained when
the recreational interests support the
project strongly. Two natural jiarks
in two different states illustrate this
point. The movement to secure them
in each case was started by artists and
nature lovers and only when the recrea-
tional possibilities were realized by
politicians was the project pushed
through the legislature. No plans of
management were suggested ami the
parks were practically turned over to
hotel and amusement concessionaires
and naturalists now maintain that the

44

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

original beauty will soon be ruined.
Granting that most reserved areas must
serve either for tree growing or recrea-
tion, or both, all proposed legislation
should provide for management. This
includes subdivision, coupled with a

complete scheme of rotation of natural
areas .

There should be a resident officer
charged with caring for and guarding
the park and instructing the public in
the prevention of fires.

Natural Area B

<!

Q

Tree

o3

Tree

Growing

<

Natural

<

Growing

"oJ

Area

"3

u

u

=i

3

-fj

-^

o3

c3

^

^

>.

<

Public Natural Park

Building

Plan for Park Subdivision into Tree

Growing, Recreational and

Natural Areas

A, Open to the public for the year

1920, closed in 1921 and 1922.

B, Open 1921, closed 1922 and 1923.

C, Open 1922, closed 1923 and 1924.

E. ADMINISTRATION OF WILD LIFE

1. THE ADMINISTRATION OF WILD

LIFE IN STATE AND NATIONAL

PARKS 1

By Chas. O. Adams

The administrative aspect of the
wild life in our parks is a large and im-
portant subject. The problem of prop-
erly caring for and using wild life to
the best advantage in our parks is be-
coming increasingly more serious and
difficult. With the increasing number
of park visitors new problems are com-
ing up all the time. By decreasing the
congestion— by enlarging the parks—
or by temporarily closing other parts
as intensive use threatens to wear them
out— recovery can be secured, but the
general drift, with increasing popula-
tion, is always to encroach upon the
wilderness. Thus we see that to main-
tain park wildernesses can only be
accomplished by a struggle, and the
eternal vigilance needed to preserve our
liberty is the same price which must
be paid for the free wild nature of the
wilderness. The wilderness, like the
forest, was once a great hindrance to
our civilization, but now the tide has
turned and wildernesses and forests
must be maintained, even at much
expense, because human society needs
them. Not infrequently have I talked
with enthusiastic friends of our parks,
who feel that in this struggle the odds
are so much against the parks and their
wild life, that there is perhaps no use
to continue what they feel to be a losing
fight. But it seems to me that this
is only another aspect of that constant
struggle for any high ideal — the only
kind worth striving for; this is not at

• Extracted from "The Relation of Wild Life to
the Public in National and State Parks." Pro-
ceedings of the Second National Conference of State
Parks. 1922. pp. 129-147, 1923. Revised edition,
Roosevelt Wild Life Bull., Vol. 2, pp. 371-402. 1925.

all a peculiar feature of our park prol)-
lems.

European experience furnishes us
with a number of examples of the value
of wild areas because so little of the
original conditions now remain there.
But in spite of the unfavorable condi-
tions the appreciation of these original
conditions has not yet died out. This
is worthy of special mention because
of the fear one hears expressed that this
is a hopeless cause. In several Euro-
pean countries there are active organi-
zations, endowments devoted to this
cause, and even governmental bureaus
devoted exclusively to it (cf. Ahrens,
1921; Conwentz, 1909).

Some of the main administrative prob-
lems concerned with wild life are, the
maintenaiice of this resource, including
all protective aspects of vegetation and
its animals, the formulation of policies,
the education of the public on wild
life, and the perpetuation of its ideals.

MAINTENANCE

The maintenance of wild life in the
park, in a normal, healthy state, is a
relatively new art in America. This
involves proper protection, by rules,
rangers or police, and by all educational
devices available. But this protection
is not all a question of restrictions, for
there is the i)roductive and construc-
tive aspect. Favorable conditions must
be maintained, so that the animals
will breed normally. If fishing is
permitted, the maintenance of the
stock in the streams must be looked
after continuously, and the supply
maintained. Careful supervision of all
this must be given and definite policies
followed or great blunders will be made,
and much damage will be done. A
competent park official sliouUl super-
vise all this fish work.

45

46

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

At present, administrators are in a
difficult position because of the lack of
definite ideas, policies, and public
sentiment to support definite programs,
and the frequent changes of officials
favor a lack of continuity in policies; and
furthermore, with such a wobbling
policy little is learned from experience.

EDUCATION OF PARK OFFICIALS

At present parks suffer to a large
degree because they are necessarily
in the hands of administrators who,
because of their lack of special training,
we must consider as amateurs. We
have had no profession for this line
of work,' and some who have had the
most training are feared to a correspond-
ing degree, because of preconceived,
formal ideals, which they with almost
religious zeal slip into the wilderness
parks. The ideal of a wilderness park
is beyond their ken, because their
approach has been from another
angle. These persons are welcomed
in formal city parks but in our large
National and State parks they are
liable to be a menace. In the training
of such men there has been no adequate
recognition of the wild life problems.

Another source of difficulty is the
lack of trained rangers, and nature
guides in our parks. These men are
needed not only with a special famil-
iarity with a special subject matter,
but as well with the ideals of parks.
Until very recently we have had no
provision for such a training in our
educational system, and not until
adequate provision has been made
can we expect the detailed work in the
parks to be wholly satisfactory. A
whole technical staff is needed for our
parks, but this fact must be generally
appreciated before men will devote
themselves to it, and the pubhc ap-
preciate it fully enough to provide for
it in the appropriations.

NEED OF FORMULATING POLICIES

At present our parks are in great need
of definitely formulated policies, even

if they are of a provisional nature
(cf. Waugh, '18). A broad, general
policy is not enough; it should be com-
prehensive but as well, it should be
worked out in as much detail as is
possible, so that in time we will have
for our National Parks, a manual cor-
responding to the Use Book of the
Forest Service. Each State Park or
park administration should have a
similar policy, which should be pub-
lished and made a part of the educa-
tional data available to the public.
It will then be available for criticism
and improvement. Of course, as many
park executives are without adequate
help, are liable to political interference,
and their tenure short, they are fre-
quently liable to neglect the formula-
tion of these policies, and depend solely
upon the laws estabhshing these parks.
Without general policies we can not
expect detailed, well-worked-out plans
for wild life. Today we have no such
published program for the wild life of
our National Parks, not even for the
fish, which might be expected to pre-
cede that of other kinds of animals.
The attitude of the U. S. Fish Com-
mission, in the early days, had no con-
ception whatever of the Yellowstone
as a wilderness park, with the fish life
maintained as nature left it and for
this reason the Commission was favor-
able to stocking the waters with a
variety of exotic fish, and of stocking
the streams thoroughly above all falls
uninhabited by fish, and likewise the
isolated lakes. The idea that forests
with big game animals should be main-
tained as a idlderness, and that there
was an advantage in natural wild waters
was beyond their conception. The
attitude of the present U. S. Bureau of
Fisheries, and of the Park Service itself
has improved somewhat, but still it
has in the main adhered to the older
pohcies and standards of making
angling available everywhere, rather
than to maintaining a wild preserve. I
have no doubt that this has come about
or grown up without much deliberation,
and certainly not after considering the

USES OF NATURAL AREAS

47

value, in the remote future, of large
areas for the educational and scientilic
value of true wilderness waters. Some
of the same persons who are very eager
to maintain a wilderness forest about
their homes have never realized that
others are equally interested in an
aquatic wilderness untouched by man.

TaE WILDERNESS POLICY

The Council of the American Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science,
at the Toronto meeting, December,
1921, passed the following resolutions,
which have a very direct bearing on
the policy of our National and State
Parks in maintaining their native
plants and animals in natural condi-
tions. These resolutions read {Science,
N. S., Vol. 55, p. 63, 1922):

Whereas, One of the primary duties
of the National Park Service is to pass
on to future generations for scientific
study and education, natural areas on
which the native flora and fauna may be
found undisturbed by outside agencies;
and

Whereas, the planting of non-native
trees, shrubs or other plants, the stocking
of waters with non-native fish, or the
liberating of game animals not native
to the region, impairs or destroys the
natural conditions and native wilderness
of the parks;

Be It Resolved, That the American
Association for the Advancement of
Science strongly opposes the introduc-
tion of non-native plants and animals
into the national parks and all other
unessential interference with natural
conditions, and urges the National Park
Service to prohibit all such introduction
and interferences.

If parks are to be managed so as to
pass them on to future generations un-
harmed, they must in the main remain
wild. No one can safely assume that
he is able to tell how valuable these
regions, when properly stocked, will
become in the future. When once a
plant or an animal becomes extinct
it is beyond human power to restore
it.

Although there are considerable areas
of the National Forests which are likely
to remain virgin wilderness this is not

a sufficient guarantee that we will have
all that we need. The chances are that
m the near future foresters will, with
increasing emphasis, strive to retain
valuable examples of representative
virgin forests within our National
Forests and State Forests, in a virgin
condition for special study. These
areas will also act as preserves for
many animals but they will not neces-
sarily provide for the larger animals
unless they coincide, as tliey well
might, with wild life preserves. Some
foresters have already observed the
need of the forest "wilderness" as a
part of the recreational pohcy of the
National Forests (Leopold, 1921), and
others for the purpose of teaching and
investigation (Ashe, 1922), and if such
areas give complete protection to both
plants and animals' great progress will
be made. The grazing of domestic
animals must be restricted or excluded
from such preserve areas or the her-
baceous vegetation will soon be greatly
modified (Korstian, 1921). The ex-
periences in the National Forests clearly
show just what will certainly happen
in our National Parks if they are not
strictly guarded, from the wilderness
point of view. These experiences also
clearly show the great caution that
must be e.xerted even with the present
customary grazing in our National
Parks. No doubt this should now be
under the closest supervision of a
forage ecologist. The same ideas apply
even to living and dead trees, that at
any time may be cut in these parks.
At present we have only one official park
forester in any of these great National
Parks, and very few connected with
State Parks and not all of these arc
fully alert to the value of virgin forests.
European experience (Conwcutz, 1909,
pp. 118, 131), has clearly shown that
clear cutting of the forests is very harm-
ful to many kinds of native plants,
and this is equally true for many ani-
mals, for we know that the vegetation
e.xerts a powerful influence upon most
forest animals. (Of. Pearson, 1922.)
In certain State Parks comtnercial

48

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

forest management is conducted, and
this is very desirable under certain
circumstances, which properly limits
the commercial forests and the pre-
serves, and provides for a corresponding
management. At present great caution
will be needed not to confuse the
management of these two types of for-
ests. A proper balance should be
secured and then the income from the
commercial forest might well be made
a source of revenue for the maintenance
of the whole park. In time the pre-
serves themselves may find it necessary
to charge a small fee for their use, and
a forest park with funds from the tim-
ber and from a fee or license for the
use of the preserve, might secure enough
revenue to do much more constructive
work than one depending solely upon
taxation and gifts. This possibility
is so important that it deserves more
attention than it has received in the
past. The new Allegany State Park
in New York was planned upon such a
program.

The time has come when we must
begin an educational campaign for
large endowments for the educational
and scientific work in our National and
State Parks. Of course, much can be
done by cooperation with various in-
dividuals, the colleges, universities,
and scientific societies, particularly
with some of the State universities,
especially if urgent requests are made
to them for cooperation. They are
likely to respond best when sought.
But it is likely to take some time for
these institutions to become acquainted
with this phase of work, as most of them,
even today, have but a faint reaUzation
of outdoor biological problems, and their
application to parks. Fortunately there
are a few marked exceptions.

The parks need these funds primarily
for three purposes:

1. They need a technical scientific
staff to solve their own scientific prob-
lems as much as they need lawyers and
engineers. The need exists — but it is
only slightly realized — and in the main
only those who are taking a broad view

of the situation are aware of the con-
ditions.

2. They need an educational staff to
build up their local museum-library,
as nature guides, and to supplement
and aid in the training of rangers —
who should also be trained men. This
staff should be the mainstay for popu-
lar lectures, lantern and moving picture
lecturers who will arouse intelligent
appreciation of the resources of the
parks.

In general, the scientific and educa-
tional staffs must be distinct because
the two kinds of work can not be done
at the same time and the staff can not
be expected to divide its attention suc-
cessfully. An executive does not expect
his lawyers or engineers to drop their
work at any moment and give a popu-
lar talk or to conduct other extraneous
work, and the same applies to the scien-
tific staff.

The educational and scientific staff
should be large enough to include cer-
tain men who could devote their whole
time to the practical and technical
problems that demand immediate at-
tention, closely related to the adminis-
trative, rather than to the educational
aspects of park work. The only reason
for advocating this as a distinct group
is that in practice it is rarely that suffi-
cient funds can be obtained to secure
men who are versatile enough to cover
so large a field; it is therefore safer to
plan for a larger staff.

It is generally difficult in adminis-
trative circles to appreciate that first-
class research men can only rarely be
secured, who are willing to have their
work continually interrupted by all
sorts of administrative breaks. These
men must, to get the results, be pro-
tected from such interruptions.

3. The wild life of the parks requires
constant, all-year-round attention. A
great number of our parks will be-
come more and more patronized the
year 'round when the people are edu-
cated to it. With this increasing pat-
ronage there will constantly develop
new problems for solution and supervi-

USES OF NATURAL AREAS

49

sion. It is only such a staff that can
be expected to present, in the best popu-
lar form, the natural history resources
of the parks. These popular accounts
must be presented from many angles of
approach, if a large pubUc is reached
to advantage. It is a common error
to assume that there is only one popular
form of approach; a multiple approach
should be carefully cultivated by dif-
ferent types of students and authors.

There are certain problems of ad-
ministration that must first be solved
as scientific problems, and then executed
under technical supervision, such as
care of fish, game, birds, mosquito
control and the management of the
forests. These are examples of the
problems, which, with increasing use,
the natural resources will require. This
is a kind of supervision which the
average executive can not be expected
to know, and yet these are just the
points that a special staff will know
about, and their advice and help are
thus necessary.

In concluding these remarks on the
need of endoT\anents it is important
to emphasize that wild life is a more
or less elusive subject for the public
and the administrator to understand,
and cannot be understood merely by
inspection — it must be known inti-
mately, and therefore great damage
can be done before it is reahzed.

The real difficulty is that wild life
suffers just as the human animal does
in our democratic system of environ-
ment. As Walter Lippmann has re-
cently said: "For the troubles of the
press, like the troubles of representative
government, be it territorial or func-
tional, ... go back to a com-
mon source: to the failure of self-
governing people to transcend their
casual experience and their prejudice,
by inventing, creating, and organizing
a machinery of knowledge.

SUMMARY

In concluding this discussion, I wish

to summarize my main points as follows:

1. We will derive benefit from wild

life in our parks in a direct relation to
what we devote to them. We need to
recaU that they are living organisms
and respond readily to fair treatment.

2. In general, wild life can only pros-
per with the parks as a whole.

3. Wild life is a very valuable re-
source in any wild park and is generally
so recognized by the public.

4. The National Parks should remain
a virgin wilderness for educational and
scientific purposes.

5. State parks should retain wilder-
ness areas, as well as contain commer-
cial forests, depending somewhat on
local conditions.

6. In relating the wild life to the
public a varietj' of experimental popu-
lar publications is advocated. Techni-
cal reports are needed for Park officials.
We need a distinctive park literature.

7. Field excursions conducted by
trained guides are advocated, to de-
velop trails and a trail literature.

8. A museum-library, devoted ex-
clusively to the particular park, should
be equipped for exhibits, lectures, dem-
onstrations, lantern slides and moving
pictures, to arouse interest primarily
in the local park. This should be the
headquarters for the guide service.

9. A local zoological garden of the
park animals only should stimulate
interest in those in the park.

10. The maintenance of a virgin
wilderness park is very difficult, but
not a hopeless problem, if proper public
sentiment is developed in its behalf.

11. The education and training of
park officials of all kinds is urgently
emphasized. As a means to this end
park pohcies should be formulated and
published with a full explanation of
park ideals.

12. The far-reaching importance of
preserving original habitat conditions
for plants and animals from an educa-
tional aesthetic and scientific standpoint
is strongly emphasized. The value of
State Parks in this plan is very impor-
tant.

13. To develop public appreciation
and utilization of parks, largo endow-

50

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

ments are needed to supplement public
support. The greatest progress is made
where public and private aid is com-
bined with high and practical idealism.
A movement should be started for en-
dowments for educational and scientific
work in both National and State Parks.

14. Park endowments are perhaps
one of the best means of developing a
technical staff for our parks. The
preservation of wild life requires such
supervision by specialists.

15. The wild life problem suffers
from the major defects of our democratic
system of control, and its welfare de-
pends fundamentally upon improve-
ments in this.

REFERENCES TO LITERATURE

Adams, Charles C.

1908. The Ecological Succession of
Birds. The Auk, Vol. 25, pp.
109-153.

1908a. Some of the Advantages of an
Ecological Organization of a
Natural History Museum.
Proc. Assoc. Museums, Vol. 1,
pp. 170-177.

1910. The Relation of Field Excur-
sions to the Activities of
Local Museums. Proc. Amer.
Assoc. Museums, Vol. 4, pp.
112-124.

1913. "The Value and Method of
Ecological Surveys." Guide
to the Study of Animal Ecol-
ogy, pp. 23-35. N. Y.

1919. An Ecological Survey of the

Palisades Interstate Park.
Empire Forester, N. Y. State
College of Forestry, Syracuse,
Vol. 5, pp. 12-18.

1920. The Relation of Natural History

and Ecology to Public Forest
Parks. N. Y. State College
of Forestry, Syracuse, Bull.
No. 10, pp. 11-14.

1921. Delights of the Wild Forest

Trail. State Service (Maga-
zine), Vol. 5, pp. 100-103.

1921a. Suggestions for the Manage-
ment of Forest Wild Life in
the Allegany State Park, New
York. Roosevelt Wild Life
Bull., Vol. 1, pp. 62-74.
Adams, Charles C, Hankinson, T. L.,
and Kendall, W. C.

1919. A Preliminary Report on a
Fish Cultural Policy for the
Palisades Interstate Park.
Trans. Amer. Fish Soc, Vol.
48, pp. 193-'^04.

Ahrens, Theodor G.

1921. Aims and Status of Plant and

Animal Preserve Work in Eur-
ope, with Special Reference to
Germany including a List of
the Most Important Publica-
tions on These Preserves.
Roosevelt Wild Life Bull.,
Vol. 1, pp. 83-94.
Ashe, W. W.

1922. Reserved Areas of Principal

Forest Types as a Guide in
Developing an American Silvi-
culture. Jour. Forestry, Vol.
20, pp. 276^283.
Brown, Edward F.

1920. Social Aspects of Park Admin-
istration. N. Y. State College
of Forestry, Syracuse, Bull.
No. 10, pp. 47-66.

1920a. Camping Facilities in the Pali-
sades Interstate Park. N. Y.
State College of Forestry,
Syracuse, Bull. No. 10, pp.
67-79.
Buxton, Edward North

1884. Epping Forest. Pp. 1-147.
London.
Conwentz, H.

1909. The Care of Natural Monuments
with Special Reference to
Great Britain and Germany.
Pp. 1-185. Cambridge, Eng-
land.

Graves, C. Edward

1919. A Plan for a Nature Library.
Library Journal, Vol. 44, pp.
707-710.
Grinnell, Joseph

1914. Bird Life as a Community Asset.
Calif. Fish and Game, Vol. 1,
pp. 1-3.
Grinnell, Joseph, and Storer, Tracy I.
1916. Animal Life as an Asset of
National Parks. Science, N.
S., Vol. 44, pp. 375-380.
Hahn, Walter L.
1913. The Future of the North
American Fauna. Pop. Sci.
Monthly, Vol. 83, pp. 169-177.

Haddon, A. C.

1903. The Saving of Vanishing Data.
Pop. Sci. Monthly, Vol. 62, pp.
222-229.

Heller, Edmund

1925. The Big Game Animals'^of
Yellowstone National Park.
Roosevelt Wild Life Bull., \o\.
3, pp. 405-467.

Jessup, Elon
1919. The Strangest Camp in the
World. Outing, Vol. 75, pp.
155-160.

USES OF NATURAL AREAS

51

Korstian, Clarence F.
1921. Grazing Practice on the Na-
tional Forests and its Effect
on Natural Conditions. Sci.
Monthhj, Vol. 13, pp. 27i>-281.

Leopold, Aldo

1921. The Wilderness and its Place in

Forest Recreational Policy.

Jour. Forestry, Vol. 19, pp.

718-721.
Mills, Enos A.
1920. The Adventures of a Nature

Guide. Pp. 1-271. New York.
Pearson, G. A.

1922. Preservation of Natural Areas

in the National Forests.
Ecology, Vol. 3, pp. 284-287.
Safford, W. E.

1919. Natural Historj^ of Paradise Key

and the Near-bj^ Everglade's
of Florida. Smithsonian
Report for 1917, pp. 377-434.
Shelford, Victor E.

1920. Pre.serves of Natural Conditions.

Trans. III. State Acad Sci.,
Vol. 13, pp. 37-58.
Silloway, P. M.
1920. Guide to the Summer Birds of
the Bear Mountain and Harri-
man Park Sections of the Pali-
sades Interstate Park. N.
Y. State College of Forestry,
Syracuse, Bull. No. 11, pp.
1-105.

1920a. The Palisades Interstate Park:
A Study in Recreational For-
estry. The N. Y. State Col-
lege of Forestry, Syracuse,
Bull. No. 10, pp. 15 45.

Skinner, M. P.

1925. The Birds of Yellowstone Na-
tional Park. Roosevelt Wild
Life Bull., Vol. 3, pp. 1-189.

Smith, Harlan I.
1914. Handbook of the Rocky Moun-
tains Park Museum, Dept. of
Interior, Canada, Dominion
Parks Branch. Pp. 1-126.

Sumner, Francis B.

1920. The Need for a More Serious

Effort to Rescue a Few Frag-
ments of Vanishing Nature.
Sci. Monthly, Vol. 10, pp. 236-

248.

1921. The Responsibility of the Biol-

ogist in the Matter of Pre-
serving Natural Conditions.
Science, N. S., Vol. 54, pp.
39-43.

Waugh, Frank A.
1918. A National Park Policv. Sci.
Monthly, Vol. 6, pp. 305-318.

1922. What is a Forest? Jour. For-

estry, Vol. 20, pp. 209-214.

F. DUTY OF SCIENTIFIC MEN

1. THE DUTY OF SCIENTIFIC MEN
IN CONSERVATION

ByH. S. Gbaves

The conservation movement of a
few years ago crystallized and brought
to public attention a great principle,
one so far reaching that its real sig-
nificance and scope are even today not
generally grasped. Regardless of how
the term may be defined, the problem
of conservation involves the whole
question of the relation of our natural
resources to the economic life and up-
building of the country. We have to
do not merely with the prevention of
waste and economical use of our re-
sources, but also with the problem of
how these resources may render their
highest service in building up local com-
munities, maintaining our industries,
and contributing to a strong civiliza-
tion.

We can point to considerable progress
in certain features of conservation
during the past decade. Scientific men
have conducted research of great value
that already is resulting in new uses of
various raw materials, in more eco-
nomical methods of handling them, and
in improved methods of perpetuating
those resources which are renewable;
engineers are giving more attention
than formerly to the problem of pre-
venting unnecessary losses in the ex-
ploitation of raw resources; the more
far-sighted leaders of industry have an
increasing appreciation of the relation
of natural resources to the permanence
of their own enterprises. And yet, the
conservation principle is making very
slow headway, when viewed from the
larger aspects of the economic needs of
the country. The loss through un-
necessary waste is still appalling, un-
economic methods in the use and de-

velopment of various of the resources
continue, and the interests of industries
and communities are already in many
cases jeopardized by the depletion of
local sources of raw material.

Among the obstacles to the more
rapid application of the principles of
conservation are ignorance and indif-
ference on the part of those engaged
in developing natural resources, un-
willingness to change old methods, and
selfishness of individuals who are will-
ing to sacrifice even the interests of
their own industry to immediate gains.
But there are also obstacles of an
economic and public character, that
are retarding progress. These relate
to the character of ownership and con-
trol of natural resources, to the existing
organization of certain of the industries
to problems of transportation, and in
some cases to questions of taxation
and the relation of the public to
industry.

Scientific research furnishes the foun-
dation of conservation. Education will
solve the problem of ignorance and indif-
ference. The economic and political
obstacles, however, can usually be
overcome only through action by the
public. Thus it is that those who are
engaged in promoting the principles of
conservation in their respective fields
are urging legislation in the federal
Congress and in state legislatures,
seeking public aid for private owners of
resources and for the industries, pubUc
cooperation in marketing and distri-
bution, public action in road building
and other transportation problems,
and in some instances public control
over the basic resources themselves,
over their exploitation, or over the
distribution of their products.

The efi'orts in conservation today are
scattered among a large number of

52

USES OF NATURAL AREAS

53

institutions, organizations, and in-
dividuals. There is a lack of unified
purpose and direction in the movement.
Workers in separate fields fail to give
adequate consideration to the bearing
of the problems of other resources upon
their own. Oftentimes there is an
actual conflict of interests in the use
and development of two or more re-
sources that is not being adjusted and
is leading to public injury. In the
field of public policy many proposals
are being made, each perhaps with a
good purpose, which are not in harmony
as to principle and often are in conflict,
with resulting confusion to the public
and frequent failure to secure the legis-
lation requested.

Today there is no central agency,
governmental or otherwise, that is
considering our natural resources as a
whole in their relation to our economic,
industrial, and social development.
There is no leadership in conservation in
its larger aspects, that defines objectives,
assembles and interprets ^^ the basic
data regarding our resources, works out
the principles of harmonizing conflict-
ing interests in resource development;
that furnishes, in short, the economic
background for conservation and the
principles that must underlie the public
action necessary to make our natural
resources render their best service, and
there is no agency equipped to organize
the educational work that should be
introduced into our colleges and schools
aside from popular education in conser-
vation.

It must be clear to every student of
the natural resource problem that there
is an undertaking in conservation of
great magnitude awaiting leadership
and organized effort. There is an op-
portunity and, in my opinion, a duty
for the great national organizations of
scientific men to join hands in assuming

this leadership. They arc in a position
to bring into harmony the objectives,
the policies, and the efforts of those
working in the several branches of
natural resources. Under their guid-
ance and inspiration there could be
assembled the available information
regarding our natural resources, and
the interpretation of the problems of
conservation from the broad view-
point of the relation of all resources
to our national development. The
scientific organization would thus be
able to contribute to the formulation
of public policies, and to aid in bringing
about their adoption, and finally it
would be possible for them through
existing agencies to carry out an edu-
cational plan for the introduction of
appropriate studies in conservation in
our schools and colleges, and to for-
ward a far-reaching campaign of popu-
lar education.

The appointment of conservation
committees by the National Academy
of Sciences, the National Research
Council, and the American Association
for the Advancement of Science, and
the meeting of these committees for
the consideration of joint action, should
prove to be the first step in a new leader-
ship that will give power to the con-
servation movement, with the promise
of very large achievement.

In my opinion a very great responsi-
bility rests upon scientific men. We
have an opportunity to organize the
intellectual forces of the country in a
movement that will have a profound
influence upon the future well-being
of the country. Our action may de-
termine the direction of that movement,
and whether it will be effective or lag
behind for lack of leadership. A great
public interest depends upon our fore-
sight and vision, upon our al)ility to
plan with wisdom.

III. ORIGINAL BIOTA OF THE AMERICAS
NORTH OF THE AMAZON

A. INTRODUCTION

By V. E. Shelford

The early naturalist travellers de-
scribed the regions which they visited
in terms of the vegetation landscape
aspect. Brehm and others wrote on
tundra, steppe, desert coniferous forest,
etc., and described the behavior charac-
teristics and mode of life of their larger
animals. Of the Arctic fox Brehm
saj'S: "Of the slyness and ingenuity,
the calculating craft, the never failing
presence of mind of his congeners he
evinces hardly a trace. His disposi-
tion is bold and forward, his manner
officious, his behavior foolish." Many
other naturalists made observations
of this tj'pe relative to the animals of
natural vegetation landscape aspect
regions.

With the acceptance of evolutionary
doctrine attention turned to the seeking
of facts which supported doctrines of
origin, migration, modification, and
adaptation, and naturalistic observa-
tions relative to behavior, mode of life,
etc., of animals received little attention
from travellers, naturalists, and col-
lectors. The description of vegetation
in relation to climate, etc., however,
received a less serious check. In recog-
nizing natural regions these landscape
aspects still serve as a general guide in
modern ecology but the limits of areas
may be made on the basis of climax
communities whenever investigations
have demonstrated the facts. A cli-
max community may occur only locally,
for example within the coniferous forest
of southeastern United States, which
is commonly regarded as giving way to
a deciduous climax. In this case there
are two landscape aspects and only one
climatic climax. The nature of the
climax communities has been deter-
mined only for a few regions in tem-
perate latitude. Accordingly landscape

aspect must serve as the chief guide
and plant ecologists of necessity ap-
proach the subject of plant geography
from the standpoint of the landscape
aspects and physiological characters
of the plants of the larger plant com-
munities. Animal ecologists recognize
the value of such a viewpoint as applied
to animals, but so far they have made
little progress with it largely because
little investigation has been done. As
a rule zoogeographical discussions have
proceeded along the line of refinements
of Wallace's faunistic ideas, of tracing
paths of migration for particular groups
of species or genera, etc. The point
of view of those using life zones based
largely on temperature is largely de-
scriptive, but has been related to fau-
nistic (i.e., evolutionary) work rather
than i)hysiology. They have made
few or no attempts to find differences
in physiological life histories, habits,
etc., between animals in different re-
gions, or similarities of those in like
regions. The ideas of modern ecologi-
cal geographj^ are known to but few
zoological investigators.

The ecology of animal communities
which is the basis of modern animal
ecology has received little attention.
\\'hile much zoological work is referred
to as "ecology," especially among
economic entomologists, analysis shows
that it is largely the ecology of par-
ticular species and intlividuals (aute-
cology). In other words it is a con-
tinuation of the old natural history
under the new name. Where com-
munity studies are made, too often only
a part of the animals arc considered so
that we find such misnomers as "Insect
Associations," etc. Though the es-
sential principles were recognized by
a few early zoologists (Mobius, 1877

57

58

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

and 1880) there is nothing in zoological
literature representing the essence of
modern gynecology as do Clements'
two works on plants. (Succession, 1916,
and Plant Indicators, 1920.) Clements
has for some time recognized the im-
portance of considering animals in
plant ecology. Plant ecologists in gen-
eral are prone to describe formations
and associations, often without giving
a comprehensive idea of the nature of
an area as an animal habitat. For
example the combination grassland and
streamside and grove forest of the
Mississippi Valley which, on account
of animal movement, seems best named
savanna, was referred to in several
manuscripts as deciduous forest and
prairie without any statement as to
arrangement and relative area of the
two. Many of the original large and
small animals of this region, charac-
teristically divided their time (usually
seasonally) between the two plant
communities or lived at the shrubby
border between them. Plant ecologists
appear to have recognized the symbiotic
relation of plants and animals in com-
munities only to a small degree. Ani-
mal ecologists have of course not con-
tributed their share of knowledge for
reasons already noted. Movement of
animals from one small plant community
to another may be as important to the
general biota as is number of dominants
or at least secondary considerations
concerning plants in communities.

While faunistic zones agree with
vegetation in some cases, those who use
life zones often divide regions with
similar climate and uniform vegetation
into two or more zones because the
species are different, though physiolog-
ical relations may be supposed to be
similar (Chapman, 1917). It may be
said that fioristic and faunistic geog-
raphy including life zone work rests
on a background of evolution and migra-
tion, while ecological plant and animal
geography have a similar relation to
(climatic) conditions and physiology.

No one doubts that the life zones as
used mainly by zoologists are a correct

representation of certain facts of rela-
tionship, and are worthy of scientific
recognition. They do, however, vio-
late two important principles or methods
of modern ecology. In the first place
they fail to separate the local communi-
ties determined by soil, water, etc.,
from the extensive communities which
are commonly regarded as determined
by climate. Life zone index organisms
are as likely to belong to local areas
such as stream margins or other early
stages in succession as otherwise.
Second, the life zones sometimes divide
a uniform climax association into two
or three parts as in the case with de-
ciduous forest and mixed prairie. In
much of the United States life zones
are separated by east and west lines
and plant communities by north and
south lines. To the north in Canada
the two appear to be in better agree-
ment. In the Rocky Mountains they
are sometimes in agreement and some-
times not. In the tropics most of the
life zone studies have been carried on
in mountainous regions. While the
work is largely descriptive, the expres-
sion of the viewpoint is found in Chap-
man's introduction, in which he states
that "To determine the boundaries of
zones and faunas as they are manifest
by birds and mammals is our first aim
, . . and trust that we may throw
some light on laws governing the origin
of species. . . ." This is not the
object of modern ecology, which is on
the contrary concerned with symbiosis
(sense broad) succession, climax types,
and physiological relations to the
physical environment and its rhythmic
phenomena, etc.

However, it is true that the life zones
pointed out by investigators in Central
and South America do consist of one
or more landscape aspect areas. The
investigators along this line possess an
excellent knowledge of the landscape
aspect types. Accordingly, a measure
of agreement has been reached for the
tropics; though starting from two quite
different viewpoints, it is evident that
agreement cannot be general. Parallel

ORIGINAL BIOTA OF THE AMERICAS

69

tables have been developed to show the inconspicuous, or scattered and non-
relations of the two kinds of regions. shade producing?

I. NORTH AMERICA NORTH OF MEXICO

The accompanying maps (figs. 1, 2,
and 3) show the more important exten-
sive habitats drawn so far as practicable
on the basis of dominant landscape
aspect conditions. In differentiating
the areas, plants, animals, and climate
were considered.

a. Plants and animals

From the standpoint of the larger
animals the following are of much im-
portance and should tend to outweigh
minor botanical considerations:

Is the forest evergreen or do the
leaves fall, thus accentuating the sever-
ity of adverse seasons?

Are grasses or other plants present
which afford dry food in cold or dry
seasons?

Is the vegetation of such height and
density as to afford shelter for larger
animals, or is it short-stemmed and

b. Climate

The most important question about
climate is probably the character of
the annual march of rainfall, of tem-
perature, and of other factors.

The accompanying maps' are very
generalized. Figure 1 is based largely
on Shreve's map for the United States,
on the maps of Schimper and of Hardy
on Koppen's Classification of climate,
and Bartholomew's Atlas. The de-
scriptions of vegetation are modifica-
tions of Shreve's. Some modifications
of the plant regions have been made
because of facts about animals. For
instance, an area like the Snake River
Plains which once supported herds of
bison should hardly be called desert.

' Submitted to the members of the committee.
Suggestions bv B. E. Livingston, F. Shreve, W. E.
LawTenoe, H. C. Cowles, G. B. Rigg, G. E. Nichols,
C. D. Howe, E. N. Transeau, J. W. Ilarshberger,
G. P. Burns, C. O. Rosendahl, E. Lucy Braun, H.
M. Harper (botanists) and J. R. Watson, W. G.
Van Name, A. S. Pearse (zoologists) were adopted
and are as represented in figure 3 and those parts
of the United States shown in figure 4.

B. DESCRIPTIVE LIST OF NORTH AMERICAN BIOTA (SOUTH TO

CENTRAL MEXICO)

By V. E. Shelford, L. Jones and L. R. Dice

1. ARCTIC TUNDRA, OR BARREN GROUND

BIOTA (arctic tundra OF

CLEMENTS)

Extensive areas in the northern part
of the continent have long cold winters
and little rainfall. In the more north-
ern localities the ground thaws only
at the surface and a growth of herba-
ceous plants springs up in the summer.
There are dense growths of grass, many
miniature shrubs, shown in black on
the map, considerable areas of high
tundra, especially in Alaska. Large
areas of perpetual snow are included.

It supports muskoxen {Ovibos mos-
chatus subspp.), barren ground caribou
{Rangifer spp.), arctic hare {Lepus
arcticus group), arctic fox {Alo-pex spp.).
The chief local conditions are swamps
and ponds, which support hordes of
mosquitoes.

The breeding birds^ include the fol-
lowing: willow ptarmigan, rock ptar-
migan, white gyrfalcon, gray gyrfalcon,
gyrfalcon, black gyrfalcon, snowy owl,
horned lark, pallid horned lark, Green-
land redpoll, hoary redpoU, greater
redpoll, snow bunting, Lapland long-
spur, Alaska longspur. Smith's longspur,
Alaska yellow wagtail, and pipit.

Breeding birds whose habitat is
limited to the presence of water, gen-
erally a local condition, include the
following: yellow-billed loon. Pacific
loon, red-throated loon, pomarine jae-
ger, parasitic jaeger, long-tailed jaeger,
red-breasted merganser, old-squaw.
Harlequin duck, Steiler's eider, spec-
tacled eider. King eider, Pacific eider,
scoter, white winged scoter, snow goose,
white-fronted goose, whistling swan,

' English names conform strictly to the A. O. U.
Check-list, unless otherwise specitically noted.

red phalarope, northern phalarope,
long-billed dowitcher, stilt sandpiper,
knot, purple sandpiper, pectoral sand-
piper, white-rumped sandpiper, Baird's
sandpiper, least sandpiper, red-backed
sandpiper, semipalmated sandpiper,
western sandpiper, sanderling, Hud-
sonian godwit, yellow-legs, buff-
breasted sandpiper, Hudsonian curlew,
Eskimo curlew, black-bellied plover,
golden plover. Pacific golden plover,
semipalmated plover, turnstone, ruddy
turnstone, and black turnstone,

la. ALPINE STEPPE OR HIGH TUNDRA
(paramos of PENNELL) (apLINE SUM-
MITS, shreve) (apline meadow cli-
max, CLEMENTS)

Sedge, grass, and- herb covered areas
in high mountains. The large mam-
mals include bighorn sheep {Ovis cana-
densis subspp.), and Rocky Mountain
goat {Oreamnos americanus subspp.).
Rosy finches and white-tailed ptarmigan
are characteristic birds.

2. NORTHERN CONIFEROUS FOREST BIOTA
(northern MESOPHYTIC EVERGREEN
FOREST, shreve)

"This extensive region is characterized
throughout by a pure or nearly pure
stand of needle-leaved evergreen trees,
among which deciduous trees are often
present either as minor components of
the forest or else as trees of lower
stature. Virgin stands of this forest
range from 60 to 125 ft. in height and
vary from open park-like formations to
heavy forest with a completely shaded
floor. The heaviest stands are almost
devoid of shrubby undergrowth, but the
more open ones are accompanied by
deciduous shrubs and under-trees. In

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ORIGINAL BIOTA OF THE AMERICAS

61

spite of the essential identity of this
forest from the Pacific to the Atlantic
it is nevertheless made up of a large
number of tree species. Very many
extensive areas are formed by a single
species and many others by an admixture
in which not more than three or four
species are involved. In the eastern
portion of the area the white pine
(P. sirobus), the hemlock {Tsuga can-
adensis), the jack pine (P. divaricata) ,
and the balsam fir (Abies balsamea),
are the most common species."

Northern localities with cold wet
winters and usually as much as 50 in.
of snow in winter.

The open marshes and margins of
lakes are the favorite haunts of the
moose. The chief local conditions are
ponds and marshes of various types,
which are important to migratory birds.

The mammals include the moose
{Alces spp.), woodland caribou (Rangi-
fer spp.), elk (Cervus canadensis subspp.),
black bear [Ursus americanus group),
wolverine (Gulo luscus), Canada lynx
(Lynx canadensis group), Canada wood-
chuck {Marmota monax canadensis),
and red squirrel (Sciuriis Jiudsonicus
subspp.).

The breeding birds include the fol-
lowing: Hudsonian spruce partridge,
Canada spruce partridge, Canada ruffed
grouse, Nova Scotia ruffed grouse,
passenger pigeon (extinct), turkey vul-
ture (southern), swallow-tailed kite
(formerly), marsh hawk, sharp-shinned
hawk, Cooper's hawk, goshawk, red-
tailed hawk, red-shouldered hawk,
broad-winged hawk, rough-legged hawk,
golden eagle, duck hawk, pigeon hawk,
sparrow hawk, long-eared owl, barred
owl, great gray owl, Richardson's
owl, saw-whet owl, screech owl, great
horned owl (eastern), western horned
owl (central, northerly), arctic horned
owl (northern), pale horned owl (cen-
tral, southerly), Newfoundland horned
owl (Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, Lab-
rador), hawk owl, yellow-billed cuckoo
(south part), black-billed cuckoo (south
part), northern hairy woodpecker, New-
foundland woodpecker, downy wood-

pecker, Newfoundland downy wood-
pecker, Arctic three-toed woodpecker,
American three-toed woodpecker, yel-
low-bellied sapsucker, northern plicated
woodpecker, red-headed woodpecker,
northern flicker, whippoorwill, night-
hawk, chimney swift, ruby-throated
hununingbird, kingbird, crested fly-
catcher, phoebe, olive-sided flycatcher,
wood pewee, yellow-bellied flycatcher,
least flycatcher, black-billed magpie,
blue jay, Canada jay, Labrador jay,
crow, cowbird, Baltimore oriole,
bronzed grackle, evening grosbeak,
pine grosbeak, Newfoundland pine gros-
beak, purple finch, crossbill, white-winged
crossbill, white-throated sparrow, chip-
ping sparrow, clay-colored sparrow,
goldfinch, pine siskin, Harris' sparrow,
white-crowned sparrow, slate-colored
junco, song sparrow, Lincoln's sparrow,
fox sparrow, towhee, rose-breasted gros-
beak, black-headed grosbeak, scarlet
tanager, purple martin, cliff swallow,
barn swallow, Bohemian waxwing, cedar
waxwing, red-eyed vireo, Philadelphia
vireo, warbling vireo, j'ellow-throated
vireo, blue-headed vireo, black and
white warbler, golden-winged warbler,
Nashville warbler, orange-crowned
warbler, Tennessee warbler, northern
parula warbler. Cape May warbler,
black-throated blue warbler, Cairn's
warbler, myrtle warbler, magnolia war-
bler, chestnut-sided warblcr,bay-breasted
warbler, black-poll warbler, Black-
burnian warbler, black-throated green
warbler, Kirtland's warbler (central
Michigan), pine warbler, oven-bird,
mourning warbler, Wilson's warbler,
Canada warbler, redstart, catbird,
brown thrasher, house wren, winter
wren, brown creeper, white-breasted
nuthatch, red-breasted nuthatch, chick-
adee, Hudsonian chickadee, Acadian
chickadee (eastern), golden-crowned king-
let, ruby-crowned kinglet, wood thrush
(south part); veery, gray-checked thrush
(western), Bicknell's tlirush (c:ist),
olive-backed thrush, hernut thrush,
robin, and blucbir^l.

Breeding birds whose habitat is
generally limited to the pre-forest or

62

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

other early stages of succession include
the following: tree sparrow, field spar-
row, swamp sparrow, indigo bunting,
northern shrike, white-rumped shrike,
migrant shrike, yellow warbler, pine
warbler, palm warbler, and yellow
palm warbler.

Breeding birds preferring a moist
habitat, generally near a stream or swamp,
include the following: tree swallow,
bank swallow, rough-winged swallow,
northern water-thrush, Grinnell's water-
thrush, Connecticut warbler, and north-
ern yellow-throat.

Breeding birds whose habitat is
limited to the presence of water,
generally a local condition, include the
following: bald eagle, osprey, belted
kingfisher, and northern raven.

2a. mountain coniferous forest
(montane forest climax, the rocky
mountain montane forest, the
sierran montane forest, clements,

(hUDSONIAN and CANADIAN ZONES)

In the western half of the area the
yellow pine {Pinus ponderosa) , the
lodgepole pine (P. murrayana), and the
red fir (Pseudotsuga mucronata) are the
trees which dominate the most exten-
sive stands.

In the montane forests are found such
characteristic mammals as the yellow-
bellied marmot (Mannota flaviventris
subspp.), red squirrel (Subgenus Taviia-
sciurus), deer-mouse {Peromyscus spp.),
red-backed vole (Evotomys), chipmunk
{Eutamias), and flying-squirrel {Glau-
comys sabrinus subspp.).

The breeding birds include the fol-
lowing: dusky grouse (Utah and south),
Richardson's grouse (Wyoming and
north), Alaska spruce grouse (Mt.
McKinley range), Franklin's grouse
(Idaho and north), gray ruffed grouse
(Utah and north), band-tailed pigeon
(Utah and south), sharp-shinned hawk.
Cooper's hawk, western goshawk, western
red-tail, golden eagle, pigeon hawk,
Richardson's pigeon hawk, desert
sparrow hawk (lower mountains), long-
eared owl, Richardson's owl, saw-whet
owl, MacFarlane's screech owl (west

mountain slope). Rocky Mountain
screech owl (east mountain slope),
flammulated screech owl (Colorado
and south), dusky horned owl, hawk
owl. Rocky Mountain pygmy owl.
Rocky Mountain hairy woodpecker,
Batchelder's woodpecker (British Co-
lumbia and south), Nelson's downy
woodpecker (Alberta and north), Arctic
three-toed woodpecker, Alaska three-
toed woodpecker (northerly), Alpine
three-toed woodpecker (southerly), red-
naped sapsucker, Williamson's sap-
sucker, northern pileated woodpecker,
Lewis' woodpecker, red-shafter flicker,
Stephens' whippoorwill (Arizona and
south), western nighthawk, black swift,
white-throated swift, black-chinned
hummingbird, Rivoli's hummingbird
(Arizona and south), blue-throated
hummingbird (Arizona and south),
broad-tailed hummingbird (Idaho and
south), rufous hummingbird, calliope
hummingbird, white-eared humming-
bird (Arizona and south), broad-billed
hummingbird (Arizona and south),
sulphur-bellied flycatcher (Arizona and
south) olivaceous flycatcher (Ai-izona
and south), olive-sided flycatcher
(Arizona and south), Coues' flycatcher,
western wood pewee, western flycatcher,
Hammond's flycatcher, Wright's fly-
catcher, gray flycatcher (Arizona
and south), buff -breasted flycatcher
(Arizona and south), magpie, long-
crested jay (Wyoming and south),
black-headed jay (Wyoming and north).
Rocky Mountain jay, western crow,
Clarke's nutcracker, pinyon jay, western
evening grosbeak. Rocky Mountain pine
grosbeak, Cassin's purple finch, cross-
bill, white-winged crossbill, pine siskin,
white-crowned sparrow, Gambel's spar-
row, western chipping sparrow, white-
winged junco (Rocky Mountain
region), Shufeldt's junco (northerly),
Montana junco (northerly), pink-
sided junco (southerly), Ridgway's junco
(Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona, New
Mexico), Arizona junco (Arizona and
south), red-backed junco (Arizona and
south), gray-headed junco (Wyoming
and south), mountain song sparrow.

ORIGINAL BIOTA OF THE AMERICAS

63

Lincoln's sparrow, slate-colored fox
sparrow, Arctic towhee, green-tailed
towhee, black-headed grosbeak. Lazuli
bunting, western tanager, hepatic
tanager (Arizona and south), purple
martin, cliff swallow, barn swallow,
Bohemian waxwing (northerly), cedar
waxwing (southerly), red-eyed vireo,
(low elevations), western warbling vireo,
Cassin's vireo (north and west), plum-
beous vireo (east and south), Virginia's
warbler (southern), orange-crowned
warbler, Tennessee warbler, olive war-
bler, Hoover's warbler, Audubon's warb-
ler, black-fronted warbler, Grace's
warbler, black-throated gray warbler,
Townsend's warbler, Macgillivray's war-
bler, long-tailed chat, pileolated war-
bler, redstart, painted redstart, red-
faced warbler (Arizona and south), cat-
bird, rock wren, western house wren,
western winter wren, Rocky Mountain
creeper, Rocky Mountain nuthatch, red-
breasted nuthatch, pygmy nuthatch,
gray titmouse, long-tailed chickadee,
Mexican chickadee, mountain chickadee,
Hudsonian chickadee, chestnut-backed
chickadee, lead-colored bush-tit, western
golden-crowned kinglet, ruby-crowned
kinglet, Townsend's solitaire, willow
thrush, olive-backed thrush, Audubon's
hermit thrush, western robin, northern
varied thrush, western bluebird, azure
bluebird, chestnut-backed bluebird,
mountain bluebird.

Breeding birds whose habitat is
generally limited to the preforest or
other early stages of succession include
the following: pale goldfinch, western
tree sparrow, northern shrike (north-
erly), white-rumped shrike (low eleva-
tions), and yellow warbler.

Breeding birds preferring a moist
habitat, generally near a stream or
swamp, include the following: tree swal-
low, northern violet-green swallow,
bank swallow, rough-winged swallow,
Grinnell water-thrush, and western
yellow-throat.

Breeding birds whose habitat is
limited to the presence of water, gener-
ally a local condition, include the fol-
lowing: nothern bald eagle, duck hawk,
osprey, and dipper.

3. NORTHWESTERN MOIST CO.MFEROU8
FOREST BIOTA (.VORTIIW ESTER. V IlYDno-
PHYTIC EVERGREEN FOREST, SIIREVE)
(includes the larch-pink FOREST
AND THE CEDAR-HE.MLOCK FOREST;
CLEMENTS) (tHE COAST FOREST CLI-
MAX, CLEMENTS)

The climate is mild with some rain in
all seasons but especially in winter.

This is "a well-marked type of forest
characterized by density of stand and
by the size of its trees, which commonly
reach 100 to 125 ft. in height and are
often in excess of this. The floor of the
forest is heavily shaded and supports
relatively few deciduous under-trees,
although there is usually a rich growth
of shrubs and of ferns, mosses, and other
herbaceous plants. The trees which
characterize this area are the Douglas
fir {Pseudotsiiga mucronata), redwood
(Sequoia sempervirens), western hem-
lock (Tsuga heterophylla) , canoe cedar
[Thuja plicata), grand fir {Abies grandis)
and others."

The mammals include the elk {Ccrvus
canadensis occidenlalis) , black bear
{Ursus americamis group), bob cat
[Lynx fasciatiis group), and black-
tailed deer [Odocoileus Columbian us
subspp.).

The breeding birds inclufle the fol-
lowing: mountain quail, California quail,
sooty grouse, Oregon ruffed grouse,
band-tailed pigeon, dusky mourning
dove, marsh hawk, sharp-shinned hawk,
Cooper hawk, western goshawk, western
red-tailed hawk, Alaska red-tail (South-
east Alaska), golden eagle, Peale's
falcon, black pigeon hawk, sparrow
hawk, spotted owl, saw-whet owl (ex-
cept Queen Charlotte), island saw-whet
owl (except Queen Charlotte), Ken-
nicott's screech owl (Oregon and nortlil,
Brewster's screech owl (Oregon and
south), dusky horned owl, Vancouver
pygmy owl (Vancouver Islands), coast
pj'gmy owl (Washington and south),
California pygmy owl (Montery, etc.),
California cuckoo (Washington and
south), Harris' woodpecker (north\
white-breasted woodpecker (south),
Sitka hairy woodpecker (Southeast Al-

64

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

aska), Gairdner's woodpecker (British
Columbia and south), Valdez downy
woodpecker (British Columbia and
north), red-breasted woodpecker (Cali-
fornia), northern red-breasted sapsucker
(California and north), western pileated
woodpecker, California woodpecker
(Oregon and south), northwestern flicker,
Pacific nighthawk, black swift, Vaux's
swift, white-throated swift, rufous hum-
mingbird, Allen's hummingbird, olive-
sided flycatcher, western flycatcher,
Traill's flycatcher, Hammond's fly-
catcher, Steller's jay (Washington and
north), coast jay (Oregon and south),
California jay (south), Oregon jay,
western crow (Washington and south),
northwestern crow (Washington and
north), Bullock's oriole, Brewer's black-
bird, western evening grosbeak, Kadiak
pine grosbeak, California purple finch,
crossbill, pine siskin, Oregon vesper
sparrow, Nuttall's sparrow (British
Columbia and north), golden-crowned
sparrow (British Columbia and north),
western chipping sparrow, Oregon junco,
Point Pinos junco (Monterey district),
rusty song sparrow (Washington and
north), sooty song sparrow (Alaska
coast), San Diego song sparrow (Mon-
terey region), mendocino song sparrow
(Oregon to San Francisco), Forbush's
sparrow (Alaska coast), sooty fox spar-
row (British Columbia and Washington),
Kadiak fox sparrow (Cross Sound and
north), Townsend's fox sparrow (Cross
Sound and south), Oregon towhee
(British Columbia, Washington, Oregon),
San Francisco towhee (California), black
headed grosbeak, western martin, cliff
swallow, barn swallow, western warbling
vireo, Cassin's vireo, Anthony's vireo,
Calaveras warbler, lutescent warbler,
Alaska yellow warbler (Vancouver
Islands and north), California yellow
warbler (Washington and south), Audu-
bon's warbler, Townsend's warbler
(northerly), hermit warbler (southerly),
Macgillivray's warbler, golden pileo-
lated warbler, rock wren (Oregon to
Vancouver Islands), western house wren,
western winter wren, California creeper,
slender-billed nuthatch, red-breasted

nuthatch, Oregon chickadee, chestnut-
backed chickadee (Sonoma County,
California and north), California chicka-
dee (Sonoma and Marin Counties),
Barlow's chickadee (Monterey region),
bush-tit, coast wren-tit (Oregon to
Humboldt Bay, California), ruddy wren-
tit (Humboldt County and south),
western golden-crowned kinglet, sitka
kinglet (British Columbia and north),
Townsend's solitaire, russet-backed
thrush, Alaska hermit thrush, dwarf
hermit thrush, Monterey hermit thrush,
western robin, varied thrush, northern
varied thrush, western bluebird, moun-
tain bluebird.

Breeding birds whose habitat is
generally limited to the preforest or
other early stages of succession include
the following: western meadowlark, wil-
low goldfinch, and western tree sparrow
(north).

Breeding birds preferring a moist
habitat, generally near a stream or
swamp, include the following: north-
western red-wing, bicolored red-wing,
tree swallow, northern violet-green
swallow, bank swallow, rough-winged
swallow, and Pacific yellow-throat
(British Columbia and south).

Breeding birds whose habitat is
limited to the presence of water, gener-
ally local condition, include the fol-
lowing : northwestern coast heron (Wash-
ington and north), California heron
(Washington and south), spotted sand-
piper, bald eagle, northern bald eagle
(north), osprey, northern belted king-
fisher, northern raven, and dipper.

4. XEROPHYTIC CONIFEROUS FOREST
BIOTA (not indicated ON THE MAP)
(western XEROPHYTIC EVERGREEN
FOREST, SHREVE) (tHE WOODLAND
CLIMAX : PINE JUNIPER FORMATION, CLE-
MENTS) (INCLUDES PINYON CEDAR wood-
land; OAK-CEDAR WOODLAND; PINE-
OAK WOODLAND IN PART, CLEMENTS)

This type lies between the northern
coniferous forest and the desert and
semi-desert areas in the United States
and northern Mexico. It does not
cover an extensive area.

ORIGINAL BIOTA OF THE AMERICAS

65

It is "an open forest of low stature, the
trees seldom exceeding 40 ft. in height.
The needle-leaved and scale-leaved
evergreens are the dominant trees, but
the forest is everywhere accompanied by
shrubbery and by some succulent or
semi-succulent plants, and is carpeted in
many localities by an open growth of
perennial grasses. Along the Mexican
boundary this forest merges into the
encinal, or evergreen oak type. The
dominant species of the Xerophytic
Evergreen Forest vary from state to
state but are in almost all cases either
junipers or pinyons."

Among the characteristic mammals
are the woodrats {Neotoma spp.), deer-
mice (PeromT/scns spp.), and cottontail
rabbit (Sylvilagus auduhonii subspp.).

The breeding birds include the fol-
lowing: white-checked goose, plumed
quail (Ventura County and north),
San Pedro quail (San Ber. and San Gab.
Mountains), Sierra grouse, band-tailed
pigeon, western mourning dove, Cali-
fornia vulture (Santa Clara County,
south), turkey vulture, sharp-shinned
hawk. Cooper's hawk, western goshawk,
western red-tailed hawk, golden eagle,
desert sparrow hawk, spotted owl,
Pasadena screech owl. Pacific horned
owl, pygmy owl, Sierra woodpecker,
Cabanis woodpecker, Nuttall's wood-
pecker, white-headed woodpecker. Si-
erra three-toed woodpecker, red-naped
sapsucker, red-breasted sapsucker, ^Yil-
liamson's sapsucker, northern pileated
woodpecker, Lewis' woodpecker, red-
shafted flicker, western nighthawk,
black swift, white-throated swift, black-
chinned hummingbird, broad-tailed hum-
mingbird, rufous hummingbird, cal-
liope hummingbird, ash-throated fly-
catcher, olive-sided flycatcher, western
wood pewee, Hammond's flycatcher,
Wright's flycatcher, gray flycatcher,
blue-fronted jay, California jay, gray
jay, Clark's nutcracker, pinyon jay,
tricolored blackbird, Bullock's oriole.
Brewer's blackbird, western evening
grosbeak, California pine grosbeak,
Cassin's purple finch, Mexican crossbill,
green-backed goldfinch, pine siskin,

white-crowned sparrow, Thurber's junco,
western chipping sparrow, biack-chinncd
sparrow, mountain song sparrow, Lin-
coln's sparrow, thick-billed fox spar-
row (northerly), Stephens' fox sparrow
(southerly), spurred towhee, grccn-
tailcd towhee, black-headed grosbeak,
Lazule bunting, western tanagcr, west-
ern martin, western warbling vireo,
Cassin's vireo, gray vireo fCajon Pass
and south), Calaveras warbler, hermit
warbler, lutescent warbler, Audubon's
warbler, black-throated gray warbler,
Townsend's warbler, Macgillivray's war-
bler, golden pileolated warbler, Cali-
fornia thrasher, rock wren, dotted
canyon wren, western house wren,
western winter wren. Sierra creeper,
slender-billed nuthatch, red-breasted
nuthatch, pj'gmy nuthatch, gray tit-
mouse, mountain chickadee, lead-col-
ered bush-tit, western golden-crowned
kinglet, ruby-crowned kinglet, Town-
send's solitaire. Sierra hermit thrush,
western robin, western bluebird, moun-
tain bluebird.

Breeding birds whose habitat is gener-
ally limited to the preforest or other
early stages of succession include the
western vesper sparrow and the Cali-
fornia yellow warbler.

Breeding birds whose habitat is
limited to the presence of water, gener-
ally a local condition, include the follow-
ing: merganser, hooded merganser, wood
duck. Harlequin duck, spotted sand-
piper, and dipper.

5. rOl'L.VU GROVE S.WAXXA BIOT.\.

("park steppe" of hardy)

A narrow strip skirting the coniferous
forest on the west and south in Min-
nesota, Wisconsin, Manitoba, Saskat-
chewan and Alberta. It consists of
groves of poplar or low shrubs, the
former with characteristic forest edge
lying in a mesophytic prairie. In
some localities the grasslantl forms
islands. The mammals include forest
bison (Bison bison athabascac), mule
deer {Odocoilcus hcmionus), skunk [Mc-
phitis hvds07iica), raccoon [Proci/on I.
lo(or), and red fox {Vxdpes fulca).

66

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

6. DECIDUOUS FOREST BIOTA

Occupies areas with rainfall through-
out the year, especially in spring.

"The extensive area chiefly east of the
Mississippi and south of the Great
Lakes, which was formerly occupied by
an almost unbroken forest of a score or
more of deciduous trees. A few prairies
occur in the southern portion of the area
and evergreen needle-leaved trees occupy
bluffs and shallow soil in the mountains.
The commonest trees are species of
oak (Quercus), hickory (Hicoria), chest-
nut (Castanea), beech {Fagus), maple
(Acer), walnut (Jitglans), tulip {Lirio-
dendron), and ash {Fraxinus)."

The mammals include the Virginia
deer {Odocoileus virginianus subspp.),
black bear {Ursus a. americanus) , bob-
cat {Lynx r. ruffus), gray fox {Urocyon c.
cinereoargenteus) , red fox {Vulpes fulva),
opossum {Didelphis v. virginiana), cot-
tontail rabbit {Sylvilagus floridanus
subspp.), and gray squirrel {Sciurus
carolinensis subspp.)-

Breeding birds include the following:
ruffed grouse, wild turkey, passenger
pigeon (extinct), mourning dove, turkey
vulture, black vulture (south), swallow-
tailed kite, white-tailed kite, Mississippi
kite (south), marsh hawk, sharp-
shinned hawk. Cooper's hawk, red-tailed
hawk, red-shouldered hawk, broad-
winged hawk, pigeon hawk, sparrow
hawk, barn owl, long-eared owl, barred
owl, saw-whet owl, screech owl, great
horned owl, Carolina paroquet (for-
merly), j^ellow-billed cuckoo, black-
billed cuckoo, ivory-billed woodpecker
(south), hairy woodpecker (north),
southern hairy woodpecker (south),
southern downy woodpecker (south),
downy woodpecker (north), red-cock-
aded woodpecker, pileated woodpecker
(south), northern pileated woodpecker
(north), red-headed woodpecker, red-
bellied woodpecker, flicker (south),
northern flicker (north), Ohuck-will's-
widow (south), whip-poor-will, night-
hawk, chimney swift, ruby-throated
hummingbird, kingbird, crested fly-
catcher, phoebe, wood pewee, Acadian.

flycatcher, blue jay, crow, fish crow
(southeastern), cowbird, orchard oriole,
Baltimore oriole, purple grackle (Atlan-
tic Coast south), chipping sparrow,
Bachman's sparrow, song sparrow, tow-
hee, cardinal, rose-breasted grosbeak,
blue grosbeak (south), painted bunting
(south), scarlet tanager, summer tanager
(southerly), purple martin, cliff swallow,
cedar waxwing, red-eyed vireo, warbling
vireo, yellow-throated vireo, white-
eyed vireo, black and white warbler,
worm-eating warbler, Bachman's war-
bler (south), blue-winged warbler,
golden-winged warbler, parula warbler
(south), northern parula warbler (north)
pine warbler, oven-bird, Kentucky war-
bler, yellow-breasted chat, redstart,
mockingbird, catbird, brown thrasher,
Carolina wren, Bewick's wren, house
wren, white-breasted nuthatch, brown-
headed nuthatch (south), tufted tit-
mouse, chickadee, Carolina chickadee
(south), blue-gray gnatcatcher, wood
thrush, robin, southern robin, and
bluebird.

Breeding birds whose habitat is gener-
ally limited to pre-forest or other early
stages of succession include the follow-
ing: upland plover, killdeer, bob-white,
goldfinch, vesper sparrow, field sparrow,
indigo bunting, loggerhead shrike
(south), migrant shrike (north), yellow--
throated warbler, and prairie warbler.

Breeding birds preferring a moist
habitat, generally near a stream or
swamp, include the following: boat-
tailed grackle (southeast), swamp spar-
row, tree swallow, bank swallow, rough-
winged swallow, prothonotary warbler,
Swainson's warbler (south), sycamore
warbler, Louisiana water-thrush, Mary-
land yellow-throat, northern yellow-
throat, hooded warbler, and short-
billed marsh wren.

Breeding birds whose habitat is
limited to the presence of water, gener-
ally a local condition, include the follow-
ing: merganser, wood duck, great blue
heron, egret (south), snowy egret
(south), little blue heron (south), green
heron, black-crowned night heron, yel-
low-crowned night heron (south), sand-

ORIGINAL BIOTA OF THE AMERICAS

67

hill crane, king rail, Virginia rail, sora,
yellow rail, black rail, purple gallinule
(south), Florida gallinule, coot, wood-
cock, Wilson's snipe, solitarj^ sandpiper,
spotted sandpiper, piping plover, duck
hawk, osprey northern raven, red-
winged blackbird, and long-billed marsh
wren.

7. oak grove savanna biota (park
steppe of hardy in part; grassland-
deciduous forest transition,
shreve; subclimax prairie, Cle-
ments)

An area with little rainfall in winter
and late summer and heavy rainfall
in June.

The rather ill-defined belt in which
the Deciduous Forest emerges from the
flood-plains and river margins and
occupies a portion of the upland. On
the western edge of the belt there is a
high percentage of grassland, while in
the eastern portion the deciduous forest
becomes nearly continuous. The prin-
cipal trees of this region are the bur,
white, and black oaks (Quercus macro-
carpa, Q. alba, Q. velutina) ; the principal
grasses, beard grass iAndroipogen fur-
catus), Indian grass {Sorghastrum
nutans), and dropseed {Sporobolus cryp-
tandrus).

The forest edge is a very important
habitat for a few mammals, birds and
many insects ranging eastward. The
Franklin ground-squirrel {Citellus frank-
linii), and maiiy birds and insects are
restricted to it. Steppe animals in-
vaded the grass covered areas while
the wooded parts supported the Vir-
ginia deer [Odocoileus virginanus mac-
rourus), elk {Cervus c. canadensis),
raccoon {Procyon I. lolor), gray squirrel
{Sciurus carolinensis leucolis), and cot-
tontail rabbit {Sylvilagus floridanus
mearnsii).

The species that occur in the decidu-
ous forest are, for the most part, also
found in the oak grove savannas. But
a few species that are confined to the
southeastern part and the northeastern
part of the deciduous forest do not find
their way into the oak grove savannas.
The oak grove savanna thus become a
westward extension of the deciduou°

forest like arms into the grasslands.
Breeding birds that occur in the oak
grove savannas are as follows: upland
plover, turkey vulture, black vulture,
swallow-tailed kite, Mississippi kite,
sharp-shinned hawk. Cooper's liawk,
red-tailed hawk, red-shouldered hawk,
broad-winged hawk, bald eagle, duck
hawk, sparrow hawk, great horned owl,
barn owl, long-eared owl, barred owl,
saw-whet owl, screech owl, Carolina
paroquet (formerly), yellow-l)illcd
cuckoo, black-billed cuckoo, hairy
woodpecker, downy woodpecker, yellow-
bellied sapsucker, red-headed wood-
pecker, red-bellied woodpecker, north-
ern flicker, whip-poor-will, nighthawk,
chimney swift, ruby-throated hum-
mingbird, kingbird, Arkansas kingbird
(west), crested flycatcher, wood pewce,
yellow-bellied flycatcher (north), Aca-
dian flj^catcher, least flycatcher, blue
jay, raven, crow, cowbird, orchard
oriole, Baltimore oriole, bronzed grackle,
goldfinch, vesper sparrow, chipping
sparrow, field sparrow, song sparrow,
towhee, cardinal, rose-breasted gros-
beak, painted bunting (south), scar-
let tanager, summer tanager, purple
martin, cliff swallow, barn swallow,
cedar waxwing, loggerhead shrike
(south), white-rumped shrike, red-eyed
vireo, warbling vireo, yellow-throated
vireo, black and white warbler (oc-
casionally), worm-eating warbler, blue-
winged warbler (occasionally), cerulean
warbler, chestnut-sided warbler (oc-
casionally), prairie warbler, oven-bird,
yellow-breasted chat, redstart (north),
mockingbird, catbird, brown thrasher,
Carolina wren, Bewick's wren, brown
creeper, white-breasted nuthatch, tufted
titmouse, chickadee, blue-gray guat-
catcher, woodthrush, veery (east), willow
thrush, robin, and bluebird.

Breeding birds whose habitat is
generally limited to the pre-forest or
other early stages of succession include
the following: prairie chicken, bob-
white, short-eared owl, prairie horned
lark, bobolink, meadowlark, grasshopper
sparrow, lienslow's sparrow, lark spar-
row, dickcissel, and indigo bunting.

68

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Breeding birds preferring a moist
habitat, generally near a stream or
swamp, include the following: green
heron, black-crowned night heron, sand-
hill crane, king rail, Virginia rail, sora,
yellow rail, black rail, purple gallinule
(south), Florida gallinule, marbled god-
wit (north), spotted sandpiper, marsh
hawk, osprey, belted kingfisher, phoebe,
Traill's flycatcher, savanna sparrow,
Nelson's sparrow, swamp sparrow, tree
swallow, bank swallow, rough-winged
swallow, prothonotary warbler. Swain-
son's warbler (south), yellow warbler,
sycamore warbler, Louisiana water-
thrush, Maryland yellow-throat, hooded
warbler, short-billed marsh wren.

Breeding birds whose habitat is
limited to the presence of water, gener-
ally a local condition, include the follow-
ing: bittern, least bittern, great blue
heron, snowy egret, little blue heron,
yellow-headed blackbird, red-winged
blackbird, and long-billed marsh wren.

8. SOUTHEASTERN CONIFEROUS FOREST
(southeastern MESOPHYTIC EVER-
GREEN FOREST, SHREVE) (pROBABLY
INCLUDES THE SOUTHEASTERN EVER-
GREEN-DECIDUOUS TRANSITION, SHREVE)

Copious rain in summer. Frequent
fires an important environmental factor.
The coastal plain forest is of evergreen
needle-leaved trees, with a subordinate
admixture of evergreen broad-leaved
and deciduous species. "Extensive
areas of this forest are pure stands of
longleaf pine {Pinus palustris), or
Cuban pine (P. caribaea) in open forma-
tion, with a clear floor nearly devoid of
shrubs and carpeted with grasses and
herbaceous plants." The mammals are
in part similar to those of the deciduous
forest, which is probably the climax
type over most of the region. For a
list of mammals and reptiles see account
of Alabama.

Breeding birds include the following:
wild turkey, passenger pigeon (extinct),
mourning dove, ground dove, black
vulture, swallow-tailed kite, Mississippi
kite, Cooper's hawk, Florida red-
shouldered hawk, red-tailed hawk, broad
winged hawk, sparrow hawk, bam owl,

Florida barred owl, Florida screech owl,
great horned owl, Carolina paroquet,
yellow-billed cuckoo, southern hairy
woodpecker, southern downy wood-
pecker, red-cockaded woodpecker, plic-
ated woodpecker, red-headed wood-
pecker, red-bellied woodpecker, chuck-
will's widow, flicker, Florida night-
hawk, chimney swift, ruby-throated
hummingbird, kingbird, crested fly-
catcher, wood pewee, blue jay, southern
crow, fish crow, cowbird, orchard oriole,
Baltimore oriole, purple grackle, pine-
woods sparrow, Bachman's sparrow,
chipping sparrow, Alabama towhee,
cardinal, blue grosbeak, summer tana-
ger, purple martin, red-eyed vireo,
warbling vireo, yellow-throated vireo,
white-eyed vireo, black and white
warbler, black-throated green warbler,
pine warbler, Florida yellow-throat,
yellow-breasted chat, Kentucky war-
bler, mockingbird, catbird, brown
thrasher, Carolina wren, Bewick's
wren, Florida white-breasted nuthatch,
brown-headed nuthatch, tufted titmouse,
Carolina chickadee, blue-gray gnat-
catcher, wood thrush, southern robin
and bluebird.

Breeding birds whose habitat is gener-
ally limited to the pre-forest or other
early stages of succession include the
following: bob-white, goldfinch, logger-
head shrike, and prairie warbler.

Breeding birds preferring a moist
habitat, generally near a stream or
swamp include the following: indigo
bunting, prothonotary warbler. Swain-
son's warbler, sycamore warbler, Loui-
siana water-thrush, and hooded warbler.

Breeding bird whose habitat is limited
to the presence of water, generally a
local condition, is the bald eagle.

9. GRASSLAND BIOTA (GRASSLAND,

SHREVE) (grassland CLIMAX, CLE-
MENTS) (includes true prairie;

MIXED prairie; SHORT-GRASS PLAINS;
BUNCH-GRASS PRAIRIE OF THE NORTH-
WEST, CLEMENTS)

Areas with rain chiefly in spring and
early summer. Dry season late in
summer. Winters cold and dry.

The vast plains area, covered by a

ORIGINAL BIOTA OF THE AMERICAS

more or less closed sod of perennial
grasses, distributed as follows:

Tall grass prairie west to central
Dakotas, eastern third of Nebraska
and central Kansas; tall and short
grasses forming sod in all of grassland
north of central Kansas and Colorado,
west to Rockies, except in sand or where
overgrazed. South of this is mostly
scattered grass steppe; west of it mostly
bunch-grass steppe. Bunch-grass oc-
curs regularly in sand. A scattering
representation of desert forms is present,
particularly in the "bad lands," shrubs
are locally present, in portions of the
area (bush steppe) and the evergreen
forests advance from the west onto
hills and rocky soil, while the Deciduous
Forest encroaches from the east through
the valleys of the largest streams. A
number of species of herbaceous peren-
nials are found in all parts of the Grass-
land, being chiefly Composities. The
leading grasses are the gramas {Boute-
loiia), buffalo grass {Bulbilis dacty-
loides), and prairie grass {Koeleria
cristata) .

The mammals included immense herds
of bison, large herds of pronghorn
antelope {Aniilocapra americana), wolf
{Cards spp.), coyote {Cards spp.),
white-tailed jackrabbit {Lepus town-
sendii subspp.), kit fox {Vulpes velox),
and "towns" of prairie-dogs {Cynomys).

Breeding birds include the followmg:
upland plover, killdeer, bob-white, Flor-
ida bob-white (Florida prairies), prairie
chicken, lesser prairie chicken, prairie
sharp-tailed grouse, western mourning
dove, turkey vulture, marsh hawk,
Swainson's hawk, ferruginous rough-leg,
prairie falcon, duck hawk, sparrow
hawk, desert sparrow hawk, burrowing
owl, poor-will, western nighthawk, Ben-
nett's nighthawk, scissor-tailed fly-
catcher, kingbird, Arkansas kingbird,
phoebe, Say's phoebe, prairie horned
lark, desert horned lark, dusky horned
lark, magpie, cowbird, meadowlark,
western meadowlark, southern meadow-
lark, Bullock's oriole, Brewer's black-
bird, goldfinch, chestnut-collared long-
spur, McCown's longspur, vesper

sparrow, western vesper sparrow, Oregon
vesper sparrow, savanna sparrow, west-
ern savanna sparrow, Baird's sparrow,
grasshopper sparrow, western grass-
hopper sparrow, Florida grasshopper
sparrow, Ilenslow's sparrow, western
Henslow's sparrow, Leconte's sparrow,
Nelson's sparrow, lark sparrow, western
lark sparrow, western field sparrow,
western chipping sparrow, clay-colored
sparrow. Brewer's sparrow, song spar-
row, Dakota song sparrow, dickcissel,
lark bunting, purple martin, cliff swal-
low, barn swallow, white-rumped shrike,
migrant shrike, Sprague's pipit, western
house wren, robin, western robin, and
bluebird.

Breeding birds preferring a moist
habitat, generally near a stream, in-
clude the following: tree swallow, bank
swallow, rough-winged swallow, Mary-
land yellow-throat, western yellow-
throat, northern yellow-throat, and
short-billed marsh wren.

Breeding birds whose habitat is
limited to the presence of water, gener-
ally a local condition, include the follow-
ing: sandhill crane, Wilson's phalarope,
avocet, Wilson's snipe, marbled godwit,
solitary sandpiper, western willet, spot-
ted sandpiper, and long-billed curlew,
prairie marsh wren.

10. TEMPERATE DESERT-GRASSLAND

BIOTA (includes DESERT- GR.\SS

LAND TRANSITION, SHREVE; DES-
ERT PLAINS, CLEMENTS; THE NORTH-
ERNMOST EXTENSION OF THE GREAT
BASIN MICROPHYLL DESERT, SHREVB)

A region intermediate in character
between the grassland and the deserts
of Texas, New Mexico, Arizona and
Idaho.

An open carpet of i)erennial grasses
and ephemeral or root-pcrennial her-
baceous plants, with a more or less
sparing representation of succulent and
semi-succulent forms. The leading
Grassland plants (in southern localities)
are the gramas {Bouteloua) aiul gallcta
grass {Hilaria), and the chief desert
plants are palmilla, amole, and a small
group of cacti.

70

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

The Snake River plain with sage-
brush among which grasses grow up in
spring and with local areas of grass,
is included here.

The mammals originally included
bison, pronghorn antelope, badger
{Taxidea taxus subspp.), ground-squir-
rels {Citellus spp.), black-tailed jack-
rabbit {Lepus californicus group),
pocket-mouse (Perognathus), and kan-
garoo-rat {Dipodomys).

Breeding birds include the following:
sage hen, western mourning dove, turkey
vulture, marsh hawk, Swainson's hawk,
ferruginous rough-leg, prairie falcon,
desert sparrow hawk, short-eared owl,
MacFarlane's screech owl, burrowing
owl, California cuckoo, Sierra wood-
pecker, Batchelder's woodpecker, red-
shafted flicker, poor-will, western night-
hawk, black-chinned hummingbird,
broad-tailed hummingbird, kingbird,
Arkansas kingbird. Say's phoebe, west-
ern wood pewee, western flycatcher,
desert horned lark, magpie, Woodhouse's
jay, western crow, cowbird, western
meadowlark, Bullock's oriole. Brewer's
blackbird, house finch, green-backed
goldfinch, western vesper sparrow, Ne-
vada savanna sparrow, western grass-
hopper sparrow, western lark sparrow,
western chipping sparrow, Brewer's
sparrow, desert sparrow, sage sparrow,
Merill's song sparrow, spurred towhee,
black-headed grosbeak, lazuli bunting,
purple martin, cliff swallow, barn
swallow, California shrike, yellow war-
bler, long-tailed chat, and sage thrasher.

Breeding birds preferring a moist
habitat, generally near a stream or
swamp, include the following: raven,
bobolink, northern violet-green swallow,
bank swallow, western yellow-throat,
and tule wren.

11. EXTREME DESERT (CALIFORNIA MI-
CROPHYLL DESERT, SHREVE) (tHE
WESTERN DESERT SCRUB IN PART,
CLEMENTS)

"An extremely low and open stand of
microphyllous (small-leafed) shrubs,
chiefly evergreen but partly deciduous;
very poor in grasses and in succulent

plants. The dominant plants are creo-
sote bush {Covillea tridentata) , and sand
bur {Franseria dumosa)."

Mammals, small burrowing forms and
diurnal reptiles are present.

For list of mammals see account of
Mexico (Sonoran District) page 592.

Breeding birds^ include the following:
Gambel's quail, western mourning dove,
desert sparrow hawk, prairie falcon,
road-runner, Texas woodpecker, Gila
woodpecker, poor-will, western night-
hawk, Texas nighthawk, Costa hum-
mingbird, Say's phoebe, vermilion fly-
catcher, Sonora horned lark, western
raven, Sonora red-winged blackbird,
western meadowlark, Scott's oriole,
California purple finch, black-throated
sparrow, desert song sparrow, Abert's
towhee, western blue grosbeak, phaino-
pepla, white-rumped shrike, least vireo,
Lucy's warbler, western mockingbird,
Bendire's thrasher, Leconte's thrasher,
crissal thrasher, cactus wren, rock wren,
verdin, and plumbeous gnatcatcher.

12. SAGEBRUSH DESERT BIOTA (GREAT
BASIN MICROPHYLL DESERT, SHREVE)
(the SAGEBRUSH CLIMAX, AND IN-
CLUDES THE BASIN SAGEBRUSH AND
POSSIBLY THE COASTAL SAGEBRUSH,
CLEMENTS)

(The northern portion is classed under
^ 10 on account of desert grassland
animals present.)

"An open stand of shrubs, sometimes
nearly closed; varying from place to
place in stature; usually poor in grasses
and succulents. The dominant plant
is sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata),
locally accompanied by other forms."

Among characteristic mammals are
the pronghorn antelope {Antilocapra
americana), black-tailed jackrabbit (Le-
pus calif orn'cus subspp.), pygmy rabbit
(Brachylagus idahoensis) , cottontail rab-
bits (Sylvilagus spp.), ground-squirrels

' Aquatic birds have been omitted from the desert
list because of the extreme scarcity of their habitat
in such regions. Many of these birds do not nest
on the ground but in the thinly forested areas along
streams, in canyons, among the rocks, in mesquite
or cacti. No effort is made to distinguish ground
nesting birds from others.

ORIGINAL BIOTA OF THE AMERICAS

71

{Citellus spp.), kangaroo-rats (Dido-
domys spp.), and pocket-mice {Perog-
nathus spp.).

Breeding birds include the follow-
ing: upland plover, killdeer, Columbian
sharp-tailed grouse, sage hen, western
mourning dove, turkey vulture, sharp-
shinned hawdc, Cooper's hawk, western
red-tail, red-bellied hawk, Swainson's
hawk, ferruginous rough-leg, prairie
falcon, Richardson's pigeon haw'k, des-
ert sparrow hawk, short-eared owl,
spotted owl, burrowing owl, California
cuckoo. Sierra w^oodpecker, Batchelder's
woodpecker, red-shafted flicker, poor-
will, western nighthawk, black-chinned
hummingbird, broad-tailed humming-
bird, kingbird, Arkansas kingbird, cas-
sin kingbird, ash-throated flycatcher,
Say's phoel^e, western wood pewee, west-
ern flycatcher, Traill's flycatcher, desert
horned lark, dusky horned lark, black-
billed magpie, woodhouse jay, raven,
western crow, bobolink, cowbird, yellow-
headed blackbird, San Diego red-wing,
Nevada red-wing, western meadowlark,
Bullock's oriole, Brew^er's blackbird,
house finch, green-backed goldfinch,
western vesper sparrow, western sa-
vanna sparrow, western grasshopper
sparrow, western lark sparrow, western
chipping sparrow, desert sparrow, sage
sparrow, mountain song sparrow, Ne-
vada towhee, black-headed grosbeak,
lazuli bunting, western tanager, purple
martin, cliff swallow, barn swallow,
white-rumped shrike, western warbling
vireo, yellow warbler, long-tailed chat,
sage thrasher, western mockingbird,
rock wren, canyon wren, western house
wren, lead-colored bush-tit, western
gnatcatcher, western robin, and western
bluebird.

Breeding birds preferring a moist
habitat, generally near a stream or
swamp, include the following: spotted
sandpiper, long-billed curlew, snowy
plover, marsh hawk, belted kingfisher,
tree swallow, bank swallow, northern
violet-green swallow, rough-winged
swallow, western yellow-throat, and
western marsh wren.

13. EASTERN (rig GRANDE) SUCCULENT
DESERT BIOTA (TEXAS SUCCULENT
DESERT, SIIREVe) (EASTERN DESERT
SCRUB, CLEMENTS)

"A mixed stand of microphyllous
shrubs and succulent and semi-succulent
plants. The shrul)s are either evergreen
(Covillea) or deciduous {Acacia, Flour-
ensia). The stem-succulents comprise
many species of cacti, chiefly low in
growth; the commonest leaf-succulent is
lechuguilla (Agave lechuguiUa); the semi-
succulents include sotol {Dasylirion
temmini), amole, and palmilla (Yucca)."
For list of mammals see Texas account,
page 502.

Breeding birds include the following:
killdeer, snowy plover, Texas bob-white,
Arizona scaled quail, western mourning
dove, white-winged dove, Mexican
ground dove, Inca dove, black vulture,
turkey vulture, white-tailed kite, Har-
ris' hawk, western red-tail, Texas red-
shouldered hawk, zone-tailed hawk,
Swainson's hawk, Mexican black hawk,
Mexican goshawk, prairie falcon, Aplo-
mado falcon, desert sparrow hawk,
Audubon's caracara, spotted owl, Sa-
haura screech owl, flammulated screech
owl, western horned owl, burrowing
owl, road-runner, California cuckoo,
Texas woodpecker, cactus woodpecker,
Stephens' poor-will, Texas nighthawk,
broad-tailed hummingbird, Cassin's king-
bird, ash-throated flycatcher, dwarf cow-
bird, Rio Grande meadowlark, thick-
billed red-wing, Scott's oriole, Bullock's
oriole, housefinch, Arkansas goldfinch
western lark sparrow, desert sparrow,
rufous-winged sparrow, Scott's sparrow,
Arizona pyrrhuloxia, western blue gros-
beak, varied bunting, barn swallow,
phainopepla, white-rumped shrike, black-
capped vireo, Stephens' vireo, least vireo,
Sonora yellow warbler, western yellow-
throat, long-tailed chat, western mock-
ingbird, curve-billed thrasher, crissal
thrasher, cactus wren, canyon wren,
Texas wren, Sennett's titmouse, verdin,
and plumbeous gnatcatcher.

Breeding birds preferring a moist
habitat, generally near a stream or

72

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

swamp, include the following: marsh
hawk, duck hawk, white-necked raven,
rough-winged swallow, and bank
swallow.

14. WESTERN SMALL TREE AND SUC-
CULENT DESERT BIOTA (ARIZONA SUC-
CULENT DESERT, SHREVE) (WESTERN
DESERT SCRUB, IN PART, CLEMENTS)

"A mixed stand of microphyllous
shrubs or small trees, either evergreen
or deciduous, and of succulent forms,
chiefly the stem — succulent cacti. The
leading shrubs are creosote bush and
cat-claw (Acacia) ; the commonest small
trees are palo verde (Parkinsonia) and
palo fierro (Olneya). The succulents
comprise large columnar forms (Car-
negiea), branching aborescent forms
(Opuntia), and many smaller types."

Mammals include the black-tailed
deer (Ododoileus) , black-tailed jack-
rabbit {Le-pus californicus group), cot-
tontail rabbit {Sylvilagus audubonii
group), coyotes {Canis spp.), badger
(Taxidea), and many species of rodents.

Breeding birds include the following:
killdeer, snowy plover, masked bob-
white, Gambel's quail, western mourn-
ing dove, white-winged dove, Mexican
ground dove, Inca dove, turkey vulture,
Harris' hawk, western red-tail, zone-
tailed hawk, Swainson's hawk, Mexican
black hawk, Mexican goshawk, prairie
falcon, Aplomado falcon, desert sparrow
hawk, Audubon's caracara, Arizona
spotted owl, Mexican screech owl, spot-
ted screech owl, western horned owl,
burrowing owl, road-runner, California
cuckoo. Chihuahua woodpecker, cactus
woodpecker, Gila woodpecker, gilded
flicker, Stephens' poor-will, Texas night-
hawk, Costa hummingbird, broad-billed
hummingbird, Arizona crested fly-
catcher, ash-throated flycatcher, oliva-
ceous flycatcher, buff-breasted fly-
catcher, vermilion flycatcher, beard-
less flycatcher, scorched horned lark,
bronzed cowbird, Sonora red-wing, Rio
Grande meadowlark, Scott's oriole,
orchard oriole, house finch, Arkansas
goldfinch, western lark sparrow, desert

sparrow, botteri sparrow, rufous-winged
sparrow, Scott's sparrow, desert song
sparrow, Arizona cardinal, Arizona
pyrrhuloxia, western blue grosbeak,
beautiful bunting, Mexican cliff swallow,
barn swallow, phainopepla, white-
rumped shrike, Stephens' vireo, least
vireo, Lucy's warbler, Sonora yellow war-
bler, western yellow-throat, western
mockingbird, Palmer's thrasher, Ben-
dire's thrasher, Leconte's thrasher,
crissal thrasher, cactus wren, Baird's
wren, verdin, and plumbeous gnat-
catcher.

Breeding birds preferring a moist
habitat, generally near a stream or
swamp, include the following: marsh
hawk, duck hawk, white-necked raven,
rough-winged swallow, and bank
swallow.

15. MESQUITE SEMI-DESERT BIOTA
(TEXAS SEMI-DESERT, SHREVE)

"An open or closed stand of small trees
and shrubs, chiefly deciduous, with
local areas of grassland and a represen-
tation of succulents. The dominant
tree is mesquite {Prosopis glandulosa) ;
the principal shrub, huisache (Acacia
farnestana)."

Mammals include white-tailed deer
(Odocoileus texanus), wolf (Canis rvfus),
opossum (Didelphis marsupialis icxen-
sis), peccary (Tayassu), and armadillo
(Dasypus novemcinclus texanus).

Breeding birds include the following:
killdeer, Mexican jacana, chestnut-
bellied scaled quail, Attwater's prairie
chicken, Rio Grande turkey, chachalaca,
red-billed pigeon, western mourning
dove, white-winged dove, Mexican
ground dove, Inca dove, white-fronted
dove, black vulture, turkey vulture,
Harris' hawk, western red-tail, zone-
tailed hawk, Swainson's hawk. Sennet's
white-tailed hawk, Mexican black hawk,
Mexican goshawk, prairie falcon, Aplo-
mado falcon, desert sparrow hawk,
Audubon's caracara, spotted owl, Texas
screech owl, burrowing owl, groove-
billed ani, road-runner, California
cuckoo, coppery-tailed trogon, Texas

ORIGINAL BIOTA OF THE AMERICAS

73

kingfisher, Texas woodpecker, cactus
woodpecker, goldeu-fronted woodpecker,
Stephens' poor-will, Merril's parauque,
Texas nighthawk, Reiffer's humming-
bird, buff-bellied hummingbird. Couch's
kingbird, scissor-tailed flycatcher, Mex-
ican crested flycatcher, Derby fly-
catcher, vermilion flycatcher, beardless
flycatcher, Texas horned lark, green
jay, white-necked raven, red-eyed cow-
bird. Vera Cruz red-wing, Rio Grande
meadowlark, Audubon's oriole, Ben-
nett's oriole, Bullock's oriole, great-
tailed grackle, house finch, Arkansas
goldfinch, Texas seaside sparrow, west-
ern lark sparrow, black-throated spar-
row, botteri sparrow, Cassin's sparrow,
Texas sparrow, gray-tailed cardinal,
Texas pyrrhuloxia, western blue gros-
beak, varied bunting, painted bunting,
Sharpe's seedeater, lesser cliff swallow,
gray-breasted martin, rough-winged
swallow, phainopepla, white-rumped
shrike, small white-eyed vireo, Texas
vireo, Sennett's warbler, Florida yellow-
throat, Rio Grande yellow-throat, west-
ern mockingbird, Sennett's thrasher,
curve-billed thrasher, cactus wren, lo-
mita wren, black-crested tit-mouse,
verdin, and plumbeous gnatcatcher.

Breeding birds preferring a moist
habitat, generally near a stream or
swamp, include the following: snowy
plover, Wilson's plover, and marsh
hawk.

16. BROAD THICK-LEAVED EVERGREEN
SEMI-DESERT BIOTA (WINTER RAIN
region) (pacific SEMI-DESERT,

SHREVE; CALIFORNIA CHAPARRAL, AND
WOODLANDS OF MEDITERRANEAN TYPE,
hardy; COASTAL CHAPARRAL AND PINE-
OAK WOODLAND IN PART, CLEMENTS)

' 'A region of great topographic diversi-
ty in which the vegetation varies locally
from encinal (open oak forest, chiefly
evergreen), through chaparral (a closed
scrub of evergreen shrubs), to desert
(ephemeral herbaceous plants, small
perennials, local succulents). . . .
The principal chaparral plants are
chamiso {Adenostoma fasciculatum) and
species of manzanita (Arctostaphylos)."

The mammals include black-tailed
deer (Odocoileus columbianus scaphiolus),
coyote {Canis ochropus), and black-
tailed jackrabbit (Lepus calif or niciis
subspp.).

17. MAGNOLIA, BAY, HOLLY, "hAM-

MOCKS' (temperate

RAIN forest)

Various correspondents contend that
there is no forest of this type in the
Americas. Various others have mapped
the areas in the states adjacent to the
Gulf of Mexico, especially Florida, as
of this type. Pittier is inclined to con-
sider some of the South American
forests in high altitude as coming under
Schimper's definition. From diagrams
of the distribution of temperature and
rainfall in the Australian and Asiatic
areas commonly called temperate rain
forest localities, there is evidently no
climatic reason why this type should not
occur in some locahties in the southern
states. The botanical objections to
considering the magnolia, bay, holly
"hammocks" temperate rain forest
seems to be the sclerophyll character
of the leaves. This may be another
case where more consideration of the
animals and lower plants should be
allowed to dictate. So far as the ani-
mals living under the forest cover are
concerned the failure of the leaves to
fall is more important than the char-
acter of their covering. For lists of
animals see under the Florida account,
page 427.

18. TROPICAL HAMMOCKS (SUBTROPICAL
RAIN forest)

Some small areas in southeastern
Florida have sufficient rainfall correctly
distributed to give a tropical rain forest.
Some areas of this type have reached a
climax which may be considered as a
less luxuriant type of rain forest. Their
small size does not permit tlieni to
afford shelter to the larger tropical
animals but the biota is generally taxo-
nomically related to tiie biota of the
West Indies.

74

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

For lists of animals and further dis-
cussion see the Florida account page 427.

19. LOCAL AND EDAPHIC BIOTA

All the waters, sand areas, rock slides,
etc., belong here but swamps and
marshes cover most extensive axeas.

The swamps composed of evergreen
and deciduous trees in great variety,
the bald cypress and tupelo gum being
the commonest species. The marshes
are widely varying areas of grasses,
sedges, and immersed aquatic plants.
Mangrove swamps border shores in
southern Florida.

C. LIFE ZONES

By V. E. Shelford and G. T. Jones

In this book an attempt has been made
to use natural features: climate, land-
scape aspects, and the characteristic
plants in designating and describing
areas. Various authors of local ac-
counts use ">ife zones" to designate
areas. Without a glossary the names
do not suggest the landscape aspect

types. It is necessary in such a work
that natural features be used in order
that the traveler may identify his loca-
tion. The characteristic plants were
substituted by the compilers for "life
zones" wherever mentioned by contrib-
utors in temperate America. This was
done in accord with the table below.

Approximate correspondence of Vegetation and Merriam's Life Zones

(Prepared by George T. Jones)

Vegetation type

I. Tundra and Alpine Sum-
mits

A. Arctic Tundra

B. Paramos or Alpine

Meadow
II. Coniferous Forest

A. Northern Coniferous

Forest

B. Mountain Coniferous

Forest

1. Rocky Mountain

Forest

2. Sierran Sub-al-

pine Forest

3. Rocky Mountain

Montane For-
est

4. Sierran Montane

Forest

5. Larch-Pine For-
est of North-
west

C. Northwest Moist

Coniferous Forest

III. Eastern Forests

A. Mixed Coniferous and

Deciduous

B. Temperate Deciduous

C. Southeast Coniferous
Forest

D. Gulf Coast Forest

Composition

Lichens and herbs

Sedges, grasses and
herbs, dwarf willows

Red, black and white
spruces, balsam fir

Engelmann spruce and
alpine fir

Mountain hemlock, firs,
white-bark pine

Western yellow pine,
Douglas fir, white fir,
lodgepole pine

Sugar pine, western
yellow pine, incense
cedar, white fir, Doug-
las fir

Western white pine,
western larch, western
hemlock, Engelmann
spruce, giant cedar

Redwood, douglas fir,
western hemlock, giant
cedar, Sitka spruce

Beech, birch, maple,
hemlock, white pine

Beech, maple, oaks,
hickories, tulip tree,
sassafras

Longlcaf pine, loblolly
pine, slash pine, mag-
nolia, live oak, bald
cvpress

Southeast Coniferous
Forest with under-
growth of Palmetto

75

Merriam's Life
Zone

Arctic-Alpine

Zone
Arctic-Alpine

Zone

Hudsonian and
Canadian

Hudsonian and
upper Canatlian

Hudsonian and
ui)per Canadian

Canadian and

upper Transition

Canadian
Transition

and

Canadian and

Transition

Canadian and

Humid Transi-
tion

Alleghanian

Carolinian

Austroriparian

Sabalian or Gulf
Strip

76

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

IV. Temperate Rain Forest
V. Sub-tropical Rain Forest
VI. Poplar Savanna
VII. Oak Savanna

VIII. Rocky Mountain Forest
Margin
A. Chaparral

B. Woodland
IX. California region of various
vegetation with Summer
drouth and Winter Rain

A. Chaparral

B. Woodland

C. Coastal sagebrush or

"chaparral"

D. Bunch-grass plains in

valleys (cultivated)
X. Grassland

A. Prairie

B. Steppe (Brush — grass-

land in part)

XI. Bush-Steppe

1. Semi-desert

west

2. Semi-desert

west
XII. Temperate Desert

North-
South-

XIII. Subtropical Desert

A. California Microphyll

Desert

B. Succulent Desert

XIV. Thorn Savanna

"Hammock" Country,

Florida
Very rare frost, south tip

of Florida
Mixture of poplars and

tall grasses
Mixture of oaks and tall

grasses

Brush, as dwarf oak
(Quercus undulatus)
and Mountain mahog-
any {Sercocarpus par-
vifolius)

Pinj'ons and junipers

Brush, as Manzanita and
Buck brush

Evergreen oaks, jun-
ipers, etc.

"Old Man" (Artemisia
californica) and Salvia

Tall grass in bunches

Largely included in
Savanna VI and VII

Grasses in open sod.
Bare ground between
plants, or rather short
grasses forming sod

Mixed grass and sage-
brush

Mixed Grass and desert
shrub

Sagebrush-Atriplex-
rabbit brush

Creosote bush and Sand-
bur
Cacti, mesquite, etc.
Thorn bushes and grass

Sabalian Zone
Tropical Zone

Transition and Al-
leghanian

Alleghanian, Car-
olinian and
Austroriparian

Arid Transition

Upper Sonoran

Arid Transition

Upper Sonoran

Upper Sonoran

Upper and Lower
Sonoran

Arid Transition
and LTpper Son-
oran

Upper Sonoran
Upper Sonoran
Upper Sonoran

Lower Sonoran

Lower Sonoran
Lower Sonoran

The maps of Southern North America
and Northern South America are the
results of the circulation of three pre-
liminary maps. The earlier maps were
criticized by T. Barbour, L. Griscom,
G. K. Noble, A. G. Ruthven and others.
A much larger scale map was then
planned with the aid of Dr. W. H. Os-
good, drawn and circulated. Most of
the contributors of tropical accounts
made important suggestions and Mr.
E. P. Killip of the National Museum
added his knowledge of several countries.

Florida may be used to illustrate diffi-
culties in mapping the vegetation of
areas. It is covered largely by long-

leaf pine, and is commonly mapped as
coniferous forest. Detailed study
shows, however, that on well-developed
soils in stable physiographic situations
such as the highest terraces of flood
plains, other types occur which indicate
future dominants. Thus Professor Wat-
son shows northwestern Florida to be
deciduous forest, • much of central
Florida to be temperate rainforest
(evergreen), southeastern Florida to
be tropical rainforest, and the remain-
ing parts are represented according
to present dominants because neither
the knowledge nor conditions make
possible prediction of the coming type.

Fig. 4. Biotic Areas of Southern North America, Mexico and

Central. America

D. DESCRIPTIVE LIST OF MIDDLE AMERICAN BIOTA (CENTRAL

MEXICO TO THE AMAZON)

By Forrest Shrbve and V. E. Shelford

(Names in parenthesis are synonyms used in published works or in the manu-
scripts submitted)

1. LUXURIANT TROPICAL RAIN-FOREST
BIOTA (rAIN-FOREST; LOWLAND TROP-
ICAL forest; heavy forest; heavy

HUMID forest)

This forest occupies regions with
uniform mean monthly temperature and
a heavjf and well distributed rainfall.
The forest is composed of a great number
of different species and genera of trees
of different stature and of shrubs and
vines. The dominant trees are ever-
green, or nearly so, and their leaves are
relatively small and thick, while those
of the subordinate trees are broad and
thin.

The animal life is also represented by
a vast number of species. Termites
which build nests on trees, leaf carrying
ants, military ants and gaudy butter-
flies characterize the insect population.
Frogs and lizards are numerous. The
snakes include some of the constrictors
and poisonous coraline and crotaline
species. Most of the birds are of com-
mon neotropical types, many being large,
grotesque or gaudy. Monkeys are most
numerous here — many rarely coming to
the ground. Cats large and small,
squirrels, and opossums are plentiful,
Arboreal anteaters and sloths are char-
acteristic. Tapirs are nearly alwaj'S
present.

2. drier tropical rain-forest BIOTA

(lowland rain-forest)

This type of forest is similar to the
luxuriant tropical Rain-Forest, but is
not so heavy, the trees are not usually so
tall nor so numerous in species, and the

abundance of epiphytes and lianas
depends upon local conditions, tending
to be less numerous than in the Luxu-
riant Tropical Rain-Forest. The ani-
mal life is similar to that of the luxuriant
forest but poorer in species and with
many species different.

3. arid deciduous forest biota
(monsoon forest; semi-

DECIDUOUS forest)

This forest is similar to the drier rain
forest in the wet season, but exhibits
partial leaf fall in the dry season. It
is rich in epiphytes of bromeliad tj^pe,
but relatively poor in lianas. The
shrubs are chiefly evergreen.

The monkeys, opossums, and ar-
boreal anteaters drop out or become
much less numerous than in the tropical
rain forest. Peccaries, forest rabbits,
foxes, and deer are more numerous. It
must be borne in mind, however, that
trees adjacent to streams often retain
their leaves and that monkeys, tapirs,
etc., ordinarily found in rain forest
may occur here. In general, however,
the species in the deciduous forest
proper are quite different in the case of
animals.

4. deciduous thorn forest biota

(xerophylous forest; thorn

forest; caatinga)

Deciduous Thorn Forest occupies
some of the more arid portions of South
America. It consists of a more or less
close stand of large shrubs, small trees
and succulents. The majority of the
dominant plants are leafless in the dry

77

78

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

season. The animal life is scanty,
armadillos, forest rabbits, and foxes
being dominant mammalian types.

5. GRASSLAND BIOTA (PRAIRIES; LLANOS ;

CAMPOS ; pampas; pajonales)

The diverse grassland areas of tropi-
cal America are alike in the tall coarse,
character of the grasses and in the
occurrence with them of numerous
shrubs and perennial herbaceous plants.
In some localities the vegetation is low
and open, as on the limestone mesas of
Venezuela; in others it is more luxuriant
and more nearly perennial in its activity.
Only restricted areas of grassland are
without trees. Little distinction can
be made between the animal life of the
Grassland and Savanna due to the lack
of information, particularly as to the
smaller forms.

6. SAVANNA biota (aRID GRASSLAND;
GALLERY SAVANNA)

The Savannas are tropical grasslands
occupied by greater or less numbers of
trees or shrubs, growing singly or in
groups, and being chiefly deciduous ex-
cept in the case of the palms. The
grasses vary in density and stature, up
to 1 m. in height.

The Savannas of South America are
characterized by two or three species of
savanna deer and brocket, tayra, skunks,
savanna foxes, peccaries, etc. Monkeys
live in groves of trees in some localities
and may move from grove to grove
through bushes when they occur.

7. SEMI-DESERT BIOTA

The principal area of Semi-desert is in
the lower valley of the Rio Grande and
in the Mexican state of Tamaulipas —
others occurring on the coast of South
America. Thorny deciduous shrubs and
small trees make up the principal part
of the open vegetation together with
evergreen shrubs, cacti, scattered bunch
grasses, and herbaceous plants of sea-
sonal activity.

Rats, mice, and ground-squirrels are
the dominant animals, though pec-
caries, deer, and coyotes also occur.

8. DESERT BIOTA

The Desert areas of Tropical America
are chiefly in northern Mexico and on
the Pacific Coast of South America.
They are alike in the low stature and
open stand of the vegetation and in the
restriction of its activity to the rainy
seasons. They differ in the density of
their shrubbery and in the relative
abundance of succulent and non-succu-
lent plants. There are both deciduous
and evergreen shrubs; grasses are of
local occurrence.

The Deserts are characterizcvi by
numerous reptiles, usually diurnal and
conspicuous and numerous nocturnal
rodents, particularly^ small ones able to
hide. Jack-rabbits and coyotes are
common except in extreme deserts.

The following birds breed in the
Mexican Plateau desert: Mearn's quail,
Merriam's turkey, chachalaca, black
vulture, zone-tailed hawk, Sennett's
white-tailed hawk, Mexican black hawk,
Mexican goshawk, fiammulated screech
owl., prairie falcon, Aplomado falcon,
Audubon's caracara, Me..ican screech
owl, burrowing owl, ferruginous pygmy
owl, thick-billed parrot, grooved-billed
ani, road-runner, California cuckoo,
cactus woodpecker, Arizona woodpecker,
ant-eating woodpecker, Stephen's noor-
will, Texas nighthawk, Rivoli lum-
mingbird, blue-throated hummingbird,
black-chinned hummingbird, Lucifer
hummingbird, white-eared hun ning-
bird, broad-billed hummingbird, sjissor-
tailed flycatcher, Cassin's kingbird,
Derby, flycatcher, sulphur-bellied fly-
catcher, Mexican crested flycatcher, ash-
throated flycatcher, Coues' flycatcher,
gray flycatcher, buff-breasted flycatcher,
vermilion flycatcher, scorched horned
lark, blue-eared jay, Arizona jay, white-
necked raven, San Diego red-wing,
Scott's oriole, Arkansas goldfinch, Wor-
then's sparrow, black-chinned sparrow,
desert sparrow, Cassin's sparrow, Scott's
sparrow, canyon towhee, Abert's towhee,
western blue grosbeak, hepatic tanager,
Cooper's tanager, Mexican cliff swallow,
phainopepla, Stephen's vireo, least vireo,
gray vireo, oUve warbler, Sonora yellow
warbler, black-fronted warbler, long-

Fia. 6, BiOTic Areas of Florida and Northern South America

OiRIGINAL BIOTA OF THE AMERICAS

tailed chat, western mockingbird, Pal-
mer's thrasher, Bendire's thrasher, cris-
sal thrasher, white-throated wren,
bridled titmouse, lead-colored bush-tit,
Lloyd's bush-tit, verdin, plumbeous
gnatcatcher. — L. Jones.

9. MONTANE FORESTS BIOTA (CLOUD
forest; TEMPERATE RAIN FOREST;
LOWER MOUNTAIN FOREST)

This forest occurs at various eleva-
tions in tropical mountains where
clouds, fog, and heavy rainfall produce
very moist conditions. The trees are
not so tall as in the Luxui-iant Tropical
Rain-Forest, but in other respects the
Montaine Forests rival the luxuriance
of the former. Ferns form a conspic-
uous element in the vegetation as
epiphjiies, lianes and terrestrial plants,
while tree ferns are conspicuous among
the subordinate trees. The trees are
evergi-een, mostly with small leaves;
but solid stands of conifers are also
found, depending upon soil conditions.

In Central America the fauna of
the Montane forest is in part highly
peculiar. Endemic genera of birds are
numerous. North American temperate
zone plants and animals here reach
their limit also. In parts of South
American the conspicuous animals are
about the same as in the rain forest.

10. SUBALPINE EVERGREEN FOREST
BIOTA (upper MONTANE FOREST)

The mountains rising above 9000 ft.
are clothed with a temperate and de-
ciduous broad-leaved forest of ever-
green trees or conifers. Monkeys and
other tropical rain forest species are
excluded from this belt. Numerous
small rodents characterize it, however.

11. ANDINE BUSHLAND BIOTA (aN-
DINE brushwood)

The Andine Bushlands are just below
timber-line, being frequently broken
by small areas of grassland (paramillosj.
Tree shrubs and dwarfed trees form a
low but compact stand, which becomes
lower and more open at still higher
altitudes. Deer, wild-cats, wolves,

bear, and forest rabbit occur in this
belt.

12. ANDINE MEADOW BIOTA (PARAMOSj
ALPINE meadow)

Lying above the uppermost shrubby
vegetation, chiefly over 12,000 ft. ele-
vation, are the Andine Meadows, which
are composed of grasses, sedges, many
species of composites, notably of the
genus EspeleLia, and scattering repre-
sentatives of various genera of tem-
perate relationship. Plants with hoary
tomentum are conspicuous in this
vegetation, as are also areas of sphag-
num. Deer, wild-cats, forest rabbit,
and numerous small rodents occur iu
this belt.

13. MANGROVE SWAMP BIOTA

The Mangrove Swamps of tropical
America consist of nearly pure stands
of Rhizophora mangle, Aviccnnia nilida
or A. tomenlosa, occupying the coast,
the shallow saline or brackish waters
of bays and lagoons. The interlocking
prop-roots of these trees make the
Mangrove Swamps very difficult to
penetrate from either land or water.
There are characteristic insects, birds,
etc., but the fauna of the swamps varies
in different regions on account of their
wide geographical range.

E. PROVISIONAL TABLE OF LANDSCAPE ASPECTS AND LIFE

ZONE EQUIVALENTS

By E. a. Goldman

Mangrove Swamps (Tropical Zone as
a whole, but as mangrove swamps are
not dependent upon rainfall, they occur
within the arid or humid divisions of
the Lower Tropical section).

Flood Plain Forest (low altitudes)

— Lower Tropical Zone.
Luxuriant Tropical Rain Forest —

Humid Lower Tropical Zone.
Drier Tropical Rain Forest — Humid

Lower Tropical Zone.
Montane or Cloud Forest — Humid

Upper Tropical Zone. It includes

conifers and oaks in Central

America.
Subalpine Evergreen Forest —

Temperate Zone. (In Central

America.)

Ecuador and British Honduras, rang-
ing in altitudes from 6000 to 7000 ft. in
the former country and to 1000 to 4000
ft. in the latter.

The areas in British Honduras ex-
tending from 1000 to 4000 ft. altitude
would be within the Lower Tropical
Zone, associated with an immense num-
ber of tropical species. Areas at 6000
to 7000 ft. altitude in Ecuador would

probably be assigned to Sub-tropical
or Upper Tropical.

Partially Deciduous Forest — Arid
Lower Tropical Zone.

Deciduous Thorn Forest — Arid
Lower Tropical Zone. In Mexico
and in Panama this can not satis-
factorily be separated from the
preceding, as the regions are
coastal plains crossed by streams;
and along the streams the vege-
tation may be only partially
deciduous, or near the water line
evergreen, while it is completely
deciduous away from the water.

(Shrub) Desert — Sonora and Lower
California. Lower Austral Zone.

Semi Desert — Lower Austral Zone.

Extreme Desert — Lower Austral
Zone. Desert District Vizcaino.

Gallery Savanna — Arid Lower Trop-
ical Zone. A mixture of mon-
soon forest and savanna. Arid
sometimes corresponds to the
Lower Tropical Zone.

Grassland, Dry Grassland — Arid
Lower Tropical Zone.

Andine bushland Paramillos —
Paramo Zone.

80

F. BIBLIOGRAPHY

By V. E. Shelford

Adams, O. C.

1920 Zoogeography of Northeastern-
most South America (after
Chapman).. Geog. Rev., 10 -.101-
107.
Brehn, A. E.

1890 North Pole to Equator, London
Batholomew, J. G.

1917 Advanced Atlas of Physical and
Political Geography (Oxford
Press).
Clements, F. E.

1916 Plant Succession. Carnegie Inst.

of Wash., Pub. 242.
1920 Plant Indicators, Cam. Inst.
Wash. Pub. 290.
Chapman, F. M.

1917 Distribution of Bird Life in

Colombia. Bull. Am. Mus.

Nat. Hist., 36: 1-729.
Goldman, E. A.

1920 Mammals of Panama. Smith-

sonian Misc. Coll., Vol. 69,

No. 50: 1-309.
Hall, H. M., and Grinnell, J.

1919 Life Zone Indicators in Califor-

nia. Proc. Cal. Atn. Sd., 9:
37-67.
Hardy, M. E.

1920 The Geography of Plants. (Ox-

ford Press)
1913 An introduction to Plant Geog-
raphy. (Oxford Press.)
Livingston, B. E. and Shreve, F.

1921 Distribution of Vegetation in

the U. S. as related to Climatic
Conditions. Carnegie Inst, of
Wash., Pub. 284.

Mobius, K.

1880 The Oyster and Oj'ster Culture.
U. S. Com. Fisheries Report
1880 (Part VIII j: GS3-751.
Merriam, C. II.

1898 Life Zone ami Crop Zones.
U.S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Biol. Surv.,
Bull. 10.

Sanders, E. M.

1921 The Natural Regions of Mexico.
Geog. Rev., 11: 212-26.
Schimper, A. W.

1903 (Translation by W. R. Fisher.
Plant Geography on a Phj'sio-
logical Basis. Oxford.

Shreve, F.

1917 A INIap of the Vegetation of the
United States. Geog. Rev. 3:
119-125.

Ward, R. DeC.

1919 A New Classification of Climates
(Koppen's). Geog. Rev., 8:
188-199.

Van Dyke

1919 Distribution of Insects in West-
ern North America. Ann.
Ent. Soc. of America, 12: 1-12.

Shelford, V. E.

1911 Physiological Animal Geo-
graphy. Jour. Morph., 22:
551-GlS.

Strohl, J.

1921 Physiologische Gosichtpunktc
in der Tiergeographi. I'lVr-
tcljahresschrifl der Naturforsch.
Ges., Zur. 40: 1-22.

81

IV. NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

A. GENERAL PLAN
By V. E. Shelford

The primary object of this vohime is
to locate natural areas so as to make
them available to naturalists. Every-
one who learns the location of a natural
area through this volume should realize
the moral obligation to keep the area
as it is. Using an area described in
this book to satisfy one's selfish desires
for possession is a violation of a trust
placed in the nature-loving public.

Convenience of treatment divided
the territory covered into three sec-
tions: (1) Northern tundra and ice-
covered regions; (2) Temperate America
including the southern tier of Canadian
provinces and the whole of the United
States; (3) Tropical America, including
the areas between the southern bound-
aries of the United States and the
Amazon River and adjacent islands.
In the first and last divisions the great-
est latitude was permitted the authors
and no attempt to map or classify areas
was made. The meagre character of
the available knowledge forbade at-
tempting anything of the kind. The
name of the person preparing the ac-
count for each territory stands at its
head as the one responsible for the
completeness and accuracy.

The materials on the States and
southern tier of Canadian provinces
are divided into (1) a general account
of biotic conditions of the territory,
and (2) specific descriptions of natural
areas.

The general account describes the
territory as it was before modified bj''
civilization. General physiographic
features are described and geographic
and local plant and animal communities
briefly outlined. The names of Mer-
riam's life zones are used only in paren-
theses following the names of the

plants commonly used to designate
them. The original conditions of the
biota are then contrasted with the
present modified condition; the com-
munities and conspicuous plants and
animals which have been destroyed
are enumerated. Some authors have
enumerated polluted and unpolluted
waters.

In specific descriptions, the existing
natural areas are in part arranged ac-
cording to the natural subdivision
recognized in the general account. All
preserved areas and areas available for
stud}^, in natural condition, preserved
areas in a semi-natural condition, such
as forest preserves, bird and game
sanctuaries, and second growth areas
undergoing succession, are as a rule
included and properly designated in so
far as they were known to the authors.

The National Forest were treated
separately by members of the United
States Forest Service. The National
Parks and Monuments are included in
the state accounts.

ABBREVIATION AND SYMBOLS

a. In locations of areas which appear
abbreviated, words in brackets have
been omitted:

[From] Chicago, [111. gol 12 mi.
west [via] C. B. & Q. K. R. or La Grange
Electric, to Riverside [and walk] (W)
i mi. N. W. [From] Riverside, 111.

b. Modification of areas. .fVs com-
pared with their condition at the time
of the discovery by America by I^uro-
peans in the fifteenth century all areas
have doubtless suffered considerable
modification. The degree of modifica-
tion varies greatly in the various natural
reservations, and in those areas avail-

85

86

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

able for study and proposed for pres-
ervation. It was the opinion of the
committee, that to pubhsh an extensive
list without at least an estimate of the
degree of modification would give an
entirely erroneous idea of what is
available for scientific study and of
desirable policies relative to the im-
provement and maintenance of existing
preserves and the acquirement of more.

The conditions of the vegetation are
indicated by capital letters. The orig-
inal conditions are indicated by A,
and degrees of modification by C, D,
etc.

The conditions of the fauna are in-
dicated by Arabic numerals. The orig-
inal natural conditions are indicated
by 1 (one) and degrees of modification
by other figures, 2, 3, 4, etc.; 10 would
indicate a cultivated field, though the
plan is only carried to H8, e.g., single
trees in parks or pastures.

Symbols, etc.

* (in front of the name of an area) :
Preserved — that is, areas held in
a natural state as parks, forest
preserves, etc.

** Preserved for scientific purposes

p (in front of the name of an area)
indicates that it is proposed for
preservation.

Areas not '•' --i":nated by either of
these _ .joIs are available for
study.

t Hotel or boarding-house facilities.

II Hotel or boarding-house during
tourist season only.

t Especially important; should be
preserved unmodified.

§ Camp outfit desirable; necessary.
Figures in ft. indicate elevation above
sea level.

Letters in parentheses indicate desir-
able means of reaching the area
as follows: (w) on foot; (a) by
automobile; (h) horseback; (c)
canoe.

' HUDSON

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v'jinK-v.i.

B. NATURAL REGIONS AND NATURAL AREAS

Section 1. Northern North America; Ice Covered Areas, Tundra,
and Northern Coniferous Forest^

1. NORTHWEST GREENLAND

By W. Elmer Ekblaw
physiography

Northwest Greenland embraces the
broad peninsular region fronting west-
ward upon Kane Basin, Smith Sound,
and Baffin Bay, between Humboldt
Glacier on the north and Melville Bay
on the south. This peninsular region
extends over 3° latitude, from about
76° to 79° N. and over 8° of longitude,
from about 64° to 72° W.

The high narrow plateau between
the ice-cap and the sea is bisected by
Inglefield Gulf, a deep indentation with
several tributary fjords. Wolstenholme
Sound again bisects the southern half
and Foulke Fjord bisects the northern
half. The northern portion from Foulke
Fjord northward, and the southern
portion from ^Yolstenholme Sound
southward are Laurentian gneiss and
granite, in places capped by later
sedimentaries; the area between Wol-
stenholme Sound and Foulke Fjord is
Huronian sandstones, limestones, and
shales, intersected by dark traps and
diabases.

The Huronian coastline is much
indented, with narrow beaches at the
mouths of the valleys and along the
gentler slopes; the land-surface is
varied, with high sharp mountains and
deep canyon-like valleys in i)laces, and
lower, rounded hills and broad valleys
in other places. The Laurentian coast
line is smoother, with very few beaches;
the land-surface is more uniformly high

» This section was not edited as the others were.
All accounts were read by Messrs. Preble and bk-
blaw and a part by Dr. Osgood. F. C. Baker read
the zoology of the entire section.

and deeply dissected. Everywhere the
topography is comparatively rugged.

The coastal belt between the ice-
cap and the sea which becomes free of
ice and snow in summer is from 2 to 40
mi. wide. It is intersected by numerous
glaciere, most of which reach the sea,
though some do not. Areas separated
by these glaciers vary in size from small
tracts of a few acres, to large regions
several hundred square miles in extent.

CLIMATE

With the large ex-tent of open water
along the coast even in midwinter, the
temperature rarely drops down to more
than 50°F. below zero, much higher
than extreme winter temperatures in
Siberia or Canada. Even with an
extensive ice-lay the temperature is
modified by the water, through crevices
and open pools, though if the ice be
deeply and generally covered by heavy
snow the temperature is lowered. The
highest summer temperature is 55° to
60° above zero Fahrenheit. Along some
of the high cliffs the temperature is
raised adiabatically when tiie air drops
down from the ice-cap, so that in cer-
tain favorable localities the temperature
never falls below 40° below zero Fahren-
heit.

The temperature rises high enough
about mid-June to melt the ice and
snow; melting ceases about mid-August.
By mid-September the sea-ice begins
to form permanently in tlie fjords and
deeper bays. The bays and fjonb are
generally occupied throughout the sum-
mer by chifting fieUls of ice; rarely
are they free of icebergs.

Snow falls in every montli of tlie
year, but the first snows of sununer

87

S8

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

that do not melt are those of late August
or early September. The depth of snow,
even after a winter's accumulation,
is rarely over 2 or 3 ft., because the
relative humidity is frequently so low
that a great deal of snow evaporates
even in the coldest weather. When the
snow begins melting in June under the
continuous sunlight, every canyon and
valley holds a roaring torrential moun-
tain stream which flows with heavy
volume until melting ceases. Rain
rarely falls; yet when the chinook comes
down off the ice-cap, rain may fall
even in January. The region is one of
general low humidity.

The winds are cyclonic in character.
The heaviest storms come from the
southwest with destructive on-shore
winds. In the bays and fjords the
winds invariably blow down to the sea
from the ice-cap, no matter what the
wind may be above the plateau. Sud-
den winds sometimes sweep down off
the plateau or from the ice-cap and
drive the shore-ice out to sea even in
mid-winter.

The period of continuous night be-
gins about mid-October and ends about
mid-February. Continuous sunlight
begins about mid-April and lasts until
mid-August. Between mid-February
and mid-April the days lengthen and
the nights shorten; between mid- August
and mid-October the days shorten
and the nights lengthen. The night
is rarely so dark as to stop traveling
or sledging entirely, and throughout
the moon-lighted periods during which
the moonlight is continuous, all activ-
ities can be carried on without diffi-
culty. During the period of continuous
sunshine, noon and midnight do not
differ greatly in temperature or inten-
sity of light. The air is always fresh
and clean.

BIOTA

Because of the short growing season
and the long dry cold period no trees or
shrubs grow in the homeland of the
Polar Eskimo. The tallest tree is the
Arctic willow, a scant three inches in

height. Over a hundred species of
vascular plants grow in the region.
The sedges, blue grasses, and similar
grassy plants grow luxuriantly. Two
are particularly abundant — Poa pra-
tensis and Alopeciirus alpinus. On
some of the talus slopes manured by
nesting birds, the mat of grasses is
thick and heavy. Mushrooms are com-
mon and lichens clothe the rocks.
Flowering plants, though small and
relatively inconspicuous, grow in dense
mats on favorable slopes where the sun
shines warmly, and moisture is ample.

Due in large measure to the rich
carbon dioxide content of the water
and the continuous sunlight, the plank-
ton development in the sea is incredibly
rich throughout the summer, and the
heavy growths of laminaria and other
sea weeds on every shoal ledge are
particularly luxuriant.

The bird life is incredibly abundant,
not in species but in individuals. Of
the land birds the ptarmigan and snow-
bunting are the most common. Shore-
birds, ravens, snowy owls and falcons
are rather numerous. The redpolls,
wheat-ear, and Lapland longspur all
nest in the area. The ptarmigan,
ravens, and snowy owls are permanent
residents. Of the sea-birds the dove-
kies are the most numerous. They
nest in suitable slopes of easy gradient
along the entire coast in such numbers
that they cover the sea when feeding
and darken the sky when in flight.
Almost as numerous as the dovekies
are the murres, that nest on the ledges
of the steeper shore cliffs along the
coast. The old squaw is common, the
red-throated loon frequents the inland
pools, and the merganser and green-
winged teal are occasionally seen along
the coast. The eider duck frequents
the coast in thousands, and the black
brant is common. Kittiwakes, guille-
mots, gulls, jaegers and the fulmars are
numerous. All the seabirds find an
abundant supply of food in the small
life of the cold, well-lighted waters off
the shore.

Animal life on land is relatively scarce.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

89

The muskox {Ovibos moschatus wardi)
is extinct along the Greenland shores
of Smith Sound though still common
in Ellesmereland, Grantland, and west-
ward. The caribou {Ranrjifer groelandi-
cus), though still fairly abundant, is
generally restricted to a few isolated
areas not readily accessible. The fact
seems fairly well established that the
caribou migrate across the ice-cap to
Northwest Greenland from the east
coast and the regions to the north.
The Arctic hare (Lcpus groenlandicus)
is widely distributed and common.
The blue fox and the white fox (Alopex
groenlandicus) are abundant in the
bird-cliff localities where they feed
upon both the eggs and the birds. They
are color phases of one species, both
occasionally being littered by the same
dam. The Arctic wolf [Canis tnndrarum
is almost exiinct, and the lemming and
the ermine do not frequent this part
of the Greenland Coast. T e muskox,
caribou and hare feed upon the willows,
grasses, and small herbs; the wolf and
fox feed upon the muskox and the
caribou.

The sea animals, because of the ample
supply of food, are very numerous.
Four species of seal — the rirged seal,
the bearded seal, the hooded seal, and
the harp seal — are all rather common,
though the ringed seal is by far the
most abundant. The walrus frequents
the coast during the whole year, es-
pecially when the mussel-shoals furnish
good feeding grounds. The narwhal
and the white whale are numerous.
The killer whale and the bowhead, and
occasionally the right whale, visit the
coast. The sleeper shark feeds over
the deeper bottom. Fish are few.
Salmon are caught along shore and in
some of the inland lakes.

Mollusks are particularly abundant
and number upwards of 72 species.
These are all marine, no land or fresh
water species having been reixirted from
this part of Greenland. These are all
of Arctic forms, including Buccinuni,
Astarte, and Saxicava as leading types.

The polar bear {Thalarclos m. mari-

timm), an animal of both land and
sea, is as much at home out on the
open sea among the icebergs as along
the shore. He avoids all habitations
of man, particularly when tlierc are
dogs about. Keen of scent and of all
perceptions, as well as of intelligence,
the polar bear is certainly the most
superb animal of the North, though
not nearly so dangerous as the walrus.

NOTES

Northwest Greenland is accessible
almost every j-ear between July 20 and
September 10. The outermost capes
and islands may be reached by ships
as early as July 1, but the innermost
bays and fjords do not open up before
August 1.

The plant life may best be studied
from Etah on Foulke Fjord; Kangerd
luksuah deep within Inglefield Gulf;
Keatek on Northumberland Island at
the mouth of Inglefield Gulf; and at
Umanak on North Star Bay, in Wol-
stenholme Sound.

Of these places Umanak is probably
best, though because of the very loca-
lized occurrence of many species, a
complete collection is impossible from
any one point. For a critical study of
the Arctic Drabae in the field, Umanak
is unexcelled, since nearh" everj' species
of far northern distribution is found
there in abundance. For a study of
the immigration of American species,
Etah is probably most favorably situ-
ated. It is interesting that at Etah,
Pedicularis hirsuta and Pedicularis
capitata are abundant; but Pedicularis
lanata is entirely lacking; at Lifeboat
Cove onl}^ 5 mi. north, Pedicularis
hirsuta and Pedicularis lanata are num-
erous, but Pedicularis cajnlata is quite
absent. The cariccs may be best
studied at Kangerdluksiiah.

The sea-animals may be best studied
from Akpat on Saunders Island or from
Keatek on Northumberland Island.
The land animals maj' be best studied
from Etah. Umanak affords the most
favorable base for the ornitliologist
to study both land- and sea-birds;

90

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

but Etah is better for the study of
the dovekies, the eider, the ptarmigan,
and the snow-bunting. Foulke Fjord,
Inglefield Gulf, and its tributaries, and
Wolstenholme Sound all offer fascina-
ting fields for dredging the bottom life
of the sea.

The entire region offers an interesting
field for the physiographer, but two
tracts are particularly promising; the
shores of Grenville Bay, a tributary
of Wolstenholme Sound, for a com-
parative study of glacier forms and
phenomena; and Prudhoe Land, lying
north of Etah, for a study of the possi-
ble relationships between the oscilla-
tion of the sea level, as shown by coastal
terraces, the recession and advance of
glaciers as indicated by serial terminal
moraine, and the development of the
drainage systems. A careful study of
these two areas might throw much
light on the phenomena and history
of glaciation.

ROUTES OF TRAVEL

Except in rare j'ears of exceptionally
heavy ice-lay, the Northwest Greenland
may readily be reached by well-built
ships with dependable motive power.
The route lies across the lower reaches
of Baffin Bay from the Labrador Coast
to the vicinity of Sukkertoppen, or
Godthaab, Greenland, and thence north-
ward fairly close into shore to avoid the
heavy pack which occupies the middle
portion of Baffin Bay, as far as Uper-
nivik; thence the route must be deter-
mined by the situation of the middle
pack — if it lies off-shore the course may
be laid northward inshore to Cape
Seddon, thence northwestward to Cape
York and thence along the coast around
Conical Rock, and Northward; if the
ice lies inshore the course must be
laid out beyond the pack.

The ice is generally not open enough
for navigation in those far northern
waters before mid-Julj^, though the
mid-western Danish Greenland coast
is accessible even in early May. The
southern portion of the west-Greenland
coast is almost continuously barred

by the heavy ice that comes out of the
Arctic Ocean, drifts down along the
east coast, and swings around Cape
Farewell, then sweeps up along the
west coast for some 500 to 600 mi.

By mid-September the ice is again
freezing thick and heavy in the bays
and fjords and along the shores of
Northwest Greeland, so that a ship
may find herself frozen in for the winter
if she remains beyond that time. Navi-
gation is frequently open along the mid-
west Danish Greenland coast until
mid-November.

Northwest Greenland constitutes a
readily accessible, fruitful field for
study of far arctic life and habitats,
and will richly repay further research.

2. DANISH GREENLAND

By W. Elmer Ekblaw

introduction

Greenland, the earth's largest island,
lies just to the northeast of the North
American continent, of which it is a
detached part. North and south it
extends from 60° N. at Cape Farewell,
to 83° 37° N. at Cape Bridgeman, about
24° of latitude, or 1650 mi. East and
west it is roughly 650 mi. wide over its
northern three-fifth of extent; its south-
ern two-fifth gradually narrows to a
point at Cape Farewell.

The area of Greenland is 850,000 sq.
mi., of which about three-fourths is
occupied by the ice-cap, a frozen desert
of age-old ice, thousands of feet thick;
while the other one-fourth is comprised
in the narrow coastal belt which becomes
generally free of ice and snow every
summer, so that the terrain itself is
there exposed.

The north coast is washed by Kane
Basin, Kennedy Channel, Hall Basin,
and Robeson Channel, constituting the
straits between EUesmereland and Green-
land, and the ice-bound Arctic Ocean;
the east coast is washed by the Arctic
Ocean, the Greenland Sea, Denmark
Strait, and the Atlantic Ocean, in all
of which the cold Greenland current

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

91

with its continuous sheet of ice- floes
and bergs sweeps the Greenland coast;
and the west by Davis Strait, Baffin
Bay, and Smith Sound — a brancli of
the Greenland current sweeps around
Cape Farewell and nortliward as far
as the Arctic Circle. All these waters
are studded with bergs from the glaciers
and covered with vast fields of pan-ice
from the multitudinous fjords and bays
of the coast.

GEOLOGY

The portion of Greenland lying south
of the seventieth parallel, so far as
known, is composed of pre-Cambrian
granites, gneisses, and schists^ — of which
the gneisses are most widely distrib-
uted^— with later intrusives, both acidic
and basic, and a few isolated areas of
sedimentaries of doubtful geologic age.

Along both the mid-eastern and mid-
western coasts are widespread areas of
Tertiary basalt, which have locally
preserved from erosion the fossiliferous
Tertiary and Cretaceous sedimentaries
of the west coast, and the Tertiary
sedimentaries of the east coast. This
belt of basalts separates the pre-Cam-
brian area of the south from the north-
ern extent of similar gneisses, granites,
and schists.

This northern area of pre-Cambrian
rocks, like the ^southern, is the north-
eastward extension of the old Canadian
shield, and though locally affected by
tectonic disturbances at various periods,
is generally quite similar throughout
its extent. It slopes toward the north
and west. Along its northern and north-
western boundaries it is overlapped by
Paleozoic sedimentaries from the Cam-
brian to the Carboniferous, some of
the formations being richly fossiliferous.

PHYSIOGRAPIIY

Outline

Throughout its entire length of thou-
sands of miles, the coast-line of Green-
land is almost a continuous series of
long, deep, narrow fjords and bays
separated by long, narrow, peninsulas

and headlands, aiid liurdered by innum-
erable skerries, islets, and islands —
probably the most extensive develop-
ment of fjords and skerries in the world.

Generally, these fjords and the sounds
between the islets are bordered by such
high steep cliffs that landing upon them
is impossible, but in some localities the
shore is a low, sloping foreland that in
most places leads rapidly up to steep
slopes or cliffs. Many of the fjords are
so narrow and cliff-walled as to be
veritable canyons, into which the sun can
shine only when they open out toward it.

A barrier of ice lies along most of the
coast of Greenland. The heavy ice of
the Arctic Ocean is swept along the north
and east shores of the island and even
around Cape Farewell, and northward
hundreds of miles along the west coast.
This Arctic ice-pack is of heavy solid
fields and floes, and numerous great
bergs. The Smith Sound Region l:)e-
comes relatively open in summer.
Baffin Bay holds three great fields known
as the south pack, the middle ])ack, and
the north pack respectively, which bear
in upon the Greenland shore whenever
the wind so drives them.

For ten months of the year, from
September first to July first, practically
the entire coast of Greenland is inac-
cessible because of the ice that freezes
over the sea throughout the entire
extent of the coast. Only for a few
hundred miles along the mid-west coast,
from Godthaab northward to Proven,
is the open season longer, but here it
sometimes begins in May and continues
to November. The entire east coast,
except for a small extent about Sermilik
Fjord, at the mouth of which is situated
the Eskimo village, Angmagssalik, is
often icebound even in summer. From
Cape Farewell northward almost to
Godthaab, and from Upcrnivik north-
ward to Cape York, the coast is more or
less icebound also, much of the summer.
The Smith Sound region is relatively
free of ice for the two sunnncr months,
and some of the outermost headlands
like Cape Alexander are free of ice
throughout the year.

92

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Four kinds of ice form the barrier
to the coast — the Great Ice from the
Arctic Ocean; the West Ice from the
Arctic Archipelago ; the Winter Ice formed
in the fjords, bays and sounds of the
Greenland coast itself; and the ice-bergs,
the discharge of the glaciers debouching
upon the sea from the ice-cap.

Relief

Greenland considered as a whole,
is essentially a plateau, the elevated
surface of an old peneplain, with two
central points of maximum elevation,
from which the ice-cap slopes away on
all sides. The northern center of eleva-
tion, over 9000 ft., lies on the seventy-
third parallel, approximately half-way
between the east and west coasts; the
southern center, 7500 ft., is an elongated
divide half-way between the coasts,
from 64 N. to 68 N. latitude. Both the
northern and the southern portion of the
plateau tilt toward the north, so that
the southern slopes are steeper and
shorter than the northern slopes. The
northern slope of the northern block
ex-tends roughly over ten degrees lati-
tude. Isolated peaks, and tracts of
considerable size, rise above the general
level of the interior plateau, and along
the coast at several points, cordilleran
areas rise far above the average marginal
elevation.

Because the general level of the coastal
belt of ice-free land is very high, except
along the northern shore, and deeply
dissected, the scenery along most of the
coast is exceedingly wild and pictur-
esque. Precipitous cliffs and headlands
rise sheer out of the sea thousands of
feet to form the entrances and walls of
fjords and bays and gulfs of exceeding
grandeur. Deep cleft-like valleys; low
narrow forelands; small deltas at the
mouths of streams; majestic snowcapped
peaks and domes rising above the pla-
teaus; picturesque, rocky skerries and
islets innumerable; satin-white glaciers
discharging colossal bergs into the sky-
blue sea in summer — these are the
elements of a landscapethat surpasses

in wild beauty the most scenic spots
of the rest of the world.

The coastal belt is generally rugged
and rough with steep slopes of angular
scree, or precipitous cliffs with narrow
ledges. At places, even where the relief
is highest, broad valleys, probably
carved out by active glaciers when the
ice mantle was more extended than at
present, lie between the table-lands of
the headlands, and along considerable
stretches of coast, forelands of varying
width lie between the sea and the higher
lands behind.

Drainage

Though Greenland is a large land, it
has no streams of any size, and such
streams as there are, are frozen for
almost ten months of the year. In the
short summer every gulch and valley
bears a torrential rushing streamlet, fed
by the rapidly melting snows of the
coastal land-belt, and by the marginal
ice of the ice-cap. The ice-cap does
not melt very far back from its edge,
generally not within the 4500 ft. eleva-
tion in the northern part, and the 6000
ft. contour in the southern part; as a
consequence no great rivers are formed.

The many brooks and smaller stream-
lets are turbulent and impassable after
the summer melting begins, and the
freshets sweep before them great vol-
umes of detritus. Those streams that
have their sources in the ice-cap, and
flow considerable distances across the
coastal border-land, often augmented
by tributaries from local neve on the
marginal plateau-tracts, or from snow-
beds along the valley, may become river-
like in volume and burden of material
carried, and sweep torrentially seaward
the sand, gravel, and boulders that fall
or roll into their currents.

The Ice-cap

The ice-cap, the dominant feature of
the Greenland landscape, as well as the
dominant factor in the environmental
complex, is the largest remnant of the
great mantle of ice that lay over the
northern part of the northern hemi-

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

93

sphere during the maximum develop-
ment of the Pleistocene glaciation.
Here the balance between precipitation
and refrigeration on the one hand, and
evaporation and melting and run-off
on the other, is so nice that in the cen-
turies that the ice-cap has been under
observation, little change in its extent
or volume has been noticed.

The interior of the ice-cap is relatively
level, conforming to the general slope
and elevation of the plateau on which
it lies, but cast into drifts and domes
like sand-dunes by the prevailing winds.
Thus the highest places on the ice-cap
are the two centers of elevation, on the
seventy-third para lei and the sixty-
fifth parallel. The ice-cap in the in-
terior portion is composed of thousands
of feet of thicknesses of ice in the lower
strata, and of recrystallized snow near
the surface. The surface snow of the
interior portion of the ice-cap does not
melt and become running water, and
then freeze to ice, but recrystalhzes
slowly into ice.

Along the margin of the ice-cap, where
the ice annually melts, and forms water
that either freezes again, or runs off
the surface in the thousands of brooks
and streamlets that flow turbulently
and torrentially to the sea in the short
summer season, the surface is exceed-
ingly broken and rough, and isolated
peaks and tracts of bare rock, called
"nunataks" project from the ice. The
very edge of the ice itself may be a
perpendicular wall, revealing the strati-
fication of the ice-mass; a gentle slope
that spreads out over the plateau on the
bed of a valley; or it may be concealed
under some of the local neve of the
outer headlands.

Glaciers, varying in width from a few
hundred feet to hundreds of miles, move
forward from the ice-cap itself along
every valley and cleft. Some of these
glaciers reach the sea and discharge
vast and numerous ice-bergs; others
move so slowly that they melt back as
fast as they advance, and so do not
yield any bergs; others do not reach the
sea at all, and melt awaj^ back from the
coast, the so-called "dead" glaciers

Climale

The climate of Greenland is char-
acteristically arctic not only because of
the high latitude, but also because of
the pronounced influence of the ex-
tensive inland ice-cap and the ice-
burdened waters that border the entire
island. The great masses of ice tend
to lower the temperature in both sum-
mer and winter, but along the coast tiie
tempering influence of open leads and
pools of water in relative proximity to
most of the coast modifies the rigor of
the climate in winter and makes it
more equable in summer.

The seasonal variations in tempera-
ture are not so wide as in a great un-
glaciated land mass like Siberia, but
sudden fluctuations due to varying
winds, and to the combined effect of
wind-direction and topography, are as
great in range as anywhere in the world.

Winds

Whenever the wind blows off the ice-
fields and the cold waters from the north,
west, or east, the temperature falls;
whenever it blows from the south and
southwest off the warm waters of the
Gulf Stream the temperature rises fast.
Whenever the "fohn," that wind pecu-
liar to certain alpine or plateau regions —
like Alpine Europe or the western part
of the United States — begins to come
down off the plateau heights of Green-
land, the temperature rises incredibly
fast and suddenly; and since both the
east and west coasts of the island are
topographically favorable to the de-
velopment of the "fohn," its char-
acteristic occurrence is frequent and
effective. The "fohn" may continue
for only a few hours, but it may jircvail
for several daj's. Under the innuoncc
of this warm, drj-ing wind, the toinpora-
ture may rise as much as 80° in a day,
or as much as 45° in an hour, sometimes
evaporating several inches of snow
during its continuance.

Temperature

The mean tenip(>rature in soutliern
Greenland is only a half degree above

94

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

freezing; at Umanak, about halfway
between the southernmost and north-
ernmost points, it is 11° below, and
along the northern coast it is probably
35° below freezing. The mean winter
temperature is successively lower along
the coast as the latitude increases, but
this is not true of the mean temperature
of summer. Due to increasing effect of
the continuotis sunlight the mid-west
Greenland coast in summer has a higher
mean temperature than Cape Farewell;
thus Holsteinsborg, lying along the
coast in latitude 76° N. has a mean
summer temperature of 45° while Nanor-
talik, on the sixtieth parallel, 7° farther
south, has a mean summer temperature
of 42°.

The lowest temperature reported from
the neighborhood of Cape Farewell is
— 20°; from the mid-west coast, —45°;
and from the northern portion, —70°;
the highest temperature reported from
the southern portion is 75°; from the
mid-west coast, 70°; and from the
northernmost portion, 65°. From year
to year the temperature in any period
may vary widely; for instance the highest
temperature for February, 1891, at Uper-
nivik, in 72° 54' was —4°; for February,
1892, 57°; for February, 1894, 2°; and
for February, 1895, 60°.

The average number of days below
freezing increases from north to south
successively^ — at Cape Farewell 208; at
the sixty-fifth parallel, 244, at the
seventieth parallel, 257; at the seventy-
fifth parallel, 300. Except in the south-
ernmost portions and at the heads of
the deep fjords between the sixty-
fifth and the seventieth parallels, frost is
likely even in midsummer.

Precipitation

The precipitation varies considerably
in character and amount. The northern
portion has a relatively small precipita-
tion, almost all of which falls as snow,
rain being very exceptional; snow falls
every month of the year. Along the
western coast the precipitation de-
creases from Cape Farewell northward.

At Cape Farewell with about one
hundred days of precipitation, it is
over 45 in. annually; at the sixty-fifth
parallel it is 27 in. in one hundred
seventy days of precipitation; at the
seventieth parallel it is 10 in. in one
hundred days; and thence decreases
slowly northward. The precipitation is
heaviest in summer, next in fall, then in
spring, and least in winter. Snow con-
stitutes about half the precipitation in
the southern portion, about two-thirds
in latitude 73° N. Fog is rather com-
mon, especially along the coast in sum-
mer. In some localities along the
southern coast almost a third of the
days are foggy.

Pressure

The mean barometer for the southern
point of Greenland is 754.7 mm.; for
the mid-western part 759 mm. The
pressure may vary greatly and rapidly.
At Ivigtuk along the southern coast,
the lowest barometer is 709.2 mm.; the
highest is 758.8 mm. The average wind-
velocities are small and calm weather is
frequent. In summer the prevailing
winds along the west coast are souther-
lies and westerlies; in winter easterlies
prevail. In the fjords the winds usually
blow strong from the ice-cap to the sea,
even though at right angles to the
direction of the wind on the plateau
above. Except along the southernmost
stretches of coast the southerly winds
bring the worst storms, from seven to
ten a year; in the southern portion the
north and west winds bring storms, as
many as twenty a year.

The inner reaches of the fjords differ
from the coastal headlands and the
skerries in having a higher summer
temperature and lower winter tempera-
ture; the humidity is considerably less,
so that bright, clear weather often
prevails while the coast is cloudy or
foggy; the days are more often calm;
and the snow melts away earlier.

Day and night

One of the most important factors in
the climate of Greenland is the sue-

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

95

cession of day and night. This factor
is equally important in the character,
distribution, and development of the
plant and animal life. Since all except
the southernmost point of the island
lies within the Arctic Circle, nearly its
whole extent has periods of continuous
sunshine and continuous night. The
period without sunlight is six weeks
long in latitude 70° N.; thirteen weeks
in latitude 75° N.; and eighteen weeks
in 80° N. The period of continuous
sunlight is slightly longer. The sudden
development of the plant life, and the
rich life of the sea are in considerable
measure due, to this period of continuous

light.

BIOTA

Plant life

The plant life of Greenland includes
some 400 species of vascular plants,
600 mosses, 700 fungi, 300 lichens, 500
algae, and 600 diatoms. More of the
lower species will doubtless be dis-
covered, but the list of vascular plants
is probably almost complete. The long
stretch of Greenland coast, through
varying phs'siographic and climatic con-
ditions, would suggest a richer flora than
that represented by only a few more than
400 species, even with the rigorous
arctic climate; but the flora is quite
post-glacial in origin, and since Green-
land is an island swept almost exclu-
sively by polar currents, and having its
nearest point of approach to other
lands at its northern ex-tremity, where
conditions for plant migration are most
unfavorable, the immigration of plants
since the dispersal of the ice-sheet has
been exceedingly slow.

The flora of Greenland offers some
interesting problems in distribution and
immigration. Some species are highly
localized. Some are European in rela-
tionship, some are American, and a
very few are endemic. Some are cii*-
cumpolar high latitude species, some
are from the Canadian zone. How have
they come to Greenland, and how have
they established themselves? The an-
swer has been only partially given, and

many a controversy has raged over the
solution of these problems.

Fifty families of vascular plants arc
represented in the Greenland flora, of
which the Cyporaccae, Graminac, Ca-
ryophyllaceae, Cruciferae, and Com-
positae are the largest. The genera
richest in species are Carex, Saxifraga,
Pcdicularis, and Draba. Many of the
genera are represented by one species,
the average ratio of genera to species
being 2:5. The southernmost part of
the island about Cape Farewell has a
flora of almost 300 species; the Smith
Sound region almost 20° farther north
and within 15° of the pole, has almost
150 species.

The entire island is beyond the north-
ern limit of true trees, and though
isolated small tracts far within the land
near the head of the fjords of the south-
ern west coast may bear a tree-like
growth of birch, willow, alder, and
conifers, the entire land is unforested
Even well developed shrubbery is rare.
Generally all tree-growth and shrubbery
are dwarfed to creeping or prostrate
form — alder, willow, juniper, vaccinium,
and birch. Even the arctic and alpine
forms are pauperate or dwarfed as the
northern reaches of the coast are
approached.

The "Feldmark" is the most widely
distributed type of vegetation, the
first to appear on moraines from which
the ice has retreated, or wherever new
land appears to afford opportunity for
new plant growth. In this association
the plants are so far apart that the
spaces between are much larger than
the spaces occupied. The struggle is
not among one another, but against the
rigorous conditions. Among the plants
taking their place thus as pioneers are
the arctic poppy, a number of the sa-xi-
frages and cresses, dryas, some of the
cinquefoils, a number of the cresses,
and a few others.

Where the soil is relatively dry the
heath-association covers the terrain.
It is composed of the small shrubs —
junipers, ]'accinium, Salix, Bctula, Ciis-
dope, Empelrum, Dryas, Rhododendron,

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NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERfOAS

and others, and numerous herbs, grasses,
and sedges. Potentilla, Draba, Pyrola,
Arnica, Pedicidaris, Campanula, Anten-
naria, Festuca, Poa, Carex, and nu-
merous others belong in this group.

In the moister, damper places a moor-
vegetation frequently establishes itself,
with wet-soil grasses, sedges, cotton-
grasses, and rushes, forming hummocky
turf with mosses, and liverworts grow-
ing all over the soil between. Here
grow Montia, several species of Ranun-
culus, Oxyria, Tofieldia, Lrcopodium,
Equisetum, and others.

Though almost no high trees or heavy
growth of shrubbery are found, the land
seems rich in plant growth during the
short summer, and wherever a plant can
establish itself on cliff or slope or rocky
ledge, one is usually found.

The plant life of the sea is well de-
veloped, and Laminaria, Agarum, Ala-
ria, and others form a rather rich sea-
growth wherever conditions permit.
The cold seas with their high content of
gases support an incredibly rich plank-
ton life, so dense at times during the
continuous summer sunshine as to color
the water. It is from this abundant
plankton life that the multitudinous
bird and animal life of the Greenland
seas derive their ultimate sustenance.

Animal life

Three thousand species of animal life
have been reported from Greenland and
its adjacent waters of which all except a
very few are lower forms. Of the higher
forms 30 are mammals; 150 are birds,
and 100 are fish.

The land mammals are the muskox,
confined to the northern and north-
eastern coasts; the caribou, which,
though once distributed throughout the
coastal lands, is now rather limited to
certain favorable stretches of coast,
the arctic hare, common along the
entire coast; the lemming, occupying
approximately the same range as the
muskox: these 4 are herbivores, feeding
upon the low, hard vegetation. The
carnivores are 3 in number- — the arctic
wolf, now almost extinct except in the

northernmost tracts; the polar fox, both
white and blue phases, rather common
among the whole coast, particularly
where the seabirds nest most numer-
rously; and the ermine, restricted to the
range of the lemming, upon which it
feeds.

The polar bear, frequenting the whole
coast, may be classed as both land-
animal and sea-animal, since he is
equally at home on both, and may bear
his young either on land, or in snow-
drift burrows beside the grounded bergs.
He is generally carnivorous, feeding
chiefly upon the seals that he catches
on the ice or in the sea, but he may, in
times of hunger, feed upon berries
where they are available.

The land-birds nesting in Greenland
are Reinhardt's ptarmigan, common on
every hillside; the Lapland longspur,
frequenting the willow and alder copses;
the snow-bunting, ubiquitous as to
habitat; the Greenland wheat-ear, at
home on the drier, rockier, sunnier
hillsides; the American pipit; the red-
polls {Acanlhis hornemanni hornemanni
and Acanthis linaria rostrata) ; the snowy
owl, most common about the haunts of
the lemming; the raven, the gyrfalcon,
and the peregrine falcon, frequenting
the bird-cliffs and the coastal heights.
The ptarmigan, the owl, the raven, may
and often do, remain all year, even in
the northernmost parts of Greenland,
even through the long, dark night.

The gray sea-eagle nests along the
coast; like the polar bear, he frequents
both land and sea, and though preying
largely on the inland salmon, often
captures young seals and sea-birds.

No reptiles are found. Only two
freshwater fish are common- — Salmo al-
pinus L., and Gasterosteus acxileatus L.

Insects are not numerous, considered
as a group. Four hundred species are
known, of which many have been in-
troduced. Coleoptera are represented
by about 40 species; Hymenoptera, by
about 70 species, including two bumble-
bees; Lepidoptera, by 50 species, mostly
moths; and the Diptera by about 200
species. Mosquitoes are numerous and

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

97

swarm over both coasts as far north as
75° N. Culex nigripes and Siviulium
viltatum swarm over the copses, moors,
and moss-grown slopes and flats; in a
few localities the tiny Ceratopogon
sordidellus is a plague. Six species of
fleas are found. Pediculus capitis, Pedi-
culus corporis, and Phthirius ptihis are
probably native, while Pidex irrilans
and Cimcx lectidaritis have been in-
troduced. The fur-clad Eskimos are a
paradise for parasites.

The marine fauna is relativel}^ richer
than the land life, and it is largely from
these marine fields that the Eskimos in
large part garner their sustenance —
their food from the flesh, their clothing
from the skins and furs, and their fuel
from the blubber of the large sea
animals.

Twenty-two species of mammals fre-
quent the Greenland coastal waters,
not including the polar bear. Of these
the walrus and the seals are most im-
portant. The walrus is found all along
the coast, but is abundant only in a
few restricted localities. Five species
of seal — the bearded seal {Erignalhvs
barbatus), the ringed seal {Phoca foe-
tida), the harbor seal (Phoca vilidina),
the harp seal {Phoca crisiata), and the
hooded seal {Cystophora crisiata) — fre-
quent the coast, the 3 latter being most
common along the southern coast, the
two former along the northern shores.
Of the whale and porpoise families
sixteen species are found in considerable
numbers; the right whale {Balaena
glacialis), and the Greenland whale or
bowhead (Balaena mysticehis) , are still
seen along the coast, but are practically
extinct; the humpbacked whale (Megap-
tera nodosa), once fairly common, is no
longer seen; the bottlenose whale,
(Hyperodon rostratus) is a rather fre-
quent visitor. The killer whale (Orca
gladiator) is common; the narwhal
(Monodon monoceras) is numerous, and
the beluga (Delphinaptcrus Icucas) mi-
grates up and down the coast in huge
schools, often of many thousands.

Though 150 birds have been recorded
from Greenland, only 52 are known to

nest on the island. Of these, 41 species
are shore-birds or sea-birds, frequenting
either the coastal waters or the sea, or
less frequently the pools of the interior.
The loons, ciders, phalaropes, old-
squaws, snow-gecse, and mergansers
are often found in these inland pools;
and the sandpipers, knots, plovers,
sandcrlings, turnstones, and others of
the shore-bird group frequent the val-
lej's and lowlands as well as the coastal
forelands. The barnacle goose and the
black brent are locally common.

But the wealth of bird-life for which
the Greenland coasts are famous is
made up chiefly of the sea-birds. Most
numerous of these are the dovekies
(Alle alle), which nest along the north-
western coasts in incredible numbers;
the murres (Uria iroille iroille, and
Uria lomtia lomvia) populating nearly
all the high, precipitous forelands; and
the guillemots (Cepphus grylle and C.
mandtii), the latter most common north-
ward, the former abundant southward.
The cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo)
is found locally along the western coast
from 73° N. southward; the puffins,
(Fraterctda arctica arclica and F. a.
naumanni), are fairly common; and the
razor-billed auk is locally abundant.

The gulls are numerous — the glaucous
gull, the ivory gull, the black-backed
gull, the herring gull, Kumliens gull,
the kittiwake, and Sabine's gull, are all
native to the coast. The Arctic tern
is common along most of the coast.
The fulmars are likewise common. The
jaegers are all found along the Green-
land coast.

The fish fauna is relatively rich in the
south Greenland waters. The sleeping
shark is generally common; the cod and
rock-cod are found off the southern
coast; the halibut, dab, and the related
"hellefisk" (Reinhardlius kippoglossoidcs
Wall)) are also common along the south-
ern portion of the coast. The sculjiin is
found everywhere. The caplin, as on
the coast of the Labrador, fills the
coastal waters early in sunnner.

The lower forms of sea-life are locally
so numerous in the ice-free, sunlightcd

98

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

summer seas as to color the water.
They furnish food to the myriads of
bird-life, fish, and sea-animals.

THE DANISH ARCTIC SCIENTIFIC STATION
AND THE PORSILD NATURE RESERVE

Morten P. Porsild, Danish geographer
and naturalist, with more than usual
vision and determination, has secured
governmental support for a scientific
station and base for exploration, at
Godhavn on Disko Island. This sta-
tion, of which he is director, is well
equipped with library, laboratory, and
study supplies, the most advantageously
located base for Arctic research in the
world. Here investigators from all
lands are welcome ; here young explorers
are trained in the Arctic technique; and
here Science finds its well-guarded
Arctic frontier.

Porsild has also established a preserve
which includes the areas watered by the
warm springs of Disko Island, where an
exceptionally rich and varied flora and
an unusual invertebrate fauna are
preserved from destruction. This pre-
serve, like the warm spring area itself, is
unique. It is the northernmost station
of many plants, like some of the orchis
family, and a number of invertebrates,
among them two species of earthworms.

ROUTES OF TRAVEL

Greenland is maintained by the
Danish Government as a trade monopoly
for the Danish Royal Trading Company,
and stern restrictions are imposed upon
visitors to the country, discouraging
travel to the land.

The mid-west Greenland coast is
readily accessible by means of the
Danish vessels that ply back and forth
from Copenhagen in the summer
months — from May to October. Less
frequently, vessels visit the north-
western coast, and the southern coasts.
Occasionally, a vessel from America
goes to Greenland for a cargo of cryolite,
to fish in the southern waters, or to take
an expedition to the Far North.

The monopoly maintained by the
Danish government and the restrictions

imposed upon travelers are wise, and
beneficial to the Eskimo, who are cared
for in a most paternal and unselfish
manner by the Danish authorities; as
a consequence, the Eskimo population
of Danish Greenland has doubled in the
last century. The Danes, by virtue of
their kindly administration of the affairs
of these primitive people, deserve an
undisputed right to the land.

3. THE AMERICAN ARCTIC
ARCHIPELAGO

By W. Elmer Ekblaw

introduction

The American Arctic Archipelago
comprises that island group or polynia
lying to the northward of the American
continent, of which it forms a part in
that it lies on the same portion of the
earth's continental shelf. It does not
include Greenland. Possible islands
northwestward in the Arctic Ocean, as
yet undiscovered, may be included.
North and South it extends from the
south end of Baffin Land in latitude
62° N. to the north end of EUesmere
Land in latitude 82° N., a latitudinal
extent of 20°, or 1400 mi. It is widest
in the south where it extends from the
sixtieth to the one hundred twenty-
fifth meridian, west longitude. It forms
a rough triangle with its east side almost
due north and south from the northeast
point of EUesmere Land to the southeast
corner of Baffin Land, and its apex at the
westernmost cape of Banks Land.

GEOLOGY

The geology of the entire archipelago
is only imperfectly known, and merely a
general statement of the areal distribu-
tion of the outcropping formations may
be made.

The southeastern portion of the
triangle, and most of the eastern coasts
throughout, are pre-Cambrian, with
scattered patches of sedimentaries,
mostly Silurian. The Silurian lime-
stones, in many places fossiliferous,
are dominant over the southern portion
of the western corner, principally on

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

99

Victoria Island, Prince of Wales Island,
North Somerset Island, and northwest
part of Baffin Land.

On Banks Land and in the Parry-
Islands in the northwest part of the
archipelago, the Carboniferous is the
chief formation comprising the tcrrane.
The Devonian, so far as known, is
restricted to the northwest corner of
North Devon, and the west part of
EUesmere Land. Triassic formations
constitute the dominant outcrops in the
Sverdrup Islands and, if the so-called
Cape Rawson series are included with
the Triassic, in a belt across the north
part of EUesmere Land. A few scat-
tered Tertiary deposits have thus far
been noted.

PHYSIOGRAPHY

Outline

The Arctic Ai'chipelago is made up of
numerous large and small islands, sepa-
rated by sounds and straits of varjdng
size. The land surface exceeds con-
siderably the water surface of the area.
The larger islands, like Baffin Land
and Victoria Land, and EUesmere Land,
are cut by a number of deep bays and, in
general, the coast lines of all are rather
irregular. All are continuously bor-
dered by heavy ice for ten months of the
year, and many of the sounds and straits
are always unnavigable, because of
heavy ice, or heavy ice and rapid cur-
rents. Some are open for the passage
of a ship some years, closed others.
Navigation is always hazardous and
doubtful.

Relief

The reHef is highest at the north, in
the north part of EUesmere Land and
graduaUy decreases southward and
southwestward, being generally lowest
toward the southwest corner of the area.
The United States and Grant INlountains
in EUesmere Land rise high and sharp,
probably 9000 ft. or even more. EUes-
mere Land and Axel Heiberg land arc
both high and rugged lands, and the
eastern part of Baffin Land is relatively
high. Westward the topography be-

comes graduaUy smoother and more
mature. The shores of the eastern
islands are generally steep and high,
but cut by valleys, and bordered by
forelands, both of which arc wider and
flatter toward the south. The general
contour of the islands becomes more
rounded and subdued toward the west;
the hills are not so high nor so steep,
and the valleys are wider and flatter.
Relic ice-caps with projecting gla-
ciers, some of which reach the sea and
discharge icebergs, occupy considerable
portions of the EUesmere Land, North
Devon, and Baffin Land plateaus.
Practically the entire area of the Archi-
pelago was probably heavily covered
during the Pleistocene glaciation,
though most of the evidence has in
places been obliterated.

Drainage

Throughout the archipelago the drain-
age has been profoundly modified by the
morainal deposits of the glacial period.
In the western portion the drainage has
been fairly well restored, or an adequate
new system developed, but in the east-
ern portions the drainage is still un-
developed. A number of large lakes lie
in the interior of Baffin Lantl; Lake
Hazen in the north part of EUesmere
Land is a considerable body of water;
and smaller lakes are found on most of
the islands. Many lakes have probably
not yet been discovered or mapped. No
large rivers are found in any of the
islands, though in the melting season
many of the streams are swollen by the
freshets to turbulent, riverlike torrents.

CLIMATE

The climate of the .Nj-ctic Archipelago
can be described only in a general way.
The few definite data available are so
scattered in point of time and locality,
that they can be used only as general
indices of the character of the climate.

The entire archipelago is a region of
long, cold winter, and very short sum-
mer, beginning with mid-June and
ending with the first of September.
The climate in winter is almost con-

100

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

tinental since all the water is frozen
over and its modifying effect is negli-
gible; but in summer the climate is
arctic-oceanic, and even with twenty-
four hour sunlight during the summer
months, the temperature does not rise
high because of the depressing chill
off the cold shore waters with their
masses of ice. In northern Ellesmere
Land the lowest winter temperature is
probably —70°; the highest tempera-
ture in the interior dales and valleys
sheltered from the sea-winds, probably
rises to -|- 70°. In the southern portion
the temperature does not often drop
below —40°, while the interior summer
temperatures do not rise far above -t-75°.
The precipitation is uniformly light.
The rains of summer in the southern
portion and the summer snows of the
northern part are relatively light. The
snowfall over the entire group is not
heavy for the entire winter, but the
accumulation remains until late May or
June, and then the melting furnishes
ample moisture for the rapid growth of
the vegetation through the short,
sunlighted summer. The western coast,
facing the prevalent winds receive the
maximum precipitation. The first frost
comes late in August in the southern
portion, earlier in the same month in the
northern portion. The ground is frozen
throughout the year, except for a thin
surface layer a few inches thick that
opens up for the short summer. Be-
cause of the effect of the twenty-four
hour sunlight, and the protracted inso-
lation, the "summer" period is approxi-
mately the same throughout the whole
north and south extent of the archipel-
ago.

BIOTA

Plant life

The plant life of the Arctic Archi-
pelago has never been thoroughly in-
vestigated. The collections are few,
far scattered, and incomplete. From
none of the islands, except Ellesmere
Land perhaps, has even an approach
been made to an exhaustive and rep-
resentative collection.

The character of the vegetation is
similar to that of Western Greenland,
though in the lower, flatter western
portions of the archipelago, the bog and
moor, or tundra, vegetation spreads
over much gi'eater areas, and the "Feld-
mark" is relatively more restricted.
There are no trees, and few shrubs of
any size, most of the vegetation being
confined to creeping or dwarfed shrubs
and vascular plants — particularly grasses
and sedges.

The paucity of the flora of the Silurian
siliceous limestone areas is character-
istic, and seems due principally to the
lack of fine particles in the detritus
resulting from the disintegration of the
limestone. There is no true soil; even
in the flatter expanses of the Silurian
the limestone is riven by frost into sharp
angular fragments that do not afford
proper foothold for plants or for the
absorption and capillary retention of the
necessary water supply. The purer or
more argillaceous limestones of the
other sedimentaries give rise to a more
favorable soil, and on this, as on the
soil derived from the pre-Cambrian, the
vegetation is abundant and more gener-
ally distributed, apparently little
affected by the composition of the soil.

The flora, so far as known, is made up
of slightly more than 200 species, repre-
senting 31 families, of which the largest
are the Graminae, Oyperaceae, Oruci-
ferae, and Compositae, in the order
named. The genera richest in species
are Carex with 12, Saxifrag a with 12, Salix
with 10, and Pedictilaris with 7. Sixty-
two species are distributed throughout the
archipelago; 18 species extend over the
southern portion; 35 are confined to the
south-western islands; 28 species are
decidedly western in origin and range;
and 23 are distinctively eastern. The
proportion of monocotyledonae increases
northward. The distribution of these
genera and species over the archipelago
raises interesting questions of origin,
migration, and relationship which have
been the cause of much controversy,
involving the extent and continuity of
the Pleistocene glaciation; former land

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

101

connections now submerged, among the
islands themselves and with the main-
land, Asia, and Europe: variations of
the climate in the past; the rise of
endemic species, and modifications of
immigrants; and the effect of trans-
porting agencies.

In the warmer, diier niches of the
rockier slopes where sufficient soil has
accumulated, small heath-growths of
Campanula uniflora, Pyrola rolundifolia,
Arnica alpina, Antennaria alpina, Fes-
tiica alpina, Trisetum spicatum, Carex
incurva, Potentilla Vahliana, and Cala-
magroslis purpurascens are set among
a basic growth of Cassiope telragona and
Dryas integrifolia, which are distributed
over all the drier tracts.

The seepage-swales along the moss-
grown streamlets of ice-cold water from
melting streamlets are well carpeted
with grasses, sedges, Liuula and Juncus,
with here and there patches of white-
furred Eriophorum and timothy-like
Alopecurus alpinus. In these seepage-
swales the di'ier margins have scattered
beds of Rhododendron lapponicum, Sari-
fraga oppositifolia, Oxyria digyna, Ceras-
tium alpinum, the several species of
Draba, Ranunculus nivalis, and Melan-
drium ajjine.

Silene acaulis, Braya purpurascens,
Papaver radicatum, Poa, Salix arctica,
Potentilla nivea, Statice maritima, Erige-
ron compositus, Taraxacum, Lesquerella
arctica, and Stellaria longipes, grow over
the windswept, gravely reaches, not
too dry.

The grass- and sedge-grown moors
with an "undergrowth" of moss and
marchantia, hold scattered plants of
Pedictdaris hirsuta, Eriophorum Poly-
stachium. Ranunculus sidfureus, Carda-
mine bellidofolia, Equisetum arvense,
Eulrema edivardsii. Ranunculus hyper-
boreus and R. pygmaeus, Tofieldia palus-
tris, and many other moisture-loving
plants.

Cystopteris fragilis, Woodsia, and
Asj/idium fragrans are among the ferns
of the archipelago. Hippuris vulgans,
Dupontia fischeri, Pleuropogon sabinei,
Batrachium paudstamineu^, and several

carices grow in the pools or long the
margins.

These arc but part of the species that
go to make up the vegetation of the

islands.

Animal life

Except for the mammals and the birds,
the animal life of the archipelago is
most imperfectly known. The lower
forms have been relatively neglected by
the explorers and investigators who liave
collected in the polyjuia.

The muskox {Oiibos moschalus) finds
on the more remote lands of these
islands, notably in Banks Laud, Axel
Heiberg Land, and Ellesmere Land, his
last extensive range. Here the last
large herds have thus far been preserved;
on the broad valley-pastures and slopes
of Ellesmere Land, several thousand
still persist, finding there food and safety
from slaughter.

The barren-ground caribou {Rangifer
spp.) ranges over the southern islands, •
while in Axel Heiberg Land and in
Ellesmere Land a small species, Rangifer
pearyi finds its home. These small
northern caribou do not gather in large
herds, nor do they migrate extensively.

Along all the coastal stretches and
far out upon the frozen reaches of the
Arctic Sea the polar bear (Thalarctos),
the arctic wolf (Canis lundrarum),
and the polar fox (Alopex spp.) wander
restlessly about, still relatively numer-
ous. The Arctic hare {Lepus arclicus
group) is rather widely distributed.
The lemmings {Lemmus and Dicroslonyx)
and the weasel {Muslcla a. arclica)
frequent the grassgrown plains and
moors.

The sea-life is relatively abundant.
Walrus, ring-seal, bearded seal, harp
seal, hooded seal, and harbor seal are
found in the sounds and off the islands.
Narwhal and beluga are common. In
places, several species of wliale are
found. The Big Finncr, the Little
Finner, the Humpback, the Right
whale, the Greenland whale, and the
Killer are found locally.

The bird-life is numerous, but little

102

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

is definitely known about the distribu-
tion and northern habits of some of the
species.

The pipit and the horned lark are
common among the southern islands.
The lapland longspur, the snow-bunting,
and the redpolls are widely distributed.
The northern raven, the snowy owl,
Reinhardt's ptarmigan, the duck hawk
and the gyrfalcon are rather common
throughout the archipelago.

The Greenland and American eiders
are common toward the east, the Pacific
and Steller's eiders toward the west,
and the king-eider is found in small
numbers throughout the polynia. The
Hutchin's goose, the blue goose, the
Canada goose, the swans, and the snow
geese probably nest on the islands
bordering Hudson Bay on the north.
The hooded merganser, the green-
winged teal, the old squaws, and casu-
ally, other ducks, frequent these islands.
The black-throated loon toward the
west, and the red-throated loon through-
out the archipelago, are rather common.

Shorebirds are numerous. At least
two species of phalaropes breed in the
islands. A number of the sandpipers
and the plovers, the sanderJings and
turnstones, all these frequent the low,
flat valleys, the damp plateaus, with
myriad pools and ponds, and the broad,
shingly shore-land. Even the little
brown crane is found on the southern
islands.

The sea-birds are numerous. Ful-
mars, terns, kittiwakes, Sabine's gull,
Ross's gull, the herring gull, the great
black-backed gull, the glaucous gull,
and the ivory gull nest in the archi-
pelago. Three jaegers course over the
islands and the sounds. The dovekies
are found in the North. Brunnick's
murre, Mandt's guillemot, the puffin,
and the razor-billed auk are other
representatives of the sea-bird group.

Both the plant-life and the animal-
life of the archipelago are relatively
little known. These islands offer a
fascinating field for exploration and
study.

ROUTES OF TRAVEL

The arctic archipelago is generally
difficult of approach. The entire east-
ern coast from Hudson Strait to the
Arctic Ocean is more or less barred by
ice, and accessible only with favorable
ice-conditions, winds, and tides. A
rare fur-trading ship or whaler may
afford passage, but generally a special
ship is necessary for transportation to
the region.

The south side of the archipelago is
more easily accessible in summer by way
of Hudson Bay. The west side is even
more diflScult of approach than the east
side. A special ship must be engaged
for the trip, unless a whaler or fur-
trader happens to be bound for those
far arctic waters.

4. UNGAVA AND LABRADOR
By VV. Elmer Ekblaw
introduction

Because the great peninsula of Labra-
dor and Ungava offers to the naturalist
one of the most promising fields for
exploration and study, considerable
attention to the geography of the area
is well worth while.

It comprises a great triangular, penin-
sular territory forming the major north-
eastern portion of the North American
Continent. This triangle, broken only
by Ungava Bay, is bounded roughly on
the west by James Bay and Hudson Bay;
on the northeast by Ungava Bay, Hud-
son Strait, and the Atlantic Ocean;
on the south by the Rupert River and
its tributaries to Lake Mistassini, the
Saguenay and its tributaries to the
St. Lawrence, and the St. Lawrence
River and Gulf, and the straits of Belle
Isle. Only that portion lying north of
the 52nd parallel is included within this
account, and in general it does not include
any of the territory drained by the
rivers that flow into the St. Lawrence
system.

NATURAL AKEAS AND REGIONS

103

GEOLOGY

Over the greater part of the Labrador
Peninsula, probably nine-tenths the
area, the Laurentian gneisses and
schists form the country rock. These
consist of highly metamorphosed and
foliated clastic and igneous rocks of
great geologic age, all, with a few ex-
ceptions, Pre-Cambrian. More or less
interfolded with these aged Laurentian
rocks are several widely separated areas
of Huronian clastic and volcanic rocks,
and many basic eruptives— schists, con-
glomerates, breccias, and others. Rest-
ing unconformably upon these aged
Laurentian and Huronian rocks, sand-
stones, argillites, shales, and lime-
stones, of doubtful age, with bedded
traps and other basic or volcanic rocks,
may constitute an early Cambrian
deposition.

In the long period between the folding
of the Laurentian and Huronian rocks
and the submergence when these sedi-
ments were laid down, the peninsula was
profoundly sculptured and denuded to
the fundamental basic form and physi-
ography it has toda}^ — the great central
plateau, the lake and valley basins,
and the fjords and inlets.

In relatively recent geologic times this
old original land surface has been con-
siderably modified by glaciation through-
out its entire extent except the highest
mountain areas along the northeastern
coast of the peninsula. The central
neve from which this glaciation pro-
ceeded, moved progressively northward
in three distinct successive periods of
ice accumulation, with intervening pe-
riods of diminished glaciation. The
earliest ice-flow radiated from a central
gathering-ground between the 50th and
51st parallels near the center of the
peninsula; the second from a point to
the northwest beyond the 54th parallel;
and the latest from a center about a
hundred miles inland from the east coast
of Hudson Baj^, between the 55th and
56th parallels.

In the areas of these central neve
the rocks and boulders rest upon rocks

of the same kind and evidently have not
been transported far. As the distance
from these central areas of neve in-
creases, the sculpturing by the ice
becomes more distinct; but in general
the amounts of erosion and change
wrought upon the general surfaces have
not been so great as is generally thought.
Though the ice certainly did erode in
one place and deposit in another to
reduce the surface to a general uniform
level over the most of the plateau, the
evidence does not show that it ever
trenched or plucked out such deep
depressions as it apparently did farther
south along the peripheral edges and
lobes of the ice-sheet.

PHYSIOGRAPHY

Outline

The west coast of the peninsula,
running nearly due north and south for
800 mi. is remarkably straight and un-
broken by any deep indentations,though
bordered by numbers of long groups of
low narrow islands paralleling the shore-
line; the south side of the area covered
in this report corresponds roughly to the
divide between the rivers flowing into
the St. Lawrence and those emptying
westward, eastward, and northward to
Hudson Bay, Ungava Bay, and the
Atlantic. The Atlantic coast is ex-
ceedingly irregular, cut by many deej),
narrow fjords and baj^s, of which Hamil-
ton Inlet, the southernmost, is the
largest and deepest; and bordered by
islets and skerries innumerable. The
coast of Hudson Strait and Ungava
Bay are relatively regular, bordered by
many islets. The passages between the
islets and the mainland, and between
the islets themselves are locali\- des-
ignated as "tickles."

Relief

The Labrador peninsula is a gently
undulating plateau which rises abruptly
within a short distance from the coast
line to a general elevation of about
2000 ft., and which slopes ratiicr gently
westward, northward, anil eastward to

104

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

the rim of the plateau, from a central
crest lying approximately along the
53rd parallel between the 65th and
70th meridians, west longitude. The
plateau is bordered in the northeastern
portion, along the Atlantic seaboard by
ranges of sharp, unglaciated mountains,
beginning about latitude 55° N. and
extending northward to Cape Ohidley,
with maximum altitudes of 6000 ft.
inland from Saglek Bay; but elsewhere
the rim of the plateau does not rise
above the general level of the plateau.
The entire inland area of the plateau is
comparatively level, traversed only by
low, rounded, roughly parallel ridges of
crystalline rocks, so that except for a
very few places, there is not in the entire
plateau area 200,000 sq. mi., a difference
of level of more than 400 ft. The general
surface is further modified by low
moraines extending in a general way the
same direction as the slope of the
country, yet appreciably modifying the
preglacial drainage sj'stem of the terrain.

Soil

Most of the soil of the peninsula is a
boulder-studded, infertile, glacial till,
derived from the Archean rocks. Over
wide areas it is very sandy. The soil
along the river valleys has been modified
and enriched by redeposition and with a
consequent heavier growth of vegeta-
tion. The richest soils bearing the
best development of vegetation are the
alluvial-topped soils along the coast
and the inlets, and the areas of limestone
and shale outcrops of the supposed early
Cambrian rocks.

Drainage

As a consequence of the damming of
the valleys and basins of the streams
of the Labrador plateau by the masses
of glacial till and moraines, the whole
area is dotted with myriads of lakes and
pools, that occupy at least a fourth of
the entire area. They vary in size from
small narrow ponds to large extensive
lakes hundreds of square miles in area,
most of them relatively shallow, some
deep. In addition to the great lake

areas, large portions of the plateau
are occupied by damp, boggy, tundra
with defective drainage, almost lake-
like in character.

A perfect network of streams connects
these lakes and ponds, all interlocking so
closely that no great distances separate
the headwaters; and since above the
rapids near the coast, the streams and
lakes are generally navigable by canoes,
water travel is relatively easy through-
out the plateau, with few portages more
than 2 or 3 mi. long.

Three principal watersheds comprise
the peninsular north of the Height of
Land. The eastern is drained prin-
cipally by the tributaries of Hamilton
Inlet- — the northern is drained by the
Koksoak, the largest and longest river
of Labrador, the George, the Whale,
and the Leaf; the western, the most
extensive of the peninsula, is drained
by the Nastapoka to the north, the
Little Whale and the Great Whale about
the middle, and the Big and Last Main
to the south.

The water in the pools, lakes, and
streams is remarkably clear, quite
different from the dark-brown waters
of the Laurentian basin. Because the
summer season is short, the swamps and
tundra from which most of the streams
and lakes drain their water are thawed
only to a depth of 12 to 18 in., and
vegetable decomposition, particularly of
the sphagnum mosses, is negligible.

CLIMATE

The climate of the plateau of Labrador
is generally and distinctly Arctic. Ex-
cept at the heads of the deeper fjords
and inlets of the southern portion of the
east coast, where the diurnal range of
temperature is from 45° to 90°, and the
average temperature in summer is
above 50°, the temperatures for the
year are characteristically sub-Arctic.

Though situated in the same latitude
as some of the most pleasant and most
productive lands of Europe, Labrador
is chilled by the cold waters of the
Greenland current along its eastern
shore, and_^by the prevaiUng westerly

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

105

winds which come off the cohl expanses
of Hudson Bay, and the frigid, icebound
islands of the Arctic Archipelago,
instead of being warmed by the balmy
winds that blow off the temperate Gulf
Stream, as in northwestern Europe.

Temperature

The temperature depends greatly on
the direction of the winds. During the
summer the prevailing winds in the
interior are southerly and southwesterly,
bringing higher temperature and cloudy
skies, often with drizzling rain. The
prevailing westerly and northwesterly
winds of winter are accompanied by
lower temperatures and clear skies.
The northerly and northeasterly winds
accompany heavy storms of rain and
snow, with damp, chilly weather. Clear,
pleasant weather usually comes with
easterly and southeasterly winds, though
fogs along the coast are then most
common.

The temperature in the interior,
even in the southern part of the area,
rarely rises above 80° during the middle
of the day, on more than a few days
during the warm season. The summer
temperature of the Atlantic coast
region is considerably lower than inland,
or along the western coast. The lowest
winter temperatures inland are —55°;
along the coast —45°, at the head of
Ungava Bay; and at the mouth of
Hamilton Inlet -40°.

The interior plateau has but two
seasons, winter from mid-September to
mid-June, and summer — rather spring —
from mid-June to mid-September. The
summer season begins almost simulta-
neously throughout the interior, with
a suddenness that is surprising. In
the first two weeks of June the snow
disappears, the ice melts off all the
lakes except the larger, the temperature
rises rapidly every day, the trees and
shrubs burst into leaf and early bloom,
and the birds arrive to mate, and to
begin nesting almost immediately. Un-
til the first of July frosts are likely to
occur every night and flurries of snow
may come even later. Summer ends

about the middle of September wlien the
first fall snow falls and the ice forms in
the small lakes. From early in October
the snow remains permanently, and all
the smaller lakes are solidly frozen.

Prccipilation

The precipitation over the interior is
relatively light. The summer precipi-
tation is fairly constant though very
light, with few days without drizzles or
thunder-showers. The winter snowfall
varies from 3 to 6 ft., of which the most
is brought by the north and notheast
winds. Three-fourths of the winter
season is clear and crisp with brisk
northwest winds blowing.

BIOT.\

Platit life

The vegetation along the coast of the
Labrador Peninsula is distinctly tundra,
with no trace of forests except at the
heads of the deeper inlets, while the
interior is more or less forested according
to the latitude and topography.

The tundra of the coast is almost
continuous over the islands, capes, prom-
ontories, and forelands, being broken
only by ledges of outcropping rock
with no soil covering; pools and lakes;
the low depressions which form moors;
the high rocky summits of the coastal
mountains where broken masses of rock
(typical "Felsenmeer") constitute the
surface; and scattered moist sunny
slopes and protected niches where the
same plants as those of the less favored
localities attain a most luxuriant growth.

In these coastal tundras, the essential
element is the sphagnum moss which
grows in all the damper portions.
Arctic grasse, sedges, rushes, and cot-
ton-grasses form turfy patches where
conditions are favorable. Northern Sa-
liceae and Ericaceae are the common
shrubs, all low-growing — Empclrum 7iig-
rum, Vaccinium uliginosum and V.
Vitis-Idaea, Betula nana, Ruhus cha-
maemorus and R. arctica, Ledum. Loisc-
luria, Brijanthus — that grow in the
tundra and tundra moor. Viola palm-
tris, Diapensia lapponica, Ccrastium,

106

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Draba, Saxifraga, Papaver, Epilobium,
Drosera, Pinguicula, Silene, Pedicularis,
and numerous other arctic vascular
plants constitute the more prominent
flowers. On the drier slopes Linnaea
borealis, Rhododendron lapponicum, Py-
rola grandiflora, Campanula, Arnica,
Antennaria, Festuca, Trisetum, and
Calamagrostis characterize an almost
heath-like association of plants.

The interior plateau as a whole is
quite different from the coastal belt,
though large areas within the limit of
the plateau are composed of similar
tundra and tundra-moor vegetation.

The forest is practically continuous
over the southernmost edge of the area
described in this report, only the sum-
mits of the highest, rockiest hills being
bare; but from the 53rd parallel north-
ward, all the higher hills are treeless,
the size and number of barren areas
rapidly increase, and the trees them-
selves grow smaller. In latitude 55'
N. more than half the surface is without
trees, forested areas being found only
in narrow belts along the streams and
lakes, and in moist, sheltered recesses
among the hills. The northern limit
of trees extends from the mouth of the
Nastapoka River on Hudson Bay, to
the mouth of Leaf River on Ungava
Bay, thence along the south shore of
Ungava Bay to the mouth of the George
River, thence along the foothills of the
Atlantic coast range to Hebron, just
north of Cape Mugford and south of
Saglek Bay.

The arborescent flora comprises the
following species:

1. Black spruce (Picea mariana), the
most widely distributed and abundant
tree of Labrador, extends to the northern
limit of trees and constitutes nine-
tenths of the forest. It flourishes on the
sandy soils of the Archean complex and
grows equally as well on the dry hills
of the southern portion as in the boggy
land between the ridges. Farther north
it grows rank and slim in the valleys,
but on the uplands where it forms open
glades, it spreads out like the white
spruce.

2. Balsam fir {Abies balsamea) is a
more southerly tree than the black
spruce. It grows only along the edges
of the waterways and the shores of the
larger lakes. Its northern limit is the
Great Whale River, and then roughly
eastward across the plateau to Hamilton
Inlet.

3. White spruce {Picea alba) is dis-
tributed throughout the wooded area
but is not so abundant. It is confined
to the scattered areas of rearranged
drift of the river valleys, the marine
deposits of the coast, and to the heavier
soils of the interior. Its size and num-
ber are thus more dependent upon the
soil factor than upon the climate, lati-
tude, or altitude. Its northern limit
approximates the forest limit.

4. Tamarack {Larix laricina), the
largest and the hardiest tree of the sub-
arctic forest belt, grows everywhere
over the Labrador Peninsula, next in
abundance to black spruce. It fre-
quents all the cold bogs; and even to the
northern limit of the forest, where the
black spruce is a mere shrub, the tama-
rack retains its arboreal form and size,
though somewhat diminished.

5. Banksian pine {Pinus divaricata)
occupies the southwestern portion of
the Labrador Peninsula, south of the
Great Whale River and west of a line
that roughly corresponds with the
seventy-first meridian. It grows on dry
sandy ridges and hills, where it is often
combined with black spruce to form the
second growth on fire-swept reaches.

6. Canoe birch {Betula papyrifera)
grows commonly over the southern
portion of the peninsula but is rare and
small toward the north. Its northern
limit lies to the south of the forest
limit, though scattered groups of the
trees are found even in the valley of the
Koksoak river a few miles above its
mouth.

7. Aspen {Popuhistrem.uloides)is{ound
in clumps in the original coniferous
forest, and in company with white birch,
as second growth in many burned-over
areas. It seems most abundant and
widely distributed in the western portion

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

107

of the peninsula on the undisturbed
original till of the drift ridges. Its
northern limit approximates the fifty-
fourth parallel.

8. Balsam poplar {Populus balsami-
fera) grows farther north than the
aspen but it thrives only on the heavy
clay soil of the river vallej's or that
derived from limestone and shale rocks.
Its extreme northern limit is near the
head of Ungava Bay, thence south-
eastward to the mouth of Hamilton
Inlet, and southwestward to Bishop
Roggan river on the shore of Hudson
Bay.

At least one-half of the original forest
cover has been burned off, and a second-
ary growth of black spruce, Banksian
pine, aspen, and white birch replaces
the former forest. In many places
only blackened stumps and small second
growth extend for miles over the plateau
and up the river valleys, with here and
there a large thrifty tract of the original
forest to indicate the character of the
former pristine forest covering.

Throughout the forest belt, the low-
lands fringing the streams are covered
over with thickets of low willows and
alders. Toward the semi-barrens north-
ward, these fringes of shrubbery become
wider, and with dwarf birch occupy
much of the open glades. The willows
and birches grow on the hillsides above
the tree-line up to the "Felsenmeer"
and its patches of Sphagnum— or Cla-
donia— tundra, and form low thickets
through which it is difficult to pass.
North of the tree-limit similar thickets
of Arctic willow, birch, and alder grow
over the lower reaches, but on the hills
they attain only a carpet-like form.
Ledum and Kalmia in tangled masses
form the undergrowth of the southern
forest region, but die out in the semi-
barrens. Sphagnum is the ground car-
pet of the southern regions, being re-
placed by Cladonia to the north, a rich
growth everywhere throughout the
semi-barrens and barren regions.

The semi-barrens and barren moun-
tain-tops and northern tracts are either
areas of "Felsenmeer" with little vegeta-

tion, or tundra or tundra-moor vegeta-
tion such as is found along the coast.
Over 450 species of vascular plants have
been reported, including about 35 Com-
positae, 30 Ericaceae, 30 Cruciferac,
30 Rosaceae, 30 Cypcraceae, 30 Gra-
mineae, 25 Caryophyllace; 20 Saliceac,
20 Saxifragaceae, 20 Ranunculaccae,
and 15 Scrophulariaceae.

During the short summer season the
open places of the peninsula become
dotted with the blossoms of berry-
bearing shrubs and flowering plant.s.
Nearly all vernal in character, they
burst into bloom abruptly, j ust as breaks
the summer. Their flowering and grow-
ing season is brief, and they hasten
through their vegetative and reproduc-
tive processes in a rapid, continuous
succession by which the aspect of the
landscape seems often to change over
night. Grassy, sedgy, swales are dotted
with the plants of the moor; gravelly,
clayey slopes become colored with the
heath-plants in every warm sheltered
nook; and every niche and ledge among
the rocks bears a flower, or a bit of fern,
or sedge, or grass. The subarctic land-
scape during the all too brief summer
is far from monotonous.

ANIMAL LIFE

Mainmals

Of the land-mammals the barren-
ground caril)ou is the most significant
form in the whole fauna of the peninsula.
The woodland caribou once abundant,
and the chief reliance for food of the
Nascaupee and Montaignais Indians,
has been almost exterminated, with the
result that a large portion of these
trilK'S has jjcrished from starvation.

The barren-ground caril)0u ranges
immense herds over the barren and
semi-barren grounds. These animals
spend the summer season on the liarron
highlands near the coast whore the
strong winds reduce the number of
flies and mosquitoes that plague all
life. In the autumn they migrate in-
land and southward into the semi-
barrens of the lower lands, and jc-

108

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

turn to the high barrens in April and
May.

Three distinct herds browse over the
north part of the peninsula. One, on
the Atlantic coast occupies in summer
the mountainous area between the
56th and 59th parallels, and migrates
almost as a unit southwestward toward
the semi-barrens of the inland valleys
and forested lowlands beyond Lake
Michikimau. Hundreds are killed by
the Indians while crossing the George
River about 100 mi. below the lake.
The spring migration is more desultory
in small bands. Another of the herds
frequents in summer the point of the
peninsula between Ungava Bay and the
Atlantic, and migrates to the point
west of Ungava Bay and Hudson Strait,
crossing the lower regions of Koksoak
River. The third herd winters about
Clearwater Lake, and migrates north-
ward for summer pasturage to the high-
lands along the divide of the north-
western part of the peninsula.

With irregular periodicity the caribou
remain on the barrens throughout the
winter, not migrating back to the for-
ested inland valleys and lake shore
tracts. Whenever this happens the
Indians are likely to face stress and
starvation and death.

With diminution in number of the
Indian hunters, there is a corresponding
increase in the number of furbearing
animals. Of these the most abundant
are the pine marten {Maries) ranging
through the forested regions, but not
found on the semi-barrens of the high-
lands, or north of the tree-limit; the
wolverine (Gulo) common throughout
the entire extent of Labrador to its
northernmost point; the otter (Lutra)
common throughout the wooded regions
and ranging northward into the barren
grounds; the beaver (Castor), numerous
throughout the forested lands, and rang-
ing into the semi-barrens wherever
the food-supply permits; the weasel
[Mustela), distributed throughout the
wooded regions; the mink [Mustela
vison), rare even in the southernmost
portion of the peninsula; the red fox

(Vulpes) and its variant color phases,
relatively abundant throughout the
peninsula; and the arctic fox (Alopex) —
both blue and white forms — found most
abundantly in the barren ground to the
north, and ranging farther south along
the coast to the 52nd parallel.

The arctic hare {Lepus arcticus) is
confined to the barren and semi-barren
lands, but the common rabbit (Lepus
americanus) is found in great numbers
throughout the wooded regions, except
that periodically it is almost extermi-
nated by an epidemic infection that
rages through the species. This rabbit
is an essential element in the Labrador
fauna, for many of the carnivoran species
depend upon it for their basic food
supply. The Canada lynx (Lynx cana-
densis), the gray wolf, and many of the
fur-bearing carnivores find the rabbit
the ultimate source of sustenance. It
is said that whenever the rabbits die
from disease, the lynx faces such difficult
food conditions that it does not breed
during the shortage of rabbits. The
gray wolf (Cams lycaon) preys chiefly
upon the caribou (Rangifer spp.), and
since the woodland form has become
almost extinct, the range of the gray
wolf has been largely limited to the
barrens and semi-barrens, the haunts
of the barren-ground caribou. The
arctic wolf (Canis tundrarum) is rare,
and found only in the barrens and along
the coast.

Three species of bears are found in
Labrador, the barren-ground bear, the
black bear, and the polar bear. The
barren-ground bear (Ursus sp.), as its
name implies, is northerly in its range,
and is very rare. The black bear (Ursus
americanus group) is common through-
out the wooded country, frequenting
the coast when the great shoals of caplin
are swept in on the beaches; the rapids
and falls of the streams when the salmon
and other fish are "shoaling;" and the
burnt-over areas in the fall when the
berries are ripe. The polar bear (Tha-
larctos) is common along all the coast
of Labrador, but most abundant in the
northern portion where it finds seals in

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

109

abundance. It frequents the ice-fields
and bergs, and rarely travels inland
except in winter when the fjord and
inlets are frozen over. The polar bear
is essentially a shore-loving animal,
spending much of its time at sea.

The smaller mammals that frequent
the northern barrens and semi-barrens
include the Labrador deer-mouse (Pero-
myscus) common as far south as the
52nd parallel, particular!}^ about build-
ings and huts; the small and large yel-
low-faced Phenacomys of rather far
northern distribution; the LTngava red-
backed mouse (Euvotomys ungava) re-
stricted to these northern barren and
semi-barren areas; the small Labrador
vole (Microtus); two species of lem-
ming (Lemmus and Dicrostonyx), most
common about the grassy, sedgy moors
and bogs; and the Labrador shrew (So-
rex), found from Fort Chimo south.

The small mammals that are of more
southern range, found principa llyin
the wooded lands are as follows: the
porcupine (Erethizon), ranging north-
ward into the semi-barrens; the north-
ern red squirrel (Sciurus hudsonicus)
of the same range; the Labrador flying
squirrel {Glaueomys sabrinus makkovi-
kensis), rare even in the southernmost
portions; the large Labrador vole com-
mon throughout the wooded regions and
penetrating into the semi-barrens; the
Labrador rock vole and Labrador jump-
ing mouse (Zapus), rare along the
coast; the Hamilton Inlet red-backed
mouse and the northern jumping mouse,
common in the woodlands to the edge
of the semi-barrens; the Labrador musk-
rat (Ondatra) becoming progressively
less numerous from the heavily-wooded
tracts in the south to the semi-barrens
as far north as Fort Chimo, where it is
very rare; and the little brown bat and
Say's bat (Myotis L. Lucifugus and
M. subulaius), that may occasionally
be found in the extreme southern
portion.

In the waters off the coast the walrus
is found along the whole coast, its former
usual range, but now it is common only
along the northern reaches. Six species

of seal frequent the coast; the harljor
seal, common to the coast and low parts
of the rivers all around Laljrador, and
plentiful in a number of northern fresh-
water lakes in which they l)roed an<l rear
their young, and from which apparently
they never go, having acquired a fresh-
water habit; the ringed seal and harp-
seal, common along the whole coast;
the bearded seal, the gray seal, and the
hooded seal, everywhere and always
rare. The white porpoise or beluga,
and the narwhal, are fairly common.
The humpbacked, the little-piked, the
finback, the sulphur bottom, the killer,
and the bottle-nosed whales are locally
relatively common; while the right
whale, the bowhcad, the Pollock whale,
and the sperm whale are rare. The
porpoises and dolphins are common.

Birds

The bird life of Labrador, both inland
and coastal, is numerous and varied,
the number of species of the seabirds
being relatively small, though the num-
ber of individuals in many cases is in-
credibly large; while of the land birds
the number of species is relatively large,
the number of individuals relatively
small.

Of the sea-birds, two species once
common, the great auk and the Labrador
duck, have been quite exterminated.
The puffin, the black, guillemot, and
the Mandt's guillemot, the common
murre and the Jirunnich's nuirre, and the
razor-billed auk, are common summer
residents in the waters off the coasts,
and the dovekies are numerous during
the winter. The skuas, and jaegers,
many gulls and terns, petrels and shear-
waters, fulmars, gannets and cormorants
frequent the coast. The mergansers
and many species of ducks and geese-
including the eiders, brant, and the
whistling swan— populate the coastal
inlets, fjords, and lagoons.

Along the shores, the fast vanishing
curlew may still be found, though tiie
oyster-catcher has been exterminated;
the sandpipers, the phalaropcs, the
plovers, the ruddy turnstone, the sand-

110

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

erling, aud the godwit, all help to make
the coastal skerries and lowlands along
the inlets interesting and lively.

On the inland plateau the loons, the
grebes, the coots, and the Canada geese
nest in numbers about the lakes and
pools, a few herons and rails, harlequin
ducks, and sandpipers frequent the
shores of the streams and ponds, some-
times nesting. In the woods and timber
lands of the interior the northern rang-
ing species of woodpeckers — hairy,
downy, black-backed, three-toed, and
the yellow-shafted flicker; the Canada
blue jay, and the Labrador jay; the
yellow-bellied fly-catcher, the raven,
the pine grosbeak, the white-winged
crossbill; the tree sparrow, the waxwing,
the warblers^Tennessee, yellow, myrtle
magnolia, black-poll, black-capped yel-
low, the water-thrush, and rarely, a
few others; the northern shrike; the
Hudsonian chickadee; the kinglets;
the live-backed and hermit thrushes;
the American robin; the ruffed grouse
and the Canada grouse; and transient
or casual visitors of other species; all
these form the interior woodland
avifauna.

In the more open glades and on the
barrens and semi-barrens, the willow
ptarmigan and Reinhardt's ptarmigan
are common, the latter migrating north-
ward about mid-April to the northern
barrens, and the islands to the north of
Labrador; the yellow-legs, Wilson's
snipe, and the inland sandpipers are
found on the moorlands; the cow-birds
and rusty blackbirds frequent the
shrubby fringes of the open places; the
red-polls, the longspur, the savannah
sparrow, Lincoln's sparrow, the white-
sparrow, the white-crowned and white-
throated sparrow, the junco, the pipit,
and the horned lark, flit about the
semi-barrens, and the shrub-carpeted
stretches of the barrens; while the snow-
bunting commonly, and the rare wheat-
war, occasionally, make their home
among the rocky ledges and Felsenmeer
of the whole region of barrens and semi-
barrens. The gyrfalcon, the duck hawk,
the bald eagle, and the American gos-

hawk course over the plateau; the osprey
frequents the waters of the southern
portion; the kingfisher darts along the
wooded streams; a number of owls —
short-eared, saw-whet, dusky, horned,
and American hawk owls — prey on the
small life; and the snowy owl sweeps
down over the plateau in winter,
coming from the high-arctic lands to
the north.

Insects

About 300 species of insects are known
from Labrador. The diptera, many
circumpolar in distribution, and an
almost intolerable feature of the short
Labrador summer, include two species
of botfly that infest the caribou; deer-
flies and horseflies of 10 or 12 species of
which the larvae are aquatic or sub-
aquatic and of which the adult flies are
the torment of the larger land life of
the peninsula; mosquitoes, beyond cred-
ible enumeration, that rise in cloudlike
swarms from the moors and tundra
and hover about the woodlands equally
densely; the minute midges, that help
to make human existence during summer
almost worthless in the woods; and a
few other species "that do not bite."

The hymenoptera number less than
30 species, of which 11 or 12 are leaf-
eaters or saw-flies; two are ants, con-
fined to the southernmost wooded
valleys; two are wasps; and 5 are bum-
ble bees. The bumblebees are far north-
ern species.

One hundred and fifteen species of
lepidoptera have been listed; 18 butter-
flies, including 4 small Fritillaries;
Argynnis atlantis; Papilio turnus; Pon-
tia napi v. frigida; 4 Eurymus; Eugonia
j-album; Oeneis norma v. semidea;
Agriades aquilo; and Lycaena ladon.
Two species of skippers, Pamphila
comma and Hesperia centaureae, have
been collected. Of the moths the
Arctiidae include 4 species; the Noc-
tuidae, 40 species; the Geometridae, 20
species; the Lipariidae one species;
the Hepialidae, two species; the Pyral-
idae, 8 species; the Crambidae, 6 species;
the Tortricidae, 20 species; the Tineidae,

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

111

10 species; and the Trichoptera (caddis-
flies) 5 species.

The Hemiptera include onlj^ 4 species;
the Orihoplera number one. Eight Oti-
donala (dragon-flies) have been found in
Labrador; one E'phemeris, or May -fly;
3 Piecopterids; several Thysanura or
spingtails; and the snow-flea; all these
have been recorded. Sixty species of
beetles and 11 spiders have l;)een de-
scribed from the peninsula.

Fish

The inland waters of Labrador are well
stocked with fish. The sturgeon is
common in many streams; the northern
sucker and the red sucker are common
throughout the peninsula in all the lakes
and streams; the whitefish is everywhere
abundant; the Atlantic salmon enter
all the streams opening on the Atlantic
and Hudson Straits watersheds; the
Great Lake trout, the brook trout, and
the pike are found in most of the
streams; the ling, an important fish
for the Indians because it will take bait
freely during the winter months when
other fish can not be caught and food is
scarce, is abundant in all the deeper
lakes.

The most important fish of the coastal
salt-water is the cod, which comes to the
coast to feed on the immense schools
of caplin that run inshore to feed. The
cod comes to the Labrador coast about
June twentieth, and moves northward
along the coast at the rate of about a
degree of latitude a week, but from
August to September they are spread
along the entire coast. The smaller
cod begin leaving the coast about the
first of October, but the larger remain
until well into November.

The mackerel left the Labrador coast
about the middle of the nineteenth
century and is rarely found there now.
The herring is again abundant after a
long period of relative absence. The
halibut, dab, and rock-cod are common.
The sleeper shark is abundant in all the
inlets and near the coast, a scavenger of
the sea-floor.

Crustacea of many species frequent

the Labrador coast. Crabs, lobsters,
shrimps, amphipods, isopods, copcpods,
and barnacles are numerous. The niol-
luscan fauna is distinctly Arctic, largely
of circumpolar species, both lacustrine
and littoral. Land molluscs are rare.
The plankton life, seasonally, is ex-
ceedingly rich.

CONCLUSION

The Labrador is relatively unexplored.
It offers one of the most promising
fields for the explorer and the pioneer
naturalist. The coast may be readily
visited during the summer months by
mail-steamers from St. Johns and by
fishing vessels from Gloucester, Pro-
vincetown, and the Atlantic coastal
fishing towns, where the cod-fleets
have their bases. The interior may be
traversed only by well-organized and
well-equipped expeditions with e.xpe-
rienced guides and leaders.

5. NEWFOUNDLAND

By W. Elmer Ekblaw

introduction

Newfoundland, an island of some
42,000 sq. mi. off the mouth of the Gulf of
St. Lawrence, lies between the parallels
of 46° 36' 50" and 51° 39' north latitude,
and between the meridians 53° 37' and
59° 24' 50" west longitude. It forms
an equilateral triangle, the distances
between Cape Bauld at the north angle.
Cape Spear at the southeast angle, and
Cape Ray at the southwest angle, being
each approximately 320 mi.

GEOLOGY

Except for a belt composed of the
highest portion of the Long Range
Hills, the entire island has been glac-
iated. Possibly two-thirds of the area
is occupied by Laurentian granites ami
gneisses, with considerable tracts of
serpentine; lluronian gneisses and
schists predominate in the eastern
portion; considerable belts of Carl>oni-
fcrous sandstones and .shales and scat-
tered tracts of Silurian and Devonian

112

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

limestones are found along the western
coast and in a few places over the pla-
teau. The distribution of the soils
resulting from the disintegration of
these different rocks influences to a
considerable degree the flora and vege-
tation of the island.

PHYSIOGRAPHY

Outline

The northwest coast of the island,
paralleling the fold known as the Long
Range, is fairly regular; the south coast
is much more broken by bays and fjords,
particularly toward the east end; and the
northeast coast is exceedingly broken
and irregular throughout its entire
extent, like the west coast of Norway,
or Greenland. These bays and fjords
occupy the valleys and lowlands of a
peninsular continuation of the eastern
Canadian coast prior to the post-glacial
submergence which left Newfoundland
an island. Numerous islets and islands
occupy the bays and gulfs. Avalon
Peninsula, almost detached from the
main island by Trinity Bay and Pla-
centia Bay, is connected only by a
narrow isthmus.

Relief

The relief, like the shore line, is an
expression of the geologic structure of
the terrain, the ridges and valleys
paralleling the direction of the folds,
N.N.E. to S.S.W. Seen from the sea,
the coast rises steep, 200 to 300 ft. or
even more, like a broad rocky wall,
bleak and apparently barren, to a
plateau dissected to form a rugged
hilly landscape.

Back of this dissected coastal belt,
the plateau is extensive and undulating,
with parallel ranges of hills and moun-
tains, of which the Long Range along
the west coast, with heights of 2000 ft.
or more, is the most important. Avalon
peninsula is rather rugged and rough,
but the highest hills here are not over
1200 ft. in height. Throughout the
region of the interior rolling plateau,

scattered sharp peaks called "tolts,"
serve to identify the various localities
of the island.

Drainage

Consequent upon the disturbance of
the original drainage system by the
general glaciation of the area, New-
foundland is characterized by innu-
merable lakes, pools, ponds, and
marshes, of such extent that one-third
the island is thus occupied by small
bodies of water, lying along the flood
plains of the streams, in hollows along
the slopes of the vallej'S, in depressions
between the moraines and ridges, and
even in hollows in the tops of the hills.

Three rivers of considerable size —
the Humber running west into the Bay
of Islands; and the Gander and Exploits
running northeast into the Hamilton
Sound and Notre Dame Bay respec-
tively— and a number of smaller streams
drain the island; but because of nu-
merous falls and rapids, and shallow
riffles they are unnavigable except for
canoes. Extensive bogs occupy much
of the valley areas and the plateau
slopes and levels.

CLIMATE

The climate of Newfoundland does
not merit designation as an oceanic
climate, but it is so modified by the
waters bathing its shores that it is
distinctly more equable and uniform
than that of the neighboring mainland.
The temperature rarely falls below
zero even in mid-winter, and rarely rises
above 80° in summer. The mean tem-
perature for the year, except in the
extreme northern portion where it is
lower, is from 40° to 45°. The average
precipitation, about evenly divided
between rain and snow, is less than
60 in.

The average barometer is 29.37 in.
The storms are mildly cyclonic, with
winds varying with the seasons in
general direction and velocity. Winter
sets in late in November and continues
until mid-April. During this period

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

113

a general covering of snow keeps the
frost from penetrating deep. The first
frosts are rather early in places — as
early as mid-August — and spring is
often tardy, particularly when the ice-
floes and ice-bergs have accumulated
unduly off the coast. Julj' in New-
foundland is like May in New York.

The north, east, and south coasts are
chilly and damp and foggy, because of
the meeting of the cold Greenland-
Labrador current with the warm air
and water of the Gulf stream. There
where the warm, moisture-laden air
off the Gulf stream encounters the
chill air off the cold waters of the Green-
land current, with its fleets of floes and
bergs, the vapor is condensed into
clouds and fogs and mists that charac-
terize the region. The interior and the
west coast, however, have a pleasant,
relatively mild and equable climate,
generally clear and invigorating.

BIOTA

Plant life

The vegetation of the island varies
with the topography of the soil, and the
drainage. The greater part of the
island has been heavily forested, the
dominant type of forest being coni-
ferous, with interspersed areas of decid-
uous woods — but great tracts have
been destroyed by fire.

The white pine, once abundant over
the island, has been almost all cut,
surviving only in isolated groves where
it has been intentionally preserved, or
in small tracts remote or difficult of
access. The most abundant coniferous
tree is black spruce, though the balsam
fir or spruce is also common; the tama-
rack is abundant in the bog or tundra;
and white spruce and cedar (low-growing
juniper) are widely distributed. Arbor-
vitae, rather common in New Brunswick
and Nova Scotia, is absent.

Scattered about among the coniferous
woods are large tracts of rather pure
growths of deciduous trees, balsam,
poplar, aspen, white and red maple,
birch, elm, mountain ash, alder and a

few others. In places, particularly on
the burned tracts, these arc also scat-
tered promiscuously among the new
stands of coniferous trees.

As a rule the forests arc found in belts
from two to 10 mi. wide along the
streams and about the shores of the
lakes. The most extensive areas of
timber left standing are in the l^asins
of the lixploits, Gander, and Humber
Rivers. It is estimated that the acreage
of marketable timber left standing in
Newfoundland is 6,500,000, of which no
small portion is well established second
growth on cut-over or fire-swept areas.

The forests rarely extend above the
1000 ft. elevation and generally cease
considerably lower. The crests and the
rolling tops of the hills are bare of trees,
in many places quite destitute of vegeta-
tion— the so-called barrens; in others,
where the soil and moisture are more
favorable the barrens are covered with
scrub willow, alder, and birch and low
evergreens. Thus from cast to west,
Newfoundland is a succession of parallel
barren ridges, and forested valleys.

On the plateaus and in the valleys
where the drainage is incomplete, lie
extensive bogs; some of them are for-
ested with black spruce, tamarack,
willow, and alder as dominant trees,
and Labrador tea, dwarf birch, an-
dromeda, kalmia and other low shrubs
forming a rather dense undergrowth on
the wet floor of sphagnum, sedge, and
cotton grass; others are shrubby; but
many of them are open, grassy, and
sedgy moors, with a wealth of flowering
plants and ferns.

The vascular plants of Newfoundland
are many and varied, comprising over
1000 species, some of general distribu-
tion, others confined to certain limited
types of soil, or physiographic divisions.
Berry-bearing plants — Ruhua, Vacciniuin
Empetrum, and Viburnum— &ro numer-
ous. Flowering plants, both shrubs,
and herbs, and ferns grow in profusion,
except in the driest, windswept portions
of the barrens. Grasses, sedges and
mosses carpet the wet open places.
Reindeer moss (Cladonia) clothes the

114

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

rockier slopes and crests, particularly
in the northwest part.

The flora seems to possess definite
affinity with the sub-alpine life of
Labrador, and with the flora of New
England and New Jersey, but forms
related to those of New Brunswick,
Quebec, and Nova Scotia, are rela-
tively few, probably due to a barrier of
unfavorable soils prior to the post-
glacial submergence of the connecting
lands.

Animal life

The most important feature of the
fauna of Newfoundland is the woodland
caribou, which migrates in March from
the valleys and the more wooded por-
tions of the southern half of the island,
to the Cladonia-covered barrens of the
northwest, there to bear its young in
May and June, and to browse through
the summer until the first heavy frosts
of October, when it again moves south-
ward. The large herds of this animal
thus moving annually back and forth
over the island are the dominant feature
in the animal life of the land, as the cod
is of the sea.

The gray wolf (Canis lycaon), now
very scarce, and the black bear (Ursus
americanus group), frequent the interior.
The red fox and its variants are common.
Beaver, otter, weasel, arctic hare, musk-
rat and bats abound. No reptiles are
indigenous. Frogs have been intro-
duced and thrive well. The moose and
porcupine of the neighboring Canadian
coast are absent. Salmon and trout,
but no pike or pickerel, or other pre-
daceous fish, are found in the inland
streams or lakes.

Bird life, both on land and sea, is rich
and varied. Over 300 species have been
recorded— eagles, hawks, owls, wood-
peckers, swallows, king fishers, fly
catchers, thrushes, warblers, ravens,
jays, sparrows, and others inland;
golden plover, sandpipers, curlews and
other shore-birds, but no woodcock;
ducks, geese, loons, coot and others
frequent the many lakes and the coast;
dovekies, gannets, gulls, guillemots,

puffins, murres, and razorbill auks
are abundant in the waters that wash
the shore ; on the lower lands the willow
ptarmigan is one of the most distinctive
birds and on the uplands, the rock
ptarmigan. The great auk once fre-
quented the shores and the outlying
islands but has been extinct these many
years.

Insect life is abundant. Mosquitoes
and deerflies are apparently omnipresent
throughout much of the summer. Gay
butterflies flit over the open vales and
barrens; moths of many species frequent
both open and woodland.

And in the sea adjacent to Newfound-
land, particularly on the Grand Banks
to the south and southeast, the aquatic
fauna is one of the richest in the world.
In this meeting ground of the Green-
land current with the Gulf Stream, both
bearing heavy loads of pelagic algae
and other minute forms, sea life is most
abundant. Echinoderms, molluscs, an-
nelids, and coelenterates innumerable,
feed upon this rich plankton growth,
and in turn yield sustenance to the fish
and larger forms.

About the first of June the caplin,
a small fish, appears on the banks in
incredible millions, and preying upon
them appear the cod. When the caplin
disappear, the squid comes to take its
place as cod-food, and when the squid
leaves the herring appear, thus furnish-
ing the cod with an abundance of food
until mid-October, when it too leaves.
Lobsters are abundant in the off-shore
waters. Mackerel once frequented the
coast in large numbers but disappeared
about the middle of the nineteenth
century, and have not returned.

In spring thousands of harp and a few
hooded seal float south from the Arctic
regions on pan-ice borne by the Green-
land Current, to bear their young on the
floes. They are killed by hundreds of
thousands, both young and old, during
the month of April . Hundreds of whales
are also killed annually, many of them
sulphur-bottoms, finbacks, and hump-
backs. The white whale, or beluga,
one of the porpoises, is occasionally

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

115

common. The narwhal once abundant
along the coast is now disappearing.
The killer whale is abundant, as are the
grampus and porpoise.

ROUTES OF TRAVEL

Newfoundland is readily accessible
as a field for study, either by the Inter-
Colonial Railway or by steamers from
America and Europe. The island itself
is difficult of traverse, particularly
toward the northwest, because of the
bogs, rocky hills, and barrens, without
roads or even trails. The rivers are
navigable only by canoes. Most parts
of the island are accessible only by boat
from the sea; the southern half may be
studied fairly well from the main railway
and the spurs built out from it. Mos-
quitoes and deerflies are so annoying
as to hinder field work and special pre-
cautions for comfort and relief are
necessary.

6. THE MACKENZIE WATERSHED;
NORTHERN HUDSON BAY REGION,
UPPER YUKON REGION, AND THE
ARCTIC ISLANDS

By Edward A. Preble

I. GENERAL CONDITIONS

/ . General topography of the entire region
The region treated in the present
sketch includes a vast area in the north-
ern interior of North America, between
latitude 50° and 78° N., and extending
from longitude 85° west to 115° at the
south, and from 80° west to 141° at the
north. The Arctic Ocean washes its
northern shores and islands; Hudson
Bay marks its eastern limit, and its
western border includes the headwaters
of streams which enter the Pacific from
middle British Columbia to Bering Sea.
Its physiography is very much varied.
At the south grassy plains, interspersed
with small patches and tongues of forest,
are succeeded as one goes northward by
a forest that is almost unbroken save
by the rivers and the lakes, which are
numerous and sometimes very large.
Because of differences in geology, the

lakes are more numerous in the eastern
portion. North of the groat forest lies
a large area which for climatic reasons is
treeless, but still has a rich and varied
flora. The southern and eastern parts
of the region are rolling, with only a few
hilly areas. At the extreme northwest,
however, it includes the northern part
of the Rocky Mountain chain, here lower
than farther south, and its foothill
ranges. These are forested on their
lower slopes but hold large alpine areas,
the flora and fauna of which have close
affinities with the treeless Arctic.

North and northeast of the continen-
tal portion of the region, above briefly
described, lies the Arctic Archipelago,
including a number of large islands
similar in topography, flora, and fauna
to the treeless part of the mainland.
The region is exceptionally well-
watered, mainly by the great Mackenzie,
which ranks second in size of basin, and
third in actual volume, among North
American rivers. Northwestwardly, the
region includes areas watered by streams
which enter the Pacific Ocean and Bering
Sea, this lying, of course, west of the
Continental divide.

For transportation, the naturalist
must depend largely on boats of some
kind, supplemented by dog sled if it is
desired to enter the region before the
opening of navigation, or if the freeze-
up should overtake him en route. To
reach the northward flowing streams
several rail routes are possible. For
most direct access to the lower Atha-
baska and the Mackenzie, the Alberta
and Great Waterways Railway, running
north-northeastward from Edmonton,
Alberta, takes one to navigable water
on the lower Clearwater. From here
steamboat travel, interrupted only at
one point, the 16-mi. Smith portage, is
aff"orded to the mouth of the Mackenzie.
From many points on this 1500-nii.
route a great number of canoe routes
lead to all parts of the immense region
now treated, to thousands of lakes,
streams, and mountains ui\kiiowu ex-
cept to the wandering native. Alter-
native railroad lines leading to the north

116

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

are the Athabaska Landing branch of the
Canadian Northern, running 100 mi.
northward from Edmonton, and the E.
D. and B. C. railway running to Peace
River by way of Lesser Slave Lake.
The latter line affords access to the
Mackenzie by way of the lower Peace
and Slave River, or to the upper tribu-
taries of Peace River, in the interior of
northern British Columbia. Another
route to the latter section is by canoe
northward from various points on the
Canadian National railway, which
crosses central British Columbia from
the head of Eraser River to the Pacific
in about latitude 54°.

3. Climate of entire region

The climate of a region of such magni-
tude as the one under discussion is so
varied that it seems best to take up this
subject in the account of the various
areas. In general it may be said that
the winters are long and cold, and the
summers short and comparatively warm.
There is a very wide yearly range of
temperature especially over the Conti-
nental portion of the region, the greatly
increased number of hours of sunlight
enjoyed in summers in high latitudes
making up in a measure for the increase
in latitude. This enables the smaller
shrubs and other plants to complete
their reproductive processes within a
comparatively short time.

3. Original biotic divisions

A. Poplar forest and savanna of south-
ern portion (Canadian Zone). This
division occupies most of a broad strip
extending north-northwestward from
Edmonton, passing west of Athabaska
(on the river), thence, including the
basin of Lesser Slave Lake, on to Peace
River, northward down its valley on
either side, and northward nearly to
Great Slave Lake. In a modified form,
it stretches westward to include much
of the Peace River valley,, in northeast-
ern British Columbia.

This is the region of transition from
the grassy and treeless Great Plains to

the great northern Forest. Its principal
tree is the aspen poplar {Populus tremu-
loides) which forms groves of greater
or lesser extent on the slopes of the rol-
ling hills. In low areas where the
drainage is imperfect, mossy swamps or
muskegs where the black spruce (Picea
mariana) is dominant are frequent.
Farther north these become more
numerous and become a dominant
feature.

Originally this area was the habitat
of the bison {Bison b. athabascae) and
the elk (Cervus canadensis), but the
latter is long since extirpated here, and
the bison remains only in small numbers
near its northern part. Other mammals
presumably here were the moose (Alces
americanus), Franklin ground squirrel
{Citellus franklinii), thirteen-lined
ground-squirrel (C. tridecemlineatus)
(these two not north of Athabaska
River), Saskatchewan pocket-gopher
{Thomomys talpoides) (southerly), nor-
thern plains skunk {Mephitis hudsonica) ,
and several mice and voles. Birds are
numerous; a few notable breeders in-
clude the sharp-tailed grouse, upland
plover, and the western solitary sand-
piper.

The only reptile, the northern garter
snake {Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis),
which enters any part of the region is
confined mainly to the savannas of this
subdivision. Scarcely less strictly con-
fined to it are the western toad {Bufo
lentiginosus ivoodhousei) , and the leopard
frog (Rana pipiens). The northern
wood frog (Rana cantabrigensis latire-
mis) and the northern chorophilus (Cho-
rophilus septentrionalis) also are found
in it, but extend their ranges far be-
yond— to the limit of trees.

B. Transcontinental coniferous area.
1. Southern heavy timber (Canadian
Zone) : Covering most of the region
under discussion is the great transcon-
tinental conifer forest. Its principal
trees are the white and black spruces
{Picea alba and P. mariana), whose
ranges are coextensive with its limits,
and the canoe birch {Betula papyrifera) ,
tamarack {Larix laricina), aspen and

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

117

balsam poplars (Populus Iremuloides
and P. balsamifera), Banksian pine
(Pinus divaricata) (replaced in British
Columbia and Yukon by lodge-pole
pine (Pinus contorta)), and balsam fir
(Abies balsamea), which are common in
the southern part of the belt, and which
terminate, counting from the north,
in about the order given. With these
are associated, generally in the form of
undergrowth, a variety of shrubs, some
of which, also, have a continuous dis-
tribution through the forest zone, while
others are more or less restricted in
range. Some of the more conspicuous
of these are the following: creeping
juniper (Juniperus sabina), low juniper
(/. nana), a large variety of willows
(Salix), one (S. behbiana) attaining the
dignity of a tree, but most being creeping
shrubs or low bushes, sweet gale (Myrica
gale), two hazels (Corylus amcricana
and C. rostrata) (southerly), dwarf
birches (Betula glandulosa and B. nana),
alders (Alnus), several currants and
gooseberies [Ribes), red raspherry (Rubus
strigosus), shrubby cinquefoil (Dasi-
phora fruticosa), wild rose (Rosa acicu-
laris), service berry {Amelanchier alni-
j'olia), cherries {Primus pennsylvanica
and P. virginiana) crowberry (Empet-
rum nigrum), silverberry (Elaeagnus
argentea) buffalo berry (Lepargyrea
canadensis) , dwarf cornel (Cornus cana-
densis), red-osier cornel {Cornus stolo-
nifera), Labrador tea {Ledum groenlandi-
cum), swamp laurel (Kalmia glauca),
wild rosemary {Andromeda polifolia),
leatherleaf {Chamaedaphne calyculata),
red bearberry {Arciostaphylos uvaursi),
mountain cranberry {Vitisidaea vilisi-
daea), small cranberry {Oxycoccus oxy-
coccus), bog blueberry {Vaccinium uligi-
nosum), cranberry tree {Vivurnum
americanum) (southerly), few-flowered
viburnum {V. paucijlorum) , and
snowberry {Symphoricarpos racemosus)
(southerly). With these are associated
a great variety of herbaceous plants,
many of which bear flowers of great
beauty, a number of ferns, and a great
variety of mosses and lichens.
The more common and characteristic

mammals of the great forest include
the following:'

Eastern moose {Alces amcricanus)
Eastern woodland caribou (Rangifer

caribou)
Wood bison {Bison bison athaliascac)
Canadian woodchuck uMarmolu monax

canadensis)
Liard River chipmunk (Eulajnias

borealis)
Hudson Bay red squirrel {Sciurus hud-

sonicus)
Hudson Bay flying squirrel {Glaucomjjs

sabrinus)
Arctic white-footed mouse {Peromyscus

m. borealis)
Mackenzie phenacomys {Phenacomys

mackenzii)
Athabaska red-backed mouse (Evoiomys

gapperi alhabascae)
Northern lemming vole (Synaptomys

borealis)
Drummond vole (Mirrolus drummondi)
Chestnut-cheeked vole {Microlus xan-

lhognath%is)
Northwest muskrat {Fiber zibelhicus

spatulatus)
Canadian beaver (Castor canadensis)
Hudson Bay jumping mouse {Zapus

hudsonius)
Canada porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum)
Hudson Bay snowshoe hare {Lepus

amcricanus)
Canada lynx {Lynx canadensis)
Gray wolf (Canis occidentalis)
British Columbia red fox (Vtilpes

alascensis abietorum)
Black bear {Ursus amcricanus)
Canadian otter (Lulra canadensis)
Western mink {Lutreola vison energu-

menos)
Richardson weasel (Mustela cicognanii

richardsoni)
Least weasel {Mustela rixosa)
Alaska marten (Maries americana ar-

luosa)
Fisher (Martcs pennantii)
Hudson Bay wolverene (Gulo lusvus)
Common eastern shrew {Sorcx pcr-

sonatus)
Richardson shrew (Sorex richardsoni)
Marsh shrew (Nco^orcx palus(ris)
.\laska microsores (Microsorex cximius)
Little brown bat (Myoiis lucifugus)
Hoary bat (Nyctci-is cincrcus)

Among birds the following may be
noted:

Horned grebe
Loon

1 These lists do not include certnin West Coast
and Rocky .\rount:iin species occurrinR in Britiah
rolunihiajuul Yukon, iind which are listed under

those subdivisions.

118

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Pacific loon

Herring gull

California gull

Short-billed gull

Bonaparte gull

Common tern

American merganser

Mallard

Baldpate

Green-winged teal

Pintail

Lesser scaup duck

Ring-necked duck

American golden-eye

Bufflehead

Canada goose

Little brown crane

Sora rail

Yellow rail

American coot

Wilson snipe

Greater yellowlegs

Yellowlegs

Western solitary sandpiper

Spotted sandpiper

Hudsonian spruce grouse

Gray ruffed grouse

Sharp-tailed grouse

Marsh hawk

Sharp-skinned hawk

Goshawk

Western red-tailed hawk

Golden eagle

Bald eagle

Duck hawk

Pigeon hawk

American sparrow hawk

American osprey

Long-eared owl

Short-eared owl

Great gray owl

Richardson owl

Arctic horned owl

American hawk owl

Belted kingfisher

Northern hairy woodpecker

Nelson downy woodpecker

Arctic three-toed. woodpecker

Banded-backed three-toed woodpecker

Yellow-bellied sapsucker

Northern flicker

Nighthawk

Kingbird

Phoebe

Olive-sided flycatcher

Western wood pewee

Alder flycatcher

Least flycatcher

Canada jay

Northern raven

Crow

Cowbird

Northern redwing

Rusty blackbird

Bronzed grackle

Eastern pine grosbeak

White-winged crossbill
Redpoll

Western Savanna sparrow
Intermediate sparrow
White-throated sparrow
Western chipping sparrow
Slate-colored junco
Lincoln sparrow
Swamp sparrow
Fox sparrow
Louisiana tanager
Cliff swallow
Tree swallow
Bank swallow
Bohemian waxwing
Northern shrike
Red-eyed vireo
Western warbling viree
Blue-headed vireo
Black and white warbler
Orange-crowned warbler
Tennessee warbler
Yellow warbler
Myrtle warbler
Magnolia warbler
Bay-breasted warbler
Black-poll warbler
Palm warbler
Ovenbird

Grinnell water-thrush
Wilson warbler
Redstart

Red-breasted nuthatch
Long-tailed chickadee
Hudsonian chickadee
Golden-crowned kinglet
Ruby-crowned kinglet
Olive -backed thrush
Eastern hermit thrush
Robin

2. Northern stunted timber (Hudso-
nian Zone) : Included in the great coni-
ferous forest and bordered on the north
by the Barren Grounds, there is a strip
of country from 100 to 200 mi. wide,
which is covered by forest somewhat
stunted and dwarfed (Hudsonian Zone).
In some places, where areas of fertile
soil, usually the valleys of northward-
flowing rivers, impinge closely on more
exposed areas of rocky ground, the tran-
sition from one type to another is well-
marked, while in others the change is
more gradual.

In the Mackenzie region this belt has
no strictly characteristic mammals,
though the range of a red-backed vole
(Evotomys dawsoni) is practically con-
fined within its limits. Most of the
woodland mammals necessarily have

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

119

their northern limit within it. Such
comprise the following: Rangijer cari-
bou, Alces, Sciuropterus, Sciurus, Castor,
Evotomys, Fiber, Ereihizon, Lepus ameri-
canus, Lynx, Lutra, Lutreola, Mustela,
and others. Among birds, the pigeon
hawk, great gray owl, hawk owl, pine
grosbeak, Harris sparrow, tree sparrow
and gray-cheeked thrush breed princi-
pally within it. Its trees are not pecu-
liar, though the Banksian pine {Pinus
divaricata) and balsam poplar (Populus
balsamifcra) barely enter its borders.
Its shrubs are mainly species that over-
lap from the adjoining zones. Among
those which seem to reach their greatest
perfection in the belt of stunted trees
may be mentioned Empetrum nigrum,
Ledum palustre, Vaccinium uliginosum,
Vitisidaea vitisidaea, Oxycoccus oxycoc-
cus, Arctous alpina, and Betula nana.

On the southwest shores of Hudson
Bay this zone occupies a strip about 200
mi. in width. Thence its southern
boundary extends inland, passing
through Athabaska Lake, and then
bending northward crosses Great Slave
Lake just east of the mouth of Slave
River. Practically all of the northern
shore of Great Slave Lake lies within
its limits. Beyond here its lower boun-
dary is very uncertain. It is bounded
by a strip of well wooded country,
probably only a few miles in width,
extending northward along the Macken-
zie. This southern influence ceases to
be effective near the mouth of Bear
River, and the southern limit of the
zone may be considered to cross the
Mackenzie near latitude 65°. Thence
it bends southward, following the west-
ern border of the Canadian strip. Here,
as on the eastern side, the position of
the boundary is unknown, but because
of the great altitude of most of the
country west of the Mackenzie and north
of the Liard the southern heavy timber
(Canadian Zone) can not extend far
from the river and the stunted timber
(Hudsonian) must cover nearly the
entire area, exclusive of the alpine sum-
mits of the mountains. A large area
to the south of the Liard, including most

of the country drained by its southern
tributaries, and practically all the
country about its headwaters in north-
eastern British Columbia and south-
eastern Yukon below the tiinbcrline,
arc also in this class. The latter area
will be considered more fully later.

C. Barren grounds {Arctic Zone).
North of the Trans-continental Forest
lies an immense area usually called the
Barren Grounds, from its treeless con-
dition, which results from a summer so
short that reproduction can not be
effected. This condition, however, does
not prevent the perpetuation of many
species of shrubby and herbaceous plants
and a rich insect fauna, which together
support a great variety of vertebrate
life.

Shrubby plants are common, Rhodo-
dendron lapponicum, Cassiope teiragona,
Dryas integrifolia, and several dwarf
willows being perhaps the most charac-
teristic. Many other less strictly rep-
resentative plants also are abundant.
The area is further characterized by the
presence of certain mammals, as the
lemmings of the genera Lemmus and
Dicrostonyx, the Arctic fox (Alopex
lagopus innuitus), musk-ox (Ouibos mo-
schatus), Barren Ground caribou (Ran-
gijer arcticus), and Arctic hare {Lepus
arcticus canus). Most of the birds
which characterize this area are mi-
gratory, spending only the breeding
season within its boundaries. They
comprise, among the Anatidae, the
various species of the genus Chen, the
brent geese, and one or two genera of
maritime ducks; and among the Limi-
colae, the genera Lobipes, Phalaropus,
Macrorhamphus, Pisobia and rchitetl
genera, Crocethia, Tryngites, Numcniu.^
{hudsonicus and borealis), Squalarola,
Pluvialis and Arenaria. The Gallinae
are represented by willow ami rock
ptarmigans, the Raptores by the gyr-
falcons, and the Passercs by the Snow-
flakes, Lapland and painted longspurs
and the pipits.

D. Local conditions. 1. The larger
rivers, the Athabaska, Peace, Slave,
Mackenzie, and Liard, have a uioder-

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NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

ately swift current and are usually
muddy, especially in spring and at times
of high water, when the clay banks are
cut down by the flood. Their courses
are characterized by a series of long
alternating curves, with cut banks on
the concave sides, and gravel bars
opposite. Spruce trees usually line
the high banks, and willows, alders and
poplars the lower younger shores.
Many islands usually wooded, occur.

2. Lakes are numerous especially in
the area of primitive rocks, and are of
course bordered by rocky and sandy
shores, and contain many islands.
The principal ones form a more or less
connected system, part of a series
extending from Lake Superior to the
Arctic Sea. These lie along the j unction
of the primitive or granitic and the
newer limestone formations, usually
heading in the primitive belt and out-
letting in the limestone district. They
are of irregular shape, usually sending
long arms eastward into the primitive
formation and north and south along
the junction of the two systems, though
in some cases the southern arms have
been filled by the sediment-bearing
streams which enter them. In addition
to the large lakes thousands of smaller
ones are scattered over the entire region.

3. Marshes are numerous and in
several cases very extensive. The more
important of these will receive detailed
attention in the proper places.

4. Fire-swept areas are all too com-
mon. In the case of coniferous woods,
a growth of deciduous woods usually
succeeds.

II. PRESENT BIOTA

Apart from the general reduction in
numbers of the game and fur bearing
animals, and the game birds, due to
partial settlement, the changes in the
fauna of the wooded parts of the region
are mainly chargeable to fire, which has
profoundly changed large areas. Some
sections have been reburned, sometimes
repeatedly, and in such the forest cover-
ing may be entirely destroyed, and
grassy prairie may succeed. Coniferous

areas which are burned usually change
to the deciduous type, and this change
in type of forest is of course accompanied
by the ingression of certain birds and
mammals which were originally absent.
The most conspicuous mammalian ex-
amples are the mule deer {Odocoileus
hemionus), which, within the past
century, has extended its range north-
ward for several hundred miles. The
coyote also {Canis latrans), aided per-
haps by partial settlement within its
former habitat, has effected an extension
of its range even more notable. Among
birds, it is certain that the rose-breasted
grosbeak {Hedymeles ludoviciana) , has
traveled northwestward upwards of 500
mi., and there is reason to suspect that
several other species of small birds
have entered the region of the lower
Athabaska within historic times. This
ingression, probably caused in part at
least, by the changes referred to, has
not been accompanied by the loss of
any species excepting the elk {Cervus
canadensis), although many mammals,
notably the larger game animals and
especially the fur-bearers, have suffered
great reduction in numbers, and two
others, the northern bison (Bison b.
athabascae), and the musk-ox {Ouibos
moschatus), have had their ranges
greatly reduced. These reductions and
losses, however, it should be emphasized,
can not be charged to changes in the
character of the forest cover, but are
rather in line with the usual reduction
of the large animals which follow partial
settlement and the exploitation of the
natural resources of a region.

Along the Arctic coast of Alaska and
Canada, the presence of whaling and
trading ships has resulted in great
diminution of the game animals. Since
about 1896, when the whalers begun to
winter at Herschel Island and Baillie
Island, and a few years later at Langton
Bay and in Coronation Gulf, the effect
has been serious. These vessels depend
largely on the game resources of the
country for subsistence, hiring the
natives as hunters. This has resulted
in the practical extermination of the

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

121

caribou along the entire coast of north-
ern Alaska and Yukon, and great reduc-
tion in their numbers east to the region
of the Coppermine. During the same
period the musk-ox has been extirpated
from most of its former range from Coro-
nation Gulf westward.

III. NATURAL DRAINAGE AREAS AND
PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS

1. The Mackenzie and Upper Y^ikon
Basins

In any description of northern North
America from the standpoint of the
traveler one must be guided in his
method of treatment by its waterways,
which now, and which probably will for
many years to come, afford almost the
only means available for visiting its most
interesting sections. Thus considered,
the valley of the Mackenzie is by far
the largest and most important of the
natural divisions. Broadened to in-
clude certain areas not actually drained
by this great river sj'stem, but which can
most readily be reached by its help, it
comprises a vast region in the northern
part of Canada, with an area of nearly
700,000 sq. mi., bounded roughly as
follows: On the north by the Arctic
Ocean; on the east by the valleys of the
Great Fish, Thelon, Telzoa, and
Churchill rivers; on the south by the
Churchill and Saskatchewan valleys;
and on the west by the main range of
the Rocky Mountains.

For convenience of reference the
Mackenzie basin may be divided into
several areas: The Athabaska Valley;
the basin of Athabaska Lake; the Peace
River Valley, including the Slave; the
basin of Great Slave Lake; the Macken-
zie Valley proper; the basin of Great
Bear Lake; the region to the north of
that body of water, and drained by the
Anderson and smaller rivers which enter
the Arctic Ocean, and the Liard River
Valley. The areas will be considered in
the order given. These accounts will
be followed by a description of north-
eastern British Columbia and Yukon,
comprising the drainage areas of the

Upper Liard and Yukon rivers, and of
the Stikine and other rivers which reach
the Pacific in middle British Coluniljja.

A. The Athabaska Valley. The Atha-
baska River rises in the Rocky Moun-
tains near Mount Brown, at an altitude
of about 5700 ft., and pursues a north-
easterly and northerly course for nearly
600 mi. to Athabaska Lake, falling in this
distance some 5000 ft., and being in-
terrupted by several series of rapids.
In the first 300 mi. of its course it falls
about 4000 ft., and receives in succession
Baptiste River from the west, the Mc-
Leod and Pembina from the south, and
the Lesser Slave from the west. Below
its confluence with the last-named stream
the Athabaska turns southeastward for
some 50 mi. and then resumes its north-
erly course. In the course of the next 150
mi. it receives in succession La Bichc
River, Quito or Calling River; Big
Mouth Brook; Pelican River; and House
River. Just below the mouth of the last
river the Athabaska strikes a range of
low hills, and in forcing a passage
through them is deflected eastward, and
for a distance of about 75 mi. contains
many rapids, falling in this distance
some 400 ft. At the lower end of this
stretch it receives the waters of Clear-
water River, its principal tributary below
Lesser Slave River. The Clearwater
rises on the height of land between
the Churchill and the Athabaska, and
30 or 40 mi. above its mouth it is joined
by the Pembina, a stream of about equal
volume.

The country drained by the Athabaska
is mainly a rolling plain, and with the
exception of a few areas of semiprairie
land is well wooded with a forest com-
posed mainly of spruce, fir, pine, tama-
rack, poplar, birch, and willow. A large
part of its surface is occupied by mossy
swamps, called muskegs, and hundreds
of lakes, of which Lesser Slave, 70 mi.
in length is by far the largest, occui\v its
shallow valleys.

The country lying between the Atha-
baska and Peace rivers, and drained in
part by the latter stream, may be best
characterized by ciuoting in part the

122

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

account by McConnell, who examined it
in the summer of 1889:

The country between the Peace and
Athabasca rivers north of Lesser Slave
Lake, comprising an area of about
44,000 sq. mi., . . . may be de-
scribed as a gently undulating wooded
plain, diversified with numerous shallow
lakes, muskegs and marshes. Small
prairie patches, manifestly due to forest
fires, occur north of the west end of
Lesser Slave Lake, at several points
along the Loon and Wabiscaw rivers,
. . . but their total area is relatively
insignificant.

The rolling plains between Peace
River and the Athabasca are relieved
by several high ridges or plateaus, all
of which owe their origin to a differential
denudation of the soft rocks on which
the plains are based. Of these Marten
Mountain is situated northeast of Lesser
Slave Lake, above which it rises to the
height of about 1000 ft. The Buffalo
Head Hills commence abruptly about
60 mi. above the mouth of the Loon
River, with an elevation of about 2500
ft. above the Sea, and running in a
south-southwesterly direction die away
opposite the mouth of Battle River,
while Birch Mountain extends for nearly
90 mi. along the lower part of the
Athabasca, from which it is separated
by a plain 16 to 20 mi. wide. Among
the smaller elevations are Trout Moun-
tain, which is situated north of the
Wabiscaw River, and the Thickwood
Hills, which lie south of Birch Moun-
tain. The uplands of the district, like
the lowlands, are all wooded, and are
dotted everywhere with lakes and
marshes. (Ann. Rept. Geol. Surv.
Canada, V, pp. 6D, 7D, 1893.)

Climatology: The climate of the
Athabaska Valley in common with most
of the country included in the Mackenzie
basin, is characterized by a wide range
of temperature. In winter the mercury
frequently reaches —40°, while summer
temperatures of between 80° and 90° are
not infrequent. Its western portion is
subject to Chinook winds, which periodi-
cally temper the climate.

Of vital interest to the traveler, who
must depend so largely on water trans-
portation, are data on the freezing and
breaking up of the rivers. In all
northern rivers navigation is inter-
rupted, before the actual closing of the
stream, bj^ drift ice. This is mainly ice

which has formed in the eddies and
which, by a slight rise of water, the
usual result of its formation, or from the
accumulation of snow upon it, becomes
detached and descends the current, con-
tinually adding to its own volume. This
continues until the increasing cold causes
the mass to jam and become solidly
cemented. After the breaking up of
the rivers in spring the ice, of course,
continues to run for a longer or shorter
period.

The following table shows the dates of
the opening and closing of the Athabaska
at Fort McMurray during a series of
years:

Table showing condition of Athabaska at
Fort McMurray

BIVER

YEAR

OPENED

ICE DRIFTING

RIVER CLOSED

1878

Apr. 18

Oct. 27

1879

Oct. 26

Nov. 1

1880

May 2

Nov. 14

1881

Apr. 21

Oct. 14

Nov. 12

1882

Apr. 24

Nov. 1

Nov. 8

1883

Apr. 25

Oct. 30

Nov. 10

1884

Apr. 27

Oct. 18

Oct. 28

1886

Apr. 9

Oct. 23

Nov. 13

1886

Apr. 16

Nov. 4

Nov. 14

1887

Apr. 27

Oct. 22

Oct. 24

1888

May 4

Nov. 3

Nov. 9

B. Athabaska Lake Region. Atha-
baska' Lake is long and narrow and lies
in a general easterly and westerly direc-
tion. Its greatest length is about 195
mi.; greatest width, 35 mi.; and area,
approximately 2850 sq. mi. Its eleva-
tion above the sea is about 690 ft.

The principal tributary of Athabaska
Lake is the river of the same name, just
described. Its capacity for deposition
is so great that, assisted by the Peace,
it has filled up a large portion of what
was originally the western part of
Athabaska Lake, and has isolated several
good-sized sheets of water, the largest of
which, Lake Claire, is some 35 mi. in
length.

The north shore of Athabaska Lake is
mainly rocky and sparsely wooded, and
is broken by the mouths of a number of
insignificant streams, which help to
drain the unexplored country to the

NATURAL AREAS AND REGION .s

123

northward. On its southern side, whose
shores are mainly low and sandy, Atha-
baska Lake receives the waters of Wil-
liam, Grand Rapid, and several smaller
rivers.

Black River, draining a very large area
of rocky, sparsely wooded country,
flows into the extreme eastern end of
Athabaska Lake. Black Lake, the
principal expansion in its lower portion,
receives the waters of Chipman and
Cree Rivers.

The climate of Athabaska Lake is not
radically different from that of other
parts of the Mackenzie region which are
practically removed from the influence
of the warm Pacific winds. Though it
lies at a low altitude, the proximity of
the lake to the Bari'en Grounds, from
which winds are fi-equent, keeps its
average temperature rather low. An
occasional warm west wind slightly
tempers the winter climate. The Peace
and Athabaska break up at their mouths
about the 1st of May, but the neigh-
boring part of the lake usually does not
open until about the middle of May, and
the eastern part probably not before
June. The lake usually closes at Fort
Chipewyan some time in November.

C. Tke Peace River Valley. Peace
River is the largest of the affluents of
the Athabaska-Mackenzie system, and
being in fact much larger than the
Athabaska, may be considered the main
river. It rises on the western side of
the Rocky Mountains and is already a
a good-sized stream when it breaks
through that range.

From the confluence of the Finlay and
the Parsnip, the Peace flows in a general
easterly direction for some 300 mi. to its
junction with the Smoky, falling in this
distance a little less than 800 ft. The
country through which it flows east of
the mountains maj'- be considered as a
plateau, in which it has excavated a
rather deep vallej'. Back from the
river the country is mainly level or
rolling, and is thinly wooded.

Smoky River is the largest tributary
of the Peace. Its principal branches
rise on the eastern slope of the Rocky

Mountains, and it drains a large extent
of thinly wooded and prairie country.

Below the mouth of the Smoky, the
Peace turns and pursues a winding
though general northerly course nearly
to Fort Vermilion. It is bordered at first
by steep sandstone cliffs, but its valley
gradually becomes wider and shallower.
Extensive plains, comparatively level
and clothed with grass or a sparse growth
of poplars, border it on both sides.
North of Fort Vermilion this character
of country is said to extend to the valleys
of Hay and Buffalo rivers.

Between Fort Vermilion and the
Peace-Athabaska Delta the Peace is
very broad and contains many wooded
islands. Vermilion Falls, a formidal^le
rapid, interrupts navigation a short
distance above the mouth of Reil
River, and another, usuallj' called the
Little Rapid," occurs at some distance
below.

The Quatre Fourches, an offshoot of
the Peace, connects that stream with
Athabaska Lake, and few miles below,
Rocher River also joins the Peace.
These streams traverse the Peace-Atha-
baska Delta, and their currents run to or
from Peace River, being dependent on
the relative heights of the water in
Peace River and Athabaska Lake. The
delta is a vast marsh, partial!}' wooded
with poplars and willows and studded
with hundreds of reedy lakes. This
marsh is one of the most important
breeding areas of waterfowl in Nortli
America, and is also one of the principal
resting and feeding places for migratory
wildfowl on their semi-annual journeys.
Of the breeding birds, the following
may be noted: Holboells grebe, horned
grebe, black tern, American merganser,
mallard, baldpate, green-winged teal,
shoveler, pintail, canvasback, lesser
scaup, ringneck, American goldeneye,
bufflehead, Canada goose, little l)rown
crane, sora, Wilson snipe, yellowlegs,
alder flycatcher, ycllow-heaticd lilack-
bird, northern redwing, rusty grackic,
Leconte's sparrow. Nelson's sjiarrow,
Lincoln's sparrow, swamp sparrow,
Alaska yellow warbler, Grinnell's water

124

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

thrush, redstart, and olive-I)acked
thrush.

Below the delta the combined stream,
here called the Slave, turns abruptly
northward and flows for a distance of
about 70 mi. in a general northerly direc-
tion to the Smith Rapids. It is a broad,
rather deep stream with a moderate cur-
rent, and its low banks are well wooded.
In latitude 60° it cuts through ' 'a gneissic
spur from the Luarentian district to the
east," forming the Smith Rapids, some
16 mi. in length. Below here it flows in a
rather irregular manner for about 175
mi. in a general northwesterly direc-
tion to Great Slave Lake. In this
stretch it has an average width of about
half a mile, and its banks are high at
first, but gradually diminish. The coun-
try bordering it is level and mainly
well wooded, but to the west are exten-
sive tracts of prairie, especially in the
region of Salt River, its principal tribu-
tary. Slave River enters Great Slave
Lake through an extensive delta, in
forming which it has silted up an ex-
tensive arm of the lake. Its breeding
birds are practically the same as those
of the Athabaska delta.

The Peace River Valley, as here con-
sidered, exhibits the greatest diversity
of climatic conditions at the same
season of any of the regions now under
discussion. Its extreme upper portion,
lying at a comparatively low altitude
and near the Pacific, has a relatively
mild winter climate, while its lower
part at the same season is surrounded by
almost Arctic conditions. Its middle
part, just east of the mountains, seems
to be characterized by violent extremes
of temperature.

Preserved areas: Wood Buffalo Park:
An area lying west of Slave River, partly
in Alberta and partly in Mackenzie,
known by this name, was set aside in
December, 1922, as a Preserve for the
resident herds of the northern race,
known as the wood buffalo, which now
constitute the only wild specimens of
this race in existence. This area, which
includes the entire ranges of the two
aggregations of herds, covers an area of

about 10,000 sq. mi. It covers that part
of the primitive range of this northern
race, formerly much more wide-spread,
on which it has been able longest to
maintain itself against the persecution
attendant on the partial settlement of
the country, and which therefore may be
considered as the most favorable portion
of that range under modern conditions.
It contains considerable wooded and
swampy country, but is mainly charac-
terized by its areas of meadow and
prairie and sparsely-wooded glades.
The number of the animals now remain-
ing is not definitely known, but prob-
ably numbers several hundred. Many
moose, a few woodland caribou, and
many fur-bearers, besides grouse, ducks,
and the usual birds of the country,
abound on this area. These may still be
hunted by the natives.

The buffalo has been protected on this
area for about 20 years, but the estab-
lishment of this preserve, with its attend-
ant warden service, should ensure the
continued increase of these unique
herds, which under the inadequate
protection which has heretofore been
possible, have not increased as they
should.

Slave River Preserve : This area, which
contains about 2200 sq. mi., includes a
broad strip of country bordering the
lower part of Slave River, and adjoining
the Wood Buffalo Park for some dis-
tance. The country is mostly low and
swampy, and comprises the delta of
Slave River and the area between that
and the Taltson, and is the breeding
ground of thousands of geese, ducks,
rails, cranes, and other water birds, and
is also the resort in spring and autumn
of vast numbers of the same and other
species, where they linger to rest and
feed while on their migrations to and
from their more northern breeding
grounds. Natives only are allowed to
hunt on this area.

D. Great Slave Lake. Great Slave
Lake is said by McConnell to have a
superficial area, including islands, of
about 10,400 sq. mi., and thus to
rank fifth among the great lakes of the

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

UFi

continent. 2 It has a total length of
nearly 300 mi., and is over 60 mi. wide
in its broadest part. Its shore lines
have remained unexplored, especially
as regards its eastern arm, until recent
years. Maps issued in 1923 by the Topo-
graphical Surveys branch show details
of this portion, excepting a few com-
paratively short stretches.

The eastern part of the lake is much
deeper than the western part, and its
water is very clear, as is also that of the
northern arm. The main or western
part of the lake, which receives the
sediment-laden flood of Slave River,
never becomes so clear, although it is
fairly so at its outlet. Its southern
shores are very low; its northern borders
higher. It has few islands, and the rocks
on its shores are largely limestone.

Great Slave Lake lies wholly within
the forested region, though some of its
eastern affluents drain large areas of
treeless country. Its southwestern
shores are well wooded, while the
northern shores, exposed for most of
the year to cold winds from the north
and watered by colder streams, are
poorly wooded. The soil conditions
are more favorable on the southern side
of the lake, exerting a marked influence
on the foresting. In general it divides
the southern heavy timber from the
northern stunted forest.

On the Eastern Arm of the lake, how-
ever, the conditions in this respect are
more nearly uniform. Several streams,
the courses of some of which are practi-
cally unknown, enter this arm on the
southern side. Hoarfrost River, drain-
ing Walmsley Lake, and Lockhart
River, carrying the waters of Mackay,
Aylmer, Clinton-Colden, and Artillery
lakes, which lie almost wholly in the
Barren Grounds, fall into this arm near
its eastern extremity. The country
bordering its northern shore is rocky and
sparsely wooded, and contains a great
many lakes.

The Northern Arm of Great Slave Lake

2 It is exceeded in size by Superior (31,500), Huron
(23,000), Michigan (22,300). and Great Bear (11,400).
[McConnell.]

lies along the junction of the primitive
and the newer formations. Its eastern
shore, therefore, is mainly composed of
granite, while its western Ijorder is of
limestone. Yellowknife River enters
this arm on its eastern side. At the head
of the Northern Arm, in an expansion
named Lake Marian, or Lac du Brochet,
Grandin River discharges its waters.
To the westward of the Northern Arm
and north of the main body of Great
Slave Lake lies a low, broad plateau,
dotted with many lakes and muskegs.
It contains no rivers of consequence and
is mainly rather thinly wooded, though
a number of large prairies occur in the
western part, north of the outlet of
Great Slave Lake.

The country south of the main part of
Great Slave Lake is mainly flat and
swampy. Eagle Mountain, a low, iso-
lated range, lies a short distance south
of the extreme western end of the lake.
The principal stream is Hay River,
which rises close to the height of land
between the Nelson and the Peace, far
to the southwest. The region drained bj-
it is practically unknown, but is reported
to be low and swampy and mainly well
wooded, though it contains much grassy
prairie. Hay River being said to mark
the northern limit of this character of
country.

Ice forms in the bays and along the
shores of Great Slave Lake in late
October, and the whole lake, though
kept open later by the violent winds, is
usually closed by mid-November. The
ice, which attains a thickness of 6 or
8 ft., usually breaks up in the main or
western part about the first of July.
but sometimes remains in the eastern
part until late July.

Yellow Knife Preserve: An innnensc
area estimated to contain 70,000 sq. mi.,
extending from Great Bear Lake and the
Coppermile River, south to Great Slave
Lake and Marten Lake, and thus in-
cluding much of the hunting ground.s of
the Yellow Knife and the Dogrili In-
dians, is now closed to hunting by others
than natives. Its principal large panic
are the moose and caribou. Formerly

126

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

large numbers of musk oxen inhabited
the northern and eastern part of this
area, but few, if any, of this notable
species now remain. Large numbers
of a few species of geese and ducks breed
within this area, but it does not abound
in large marshy tracts which form the
favorite nesting places of waterfowl.

E. The Mackenzie Valley proper. The
Mackenzie (taken in a restricted sense
as comprehending only that part of the
river known under this name) has a
course of over 900 mi. from Great Slave
Lake to the Arctic Sea. It averages
over a mile in width and is usually deep,
with a current of from 2 to 6 mi. an hour.
Its general course is to the northwest.
It is bordered mainly by sandy or grav-
elly beaches and occupies a narrow, com-
paratively shallow valley, through which
it flows in a succession of gentle curves.
Many low islands, usually well wooded,
occur throughout its course. Its rocks
are chiefly Devonian.

Issuing from Great Slave Lake, the
Mackenzie first follows a general west-
erly course for nearly 300 mi. The tribu-
taries which it receives in this stretch,
with the exception of the Liard, are of
minor importance; The Horn Moun-
tains, a long low ridge lie at some dis-
tance north of the middle of the stretch.
To the southward occur other lower
ranges, the principal one being Trout
Mountain. These mountains are very
imperfectly known, but they are too low
to support a fauna and flora differing
appreciably from that of the surrounding
country. A large part of the country
bordering this part of the Mackenzie is
swampy, and it is all well wooded.
Nearly all the species of trees of the
great subarctic forest are represented.

A short distance north of latitude 62°
the Mackenzie strikes a spur of the
Rocky Mountain system, the Nahanni
Mountains, is deflected toward the
north, and for some distance flows close
to their bases. At the point where the
Mackenzie first approaches them the
nearest peaks are from 200 to 2500 ft.
in height and are sparsely wooded to
their summits. Farther back they rise

much higher, and above an altitude of
2500 ft. are treeless. In early summer
these mountains are capped with snow,
but this disappears entirely beneath the
almost continuous sunlight of mid-
summer.

Near this point the fauna receives an
infusion of Rocky Mountain types.
Among mammals, these include a chip-
munk (Eutamias borealis caniceps) com-
mon in northern British Columbia and
southern Yukon. The Rocky Mountain
shrew (Sorex obscurus) also occurs, but
has reached also the middle Athabaska
and Great Slave Lake, farther south.
The white mountain sheep (Ovis dalli)
occurs in the Nahanni Mountains at
some distance back from the river and
also farther north, but is not found near
the Mackenzie. Among birds the blue
grouse {Dendragapus obscurus), and the
Townsend solitaire {Myadesles town-
sendi) seem to reach their northeastern
limit on the mountains near the mouth
of the North Nahanni. The northern
varied thrush (Ixoreus naeviusmeruloides)
also reaches the Mackenzie near this
point, and follows its valley to the delta.

Continuing northward, the Mackenzie
is bordered on the west by a broad ex-
panse of mountain country, mainly un-
explored. A few low spurs of the same
system cross the river and appear in
the form of isolated peaks or discon-
nected ranges to the eastward of its
valley. The principal western tribu-
taries between latitude 62° and 65° are
the Red Rock and Gravel rivers. In the
same interval the Mackenzie received
several small streams which drain the
country east of the river. One of the
largest of these is the Blackwater
Mount Clark, which is visible from the
river at some distance below the mouth
of this stream, has an estimated altitude
of 3500 ft., and is the highest of the
mountains east of the Mackenzie. The
most conspicuous landmark in the im-
mediate valley is Roche Trempe-l'eau,
a limestone mass which rises abruptly
from the water's edge a short distance
north of latitude 63°. Bear River,
the principal eastern tributary of the

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

127

Mackenzie, joins it just south of latitude
65°. Below its mouth, on the north side
of the Mackenzie, is Bear Rock, 1400
ft. in height.

Below here the Mackenzie resumes
its general northwesterly course. Wol-
verene Rock, 100 mi. below Bear Rock,
is formed, like that eminence, by an
uplight of the Devonian limestone,
and is about 1000 ft. in height. Twenty-
five miles below here a rocky ridge
crosses the river, forming the Sans
Sault Rapid. The next important fea-
ture in the valley of the Mackenzie is
the defile called the "Ramparts."
Here the river contracts from a width
of 2 mi. to about 500 yds., and flows for
about 7 mi. between precipitous lime-
stone cliffs, which in places rise to a
height of 250 ft.

Below Sans Sault Rapid the Mac-
kenzie recedes from the mountains,
and they are not again visible until the
delta is reached. Hareskin River enters
the Mackenzie from the east a short
distance north of the Ramparts. It
drains a large extent of rocky wooded
country between Great Bear Lake and
the Mackenzie. For a long distance
below here the Mackenzie maintains a
general northwesterly course. In about
latitude 67° 40' it turns rather abruptly
at right angles, and for about 50 mi.
follows a course considerably south of
west. It is here bordered, especially
on the north, by high clay banks,
through which several good-sized
streams cut their way. The river then
turns northward again and maintains a
northwesterly direction to the delta.
The defile called the "Narrows" or
"Lower Ramparts" is encountered near
67° 40', and at its lower end Arctic Red
River, from the south, discharges its
muddy waters. As far as known the
country bordering this part of the
Mackenzie on both sides is rolling, well
watered, and fairly well wooded. A
few miles below Arctic Red River the
high banks of the Mackenzie gradually
become lower and the river spreads
out into the delta.

The Mackenzie Delta occupies a

triangular area nearly 100 mi. in length
and 50 mi. broad at its widest part.
To the westward of the delta lies a
range of high hills, the northern ex-
tremity of the Rocky Mountains. They
rise to a height of from 1200 to 1500 ft.,
and their lower slopes only are wooded.
The Caribou Mountains, apparently a
continuation of the ridge which crosses
the Mackenzie at the Lower Ramparts,
lie to the eastward of the delta. They
rise to a height of 700 to 800 ft. and are
less rugged than the mountains west
of the delta.

Climatology: The climate of the Mac-
kenzie Valley is fairly indicated by the
tables of temperature which follow.
They were taken in 1900, which seems
to have been a year of about average
conditions.

Summaries of temperatures taken at Fort

Simpson, Mackenzie, during

the year 1900

January . .
Februarv . .

March

April

May

June

July

August —
September
October —
November
December.

Year

X

a S

EXTREMES

3

a

IS

B

3

E

-16 2

-9 2

12.8

41 2

52 6

69 3

09 4

65 0

56 8

29.0

5 4

-7.3

-33 5

-33 5

-17 4

17 8

35 2

45 3

45 7

44 1

34 7

19 2

-8.7

-20.1

50
14 0

39 0
60 C
60 0
80 0
79 5
78 0
71 0

40 0
23 0
13.0

-51 0

-50 5

-50 0

5 0

27 0

27 0

31 5

27 0

23.0

3 0

-29 0

-48 0

80 0

-51 0

■<

»

a

o

s

-24 8
-21 4
-2 3

29 5
43 9
57 3
57 6
54 5
45.7
24.1
-1.7
-13.7

20.7

The temperatures of the extreme
upper Mackenzie are undoubtedly
slightly lower than those recorded for
Fort Simpson, but comparable data are
not at hand.

Comparable figures for points in the
valley of the lower Mackenzie and for
Herschel Island show that the winter
climate of the upper and lower Macken-
zie varies but slightly, while the summer
climate is considerably cooler to the
northward.

As has been stated, the warm winds

128

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

from the Pacific sometimes exert a
decided though temporary influence
on the climate of the Mackenzie, and
the Liard, opening early, disrupts the
Mackenzie ice below the confluence.
The removal of the icy covering of an
immense river and the blending with its
flood of the waters of a warmer tributary
necessarilj' afi"ect conditions along its
banks. The ice in the Liard, having
broken its bonds, is forced against that
of the Mackenzie, through which it
opens a passage, and urged on by the
immense pressure behind it breaks its
way seaward, occasionally becoming
dammed and raising the level of the
water until the increased pressure again
clears a channel. At Fort Simpson,
near latitude 62°, the ice continues to
drift in quantity for some days after
its disruption. About ten days, on
the average, after the Mackenzie opens
at this point, or about the time that the
breaking ice has reached latitude 65°,
the upper Mackenzie opens and the
channel is filled again with floating ice.
Sometimes a third consignment of
floes, from the "Little Lake" or from
Great Slave Lake, fills its current.

Records of the opening and closing
of the Mackenzie at Fort Simpson, kept
between 1876 and 1906 (but not con-
tinuously) show that the river usually
broke up between May 5 and 10 (ex-
treme dates April 29 and May 14),
and closed usually about November 20
^extreme dates November 17 and No-
vember 28). At the mouth of Bear
River the Mackenzie usually opens
between May 15 and 20 (extreme dates
May 9. and May 28 J, and closes about
November 10 (extreme dates November
2 and November 18).

Seasonal phenomena in Mackenzie
Valley, 1903-1904: Following is a brief
account of the progress of the seasons
and attendant phenomena as observed
by the writer from October 1, 1903,
to July, 1904. The first three weeks in
October were spent in ascending the
Mackenzie from Fort Norman, at the
mouth of Bear River, to Fort Simpson,
at the mouth of the Liard. The fact

that these notes were taken while the
party was traveling detracts but little
from their value, since the conditions
in different parts of this stretch of river
were nearly uniform at that time. The
period from October 20, 1903, to June 1,
1904, was spent at Fort Simpson, and
the month of June in descending the
Mackenzie to its delta.

When the Mackenzie was reached, on
September 30, 1903, by descending Bear
River, a marked contrast was noted
between the conditions left behind at
Great Bear Lake and those encountered
on the Mackenzie. The temperature
was considerably higher, and several
species of small birds which had practi-
cally disappeared from Great Bear Lake
were common. The high mountains to
the west of the Mackenzie were covered
with snow.

During the first few daj^s of October,
as we were ascending the Mackenzie,
the weather was mostly fine, with south-
erly winds part of the time. The nights
were frosty and ice formed on still
water. The blue flowers of a gentian
(apparently Gentiana acuta), the latest
flowers observed, were seen on October
3. During the night of October 7 (above
Blackwater River) a little snow fell,
but it disappeared during the following
day. On the night of October 12 (above
Fort Wrigley) 4 in. of snow fell, and on
the night of October 14 another fall of
snow occurred. Some ice was seen
drifting on the west side of the Mac-
kenzie on October 15 (above mouth
Nahanni River). ^ On the following day
the drifting ice had greatly increased in
quantity, and on October 17 our progress
by canoe was arrested. At this time
the last of the tree sparrows and a few
other hardy species left for the South.

Fort Simpson: The Liard was par-
tially closed at its mouth on October
21, but broke away once or twice before
it finally set fast. The weather from
October 21 to 25 was considerably milder
than it had been during the previous

' It should be noted that the appearance of
drifting ice at this early date was almost unprece-
dented.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

129

week, and on the 26th and 27th it became
still warmer and the ice praclically
ceased running. On October 28, how-
ever, the weather became colder and the
ice again appeared. From this date it
continued to run and the snow steadily
accumulated. The thermometer did not
rise above the freezing point, and con-
sequently there was no thawing, except
to a very slight extent in sheltered
spots directly exposed to the sun. While
the river remained open its expanse of
ice-laden water added greatly to the
intensity of the cold. From the same
cause the trees and shrubs were nightly
loaded with ice crystals. On the night
of November 7 the minimum tempera-
ture recorded was —10°, and on the
night of November 15 a temperature of
— 27° was registered.

During the night of November 18 the
river finally set fast. In this process
the drifting ice accumulates until it
has so filled the river that it jams in
some place where it has partially bridged
the channel. Against this barrier the
oncoming floes, laden with saturated
snow, are pushed by the current, and
becoming lodged in all possible positions
are almost instantly cemented together
by the intense cold. This process con-
tinues upstream, usually without inter-
ruption, until the whole river is closed.

During November and December the
cold steadily increased in intensity and
the snow gradually accumulated. When
no thaw occurs the snow remains so
light and powdery that it does not settle
appreciably. On the shortest daj'S the
sun rose in the southeast about 9.30
a.m. and, after describing a low arc
over the tree tops, set about 2.30 p.m.
Even at midday its heat was scarcely
appreciable. After the middle of De-
cember the thermometer scarcely ever
rose above zero. From January 1 to
March 12, 1904, it rose above zero on
only eight occasions. The lowest tem-
perature recorded was —54°, on January
20 and 21. During the third week in
January the average daily maximum
was -30°; the average daily minimum
. -45°. -

A grave which was dug on February
2G, 1904, afforded an opportunity to
ascertain the depth to which frost had
penetrated. The location was a sandy
knoll somewhat sheltered on the north
by a thick growth of young trees and
open to the south. Snow lay to a depth
of about 3 ft. The frost had reached a
depth of only 20 in., but the excavation
•was not carried to a sufficient depth to
reach the permanently frozen sub-
stratum.

On March 26 the temperature first
rose above the freezing point and from
that date did not descend below zero.
When the spring thaw set in the snow
had attained a depth of nearly 4 ft.

The progress of the season at Fort
Simpson from March to June, 1904, as
indicated by the temperatures of suc-
cessive weeks, is shown in the following
table:

Temperatures of successive weeks, spring

of 1904, at Fort Simpson,

Mackenzie River

a

t «

E ^

03

»

a. a

§^
fa

.\verage of daily maxima:
March

-2.8
39.4
46.0
62.1

-25.4
11.8
30.6
39.7

-2.7
42.7
50.8
63.1

-26.8
23.4
33.2

44.4

9.5
46 4
59.7
60.0

-16.0
23.4

38.8
43.8

30 7

.57.9

May

June

Average of daily niiiiinia:
Alarch

53 2
70 4

3 3

S3. 5

May

34.5

June

48.6

* The "fourth week'
ten davs of the month.

includes the last nine or

On March 19 a flock of white-winged
crossbills, evidently migrants, was seen.
On March 28 the first hawk owl of the
spring was observed, and snow fleas
[Ac)iorutes) appeared. About the same
time several species of small birds,
which had been seen rarely during the
winter, appeared in larger numbers.
On March 30 the buds and catkins on
the willows and alders imparted a
brown tinge to the hillsides where these
shrubs were common . On the same date
snow buntings, which had been absent
since the middle of December, reap-

130

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

peared. On April 2 many small grayish
moths were seen in the woods. On
April 17 a mourning-cloak butterfly
{Euvanessa) was seen. By April 18 the
snow had nearly disappeared from the
fields. Mosquitoes [Culex annulatus)
first appeared on April 20, and were
biting on April 24, but did not become
troublesome until over a month later.
The sap of the white birches began to
flow freely on April 20. On April 23 a
small space of open water was seen near
the mouth of the Liard. Frogs {Rana
cantabrigensis latiremis) were first ob-
served on April 28.

On April 29 Liard River broke up. Its
advancing flood first opened a channel
nearly straight across the Mackenzie,
forcing the ice with irresistible power
up on the opposite bank in immense
piles. At the same time a mound 60
or 70 ft. in height was formed at the
mouth of one of the channels of the
Liard, several immense cracks opened
in the white expanse before the post,
and the huge sheets were soon broken
up. The stupendous amount of force
exerted by the river upon the broad
expanse of ice, 5 ft. in thickness, as with
a grinding roar it folds and crushes the
mighty sheets like cardboard, reducing
them to powder and forcing them aloft
in great mounds, impresses the beholder,
who is likewise occupied in considering
the possibility of the river being dammed
sufficiently to overflow the ground on
which he stands. Such a catastrophe
has destroyed more than one post on
the Mackenzie in years past.

At this time a few ducks appeared in
open places on the river. On May 6 a
small quantity of snow fell. The leaves
of Ribes oxyacanthoides began to appear
on May 8. By this time the river was
nearly clear of ice below the mouth of
the Liard, but above its mouth the ice
in the Mackenzie was still intact. On
May 10 large sheets of the Mackenzie
ice broke away and floated down, but
the river did not open from above until
May 13. The water then rose and
became filled with ice, but on the fol-
lowing day was nearly clear again and

had fallen. On May 10 the leaves on
aspens and birches were half an inch in
length. About the middle of May blue
violets (Viola albertina) blossomed.
The weather continued warm and vege-
tation advanced steadily. On May 18
Virburnum ■paucijlorum and Populus
balsamifera put forth their leaves,
and mountain cranberry [Vitisidaea)
was in flower. Birds were now coming
fast and additional species were noted
daily, but on May 21 the weather turned
cold and stormy. This had the effect
of retarding the advance of vegetation
and the tide of bird migration. On May
22 Ribes oxycanthoides and Calypso
bulbosa were in flower. The weather
remained cold and stormy during the
remainder of the month and the condi-
tions of vegetation and of bird migration
remained almost at a standstill. On
May 29 several inches of snow fell.

Mackenzie below Fort Simpson: On
June 1, 1904, I left Fort Simpson, and
spent the remainder of the month de-
scending the Mackenzie, my rate of
travel keeping pace in general with the
advance of spring. The weather during
the first few days of June was favorable
and vegetation made good progess.
On June 2, a few miles below Fort Simp-
son, the leaves of the tamaracks were
just coming out. All along the river
more or less ice still lay on the banks,
but a few miles above Fort Norman
the quantity was astounding. Many of
the stranded cakes were upward of 20
ft. in thickness. On June 17, below
Fort Norman, a small quantity of snow
fell. On June 21, at Fort Good Hope,
the leaves on most of the trees were
about half grown. On the same date
the sun was visible at midnight from a
low hill near the post, and many birds
were in full song at that hour. For
the next three weeks, north of this
point, the sun was continually above
the horizon. Vegetation now advanced
rather faster than our rate of travel
northward, but was not at its height
when we reached the delta of the Mac-
kenzie on June 30.

Preserved areas : Peel River Preserve :

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

131

This recently established preserve, on
which natives only are allowed to hunt,
includes a rather long and narrow area
lying between Arctic Red River and the
Peel River divide north to the Mackenzie
delta, being entirely in the Mackenzie
district. It contains about 3300 sq.mi.
Its principal game animal is the moose.
Many ducks of several species nest
here, but the area is not especially nota-
ble as a wild fowl resort.

F. The Basin of Great Bear Lake.
A short account of Great Bear Lake may
begin with a portion of the description
by Richardson, who examined most of
its shore line in 1S25 and 1826. He says:

Great Bear Lake is an extensive sheet
of water, of a very irregular shape,
being formed by the union of five arms
or bays in a common center. The
greatest diameter of the lake, measuring
about 150 mi.,' runs from the bottom of
Dease Bay, which receives the principal
feeding stream, to the bottom of Keith
Bay, from whence the Bear Lake River
issues, and has a direction of N.E. to
S.W. The transverse diameter has a
direction from N.W. by W. to S.E. by
E., and is upwards of 120 mi. in length.
The light bluish-coloured water of Great
Bear Lake is everywhere transparent,
and is particularly clear near sorne
primitive mountains, which exist in
M'Tavish Bay. A piece of white rag,
let down there, did not disappear until
it descended fifteen fathoms. The depth
of water, in the center of the lake, was
not ascertained; but it is known to be
very considerable. Near the shore, in
M'Tavish Bay, forty-five fathoms of
line did not reach the bottom. (Narr.
Second Exp'd to Polar Sea, Appendix,
p. ii, 1828.)

Great Bear Lake, according to the
Canadian Geological Survey, has an
area of approximately 11,400 sq. mi.
and lies 391 ft. above the level of the sea.
Its shores, with the exception of parts of
MacTavish Bay, are rather low. Its
southern and western shores are well
wooded, while its northern and eastern
borders are more thinly forested. The
immediate shores are mainly of sand or
gravel and are usually devoid of trees,
but are well clothed with willows and
various ericaceous shrubs and herba-
ceous plants. In most places along the

south shore this treeless stretch is only
a few hundred yards in width, and in the
bays the forest extends to the water's
edge. In the vicinity of Leith Point,
however, a treeless area stretches from
near MacTavish Bay to McVicar Bay,
and extends inland for several miles.
On this area the faunal and floral con-
ditions are practically those of the
Barren Grounds.

The junction between the primitive
or granitic rocks and the limestone
formation crosses Great Bear Lake
near its eastern extremity. To the
eastward of the dividing line the shores
are higher, especially around Mac-
Tavish Bay, where the mountains ap-
proach closely to the shore. The Griz-
zly Bear Mountain, which occupies the
peninsula between Keith and McVicar
bays, is upwards of 900 ft. high and
several hundred feet of its upper portion
are devoid of trees. On the opposite
side of the lake, between Smith and
Keith bays, a broad peninsula is oc-
cupied by the Scented Grass Hills, of
about the same height and similar in
structure to the Grizzly Bear Mountain.
The mountains which border Mac-
Tavish Bay are so rocky that it is diffi-
cult to trace the limit of timber on their
sides.

The northern shores of Great Bear
Lake are described as mainly low and
thinly forested, although the country
at some distance inland is better
wooded.

The tributaries of Great Bear Lake
are comparatively few in number.
Dease River, which discharges into the
northeastern extremity of the lake, is
probably the best known of its feeders.
It rises on the treeless height of land
between Dease Bay and the lower Cop-
permine. Several important streams
enter the lake from the north. Several
others, draining a very large extent of
country to the southward, enter Mac-
Tavish and McVicar bays. The latter
receives also the waters of a chain of
large lakes lying north of Marten Lake
(which discharges into Great Slave
Lake). The country drained by the

132

NATUR.ILIST'S GUIDE TO THE A.MERICAS

southern tributaries is very rough and
rocky, though fairly well wooded, and is
traversed in various directions by
ranges of low mountains.

G. Region north of Great Bear Lake.
North of Great Bear Lake lies an area
of considerable size bounded on the
west by the Mackenzie, on the east by
the lower Coppermine and Coronation
Gulf, and on the north by the Arctic
Ocean, into which flow most of its
rivers. Its southern portion is sparselj'
wooded; its barren northern part re-
ceives narrow tongues of forest along
the northward flowing rivers. Its fauna
and flora, therefore, are those of the
northern stunted forest and the Barren
Grounds, about equally divided. Its
surface is mainly rolling with some
ranges of low hills, and manj- lakes.
Its climate is essentially Arctic.

H. T he Liard River Valley. TheLiard
River has its sources west of the Rocky
Mountains, one of its branches rising
within 150 mi. of the Pacific.

In its upper portion the Liard bears a
strong superficial resemblance to the
upper Peace, being formed by large
north and south trending branches which
unite west of the mountains and, like
the Peace, cut eastward through the
main range of the Rocky Mountains.
Fort Xelson River, entering the Liard
from the south, is its principal branch
east of the mountains. It rises near
the headwaters of Pine River i^northj,
and pursues a very tortuous northerly
course to the Liard. Below the junction
the Liard flows northerly and then
northeasterly, still being bordered on
the western side by spurs of the PkX)cky
Mountain range. The country east of
the lower Liard is mainly low and
swampy in character. The valley of
the lower Liard is heavily wooded, the
largest tree being the balsam poplar
f Populus balsamifera) , which here attains
perfection of habit, and from which the
river is said to take its name. The
other forest trees also are those common
to the whole region.

The upp>er reaches of the Liard are
most readily reached from the Pacific

side, by ascending the Stikine, and
crossing the low height of land.

The climate of the Liard River Valley,
like that of the Peace, varies widely in
the different sections. The upper part
of the river, lying west of the main
divide, enjoj's a climate much tempered
by the warm Pacific winds. The upper
Xelson River also, the principal tribu-
tary of the Liard east of the mountains,
lies far to the southward and sufficiently
near the Pacific to come within its
modifying influence. Unfortunately no
exact data regarding the temperature
of the upper Liard or the Nelson are at
hand; hence the conditions there can not
be compared directly with those on its
lower course. The average temperature
conditions on the lower Liard may be
fairly represented by those taken at
Fort Simpson in 1900. The warm west-
erly winds which reach the vallej' of the
Liard extend their influence as far as
its mouth and have been known to cause
a pronounced thaw there even in Janu-
ary, the coldest month. This modifying
influence is apparent in the character
and progress of vegetation, the migra-
tion of birds, and in other phenomena.
It is especially manifest, however, in
its relation to the breaking up of the
river and the attendant effect on the
conditions along the banks. Further-
more, the disruption of the Liard ice
starts that in the Mackenzie also, which
thus opens considerably earlier than
would be the case were it not affected
by its warmer tributary. This, of
course, has its natural effect in accelerat-
ing the progress of vegetation on the
banks of the Mackenzie below the Liard.

At Fort Liard, the river freezes up
between the last of October and the
middle of November and usually opens
about the first of May.

7. NortheaHern British Columbia and
Yukon. Reference has already been
made to the fact that both Peace and
Liard rivers rise west of the main ranges
of the Rocky Mountains which farther
south form a strict watershed, but which
are here traversed by these great
streams. There results a large area in

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

133

British Columbia which faunally and
florally resembles the ^lackenzie Basin,
but which naturally has derived many
of its species from the Pacific slope and
the Rock}- Mountains. Northwest-
wardly this area extends to include the
valley of the Upper Yukon, whose upper
branches interlock with those of the
Liard.

The valleys of the Parsnip and the
Finla}-, which unite to form the Peace,
lie in the valley referred to in another
account as the Rocky Mountain Trench,
which extends in a general north-north-
west direction from near the northern
boundary of the United States to Yukon
Territory. This great vallej' was
plainly formed at a time when the
drainage of the region was very different
from the present system. The various
northward and southward flowing
streams which now occupy it are long
and comparatively slow-flowing, so that
one may travel from latitude 49° north-
ward to the Yukon without encountering
any extraordinarj' difl'erences in alti-
tude. Most of the side tributaries of
these streams, however, are compara-
tively short and swift. Farther north
the ancient valley holds tributaries of
the Liard and the Yukon.

To the west of these rivers lies an
elevated region which besides forming
a nursery for these eastward-flowing
rivers, gives rise to several others enter-
ing the Pacific. The mountains of this
area comprise many single mountain
masses and short ranges disposed in
irregular systems, and the numerous
streams which drain them flow in all
directions. The principal ones on the
upper courses occupy broad valleys
through which they meander over shal-
low gravelly beds, but lower down they
cut canyons as they approach the main
rivers, which occupy deep valleys, some-
times gorge-like in character. This
region, lying between the Rocky Moun-
tains and the coast ranges, is considered
by Dawson i^lSOl) to be an ancient
plateau which has been dissected by
glacial action into a region traversed
by broad level valleys flanked by moun-

tains which arc often steep and craggy.
It is evident to the most casual observer
that these wide flat valleys must have
been excavated by some more formidable
forces than the comparatively small
and shallow streams which now meander
through them.

The trees and shrubs of this region are
largely those common to the great
transcontinental conifer forest, enumer-
ated on earlier pages. The lodge-pole
pine here replaces the Banksian pine,
however, and certain other trees and
shrubs characteristic of the coast region
or of the Rocky Mountains are present.
Some of these will be noted in the de-
scriptions of the various topographic
features. These may best be considered
under the several river valleys.

Stikine River Valley: The Stikine
River rises in a large irregular mountain
mass in about latitude S?*^ from which
flow also head tributaries of the Finlay,
flowing to Peace River and the Arctic,
and the Skeena, flowing to the Pacific.
Disregarding its smaller head feeders,
the Stikine maj* be considered as rising
from a string of three lakes, from which
it flows eastward, or directly away from
its final destination. Traversing valleys
flanked bj- high mountains it is soon
joined by numbers of small branches,
and in the first one hundred miles of its
course has attained a considerable size,
has turned a half-circle northward and
westward, and is now started fairly
toward its final goal. Here it joins
the Ispatseeza which has risen near
the same place and has flowed north-
ward and eastward. These streams are
of about equal size and divide honors as
the head tributary. From their junc-
tion the combined river turns to the
westward, and receives in succession
the Ketatsil or Pitman from the east,
the Kilicho from the north, the Klappan
from the south, the Tanzilla from the
north, and the Klastline or Second
South Fork and the Mestua, or First
South Fork, from the south. The north-
erly streams mentioned take their rise
close to tributaries of the Liard, while
those from the south rise in ranges which

134

NAIURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

give birth also to branches of the Nass,
the Skeena, and the Finlay.

A typical valley, that of the Upper
Ispatseeza, may be described in some
detail. It varies from a mile or less to
several miles in width. Long stretches,
perfectly level, having a gravelly soil
covered with a good growth of grass,
are frequent, and these often succeed
each other as terraces, with altitudinal
differences of only a few feet, or may
alternate with gently undulating mea-
dows clothed with patches of willows
and dwarf birches, or with stunted white
spruces, which merge gradually into the
fairly well grown forest which covers
the sides of the bordering mountains.

These valleys though largely treeless
correspond to the stunted forest belt
of the Mackenzie and most of their
woody plants are the same. With them
are found also certain Rocky Mountain
plants, including the large blue larkspur
{Del-phinium menziesii), western ane-
mone (Pulsatilla occidentalis) , and the
yellow paint brush (Castilleja pallida).
Mammals more or less characteristic
of these broad valleys are the Osborn
caribou (Rangifer osborni), the hoary
marmot {Marmota caligata oxytona),
the Yukon ground squirrel [Citellus
plesius), and the British Columbia
lemming {Lemmus helvolus). The most
characteristic birds are the willow
ptarmigan {Lagopus lagopus) which
breeds almost entirely on these brushy
meadows, the golden-crowned sparrow
(Zonoirichia coronata), and the western
tree sparrow {Spizella monticola
ochracea) .

In these valleys, usually at the sources
of streams, sometimes in the forest, and
sometimes above the timberline, lakes
of clear water occur. About these nest
Barrow's goldeneye.

Bordering the valleys a zone of spruce
usually covers the lower slopes of the
mountains, which are treeless above an
altitude of about 5000 ft. The summits
of the mountains are usually rocky,
sometimes craggy and precipitous, but
hold many gently sloping meadows and
hanging valleys, well-watered and sup-

porting an alpine flora of great beauty.
The fauna of the peaks include the
mountain sheep {Ovis d. stonei) and
the mountain goat {Oreamnos m. colum-
bianus) which usually, but not in-
variably, choose different mountains,
the hoary marmot, the white-tailed and
rock ptarmigan, the pipit, the Alaska
horned lark, and the Hepburn rosy
finch.

Below the level of these broad valley
meadows, where the streams cut their
way down to the deeper canyons of the
main valleys, the trees are those of the
main transcontinental forest, with an
infusion of west coast types. Populus
trichocarpa replaces Populus balsami-
fera, and the red-berried elder is occa-
sional in the damper situations. The
plants, however, are virtually the same
as those of the great interior forest as
far down the Stikine as the Little Can-
yon, below which the flora and fauna
changes abruptlj^ to that characteristic
of the coast region, elsewhere con-
sidered. In these lower valleys and the
adjacent slopes up to about 2000 ft.
(Canadian Zone), certain birds of the
Athabaska-Mackenzie region are com-
mon, including gray ruffed grouse, yel-
low-bellied sapsucker, eastern night-
hawk. Say's phoebe, alder flycatcher,
rusty grackle, Gambel's sparrow, west-
ern chipping sparrow, junco, cliff swal-
low, barn swallow, western warbling
vireo, Tennessee warbler, redstart, olive-
backed thrush, hermit thrush, with
many others. With these are found the
following which are mainly confined to
the Rocky Mountain region: Hammond
flycatcher, Wright flycatcher, violet-
green swallow, Macgillivray warbler,
Myadestes townsendi, and Ixoreus naevius
meruloides.

Yukon: Yukon, stretching through
nearly ten degrees of latitude, and
extending from the Arctic Ocean nearly
the Pacific, lies between Mackenzie,
British Columbia, and Alaska, and sends
rivers of considerable size to all of these
adjacent regions. Its affinities are close
to Alaska, owing to its contributions
to the Yukon, Alaska's main waterway.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

135

All of the main head tributaries of this
great stream, the Stewart, Pelly, Lewes,
and White, together with the Porcupine,
rise either within Yukon's borders, or
close to them, and drain about four-
fifths of its territory. Most of the area
remaining contributes to the Liard and
Peel.

As might be inferred from the fore-
going discussion of its drainage, the
Yukon River affords the principal
means of access to most parts of Yukon
Territory. From Skagway, at the head
of navigation on Lynn Canal, the White
Pass and Yukon Railway takes one to
Whitehorse at the head of steamboat
navigation on the Yukon, which maj', of
course, be easily descended with or
without power. From their junctions
with the Yukon, the Pelly, Stewart,
and manjf smaller streams may be
ascended by small power boats or by
tracking well toward the main divide,
affording access to alpine areas of large
extent. The Frances Lake region, which
is drained by Frances River and other
tributaries of the Liard, may be reached
by canoe from the upper Pelly, or from
the Dease Lake region of British
Columbia.

Faunally and florally, Yukon has close
affinities with both Mackenzie and
Alaska. Comparison of lists of plants
of the three sections show very few
differences. Their mammal and bird
faunas are also strikingly alike.

Of the large game animals of Yukon
the mountain sheep, found on both the
eastern (Mackenzie) and the western
slopes of the main Rocky Mountain
range, here generally referred to as the
Mackenzie Mountains, as well as in many
of the ranges to the westward, from
southern Yukon north to the Arctic
watershed, is probably the most interest-
ing. This animal (Ovis dalli), is found
in its t.ypical form in many of the ranges
of northern Yukon. To the south it
gradually becomes darker, finally merg-
ing into the dark race named Ovis stonei
of northern British Columbia. Moose,
cariljou, black and grizzly bears, and
(in extreme southeastern Yukon) moun-

tain goats, are also found in some
numbers.

Most of the small mammals show
affinities with both Mackenzie and
British Columbia, in varying degrees.
The chestnut-cheeked meadow mouse
(Microtus xanlhognathus) , the Hudson
Bay jumping mouse (Zapus hudsonius),
the Rocky Mountain shrew [Sorex
obscurus), and the Yukon chipmunk
(Eufamias b. caniceps) are found in both
the Mackenzie and Yukon regions.
The British Columbia wood rat [Neo-
toma c. saxamam) is a Rocky Mountain
type, extending northward from British
Columbia into southern Yukon.

The avifauna of Yukon, especially as
regards the smaller land birds, shows
close affinities with the Mackenzie
Valley. Conspicuous are the following
species, most of which probably have a
breeding range which is continuous from
Mackenzie to Yukon by way of the low
valleys tributary to the upper Liard
and thus including northeastern British
Columbia. A partial list follows: Co-
laptes a. borealis, Chordeiles virginianus,
Ernpidonax trailli alnorum, Euphayus
carolinus, Passercvlus sandwichensis al-
audinus, Zonotrichia leucophrys gambeli,
Junco hyemalis, Petrochelidon lunifrons,
Hirundo erythrog aster, Tachycineta hi-
color, Vermivora celata orestera, V.
peregrina, Dcndroica aestiva rubiginosa,
D. coronata, D. striata, Seiurus auroca-
pillus, S. noveboracensis notabilis, Wil-
sonia pusilla, Sitia canadensis, Pen-
thestes atricapillus septentrionalis, Ilylo-
cichla aliciae, H. ustulata swainsoni, H.
a. pallasi, and Ixoreus n. meruloides.
Species which extend northward from
western British Columbia include the
following: Selasphorus rufus, Pica p.
hudsonica, Dendroica townsendi, Ernpi-
donax hammondi, Zonotrichia coronata,
and Tachycineta thalassina Icpida.
Most of these reach the upper Yukon
(Canadian Zone) onh\

2. The Barren Grounds {Arctic Zone)

Under this heading will be considered
the great area lying to the north and
northeast of Great Bear and Great

136

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Slave lakes. It is watered by the
Anderson, Coppermine, Great Fish,
Thelon or Ark-i-linik, and many smaller
rivers. With the exception of Great
Fish River all those named are wooded
to some extent on their upper portions,
but by far the greater part of the area
drained by them is treeless. It may be
well to trace the northern boundary of
the great transcontinental forest from
the western shore of Hudson Bay to the
mouth of the Mackenzie.

Starting from the mouth of Churchill
River, Hudson Bay, the tree line follows
the shore closely for a few miles and
then curves gently inland. Thence it
extends northwesterly, crossing Nueltin,
or Island Lake; Ennadai Lake on Kazan
River; and Boyd Lake on the Dubawnt.
Just north of 60° on Artillery Lake is
the next point where we have a definite
dividing line. Between the Dubawnt
and Artillery Lake is the valley of the
upper Thelon, or Ark-i-linik, along
whose banks the forest extends in a
narrow line far into the general treeless
area. This northward extending tongue
of forest will be more fully described
beyond.

From Artillery Lake the line extends
northwestward to Point Lake, curving
toward the southwest in the interval
and crossing Lake Mackay south of
latitude 64°. From Point Lake, whose
shores are practically devoid of trees,
nearly to latitude 67°, the banks of the
Coppermine are so thinly wooded that
the river may be taken as the approxi-
mate boundary of the woods. Spruces
occur on the Coppermine as far north
as the mouth of Kendall River, but are
absent from the summit of the divide
between there and Great Bear Lake and
reappear on lower Dease River. The
north shore of Great Bear Lake is thinly
wooded and tongues of timber follow
the northward-flowing rivers well into
the Barren Grounds, on the Wilmot
Horton to latitude 69°. The tree line
crosses the Anderson north of the same
parallel, and thence extends northwest
to the mouth of the Mackenzie, probably
dipping to the south in the interval, as

is usually the case in the areas between
rivers. West of the timbered delta of
the Ma,ckenzie a considerable area ol
treeless country occurs.

In general the surface of the Barren
Grounds may be described as rolling.
The greater part of its area lies within
the region of the primitive rocks, and
many low granitic hills, some of them
with precipitous cliffs, are found.
Thousand of lakes, many of consider-
able extent, and abounding in lake
trout, dot its surface. There are vast
areas of grassy plains and gentle slopes,
on which, during the short summer, the
bright flowers of a profusion of shrubby
and herbaceous plants lend their beauty
to the landscape, and prove the appella-
tion "Barren Grounds" to be a mis-
nomer, though in many parts, from the
nature of the soil, there is little plant
life. Alders (Alnus alnobetvla) occur
in a more or less dwarfed condition in
favorable places well into the treeless
area, and several species of willows,
some of which here attain a height of
5 or 6 ft., border some of the streams
as far north as the Arctic Ocean. These
are the only trees which occur even in a
dwarfed state on the Barren Grounds
proper.

The northward extension of the coni-
ferous forest along the banks of north-
ward-flowing rivers has already been
referred to. The most remarkable ex-
ample of this phenomenon is found on
the Thelon, or Ark-i-linik, a stream
tributary to Hudson Bay. From a
point near latitude 62^°, which is as far
south as the river has been explored,
and is within the main area of the Bar-
ren Grounds, a more or less continuous
belt of spruce borders the river as far
north as latitude 64§°, a distance of
over 200 mi. by the river. A few species
of woodland-breeding birds follow these
extensions of the forest to their limits.

Climatology: No tables of tempera-
ture taken throughout the year at any
point in the Barren Grounds are avail-
able. The winters are, of course, very
long and the summers short, with the
intervening seasons practically wanting.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

137

Winter sets in soon after the 1st of
September and persists until May,
with only a short season of spring.
During the short summer the progress
of vegetation is very rapid, but the
seeds and berries are scarcely ripened
before winter again asserts its sway.

Owing to the great thickness of their
icy covering, some of the lakes of the
Barren Grounds are not clear of ice in
l)ackward seasons until July, or even
August, when new ice has usually begun
to form in still water. They generally
l)reak up in late June or early July.
The rivers, having the advantage of a
current, open earlier than the lakes.

During a residence of about five years
at Fort Anderson, on Anderson River,
MacFarlane observed the river to set
fast on two occasions as early as Sep-
tember 10, though once it remained open
until October 10. In 1857 the Anderson
broke up at the mouth of the Lockhart
on June 12. At Fort Anderson the
dates of the opening of the river were
as follows: 1861, about May 15; 1862,
May 19; 1863, May 30; 1864, May 31;
1865, June 2. During the last days of
June, 1864, MacFarlane found nearly all
the lakes on the Barren Grounds still
covered with ice, though the rivers
were open.

In 1821, when Franklin's party started
to descend the Coppermine on July 1,
the lakes on its upper course were still
covered with ice. Apparently the river
had opened only a short time before.
In 1849 Doctor Rae noted the breaking
up of the same river near its mouth on
June 28. At this time the leaves of the
dwarf birches were out, and the leaf
buds of the willows had begun to de-
velop. The lower part of the river
remained blocked with ice until July 13.

Preserved areas: Backs River Pre-
serve : This great area containing up-
wards of 65,000 sq. mi., includes most of
the valley of Backs River and north to
the Arctic Coast, from Bathurst Inlet
east to Backs Inlet. Its natives, chiefly
Eskimo, retain the sole right to hunt.
This area is the breeding ground of great
numbers of the Barren Ground caribou.

some of which remain in winter, though
many migrate southward at that sea-
son. Many musk o.xen also are found
here, this being the only one of the
several preserves recently established
which harbors this notable species in
any numbers.

3. The region norUnca^l of Hudson Batj

This section of country has already
been described, in effect, in the account
of the Barren Grounds of the Mackenzie
region. Its rivers excepting those emp-
tying into Chesterfield Inlet, are not
readily navigable. Those parts border-
ing on Hudson Bay can be reached, of
course, most readily by means of that
great inland sea, which is itself reached
either by way of Hudson Strait, or by
means of the several rivers, navigable by
canoes only, which enter it from the
south and southwest. Railroads,
branches of the Canadian National, now
take the traveler several hundred miles
nearer Hudson Bay than formerly, and
as projected will ultimateh' reach its
shores, but at present the journej^ must
be completed by canoe or dog-sled. The
waters of Hudson Bay, furthermore, are
scarcely nagivable by means of the frail
canoes by which the passage of these
rapid and shallow streams must be
effected, so that access to the region is
very difficult. Parts of the country
draining into northwestern Hudson Bay,
however, can be reached by canoe from
Great Slave Lake, though the shortness
of the season of open water makes such
a journey a very hurried one.

4. The Arctic Islands [Arctic Zone)

The Arctic Islands, lying to the north-
ward of the continent of North America,
are closely related faunally and florally
to the neighboring mainland. Being
more northerly and surrouutled i)y an
ocean which is frozen over from 6 to 9
months of the year, it follows that both
animal and vegetable life include fewer
species. They are of course treeless,
and their shrubs comprise only a few
creeping species, some indeed, the same
that inhabit more favorable habitats to

138

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

the southward, but which here, in defer-
ence to the influence of the chilling winds
and hard-packed snow against which
they must struggle, cling closely to their
parent earth.

The mammalian inhabitants of the
Arctic Islands are few in number. The
musk-ox (Ovibos moschatus) occurs only
on certain ones, the reasons for its choice
being in many cases difficult or impossi-
ble of explanation. Its habitat includes
the peninsulas and islands northward
from the eastern part of its main conti-
nental range northeastward to northern
Greenland. Another island area com-
prises Banks Land, the adjacent part of
Victoria Island, and the southern part of
Melville Island, this aggregate area
being isolated from the remainder of its
present range. The only other ruminant
is the Barren Ground caribou {Rangifer
arcticus and related forms), which
inhabits practically all the islands, for-
saking some of them in winter, but being
a year-long inhabitant of most of the
area in question. The other land mam-
mals include the polar bear {Thalarctos
maritimus), Arctic fox {Alopex lagopus
innuitus), Arctic weasel {Mustela
arctica), an occasional wolverene {Gulo
luscus), the Arctic hare {Lepus arcticus),
pied lemming (Dicrostonyx) , and the
brown lemming {Lemmus). All these
are either circumpolar species, or close
relatives of such.

The birds of the Arctic Islands are
more numerous in species, including
most of the genera already listed as
breeding on the continental Barren
Grounds, and a few which are practically
confined as breeders to these uttermost
insular lands.

Most of the Arctic Islands are accessi-
ble only by sea-going vessels, and can
be reached practicably only by way of
Baffin Bay and Lancaster Sound, and its
various connecting channels. In this
category may be included all the islands
and peninsulas lying to the north and
east of McClintock Channel and McClure
Strait, and the northern and eastern
shores of Victoria Land and Banks Land.
The southern and western shores of these

latter insular masses may be reached in
ordinary seasons from the west by way of
the Arctic Ocean, and Dolphin and Union
Strait. The reason for this strict divi-
sion is the drift ice that usually chokes
the western entrance to McClure Strait,
which prevented the accomplishment of
the Northwest passage when it was first
attempted in 1819, and has since almost
invariably forbidden the passage of
vessels in either direction. In winter
and early spring, by Eskimo methods of
traveling, these islands are accessible
from the west and south, but this method
is seldom practicable for expeditions
having for their main objective the
collecting of natural history specimens.
Plants. Excluding the ferns, grasses,
and sedges, the plants of the Arctic
Islands include the following:

Tofieldia palustris
Salix arctica
Salix glauca
Salix richardsonii
Salix alaxensis
Salix reticulata
Polygonum viv parum
Oxyria digyna
Sllene acaulis
Lychnis apetala
Lychnis ajjinis
Stellaria longipes
Stellaria humifusa
Cerastium alpinum
Helianihus peploides
Alsine verna rubella
Caltha palustris radicans
Anemone richardsonii
Ranunculus hyperboreus
Ranunculus pygmaeus
Ranunculus sulphur eus
Ranunculus nivalis
Ranunculus affinis
Ranunculus sabinii
Papaver nudicaule
Draba alpina
Draba nivalis
Draba fladnizensis
Draba hirta
Braya purpurascens
Eutrema edwardsii
Hesperis pallasii
Cardamine digitata
Cardamine pratensis
Parrya arctica
Chrysosplenium tetrandrum
Saxifraga rivularis
Saxifraga cernua
Saxifraga hirculus
Saxifraga nivalis
Saxifraga hieraciifolia

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

139

Saxifraga decipiens qroenlandica

Saxifraga tricuspidata

Saxifraga aizoides

Saxifraga flagellaris

Saxifraga oppositifolia

Dryas octopetala

Dryas integrifolia

Potentilla pulchella

Poientilla nivea

Potentilla rubrica^ilis

Potentilla vahliana

Potentilla emarginata

Rubus chamaemorus

Lupinus arcticus

Astragalus alpinus

Astragalus aboriginorum

Oxytropis campestris

Oxytropis nigrescens

Oxytropis arctobia

Hedysarum mackenzii

Hedysarum alpinum

Empetrum nigrum

Epilobium latifolium

Epilobium angusti folium

Hippuris vulgaris

Pyrola grandiflora

Ledum pains tre

Rhododendron lapponicum

Loiseleuria procumbens

Cassiope tetragona

Arctostaphylos alpina

Vaccinium uliginosum microphylla

Primula borealis

Androsace chamaejasme

Androsace septentrionalis

Statice armeria sibirica

Phlox richardsonii

Polemonium boreale

Mertensia maritima

Castilleja pallida

Pedicularis lapponica

Pedicularis hirsuta

Pedicularis sudetica

Pedicularis arctica

Pedicularis lanata

Pedicularis capitata

Campanula uniflora

Erigeron uniflorus

Erigeron compositus

Artennaria alpina

Matricaria inodora grandiflora

Chrysanthemum integrifolium

Petasites frigida

Arnica alpina

Senecio palustris

Senecio frigidus

Taraxacum ceratophorum

Crepis nana

Preserved areas. Within the area here
classed under the term Arctic Islands,
two preserved areas have recently been
created by the Canadian Government.
These cover the entire areas of Banks
Island and Victoria Island respectively.

Like the areas established at the same
time in the Mackenzie Basin and along
Backs River, hunting and trapping by
natives is allowed, but the areas are
closed against hunting by white men.
This will exclude sportsmen but will
still allow the natives to make legitimate
use of the game, a vital necessity since
the areas in question comprise the
hereditary hunting grounds of either
Indians or Eskimo, who are almost
entirely dependent on the chase for their
subsistence, clothing, and equipment.

Banks Island: Banks Island contains
an area of about 26,000 sq. mi. It was
formerly the home of large numbers of
musk oxen, but these are believed to be
now extirpated. Many caribou are still
found, while the Arctic fox is the only
fur bearer of importance. The island
is also the breeding ground of large
numbers of geese, principally snow geese,
several species of the more northerly-
breeding ducks, large numbers of shore-
birds of several species, and ptarmigan.

Victoria Island: The principal large
game of Victoria Island is the caribou.
The muskox appears not to have inhab-
ited the island, at least within historic
times, excepting limited areas near its
northern shores where it is still found.
Victoria Island has an area of over 74,000
sq. mi., and like Banks Island is the
summer home of great numbers of geese,
ducks, and shorebirds.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The following list includes a few of the
more important titles referring to
northern North America, excluding
Alaska, Greenland, eastern Franklin,
and the Ungava Peninsula, with special
reference to topography and natural
history. In titles by the author here
listed (1902, 1908), may be found fuller
lists of publications relating to most of
the areas therein treated.

1795. Hearne, Samuel. A Journey
from Prince of Wales's Fort in
Hudson's Bay to the Northern
Ocean. Undertaken by Order
of the Hudson's Bay Company,
for the Discovery of Copper

140

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Mines, a North West Passage,
etc., in the years 1769, 1770,
1771 and 1772. 4to, pp. i-xliv,
1-458. London, 1795. There is
also a Dublin edition, 8vo, 1796,
and an&ther London edition,
1807.

Contains, scattered through-
out the narrative, many notes
on the mammals and birds of
the region; Chapter X, pp. 358-
458, treats exclusively of the
natural history of the Barren
Grounds, and the Great Slave
Lake and Hudson Bay regions.

1801 Mackenzie, Alexander. Voy-
ages from Montreal, on the
River St. Laurence, through
the Continent of North Amer-
ica, to the Frozen and Pacific
Oceans; in the years 1789 and
1793. With a preliminary ac-
count of the rise, progress and
present state of the Fur Trade
of that country. 4to, pp. 412.
London.

Mackenzie was the first trav-
eler to descend the Mackenzie
River; and the first to cross
the continent north of Mex-
ico, which he accomplished by
ascending the Peace and de-
scending the rivers west of the
divide. His narratives of these
voyages contain many notes
on natural history.

1826 Parry, William Edward; and
Ross, James Clark. Journal
of a Third Voyage for the Dis-
covery of a Northwest Passage
from the Atlantic to the Pacific ;
performed in the years 1924-25,
in His Majesty's Ships Hecla
and Fury, under the orders of
Captain William Edward Parry.
4to, pp. i-xxvii, 1-186; 1-151.
(Appendix on Zoology, Ross,
pp. 1-151.)

The zoological appendix
refers mainly to the natural
history of Port Bowen, where
the expedition wintered, and
other points about Prince
Regent Inlet. A few notes on
natural history occur in the
narrative.

1829 Richardson, J. Fauna Boreali-
Americana. Part First. Quad-
rupeds. 4to, pp. i-xlvi, 1-300.
London,

This work, in which the
material accumulated on the
first two journeys of Franklin
and the early voyages of Ross
and Parry is elaborated, con-
tains a great deal of informa-

tion on the mammals of the
Athabaska and Mackenzie
region.

1831 SwAiNSON, W., AND Richardson,
J. Fauna Boreali-Amencana.
Part Second. The Birds. 4to,
pp. i-lxvi, 1-524. London.

This publication was for many
years the standard work on the
birds of British America.

1875 Petitot, E. Geographie de
L'Athabaskaw-Mackenzie et des
Grands Lacs du Bassin Arctique.
Bulletin de la Societe de Geog-
raphie. Pp. 5-42 (July); pp.
126-183 (August); pp. 242 290
(September) ; with a map of the
region from Great Slave Lake
northward.

A geographical and general
description of the region, based
mainly on the explorations of
the author, for many years a
missionary in the Mackenzie
region. Traveling mainly on
snowshoes, he visited many
remote districts never before
explored. The present account
and map may be considered the
official announcement of some
of his geographical discoveries.

1888 Greely, Adolphus W. Report
on the Proceedings of the
United States Expedition to
Lady Franklin Bay, Grinnell
Land. [Report of International
Polar Expedition.] 2 vols.;
pp. 545, 738. Washington.

This e.xpedition left the
United States in the Proteus in
the summer of 1881 and returned
in 1884. Headquarters were
established at Fort Conger.
In Appendix 129 (Vol. II, pp.
1-10) and App. 131 (Vol. II,
pp. 19-37, are given the reports
on mammals and birds, respec-
tively. In connection with the
notes recorded on this expedi-
tion, many recorded by other
northern expeditions are given.
This is particularly true in the
case of birds (Vol. II, pp. 30-37)
where the principal notes made
by several Arctic observers
are summarized in tabular form.

1890 Macfarlane, Roderick Ross.
Land and Sea Birds nesting
within the Arctic Circle in the
Lower Mackenzie District.
Transaction 39, Historical and
Scientific Society of Manitoba,
season 1888-9 (1890).

An annotated list of the birds
observed and taken in the
Anderson Eiver region, from

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

141

April, 1862, to June, 1865, in-
clusive; annotations mainly in
reference to nesting habits,
nests, and eggs.
1893 WiCKHAM, H. F. Report on an
Entomological Reconnaissance
of Southern Alaska and adjacent
portions of British Columbia.
Bulletin from the Laboratories
of Natural History, Univ. of
Iowa, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp. 202 233
with 2 maps.

Comparison of the lists of
Coleoptera of the Little Canyon,
and Glenora, on the Stikine,
with those found at the mouth
of the river, and at Fort Simp-
son on the Mackenzie and other
interior points.
1900 Osgood, W. H., and Bishop, L. B.
Results of a Biological Recon-
naissance of the Yukon River
Region (North American Fauna
No. 19, 100 pages). General
Account of the Region; Anno-
tated List of Mammals, by
Wilfred H. Osgood; Annotated
List of Birds, by Louis B.
Bishop.

Relates to a natural history
expedition made along the
Yukon in 1899.
1902 Preble, Edward A. A Biological
Investigation of the Hudson
Bay Region (North American
Fauna No. 22, 140 pages).

Annotated lists of the mam-
mals, birds, and reptiles and
batrachians of the country bor-
dering Hudson Bay on the west
and northwest. Account of a
natural history expedition con-
ducted in 1900. Bibliography.
1908 Preble, Edward A. A Biological
Investigation of the Athabaska-
Mackenzie Region (North
American Fauna, No. 27, 574
pages).

Topographic and historic
description of the region, with
special reference to its natural
history. Annotated lists of
mammals, birds, reptiles, and
amphibians, fishes, and trees
and shrubs; extensive bibli-
ography. Bibliographv.
1922 Holm, Theodor. Contributions
to the Morphology, Synonymy,
and Geographical Distribution
of Arctic Plants. Report of the
Canadian Arctic Expedition,
1913-18, part B, vol. 5, pp. 4B -
139B.

Includes list of species found
in Arctic North America with
distribution indicated.

1922 SwARTii, H. S. Birds and mam-

mals of the Stikine River region
of northern British Columbia
and southeastern Alaska.
Univ. of Calif. Pub. in Zool.,
Vol. 24, No. 2, pp. 125-314.

Results of a somewhat in-
tensive study of the fauna of
the Stikine Valley from its
mouth to Telegraph Creek,
including discussion of zooge-
ography.

1923 Dall, William H. Land and

Fresh water Mollusks. Harri-
man Alaska Expedition, Vol.
XIII.

List of land and fresh water
mollusks of Mackenzie, Alaska,
and whole northern part of
British America.

7. ALASKA

By W. H. Osgood

i. general

Alaska has an area of 590,000 sq. mi.
or about one-fifth that of the United
States. The main part of it lies between
the same parallels of latitude as the
Scandinavian Peninsula. Its shores are
washed on the north by the Arctic Ocean
on the west by Bering Sea, and on the
south by the Pacific. Its coastline is
ver}- long and much indented, and there
are many outlying islands. It is largely
a mountainous region, although flat-
lands of considerable area are found on
its northern coast and about the deltas
and in parts of the vallej's of its larger
rivers. In general, the mountains are
in two series, northerly extensions of
the main continental systems. The
Pacific or Coast system follows the coast
and curves southward to include the
.Aleutian Islands. The Rocky Mountain
system, continuous from Canadian terri-
toiy, is parallel in general trend with the
coast system but separated from it bj^
a wide plateau through which course
Alaska's two greatest rivers, the Yukon
and the Kuskokwim.

Notwithstanding its great area and
its complex topographic features, in-
cluding the highest mountains in North
America, the greatest glaciers, and
some of the largest rivers and forests,

142

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

it is easily divisible into a few general
regions in which biological conditions
are broadly similar. At least four
primary divisions are necessary: (1) the
humid and relatively warm southeastern
or Sitkan region; (2) the intermediate
glacial region lying next to the coast
just northwestward; (3) the wooded
plateau and mountains of the interior,
and (4) the treeless coast of the Arctic
and Bering Sea.

II. REGIONAL ACCOUNTS

1. Southeastern region

A. Topography. This is the so-called
panhandle of Alaska extending from the
British Columbian boundary to the
vicinity of Lynn Canal and including
a narrow strip of wholly mountainous
coast and numerous adjacent islands,
some of considerable size and also moun-
tainous. The mainland is only 20 mi.
in average width and is much dissected
by long fjords bounded on either side by
mountains rising sheer from the water.
These fjords and smaller channels are
very deep and usually navigable for large
vessels. The mountains rise to heights
from 5000 to 8000 ft .with timberlines from
2000 to 3000 ft., the higher elevations
mostly to the northward. One large navi-
gable river, the Stikine, breaks through
the mountain wall. In the northern part
of the region, another river of consider-
able size is the Taku, but although other
streams are numerous, they are all of
small size. At the head of some of the
inlets and on the higher slopes are gla-
ciers of some size, although small as
compared to those found farther north.
The evergreen forests, snow-crowned
mountains and narrow waterways com-
bine to make the region exceedingly
picturesque. The islands of the Alex-
ander Archipelago lie close to the main-
land and are similar to it in character,
but the relief is generally lower and in
many cases the mountains are fully
timbered. Some of the islands are
quite large, Prince of Wales, the largest,
being about 140 mi. long and 40 mi. wide.

B. Climate. The climate of south-

eastern Alaska is relatively mild and,
in general, is similar to that of the Puget
Sound region. In ordinary winters but
little snow falls, and severe cold is
almost unknown. At Sitka, the mean
for February, the coldest month, is 33°
and for August, the warmest, it is 57.2°.
The region is subject to much rain and
cloudy weather. At Sitka and Juneau,
the annual precipitation is about 90 in.
and at stations farther southeast, annual
rainfall may be as much as 130 in. The
greatest fall is during the months from
September to January and the pleasant-
est months as well as the warmest are
May, June and July. The rains are
usually of the soft gentle variety but
often continuous for many days and
nights at a time.

C. Original biota. Vegetation: Al-
though the region has been inhabited for
many years and has been exploited to
some extent, its general biological condi-
tions are not greatly changed. The
forests are so vast that the consumption
of lumber for local purposes has had
little effect and no great amount of
exporting has yet taken place. This is
partly due to the bringing of over 1000
sq. mi. under federal control in the
Tongass National Forest. The entire
region below an altitude of 2000 ft. is
heavily grown with coniferous forest.
This consists of the giant cedar (Thuja),
which is generally distributed; the yel-
low cedar (Chamaecyparis) , mostly scat-
tered except in a few fine stands; the
Sitka Spruce (Picea sitchensis), com-
mon throughout; the western hemlock
(Tsuga heterophylla) , very abundant;
the yew (Taxus vrevifolia), locally abun-
dant; and the mountain hemlock [Tsuga
mertensiana) , scarce and local. The
important timber tree, the Douglas
Spruce [Pseudotsuga), does not occur,
its northern limit being reached in
British Columbia. Underbrush and her-
baceous plants are everywhere very
luxuriant. The principal shrubs are
Ahnis, Ribes, Vaccinium, Viburnum,
Menziezia, Gaultheria, and Echinopanax.
At higher elevations on the mountains
is an alpine flora.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

143

Animals: A characteristic large mam-
mal is the Sitka deer, generally distrib-
uted and very abundant except where
reduced by market hunting. Other
mammals are brown and black bears,
timber wolves, beaver, otters, mink, red
squirrels, voles, white-footed mice and
shrews. The mountain goat is common
on the heights of the mountains of the
mainland, but not on the islands.
Moose, caribou, mountain sheep, and
typical grizzly bears do not occur in this
part of Alaska. The sea otter, formerly
abundant, is now practically extinct and
is the only important element of the
fauna of which this can be said. A
conspicuous and characteristic bird is
the Alaskan bald eagle, recently much
reduced in numbers through a bounty
directed against it. Water birds, loons,
gulls, ducks, and shorebirds are well
represented, and among common land
birds are the rufous hummingbird, the
varied thrush, sooty grouse, Steller's
jay, northern raven, pine siskin, rusty
song sparrow, and golden-crowned spar-
row. Ptarmigan occur in the mainland
mountains but only rarely on the islands.
Fish are abundant in the waters, and
besides several varieties of salmon, there
are important fisheries of halibut, her-
ring, candlefish and others. Marine
invertebrates abound and in much
greater variety than in similar latitudes
on the Atlantic coast.

D. Travel conditions. Southeastern
Alaska is easily reached by comfortable
steamers from Seattle, operating on
regular schedules and calling at the
ports of Ketchikan, Juneau and Skagway
from which connections are often possi-
ble with small steamers running to vari-
ous points among the islands. Inde-
pendent excursions are made best, with
power launches or with canoes as sailing
is impractical on account of tidal cur-
rents. There are no roads and few
trails, so all but foot travel is by water.

2. Glacial coast region

A. Topography. This region em-
braces the coast and seaward slopes of
the mountains from Lynn Canal to the

Kenai Peninsula. The dominating fea-
ture is found in the numerous live
glaciers debouching directly into the
sea, and numbering nearly 200, including
some of very large size, as the Malaspina
Glacier which has an ice area of some
1200 sq. mi. with a front of not less than
GO mi. Behind these glaciers and the
plain of some 20 mi. width on which they
lie, rise some of the highest peaks on the
continent, Mt. St. Elias (about 18,000
ft.) and Mt. Logan (about 19,500 ft.),
Ijeing the best known. The eastern
coast is mostly icebound and forbidding,
but there are harbors and settlements in
Yakutat Bay and at Katalla where there
is petroleum in Controller Bay. The
Copper River, a very large and impor-
tant stream, has its delta in the western
part where the higher mountains recede
from the coast. Beyond this is Prince
William Sound, an irregular bay of great
beauty with several large islands guard-
ing its entrance and the Kenai Peninsula
forming its western boundary.

B. Climate. In this region, which also
has a relatively equable but colder
climate, there is a greater precipitation
and more cloudy weather even than in
southeastern Alaska. Cold mists or
steady downpours are the rule, and
bright fine weather is not long sus-
tained at any season. At stations about
Prince William Sound, the annual rain-
fall is from 130 to 190 in. In summer, the
temperature is moderate, usually ranging
from 40° to 70° and scarcely reaching a
maximum of 90°; while in winter, the
recorded minimum is 0°.

C. Biota. The biological features of
this region are mainly negative and it
is to some extent connectant between
the southeastern region and the Arctic
region. Some of the southern forms of
life do not continue into it and others
which were found in the south on the
mountains, are here found coming to the
coast. '

Vegetation : At altitudes below 1500 ft.
where soil conditions permit, there is
heavy forest growth largely consisting
of Sitka Spruce [Picea sitchcnsis), but
also including giant cedar (Thuja),

144

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

and considerable quantities of Alpine
hemlock {Tsuga mertensiana) . Alders,
willows, and cottonwoods also occur and
the Devil's Club (Echinopanax) and
some of the Salmon berries and other
small shrubs persist in diminishing num-
bers as one proceeds westward. In the
eastern part of the region, these forests
grow in close juxtaposition to the
glaciers and are frequently uprooted and
displaced by the slow moving ice.
About Prince William Sound, there is con-
siderable good forest consistiiig mainly,
of Sitka Spruce and Alpine Hemlock.
Non-arborescent alpine vegetation occu-
pies its usual place above the coniferous,
but in much of the heights among the
great glaciers there are vast areas with-
out the slightest vegetable growth, only
rocks and ice fields.

Animals: The Sitka deer does not ex-
tend to the glacial region nor do any of
the large game animals of the interior.
The only important large mammals are
the mountain goat, the great brown bear,
and the black and glacier bears. The
last is peculiar to the region but is possi-
bly not a true species but only a color
phase of the black bear. Small mam-
mals are principally the red squirrel,
meadow voles {Microtus), red-backed
voles [Evotomps) and shrews {Sorex).
Birds include some Arctic types of water-
birds, as murrelets, puffins, etc. Land
birds include sooty grouse, ptarmigan,
Steller's jay, northern raven, golden-
crowned sparrow, and representative
subspecies of the song sparrow and fox
sparrow. There are no reptiles nor
amphibians,

D. Travel Conditions. Regular

steamers from Seattle touch at Yakutat,
KatuUa, Cordova and various points in
Prince William Sound. A railroad runs
inward from Cordova to mines on the
Copper River and a government trail
for pack horses leads to the interior from
Valdez. The government railroad to
the interior has its terminus at Seward on
the south side of the Kenai Peninsula.

3. Interior region

A. Topography. This region embraces
the vast territory lying beyond the coast

l)arrier ranges, being too irregular for
exact measurement but probably cover-
ing at least two-thirds of the total area of
Alaska. It comprises mountain, plateau
and valley. The great Yukon River
with its important tributaries, the
Tanana and the Koyukuk, course
through it and three other large rivers,
the Copper, the Sushitna and the
Kuskokwim belong mainly to it. Be-
tween the rivers are more or less defined
mountain ranges, the most important
being the so-called Alaskan Range in
which Mt. McKinley rises to the height
of 20,464 ft. North of the Yukon is
another range, the Endicott Mountains,
bordering on the Arctic Region, while
east of the Copper River is the group
known as the Nutzotin Mountains.
Elsewhere there are many lower less-
defined ranges and much rolling or
broken relief. The principal extensive
areas of relatively flat surface are found
in the central Copper River valley, the
south side of the Tanana River along the
base of the Alaskan Range, and about
the great bend of the Yukon where it
touches the Arctic Circle in the region
of the Yukon Flats. In other parts,
level land is easily found but not in
great uninterrupted areas. In all this
region there are scarcely any large lakes
although countless ponds and small
swamps are found. The large lakes,
Uiamna and Clark are too near the edge
of the region to be classified as properly
belonging to it.

B. Climate. The climate of the in-
terior is relatively dry with great annual
extremes of temperature — a long cold
winter and a short hot summer. The
annual precipitation may be no more
than 12 in. and as much as 25 in. is
exceptional. Much of this is in showers
coming principally in August and
September. Snowfall during the winter
is not heavy and February, one of the
coldest months, is also one of those of
least precipitation. The summer cli-
mate is delightful, although in certain
seasons there may be two or three weeks
when it is very hot. Official records,
however, indicate that temperatures
above 90° are very rare. From Octo-

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

145.

ber to May, there is no month in
which temperatures below zero are not
recorded. The minimum recorded
is —80°, and temperatures from —40°
to —60° are frequent. For the month
of January, the mean for a typical
northerly interior station is about —30°.
For the same station the mean for July
would be about 65°.

C. Biota. Practically the whole re-
gion is in virgin condition. About the
small settlements and the few larger
towns, the timber has been cut, but in
comparison with the whole, these areas
are infinitesimal. The game and es-
pecially the fur-bearing animals, as
beaver and marten, have been much re-
duced in some parts, but is not seriously
threatened while federal regulations
are enforced.

Vegetation: Along all watercourses
in the interior, there is practically con-
tinuous forest consisting of a very small
number of species of trees, none of which
grow to large size. The principal conifer
is the white spruce {Picea canadensis)
which is generally distributed, some-
times in pure stands, but frequently
associated with deciduous trees which
nearly or quite equal the conifers in
numbers. The black spruce {Picea
mariana) is abundant, but confined
mainly to swampy ground. These are
the only conifers in the entire region,
except the larch {Larix) which has been
recorded at a few stations. The balsam
poplar {Populus balsamifera) and the
aspen {Populus iremuloides) are the
common deciduous trees, but the paper
birch (Betula papyrifera) is numerous.
Alders and willows also are abundant.
This forest usually extends only a short
distance away from the water courses
and the small divides are but sparsely
timbered and especially to the north-
ward the timber is restricted to a thin
line of trees on the actual banks of the
rivers. In the mountains, timber as-
cends to 1500 ft. or more in central
Alaska and gradually drops down as it
goes northward until finally it dwindles
to its limit at practical sea-level. The
areas above timber have Alpine floras

including plants not found in the low-
lands and these areas gradually merge
with the Arctic tundra.

Animals: Large mammals include the
moose, caribou, white mountain sheep,
grizzly bear, black bear, lynx, gray wolf,
red fox, marten, mink, weasel, wolverine.
Small mammals are mostly Palaearctic
types, as voles {Microius, Euoloniys,
Synaptomys), lemmings {Lemmus) and
ground squirrels {Citellus). The num-
ber of species is small, but individuals
are often excessively abundant. The
birds, likewise, are largelj^ of genera and
frequently of species which have a
transcontinental range from Labrador to
Alaska. They include as breeders the
common ducks, geese and shorebirds
which pass through the United States
as migrants. Northern forms of the
ruffed grouse and the Canada grouse
are generally distributed and smaller
birds include Canada jay, three-toed
woodpecker, pine siskin, slate-colored
junco, fox sparrow, hermit thrush, and
robin. The fauna is almost entirely
distinct from that of the coast region
although in one place (Cook Inlet), the
interior fauna extends to the coast.

D. Travel conditions. The interior is
accessible by regular rail and steamship
transportation from three principal
points. From Skagway, there is rail
connection with navigable waters of the
upper Yukon in Canadian territory
whence the whole Yukon system can be
traversed. From Cordova, by rail, and
from Valdez, by government trail, the
Copper River valley is reached. From
Seward on the Kenai Peninsula there is
rail connection with Fairbanks and the
Tanana Valley.

Flat-bottomed river steamers ply on
the Yukon and at least to certain points
on its larger tributaries. Canoe travel
is largely practiced, and for downstream
work, rafts and roughly made wooden
boats are successful. There are some
trails, but no roads, and overland travel
in summer is done with horses or on foot
with Indian packers who are available
in some places. Winter travel is by
dog sled and, aside from other considera-

146

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

tions, this method is preferred for con-
venience, economy and speed.

4. Arctic coast region

A. Topoyraphy. This is the treeless
coast region of northern and western
Alaska, including the Alaska Peninsula
and the Aleutian Islands which, at least
l)iologically, belong with it. For practi-
cal purposes, it may be defined on the
east and south by the irregular line
formed by the extreme limit of tree
growth, but its general conditions ex-
tend, with interruptions, throughout
much of the interior region in the ele-
vated areas above timber and in scat-
tered parts of the interior lowlands
which, for local reasons, are without
trees. It is flat or slightly rolling
ground, including the deltas of the
Yukon, Kuskokwim, Kobuk and some
other rivers of fair size. Elsewhere it
is traversed by small meandering
streams and dotted with lagoons and
small ponds. Its average width is
scarcely more than 100 mi., but in the
north it is continuous with treeless
mountains which lie between it and the
timbered interior. The Alaska Penin-
sula and Aleutian Islands consist largely
of volcanic mountains.

B. Climale. From the Arctic coast
at Point Barrow to the Aleutian Islands,
there is considerable range in climatic
conditions. The Arctic coast proper is
not so warm in summer and not so cold
in winter as the interior forested region.
The maximum for July and August is
about 65° and the minimum for January
and February is about — 55°. Neverthe-
less, nearly every month in the year may
be subject to light frost, and in early
June or late August frost is usual.
Temperatures on the coast of Bering
Sea average somewhat higher, and on
the Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutian
Islands they never go to extremes.
Nevertheless, the means for the four
warmest months, effective in controlling

the distribution of life, are substantially
the same at Unalaska in the Aleutian
Islands and at St. Michael on the cen-
tral coast of Bering Sea.

The precipitation on the Arctic coast
is the least of any part of Alaska, averag-
ing only 6 to 8 in. per annum, almost
comparable to that of a desert region.
The Bering Sea coast has more, 20 to 30
in., and the Aleutian Islands still more,
perhaps 80 in., and more rainy days
(250) than any other part of the terri-
tory.

C. Biota. Vegetation: Although en-
tirely non-arborescent and including
relatively few species, the vegetation is
profuse. It forms a thick continuous
mat over the surface of the ground, in-
cluding depauperate willows, Vaccinium,
Cassiope, Ledum, Arctos, Dryas, and
Empeirum. With these are mixed a few
grasses and sedges and various mosses
and lichens. There are many saxifrages
and bright flowered poppies and butter-
cups.

Animals: The animals are strictly
Arctic types. Mammals include the
Arctic fox, wolverine, weasel, polar
bear, barren-ground caribou, lemming,
Arctic hare, walrus, and various seals.
The birds comprise many migrating
shorcbirds, ducks and geese, including
the eider ducks. Ptarmigan are gen-
erally distributed, and small land birds
are reduced to few species, as snow
bunting, redpolls, and longspurs. The
invertebrate marine fauna is Arctic in
character, but quite varied and em-
braces at least 200 species.

D. Travel conditions . Regular steamers
during the summer season from June to
September run to Unalaska and Nome.
Yukon River steamers also come to the
coast at St. Michael, but the Arctic
coast northward is reached only by
chartered vessel or by special arrange-
ment with a trading or whaling ship or
with the government revenue cutter
which makes one trip per annum to
Point Barrow.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

147

8. THE NATIONAL FORESTS OF THE
ALASKAN DISTRICT

By John D. Guthrie

Although there are over 20,000,000
acres of National Forest land within the
Alaskan District, it is at present divided
between only two National Forests, the
Tongass and the Chugach.

*TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST

Area 15,443,000 acres of coniferous
forest, in southeastern Alaska, con-
sisting of a bewildering assortment of
islands, surrounded by channels, straits,
canals and bays. These islands vary
from those containing thousands of
acres, whose interiors have never been
explored, much less surveyed and map-
ped, such as Prince of Wales, Baranoff,
Chicagof, down to mere green specks
projecting above high tide. Generally
speaking, the land rises abruptly from
the water's edge up to elevations of
several thousand feet, timber line being
approximately at 2000 ft. and the
heaviest stands of timber being found
near sea level. The country is charac-
terized by a verj^ heavy rainfall but with
general climatic conditions similar to
the Puget Sound region. The forest
consists of approximately 60% western
hemlock {Tsuga heterophyUa) , 20% Sitka
spruce (Picea sitchensis) , the other 20%
being made up of western red cedar,
(Thuja plicata) , yellow cypress [Chamac-
cyparis nootkatensis), some lodgepole
pine (Pinuscontorta) and a small amount
of Cottonwood and white birch (Betula
alaskana) . There are glacier-fed lakes on
these islands, the outlets of which drop
in many cases almost precipitously into
the sea. The higher peaks are usually
snow covered from about October until
May; the lower elevations in the forest,
however, have a comparatively light
snowfall. Navigation is open through-
out the year. The conditions prevailing
on the Tongass Forest, located as it is
in extreme southeastern Alaska, must
not be confused with conditions to be
found elsewhere within Alaska. The

region is one of great interest to the
ecologist, to scientists generally, and
to travelers. Copper mines, canneries
(salmon, shrimp, crab, etc.), lumbering
operations, whaling stations, totem
poles, water power plants, marble quar-
ries, are abundant and arc of extreme
interest in addition to the very large
number of readily accessible glaciers
as well as the interesting relics of the
Russian occupation and of the earlier
Indian inhabitants. The surface condi-
tions of the Tongass region are charac-
terized by abundant rock, with little
or no soil but a vast amount of moss and
very heavy undergrowth, with a very
dense stand of coniferous forest with
swamps or muskegs on bench lands.
jNIagnificent scenery characterizes this
entire "pan handle" of Alaska.

The forest is reached bj' regular boat
lines from Seattle and Prince Rupert
and has a number of thriving towns in
which comfortable hotel accommoda-
tions can be found. Supervisor's head-
quarters at Ketchikan. {

*CHUGACH NATIONAL FOREST

Area 5,129,544 acres, lying in the
Prince Williain Sound, Cook Inlet and
Kenai Peninsula. This forest has not the
timber resources of the Tongass and is
broken up into several distinct units.
Its forest types are practically the same
as found on the Tongass although the
climatic conditions are somewhat differ-
ent. The rainfall, however, is some-
what less. On the northern edge of the
Chugach are found several species which
do not occur on the Tongass namely,
white spruce (Picea canadensis), black
spruce (Picea mariana) and white birch,
species characteristic of the great in-
terior basins of Alaska. Scenically,
the Chugach is characterized by tre-
mendous mountain masses, glaciers,
large rivers, many lakes and especially
on the Kenai Peninsula abundant big
game.

The Chugach Forest is reached by
regular steamers from either Seattle or
Prince Rupert and its principal towns
are Cordova,! Seward| and Anchorage. J

148

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

The new government railroad also
traverses a portion of the Forest. Su-
pervisor's headquarters at Cordova, t

*MOUNT MCKINLEY NATIONAL PARK

Situated in South Central Alaska.
Reached from the Cook Inlet country.
Area 2200 sq. mi. A snow-clad
mountain 20,300 ft. high, rising from
a rolling plateau peopled with cari-
bou and mountain sheep. Glaciers
on southern and eastern slopes. North
and west sides drop abruptly to
grassy valleys only 3000 ft. in altitude.
Park created principally to protect
wild animals.

The park includes treeless plateaus
rich in mosses and grasses, and fertile
valleys rich in flowers.

For more complete information apply
to director of National Park Service,
Washington, D. C, or to Chamber of
Commerce, Seattle, Wash.— (7. B. Rigg.

*THE KATMAI NATIONAL MONUMENT

More than a million acres at the base
of the Alaska peninsula, largely devasted
by the eruption of 1912, presenting un-
paralleled opportunity for study of
colonization of volcanic areas by plants
and animals (a) the invasion of ordinary
pumice plains at air temperature, (6)
colonization of hot deposits around
fumaroles.

Around the devasted areas are many
square miles of undisturbed country.

The reservation is located at the
geographical edge of the forest. Such
animals as the moose, elk, lynx and wolf
reach the edge of their range in this
district. The northern end of the park
is heavily covered with a forest domi-
nated by white spruce {Picea canadensis) ,
with alder, birch, poplar and willow as
subordinate trees. Beyond the forest
is typical tundra.

It is a lake country with several large
and very deep lakes and many small
ponds and swamps. These are the
breeding grounds of innumerable water-
fowl such as ducks, geese, swans,
gulls, cormorants, and so forth. The
lakes are among the most famous

spawning grounds for sockeye salmon
in the world.

Reached at present either from
Kodiak, 100 mi. southeast, or from
Naknek, 75 mi. northwest.

At present it is necessary to outfit
one's own expedition, which involves
considerable expense. The whole coun-
try can, however, be made readily
accessible by the construction of about
60 mi. of automobile road from Geo-
graphic Harbor, which lies in the middle
of the reservation at the head of Ama-
lik Bay. — Robert F. Griggs.

AVAILABLE AREAS

The Copper River Valley (available).
Including Arctican and Alpine lands, ice
fields, lakes, ponds, streams, conifer
forest, inland from the rivers. One
finds active and decadent glacier
tongues, new made lands and all stages
of incoming vegetation from that to the
fully established conditions. Most of
the large game is gone. Lake Klutina
region has splendid beaver colonies.
We put a canoe over 20 beaver dams in
one-half day. The Copper Valley is
easily reached from Cordova by the
Copper River and Northwestern Rail-
way. This line runs along the coastal
plain 30 mi. east from Cordova, follows
the river north with frequent crossings
to Chitina and then a branch river of
the same name to the east 60 mi. to
Kennicott. Stops can be made almost
anywhere. — Henry B. Ward.

Glacier Bay^ p. Many-branched fjord
60 mi. long, surrounded by lofty ice-
covered mountains. Nine tidewater
glaciers discharging icebergs (the Muir
being the largest) and hundreds of
others. Extensive areas laid bare by
retreat of ice, the history of which is
accurately known; every stage in plant
succession from pioneers through alder
thicket to spruce-hemlock forest; also
areas of very old forest which antedate
last glacial advance. Valuable relics
(stumps, trunks, lower vegetation) of
interglacial forest exposed by erosion
of gravels. Subarctic fauna well de-
veloped: goat, bear, ptarmigan; abun-
dant salmon in streams. See John Muir :
Travels in Alaska.

JuneautH, 70 mi. west, gas-boat.--
Wrlham S. Cooper.

Holkham Bay. Typical narrow fiord,
with two branches, Endicott Arm and
Tracy Arm, each 25 mi. long and termi-
nated by glaciers discharging icebergs.
Mountains 600 ft. high immediately

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

149

adjacent; many fine waterfalls. Ford's
Terror, a branch of Endicott Arm, five
miles long, a quarter-mile wide, with
entrance 300 ft. wide; at its head a
glacier, recently tidal, now ending on
land, also several fine cataracts. Shores
of lower bay densely clothed with
spruce-hemlock forest; upper portions,
especially Ford's Terror, show all
successional stages. See John Muir:
Travels 171 Alaska, chapter on "Sum Dum
Bay."

Juneau J 1[, 45 mi. south, gas-boat. —
William S. Cooper.

Knyg Lake. Lake, U mi. long, § mi.
wide, draining into Stikine River by
outlet stream 3 mi. long; surrounded by
cliffs 3000 ft. high, with several water-
falls; a glacier enters upper end and dis-
charges very large icebergs. All stages
in plant succession following glacial
retreat; fine display of wild flowers
around lower end in early summer.
Along outlet stream may be seen all
stages of flood-plain succession, from
willow-cottonwood, through alder
thicket to spruce-hemlock forest.

Wrangellt 1, 25 mi. up Stikine River,

gas-boat and row-boat. — William S.
Cooper.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Cooper, W. S. The recent ecological
history of Glacier Bay, Alaska. I.
The interglacial forests of Glacier
Bay. Ecology, Vol. 4, pp. 93-128,
1923. II. The present vegetation
cycle. Ecology, Vol. 4, pp. 223-245.
III. Permanent quadrants at Glacier
Bay: An initial report upon a long-
study period. Ecology, Vol. 4,
pp. 355-365, 1923. (The first paper
cites papers dealing with the geology
of the Glacier Bay region.)

Dice, L. R. The land vertebrate com-
munities of Interior Alaska. Univ.
of Mich., occ. papers Mus. Zool.,
no. 86, 1920.

Osgood, W. H. 1909 Biological in-
vestigations in Alaska and Yukon
Territorv (North American Fauna
No. 30, 96 pages). I. East Central
Alaska; II. The Ogilvie Range,
Yukon; III. The Mac^^Iillan River,
Yukon. With special reference to
explorations made in 1903 and 1904.

Section 2. Southern Canada and the United States
A. States, Provinces and Forest Districts, Chiefly Coniferous Forest

Few or none of the states or provinces
are covered exclusively by coniferous
forest, and classification is accordingly
difficult on any basis. Several types of
coniferous forest are included; northern,
northwestern mesophytic, southwestern
xerophytic, and the montane of the
Rockies, Sierras, and Cascades. In
addition to coniferous forests Idaho,
Oregon, and California include a desert,
sage brush, semi-desert, grassland, and
considerable areas above timber line;
Washington and British Columbia, sage-
brush, semi-desert, and grassland, and
large areas above timber line. Alberta,
Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and Minne-
sota include popular savanna, and
steppe; Ontario, deciduous forest and
tundra; Quebec, tundra. The state,
national, provincial, and dominion for-
ests included in this section are almost
entirely coniferous. — V. E. S.

1. BRITISH COLUMBIA!

By Joh.n D.widsox, P. Z. Caverhill,

Edw.\rd a. Pkeble and A. H.

Hutchinson

1. General Conditions (P. Z. C.)

A. TOPOGRAPHY

British Columbia occupies the north-
central portion of the Pacific slope of
North America, which is regarded as the
greatest forest region of the continent
and the greatest coniferous forest of the
world. The Province is a quadrangle
about 760 mi. long and 470 mi. wide. It
extends from the 49th to the 60th
parallels of latitude and from the crest
of the Rocky Mountains westward to

' Whore there was no cooperation between the
authors their names are given in the order of the
receipt of their manuscripts and parts written by
each are indicated in the body of the text.

the Pacific. Its eastern boundary fol-
lows the axis of the Rockies north from
49° to 54°, and from there to latitude 60°
it follows longitude 120°. On the west
between latitudes 55° and 60° it is shut
off from the Coast by the long narrow
strip sometimes called the "Pan-handle"
of Alaska.

The topography is prevailingly moun-
tainous except in the northeast corner,
which includes a triangular area of the
eastern foot-hills and the great plains
east of the Rocky Mountains. The
main physiographic features are the
series of parallel mountain ranges and
intermontane trenches or valleys which
extend with a general northwest trend
along both the east and west sides of the
Province, separated by a central belt of
plateau and minor mountain ranges.

The Rocky Mountains on the east are
the northern end of the Cordilleran belt
which forms the backbone of the con-
tinent from Mexico to Alaska. It con-
sists of the upturned edges of the strata
underlying the Great Plains on the east,
chiefly alluvial and carboniferous lime-
stone. In the southern half of the
Province the average height of the peaks
is around 8000 ft., and the higher peaks
range from 10,000 to 13,500 ft.; north-
ward the mountains become progres-
sively lower. The average width of the
range is 60 mi.

Along the western base of the Rockies
is the Rocky Mountain trench, a large
U-shaped trough from 2 to 15 mi. wide,
extending 900 mi. through the whole
length of the Province.

Forming the western rim of the trench
is the Columbia system of mountains ex-
tending from the United States bound-
ary north to the Fraser River, latitude
53° 45', with an average width of 80 mi.

150

Fig. 8. Grasslands of British Columbia

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

151

In the south it includes the Purcell and
the Selkirk Trenches, each of which is
threaded by large rivers and lakes
North of these are the Cariboo Range,
the Peace and the Stikine Mountains.
Geologically the Columbia system repre-
sents an earlier upheaval and is formed
of an entirelj' different series of rocks
than the Rockies. The average height
is almost that of the Rockies.

Within the Rocky Mountain Trench is
found the headwaters of most of our im-
portant river systems. The Kootenay,
Columbia, Eraser; the Parsnip, and
Einlay, which unite to form the Peace;
and the Kachika and Frances, which
form (with the Dease) the Liard, either
rise in or flow for some distance through
this trench. These streams are mostly
glacier-fed and therefore subject to
rapid variations in run-off, while their
tributaries flowing from the steeper
side-valleys are turbulent mountain
torrents. These systems, therefore,
are not important for log transporta-
tion except when diverted and used in
conjunction with log flumes. In the
lower courses, however, numerous lake
expansions become of prime importance
for transportation.

The central regions of the plateau and
low mountains, 200 mi. wide, merge into
the Columbia and Rocky Mountain sys-
tems on the east and Coast Mountains
on the west. Originally it was a table-
land elevated about 3500 ft. above sea-
level, but it has been so dissected and
eroded that from the valley-bottoms it
now appears mountainous. Much of the
soil is composed of disintegrated lava,
which once overflowed large areas, and
glacial drift. This plateau is largely
drained by the central portion of the
Eraser River system. The Skeena and
Stikine Rivers drain the northern sec-
tion, while the south-eastern section is
drained by the Okanagan and Kettle
Rivers. The characteristic topography
is of two types: Eirst, the deep-cut U-
shaped valleys with elevation ranging
from, 1000 to 2000 ft. above sea-level and
occupying one-third of the area; second,

the rolling upland plateau, 3500 to 5000
ft. in elevation, dissected with V-shaped
valleys where the rivers debouch from
the uplands into the main valleys. The
plateau is generally found covered with
glacial drift, while the valleys show dis-
tinct evidence of glaciation. The fauna
and flora of the greater part of this
region resembles closely that of the
interior of Canada to the eastward and
is discussed in connection with that
area. (See pp. 288, 293.)

The coast range forms a barrier between
the Interior Plateau and the ocean, 6000
to 7000 ft. high and averaging about 100
mi. in width. The mountains are com-
posed of massive crystalline rocks of
an ancient period. Lj'ing to the west of
the Mainland is a partially submerged
mountain range — the Island Range or
insular system — now represented by an
archipelago of islands, of which Van-
couver and Queen Charlotte are the
largest. Between this system and the
Mainland is the deep submerged Coastal
Trench.

The Coastal Trench, like the Rocky
Mountain Trench, extends the entire
length of the Province. It was formerly
a land trench and still appears as such
south from Puget Sound. Pre-glacial
submergence, however, sunk the main
trench and the lower reaches of its tribu-
tary' valleys far below sea-level, thus
forming that remarkable system of
straits and fiords which penetrate into
the very heart of the Coast Range and
which characterizes the British Colum-
bia Coast. Twelve per cent of produc-
tive timber area of the Province, con-
taining 65 per cent of the standing
timber, is tributary to this trench, which
becomes of the greatest economic im-
portance because these submerged val-
leys form navigable sheltered waterways
for the transportation of this timber to
mills. Eighty per cent of the timber
cut of the Province is derived from tim-
ber tributary to the Coast Trench.

During the glacial period the whole
Province, except the highest peaks, was
covered by a continuous ice-sheet. The

152

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

glaciation and subsequent stream ero-
sion has considerably modified the
topography. Valleys were enlarged and
lowered, soil deposited, and lakes formed
— all matters of importance to forestry,
agriculture, and transportation today.
The soil is largely formed of these
deposits of glacial drift. It is estimated
that of the total area about 47 per cent
is suitable for agriculture, grazing or
the production of timber, while 53 per
cent is above merchantable timber-line,
is water surface or swamp land, or is
incapable of growing timber of any com-
mercial value on account of ruggedness.

B. CLIMATE

The chief factors for consideration in
relation to climate area: Influence of
Japan Current; the 11 degrees of latitude
through which the Province extends; the
extremes of altitude from sea level to
13,500 feet (Mount Robson).

The principal topographic features
have a general trend at right angles to
the prevailing winds. Warm moisture-
laden air-currents sweep inland from
across the Japan Current, to be chilled
as they ascend the western slope of the
mountain ranges and are forced to
deposit their moisture. As they cross
the summit to the warm eastern slope
they become comparatively dry, to be
again chilled as they cross the next
range. The result is alternating wet and
dry belts, the wet belts occurring again
and again on the main Rockies, while
the Interior plateau and the east slope
of the Selkirks are comparatively dry.
These winds also moderate extremes of
temperature. The main climatic re-
gions are as below:

Lower Coast Belt. Characterized by
mild, even temperature and a variation
of only 30° between summer and winter
mean. The summer isotherm on which
the region is situated would pass through
Quebec, Edinburgh, and Southern
Norway; the winter through New York
and London. The precipitation aver-
ages 60 to 70 in., of which one third

occurs during the summer season; the
record of bright sunshine averaging
about 2000 hours per year.

North Coast Belt. Averages some 5°
lower in mean temperature throughout
the year and has an increased precipita-
tion, this being 110 in., one-quarter of
which falls during the summer season.
A part of the winter precipitation falls
in the form of snow.

Interior Plateau or Dry Belt. Charac-
terized by greater variations of tempera-
ture and a relatively limited precipita-
tion. Typical Stations show:

.„ w

m

z

S «

K

o

P
^5

STATION

t3 «

P »

«S

5 «

*

< w

<i H

« K

H H

S H

> (^

s

a

■<

degrees

degrees

inches

Penticton

26

22

67
69

11

Kamloops

11

Quesnel

14

62

15

This region is on the same isotherm as
Toronto and Central Europe, Warsaw,
during January; New York or Paris
during July. The record of bright sun-
shine is 200 and 2200 hrs.

Second Wet Belt. This has relatively
the same temperature range as the Dry
Belt, but greater precipitation.

K. ^

H

z

K «

Ph

o

5 ^

P

STATION

P H

gs

■< w

< w

H K

H t<

w ^

> "^

S

s

•<

degrees

degrees

inches

Nelson

25

66

27

Revelstoke

20
18
14

64
57
52

43

Barkerville

35

Glacier

60

The first two stations are valley sta-
tions and the last two hill stations; the
elevation of Barkerville being 4180 ft.
and Glacier 3778 ft.

Second or Columbia Dry Belt. This

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

153

forms the western rim of the Rocky
Mountain Trench:

^ H

H

»;

t «

K

c

P <

(M <;

STATION

D a

^^

►, a,

"^ e.

gs

^ s

a w

<• m

< a

K ^

a t'

a f<

> **

s

^

<!

degrees

degrees

inches

Cranbrook

18
12
12

62
62
64

16

Wilmer

13

Golden

17

Gr-eai Northern Belt. This is subject
to greater extremes, but less data are
available. Liard varies from 40° to
50° below zero during extreme winter
weather to 90° and above, during the
summer. These periods, however, are
of short duration, and generallj^ it may
be stated that this region is in the same
isotherm as Quebec or Central European
Russia during January and that of
Edinburgh or Christiana, Norway, dur-
ing summer. The precipitation is from
16 to 20 in., nearly half of which falls
during the growing season.

II. Original Biota

A. NORTHWESTERN MOIST CONIFEROUS
FOREST (coast FORESTS)

1. General

The coast forests are characterized by
the giant size of the trees. These tower
200 to 300 ft. high and often reach 25 to
30 ft. in girth. The underbrush consists
chiefly of salal (Gaultheria shallon), in
drier situations, especially in Douglas
fir {Pseudols^^ga taxifolia), with devil-
club {Echinopanax horridum) , and salmon
berry (Rubus spectabilis) in the lower
and wetter situations.- — P. Z. C.

Here the humid atmosphere favors a
luxuriant growth of ferns including
sword fern {Pohjstichnvi munitum),
maiden hair fern (Adiantum pedatum),
oak fern {Phegopteris dryopteris), the
latter often carpeting large areas of the
forest floor; while the western polypody
(Polypodium vulgare, var. occidentale),
clothes the large trunks and branches
of the soft maples {Acer macrophyllnm) .
The combined effect of thc.'?9 ferns, to-

gether with an abundance of mosses and
lichens hanging in festoons from the
branches, is to impart to the coast forest
a close resemblance to a tropical jungle.
Near the margin of such an environ-
ment the cascara tree {Rhamnus pur-
shiana), is found at its best. The bark
of this tree is the Cascara Sagrada of
commerce, and in recent years British
Columbia has been called on to furnish a
very large proportion of the world's
needs of this valuable medicine. — /. D.
Mammals and birds^ E. A. P. The
mammals include the coast long-tailed
shrew (Sorex obscurus longicauda);
Rhoads deer-mouse (Peromyt<ciis manicu-
latus marrophinus) northerly; Bangs
deer-mouse (P. m. areas) southerly;
Wrangell lemming-vole {Synaptomys
borealis wrangeli) northerly; Wrangell
red-backed vole (Evotomys wrangeli)
northerly; coast red-backed vole (Evot-
omys caurinus) southerly; long-tailed
vole (Microtus mordax macrurus), Sitka
deer (Odocoileus columhianus sitkensis);
elk {Cervus canadensis roosevelti) south-
erly; lilack bear (Ursus americanus) .
The so-called white bear (Ursns kcr-
modei) from Gribble Island, is probably
only an instance of albinism. Several
forms of brown and grizzly bears {Ursus
chelidonias, U. atnarko, U. quakiutl, U.
ivarburtoni, and U. pervagor) are de-
scribed from the coast forests, but their
ranges are not well defined. The
northwest wolf {Canis occidentalis gigas),
preys on the deer. The northwest coast
skunk {Mephitis o. spissigrada) , and the
Pacific raccoon {Procyon psora pacifica),
and the British Columbia Seweelek
{Apoldontia v. columbiana), extend only
a short distance northward along the
coast; while the British Columbia mink
{Mustela v. energnmenos) , and the north-
west marten {Maries a. canrina) range
farther north and into the interior.

B'l'ds more or less characteristic of the
crast forests include the following:
Sika grouse, red-breasted sapsucker,
Oregon junco, lutescent warbler, Stellers
jay, Townsend's warbler, piliolated
warbler, chestnut-backed chickadee,
russet-backed thrush, varied thrush.

' Spr pasp ISI (Oregon) for note on MoUuscf.

154

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

The northwest painted turtle
(Chrysemys marginiala belli), and the
northwest garter snake (Thamnophis
sir talis concinnus), inhabit southeastern
British Columbia near the coast.

2. Forest types {P. Z. C.)

The climatic factors previously de-
scribed largely determine the main forest
types, of which a brief description fol-
lows:

a. Lower coast or Douglas fir-cedar type.
This is the prevalent type at the lower
altitude in southern, eastern, and
central portions of Vancouver Island
and along the Mainland and adjacent
islands to Knight Inlet. In general it
may be said that this type occurs in
sections where the annual precipitation
is less than 75 in., reaching its best
development when precipitation is be-
tween 50 and 60 in. The type extends
from sea-level up to 2000 ft. and occa-
sionally to 3000 ft. This is one of our
chief commercial types. Stands of
50,000 ft. B.M. per acre extend over
large areas and sometimes stands reach
200,000 or even 300,000 ft. B.M. per acre.
Typical stands show in south and east
Vancouver Island: Douglas fir 70%;
giant cedar (Thuja plicata) 17%; western
hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) 6%; and
white fir or "balsam" {Ahies amabilis)
2%. Other species, including western
white pine (Pinus monticola), Sitka-
spruce, etc., 5%.

h. Giant cedar-hemlock type. This
type occupies a zone immediately above
or just north of the lower coast type.
The mean temperature is slightly lower
and rainfall heavier, ranging from 90
to 100 in., where optimum growth is
obtained. This type centres around
Broughton Island, Smith and Seymour
Inlets, but also extends down the Coast
where it forms a belt above the Douglas
fir-cedar type up to an elevation of some-
times 4000 ft. Commercially giant
cedar is the most important species
and forms the principal part of the stand.
Associated therewith are western hem-
lock, white fir, sitka spruce and yellow
cypress (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis) .
The species run in percentages:

Giant cedar 60%; western hemlock
22%; white fir 11%; sitka spruce (Picea
sitchensis) 4%; others 3% at Seymour
Inlet; while typical stands on slopes at
Capilano give 31,000 ft. per acre; giant
cedar 57%; western hemlock 17%; white
fir 9%; Douglas fir 8%; yellow cedar
(Chamaecyparis nootkatensis) 8%; and
western white pine (Pinus monticola) 1%.

c. Western hemlock-sitka spruce type.
This type centres on Queen Charlotte
Islands where Sitka spruce attains its
maximum growth. On the Mainland
the type occupies the lower slopes of the
North Coast and especially the valley-
bottoms, being found in isolated stands
at the head of inlets as far south as
Vancouver.

The temperature averages 5° colder
than in the Douglas fir type and rain-
fall varies from 45 to 120 in. On the
Queen Charlottes, where the best spruce
is found, the rainfall averages 52 in.
In this type hemlock represents 25 to
40% of the stand. Sitka spruce averages
about 30%, associated species being
giant cedar, yellow cypress and white
fir, except on Queen Charlotte Islands
where white fir is not found.

d. Hemlock-white fir type. This type
occupies the more exposed sites and
higher altitudes. It is the prevailing
type on Vancouver Island around
Quatsino Sound and generally extends
in a belt along western slopes just
below the sub-alpine type reaching
an elevation of 4000 ft. on the lower
coast. The species are chiefly western
hemlock and white fir. Associated with
these, however, are Sitka spruce, giant
cedar and lodgepole pine (Pinus con-
torta). Typical stands of this type run
at Quatsino Sound: hemlock 50%; white
fir 23%; giant cedar 17%; sitka spruce
10%. At Kitimat, at an elevation of
1700 ft: hemlock 60%; white fir 39%;
the stand averaging 2,000 to 15,000 ft.
B.M. per acre. On the Naas River
this is the prevailing type. Species
represented are: hemlock 45% or over;
white fir 15 to 20%; sitka spruce 15 to
30%, giant cedar 2 to \^%. Stands
average 15,000 to 20,000 ft. per acre,
reaching 40,000 to 50,000 ft. per acre.

NATUIIAT> AREAS AND REGIONS

155

Above the hemlock-white tir tyi)e and
below cold timber-line is the suh-alpine
type of no commercial value, the species
consisting of mountain hemlock {Tsugn
Mertensiana), alpine fir {Abies lasio-
carpa), lodgepole pine, and with some
spruce and western hemlock. As a
rule a considerable portion of this type is
treeless and tundra in character, the
soil being wet and covered with a thick
growth of moss.

B. TEMPERATE SEMI-DESERT BROKEN AND

BUSH COVERED GRASSLAND (dRY-

belt) (J. D.)

1. General

The semi-desert regions of British
Columbia are characterized by the
scarcity or absence of trees and the pre-
dominance of sagebrush {Artemisia
tridentala and A.frigida) ; rayless golden
rod {Bigelouia dracunculoides) ; balsam
root {Balsamorhiza sagittata) ; and other
white-pubescent xerophytic plants.
(For a discussion of grasses, etc., see
page 156.)

There are three main drybelt regions:
(1) the Columbia-Kootenay semi-arid
area, in the valley between the Rocky
Mountains and the Purcell Range, com-
prising the Windermere Valley and the
region to the south; (2j the Okanagan-
Similkameen area; between the Gold
Range and the Cascade or Coast Range;
(3) The Eraser area including the
Thompson Valley, extending north
through the Interior plateau to latitude
53°. In each of these areas may be
found noteworthy variations in the
flora which may be summarized by se-
lecting two characteristic drybelt genera
Purshia tridentala (locally known as
"Greasewood"), and Opunlia polya-
cantha, (Cactus) and noting their
distribution:

AREAS

PURSHIA

OPUNTIA

1. Columbia.

Kootenay

2. Okanagan-

Similkameen. . .

3. Eraser-

Thompson

Present
Present
Absent

Absent
Present
Present

As Purshia is one of the characteristic
members of the Sonoran life zone, it is
interesting to note its presence in the
southern valleys which ultimately drain
into the Columbia River.

Taken as a whole, the semi-desert
flora is found onlj* in the valleys and
adjacent benches; although Artemisia
Iridentata is most frequently given as
the characteristic sage brush, Artemisia
frigida is the species most widely dis-
tributed in the drybelt regions of this
Province. Where Artemisia tridentala
is found, the Cactus {Opunlia polya-
cantha var. borealis) is usually very
prolific. Associated with these may
1)6 found large clumps of milkweed
(Asclepias speciosa), and stickweed
(Mentzelia laevicaulis) .

The flora of such a region in spring and
early summer differs greatly from that
found later in the year. For a short
season after the melting of the winter's
snow, when the soil is warm and moist,
the desert region is ablaze with many
annuals and perennials which send up
their flowers and hurry through with
the production and dispersal of seeds
before the soil becomes hot and dry.
Spring flowers include the yellow fritil-
lary {Fritillaria pudica) ; Mariposa lily
{Calochortus macrocarpus) ; Menzies Pha-
celia {Phacelia Menziesii); balsam root
{Balsamorhiza sagittata); clematis (C.
ligusticifolia) ; bitter-root {Lewisia re-
diviva). The fritillary, Mariposa lily,
balsam-root, and bitter-root grow in
such abundance that the bulbs or roots
are dug and used as food by the Indians
of these regions.

In the numerous gulches caused by
erosion, may be found thickets of June-
berry {Amelanchier alnifolia), moun-
tain maple {Acer glabrum), and sumach
(Rhus glabra).

Mammals, birds, and reptiles {E.A.P.).
Mammals of the sagebrush area include
a pocket gopher (Thomomys fuscus),
Lord's pocket mouse {Perognathus lordi),
and western white-tailed jackrabbit
{Lepus toionsendii townsendii). These
enter British Columbia only in this
area.

Birds found almost exclusively in this

156

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

area include: Sage grouse, Arkansas
kingbird, western lark sparrow. Brewer
sparrow. Lazuli bunting, poorwill and
rock wren.

According to Fannin, the western
spadefoot toad {Scaphiopus hammondii)
is found in southern British Columbia.
The northwestern rattlesnake (Crotalus
oreganus) also inhabits its sagebrush
areas.

2. Grasslands {A. II. II.)

The natural grasslands of British
Columbia are limited to the Dry Belt
areas; where the precipitation is abun-
dant, particularly in the coast region,
the tree growth is so dense that grasses
are eliminated, because of insufficient
sunlight. The principal natural grass-
lands or grazing areas are: The Fraser
valley, and the plateau neighboring
thereon from its confluence with the
Nicola River northward to its confluence
with the Quesnel River, particularly
in the regions about the Nicola, Bridge,
Thompson, and Chilcotin basins; the
Okanagan and Similkameen basins from
the United States border northward
toward the extremitj^ of Okanagan
Lake; the lowlands bordering the south-
ern part of the Kettle River. In the
valleys of the southern parts of the
Arrow and Kootenay Lakes, to a limited
extent; and the Columbia basin north-
ward to Lake Windermere particularly
in the region of the St. Mary's River.

Natural grasslands occur to a com-
paratively limited extent along the
southeastern coast of Vancouver Island.
In addition, undoubtedly, there are
large unexplored areas, particularly in
the north; the regions mentioned con-
stitute the better known and more
generally used grazing lands of the
Province.

Although one kind of grazing area
merges into another, several rather
distinct t3'pes of grasslands may be
distinguished, namely: the open grass-
land including those areas where grasses
predominate (indicated on fig. 1 by
the mark "o"), also those areas where
the sagebrush is predominant and the

wooded grasslands including those areas
where western yellow pine (indicated
by "X"), jack pine (indicated by
"P"), poplars and willows (indicated
by "W"); Douglas fir (indicated by
"D"); or oaks (indicated by "T");
are the respective dominant tree forms
associated with the forage plants of
the region.

Open grasslands may be classified
as: first, those where grasses predomi-
nate, and second, those where sagebrush
is predominant. The two types are not
strictly separable by any hard and
fast line; ordinarily however the latter
occupies the comparatively level low-
lands particularly where the yearly
precipitation is very low — ordinarily
not exceeding 3.5 in., and where the
temperature is high — the average sum-
mer temperature approximating 70°F. ;
in contrast, the open grassland domi-
nated by grasses is found on the slopes
where there is more available water,
due to seepage; where the yearly pre-
cipitation may be greater, from 3 to
10 in., and where the temperature may
be considerably lower.

The so-called "meadows" may also
be included among the open grasslands.
They occur in the undrained basins
where water stands at least during the
earlier part of the growing season.
Although included under grasslands,
sedges are the dominant forage plant
belonging to this plant association.

Many of the plants found in the sage-
brush areas have stout rootstocks in
which food is stored during the early
growing season in provision for the dry
summer months and they obtain suffi-
cient water by means of an extensive
root system which penetrates the soil
to a great depth and not infrequently
to the lowest water level. Most con-
spicuous among the number are the
sagebrush {Artemisia frigida) ; balsam-
root or wild sunflower (Balsamorhiza
sagittata); and southward from Dog
Lake "Greasewood" (Purshia triden-
tata). The broad leaves of the balsam-
root afford good forage until the latter
part of June. These plants are not

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

157

onl}' drought resistant but also, be-
cause of their underground food supply
and deep roots, are able to withstand
the ravages of over-grazing and fires.
When conditions are adverse they are
often the sole survivors.

Annual plants which grow early in the
spring and which produce large quanti-
ties of seeds early in the season are also
associated with the sagebrush, namely;
stickseed (Lappula occidentalis and L.
echinata) ; fleabane or wild aster (Erige-
ron linearis, or E. caespiiosus and E.
peucophyllus) ; tumbling mustard {Si-
symbrium aliissimum, S. incisum var.
Hartwegianum) ; everlasting (Antenna-
ria microphylla) .

Grasses even in the sagebrush areas
constitute the most stable forage; they
are mostly of the tufted, perennial
deep rooted varieties such as: Tufted
wheat grass, or bunch grass (Agropyron
biflorum and A. tenerum); big bunch
grass {Agropyron spicalum); shining
spike grass {Koeleria crisiata), tufted
{Festuca hallii, and F. ovina); needle
grass, (Stiva viridula and S. comata);
triple awned grass {Aristida purpurea),
and little blue grass {Poa Sandbergi).

On the open grazing lands where
grasses predominate the forms enumer-
ated above make up the greater propor-
tion of the covers; associated with them
are short-awned brome grass (Bromus
marginatus) ; tall bunch grass {Agropy-
ron caninum and A. richardsonii) , and
tufted lyme or wild rye {Elymus con-
densatus); also annual leguminous
plants; lupine {Lupinus argenteus);
hairy milk vetch {Astragalus stenophyl-
lus), and other plants of little or no
forage value as wild geranium or crane-
bill [Geranium viscosissimum) ; woolly
plantain {Plantago purshii) and rushes
{Juncus spp.).

Many of the plants named above as
belonging to the open grasslands are
also found in the yellow pine grasslands,
especially in the more open stands; to
this list may be added a number of the
grasses known as "Pine Grass" such
as narrow-leaved pine grass {Calama-
grostis Suksdorfii), shining spike grass

{Koeleria cristata); tall wheat grass
{Agropyron occidenlale) ; spear grass
{Poa glauca) little blue grass {Poa
sandbergii), and Nevada spear grass
{Poa nevadensis) . Many of these grasses,
in contrast with the bunch grasses
characteristic of the open grasslands,
have creeping rootstocks sending up a
number of shoots from buds which ap-
pear at intervals along the rootstock.
Because of this character the grass
cover has a matted appearance. The
possession of these budding rootstocks
make the production of seeds less im-
perative in order that the grass may
be maintained.

Leguminous plants, of considerable
forage value, are also more abundant:
ISIilk vetch {Astragalus campestris);
bird-foot clover {Hosackia deniiculata) ;
and so-called loco-weed {Oxytropis mon-
ticola), are among the most common.

Poisonous plants, however, are more
numerous also; for instance poison
camas {Zygademus venenosus); larkspur
{Delphinium bicolor) ; lupines {L. argen-
teus). It is doubtful however, whether
Oxytropis may justly be called Loco-
weed in this region since evidence is
wanting to prove that it has poisoned
stock while grazing on British Columbia
grasslands.

The plants growing on the Douglas
fir grassland areas include those already
indicated as belonging to the forage
plants of wooded regions. The bunch
grasses become still less conspicuous and
the pine grasses more predominant.
To the list may be added another wheat
grass [Agropyron caninum); fescue
grass [Festuca ovina, and F. octiflora);
melick or sweet grass [Melica striata);
brome grass {Bromus Pumpellianus),
also such legumes as milk vetches
{Astragalus americanus), and pea-
vine {Lathyrus Nuttallii, and L.
ochroleucus) .

With jack pines are found plants whose
palatability and food value are gener-
ally lower especially where the stand is
closed as the result of frequent burns:
Pine grass and shining spike grass are
the chief forms, while in more open

158

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

stands needle grass {Slipa spp.), is of
common occurrence.

The Cottonwood grassland plants do
not differ essentially from those of the
Douglas fir or jack pine grasslands, when
the region is arid. In the transition
region, however, the common pine grass
gives place to marsh pine grass (Calama-
groslis canadensis), and the following
become conspicuous forms; foul meadow
grass {Poa trijlora), short awned brome
grass (Bromus marginatus), and wheat
grass (Agropyron caninum). In the
same region leguminous forage plants
are abundant and grow to great size.
In the "Pea-vine Country" masses of
pea-vine associated with milk vetches
grow to a height of 5 ft. or more.

There is abundant evidence that the
grasses, at least of the dry belt regions,
are pioneer forms; that they constitute
the first cover of the soil; that they pre-
cede trees in the succession of plant
associations. In the wooded regions
bordering upon open grasslands, areas
are common where the undeveloped
soil of a recently formed ridge is covered
with grasses while the surrounding
country is wooded. It is also significant
that in British Columbia the largest
open grassland areas are located upon
the most recent geological formations
{Miocene) .

Dry Belt and mountain forests

1. Yellow pine. On the slopes of the
benches, which rise to an altitude of
2000 or 3000 ft. one may see a gradual
transition from the semi-desert to the
plateau flora, passing through the west-
ern yellow pine zone to Douglas fir,
lodgepole pine and in places Engelmann
spruce. Red cedar [Juniperus scopulo-
rum) and buckbush {Ceanothus velutinus
and C. sanguineus) and the shrubby
Pentstemon (P. scoulerii) are sometimes
found in great masses at approximately
2500 ft. altitude.— J. D.

The western yellow pine {Pinus
ponderosa) type is found in almost pure
stands on lower benches within its
range, but mixed with Douglas fir as
it approaches the upper limit at 3000

ft. These species come much lower
down on northern slopes to where soil-
moisture is more readily available.
The commercial stands in this type
average 5000 to 10,000 ft. per acre;
occasionally more. As a type western
yellow pine in British Columbia is con-
fined to dry, well-drained sites where
the precipitation is from 10 to 15 in.
and in a belt between 1500 and 3000 ft.
in elevation. — P. Z. C.

2. Mixed forest. In the Kootenay
district western larch (Larix occidenta-
lis) is a common tree in mixture with
Douglas fir, the Douglas fir-western
larch forming a type between the west-
ern yellow pine on the one hand and the
spruce-lodgepole on the other in the
same relation as the Douglas fir type
in the Dry Belt. Apparently climatic
requirements are about the same as
described for the latter. — P. Z. C.

3. Montane forest. On the open park-
like slopes, at an altitude of from 3000
feet to 6000 ft. within the dry belt
area, may be seen a most gorgeous array
of color; yellows contributed by mil-
lions of Dog-tooth lilies {Erythronium
grandiflorum) , balsam-root. Arnica (A.
cordifolia), tiger lilies {Lilium par-
viflorum) ; stonecrop {Sedum stenope-
talum) ; fieabane (Erigeron aureus) ; blues
by tall "forget-me-nots" {Lappula flori-
hunda) ; larkspur {Delphinuni bicolor) ;
Jacob's ladder (Polemonium humile) ;
Pentstemon (P. confertus var. coerulea
purpureus), Brodieas (B. Douglasii),
reds by Indian paint-brush (Castilleja
spp), columbine {Aquilegia formosa);
whites by tall specimens of cow-parsnip
(Heracleum lanatum) ; death camas [Zy-
gadenus venenosus) ; Indian Tatuan
{Claytonia lanceolata) ; Spiraea (S. lu-
cida), with many other colored flowers
in profusion. The field botanist who
visits the semi-desert regions of British
Columbia in the months of May and
June will reap a rich harvest in the
great variety of species to be obtained
then. — J. D.

4. Subalpine forest and meadow. The
timber line subalpine forest here con-
sists of mountain meadows interspersed

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

159

with stunted tree growth of lodgepole
pine, white-bark pine (Pinus alhicaulis)
and alpine fir. Among the grasses are
Agrostis humilis, Phleum alpinum, Dan-
ihonia intermedia, Trisetum spicaium,
Koeleria cristala, and several species of
Fescues, while in the moister meadows
and swales Valeriana sitchensis, Castil-
lejas, Senecios and other herbaceous
plants occur. ^P. Z. C.

C. NORTHERN AND MOUNTAIN
CONIFEROUS FOREST

1. Second Wet Belt

The forests in the second wet belt
resemble those on the coast and we have
the same transition in types. Giant
cedar and hemlock ranging from almost
pure cedar on the river-bottoms, where
the water-table is near the surface,
to a mixture of cedar and western hem-
lock on the lower mountain slopes, and
finally changing into hemlock-spruce
(here Engelmann) — cedar type on the
higher benches or into the subalpine
(or spruce-lodgepole) type, which occurs
on the mountains at an elevation of
4000 and 6000 ft. Stands in the Second
Wet Belt will reach 20,000 to 30,000 ft.
B.M. per acre over considerable areas.
Much, however, depends on the age of
the stand and defect, which is sometimes
conspicuous, especially in cedar and
hemlock throughout the type.

2. Northern sub-arctic or spruce-pine
type

This is a continuation of the great
forest area that sweeps across Canada,
lying between the tundra on the one
hand and the plains or the pine-hard-
wood forests on the south.

In British Columbia pine is repre-
sented by lodgepole. In the north both
white spruce {Picea canadensis) and
black spruce {Picca mariana) occur,
but farther south they are replaced by
the Engelmann spruce. This type occu-
pies the northern plateau, spreads over
the Rocky Mountains, and out across the
foot hills to the north-east corner of the
Province, where it joins the sub-arctic

forests of Alberta. Extending northward
along the mountains it forms a belt, just
below the sub-alpine type, usually
occuring between the 4000 and 6000 ft.
contours. The type has been greatly
modified by fire and in many cases con-
verted into pure lodgepole pine, which'
acts as an intermediary or nurse crop
for the spruce which subsequently comes
in under the pine. Islands of black
spruce swamp are frequently encoun-
tered or stands of pure cottonwood on
southern exposures. The average stand
per acre in mature forest is from 5000
to 10,000 ft., occasionally reaching 20,000
ft. or over near the lower limits of its
range.

Typical cruises shoio. Elk River,
elevation 4500 to 6000 ft., average stand
20,000 ft. per acre: Engelmann spruce
75%; lodgepole pine 15%; alpine fir
10% ; Douglas fir 2%. Clearwater River,
plateau 4000 to 6000 ft. above sea-level;
average stand 8500 ft. per acre: spruce
65%; balsam 20%; lodgepole pine 5%.
While stands in Northern British Co-
lumbia, elevation 1000 to 2000 ft. will
run: spruce 70%; lodgepole pine 25%;
fir 5%. This type is of great commercial
importance from the standpoint of pulp-
manufacturing.^ — P. Z. C.

Fauna {E. A. P.). The northern part
of the area covered with this type of
forest is considered in the discussion of
the transcontinental coniferous forest
of central Canada of which it forms a
part.

The commoner and more characteris-
tic mammals of its southern portion in-
clude the following: Dusky shrew C<Sorex
ohscurus obsciirus); Rocky Mountain
marsh shrew (Neosorex palustris nan-
gator) ; northwestern bat {Myotis longic-
rus); black and grizzly bears of several
races (distribution not worked out);
northwest marten (ISIartes a. caurina);
British Columbia mink (Mustela v.
energumenos) ; Bonaparte weasel (Mus-
tela cicognanii cicognanii) ; northern
deer mouse (Peromyscus m. horcalis);
western bushy-tailed wood rat {Neotoma
c. occidentalis) ; heather vole (Phena-
comys intermedins intermedins); British

160

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Columbia red-backed vole (Evotomys
g. saturatus); Rocky Mountain vole
{Microtus mordax mordax); British Co-
lumbia muskrat {Fiber z. osoyoosensis) ;
Rocky Mountain jumping-mouse {Zapus
princcpa) ; Okanagan marmot {Marmola
c. okanagana) ; northern mantled ground-
squirrel (Callospermophilus I. tescorum) ;
Canadian mountain chipmunk {Euta-
mias amoenus ludibundus); Streator's
red squirrel (Sciurus h. streutori);
British Columbia snowshoe hare {Lepus
a. columbiensis) ; Rocky Mountain pika
iOchotona princeps) ; bighorn sheep [Ovis
canadensis); Rocky Mountain goat
(Oreamnos montanus); mule deer {Odo-
coileus hemionus); mountain caribou
(Rangifer montanus) . Some of the more
notable of the birds are the following:
dusky grouse, Franklin's grouse, Canada
ruffed grouse, red-necked sapsucker,
western piliated woodpecker. Rocky
Mountain jay, Clark's nutcracker, long-
tailed chickadee, Louisiana tanager,
red-eyed vivio, Audubon's waibler,
mountain chickadee, Hudsonian chick-
adee, willow thrush, olive-backed
thrush, and mountain bluebird.

D. ALPINE REGIONS

Alpine conditions are to be found on
most of the British Columbia moun-
tains above an altitude of 5500 ft.,
especially on those mountains situated
within the "wet belts" where the pre-
cipitation ensures an abundant snowfall
during winter.

At an altitude of 4500 ft., is found
moist meadow-like land containing much
humus, and abounding in ericaceous
shrubs such as White Rhododendron
{R. albiflorum) ; red heather {Phyllodoce
empetriformis) ; creamy yellow heather
(P. glandulijlorus) ; white heather {Cas-
siope Mertensiana); copper-bush (Cla-
dothnmnus pyrolcpflorus), blue-berries
{Vacciiiiiim, various species). Much
of the moist land is carpeted with the
beautiful alpine Spiraea {Eriogynia
pectinata) so frequently mistaken for
a saxifrage, associated with marsh mari-
gold (Caltha leptosepala) ; globe flower
{Trollins albiflorus), and numerous

saxifragaceous plants. In this zone
small subalpine lakes are abundant.
These are frequently stocked with yel-
low water lilies {Nuphar polysepalum) ;
while spongy Sphagnum areas in the
vicinity have mountain laurel (Kalmia
polifolia) ; gentians {G. sceptrum) ; grass
of Parnassus (Parnassia palustris) ;
deer cabbage, and bogbean {Menyanthes
crista-galli and M. trifoliata). This
subalpine association ranges, according
to locality, from 4000 ft. altitude to
approximately 6000 ft. At the former
elevation the supply of moisture is
maintained by seepage from the melting
snow in the adjacent wooded slopes;
at the latter elevation, seepage is from
the snowfields or glaciers on the exposed
mountain sides, timber line ranging in
the "wet belts" from 5500 ft. to approxi-
mately 6500 ft. altitude. Here, the
last trees are alpine fir, white bark pine
(Pinus albicaulis), and mountain hem-
lock, all of which are low and stunted,
forming dense tangle thickets from 1
to 3 ft. high, the older trees often spread-
ing over a large area, due chiefly to the
great weight of snow which buries
them for the greater part of the year.
The snowfall during the winter, at that
altitude varies from 30 to 50 ft. in depth.

The soil of the Arctic Alpine belt
(Arctic-alpine zone) contains little
humus, and is largely composed of silt
from the weathered rocks. The type
of vegetation varies in accordance with
this soil, whether formed from rocks
of sedimentary or volcanic origin; the
latter, as a rule, producing the greatest
variety of species.

The characteristic plants of this belt
are moss campion (Silene acaulis);
northern wormwood (Artemisia norve-
gica var. pacifica); silky phacelia (P.
serica); Douglas' Phlox (P. Douglasii);
crowberry (Empetrum nigrum) ; creeping
Azalea {Loiseleuria procumbens) ; blue-
green gentian (Gentiana glauca); west-
ern Anemone (A. occidentalis) ; Tolmie's
saxifrage (S. Tolmiea), often growing
within a few feet of glaciers, and many
other low growing tufted flowering
plants.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

161

Between this Alpine belt and the sub-
alpine vegetation is found a great
variety of habitats bearing different
associations of plants. On Rock slides
are stone crop (Sedum divergens) ; juniper
(/. communis); lupine (L. arcticus);
Jacob's ladder (Polemoriium confcrlum).
Cold gravelly creek banks bear great
masses of. dark crimson Mimulus {M.
Lewisii), while sand bars or islands in
the middle of shallow streams are
covered with the golden yellow alpine
Mimulus (M. alpinus) ; butter-bur (Peta-
sites frigidus) ; or fireweed (Epilobium
latifolium) .

Alpine slopes are bedecked with lu-
pines, Indian paint-brush, of all shades
from pale pink to fiery scarlet, moun-
tain heliotrope {Valeriana sitchensis),
louseworts (Pedicularis bracieosa, and
others'), columbines, alpine speedwell
(Veronica alpina), numerous tall sedges,
and rushes, but compartively few species
of grasses.

To see the vegetation of alpine regions
in British Columbia as above described
one should visit them sometime between
the latter part of Julj^ and the end of
August. (J. D.)

Mammals and birds {E. A. P.). The
hoary marmots {Marmota c. okanagana
and M. c. cascadensis) , races of a species
which farther north ranges down to
sea level, are confined in southern
British Columbia practicallj^ to the
treeless mountain summits. Rangifer
montanus and Ovis canadensis are also
generally found there.

Birds breeding on the Alpine summits
include the following: Rock ptarmigan,
white-tailed ptarmigan, pallid horned
lark, Hepburn's rosy finch, and pipit.

E. LOCAL OR EDAPHIC COMMUNITIES
(j. D. AND E. A. P.)

1. Muskeg and^peatbogs

The principal muskeg and bog areas
are to be found in the northern parts
of the Province, especially in the Liard
and Peace River basins, others occur at
various points along the Grand Trunk
Railway system in central British Co-

lumbia, Prince Rupert, Queen Charlotte
Islands, the northern part of Vancouver
Island, and in the southwest part of
the mainland.

In the north-eastern regions tamarack
(Larix laricina), and black spruce
encroach on these areas, whereas in the
southern and western bog areas these
are replaced by the coast form of lodge-
pole pine (Pinus contorta) which is also
found on rocky bluffs and on well drained
sandy soil along the coast.

Excellent opportunities for the study
of bog evolution are found within a few
miles of Vancouver, B. C, where one
may find every transition from the open
lake to the mature bog. The margin
flora of yellow water lilies, cat-tails
(Tijpha latifolia); bogbean (Menyanthes
trifoliaia) ; cinquefoil (Comarum pa-
lustre), is followed by a floating Sphag-
num layer with approximately ten or
twelve feet of water or liquid muck
underneath. On this sphagnum layer
the bog flora develops somewhat in the
following order: Sedges and rushes,
clumps of sweet gale {Myrica gale), and
Spiraea (S. Douglasii), followed by the
usual western bog association : Labrador
tea {Ledum groenlandicum) , mountain
or bog laurel {Kalmia polifolia), and
cranberry {Vaccinium Oxycoccus). Into
this ericaceous association the lodgepole
pine encroaches, and sometimes succeeds
in establishing a dense stand of low
stunted trees, often badl}^ affected by
mistletoe {Arceuthobium americanum),
and lodgepole pine blister rust.

One interesting feature is the frequent
occurrence of stranded or isolated
pioneers, water lilies which have sur-
vived for ages, cut off from their con-
freres in the lakes, and separated from
them by several hundreds of yards of
bog. These stranded lilies have suc-
cessfully competed with the Sphagnum
and ericaceous shrubs by sending up
their leaves on long petioles thus mo-
nopolizing the light over an area 6 or 8
ft. in diameter. This results in a kind
of "pot-hole" in the bog, and in some
places, where the water lilies have
succumbed, these "pot-holes" take the

162

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

unwary traveller by surprise. Tests
made in the vicinity of these isolated
pioneers, showed a depth of 22 ft. of
muck with blue clay underlying.

In the spring, the bogs are ablaze
with the flowers of the laurel and Labra-
dor tea, the latter being considered by
apiarists as a useful bee plant. Later
in the year such bogs yield great crops
of cranberries, blueberries (Vaccinium
canadensis, V. uUginosum being the most
common species here), and cloud berries
{Rubus chamamorus) .

Although bog land is generally clas-
sified as agricultural land, little has
been done in this Province to raise crops
suited for cultivation on this type of
soil. Promising results have been ob-
tained by ranchers on Queen Charlotte
Islands where experimental plantations
of spearmint and peppermint have
yielded luxuriant crops, but the absence
of an oil distillation outfit to handle the
crop hinders the development of what
might prove a profitable industry.

Mammals and birds. While the peat
bogs, usually referred to in the north as
muskegs, offer advantageous habitats
for many species of mammals and birds,
no species inhabit them to the exclusion
of other areas. The moose finds in the
willow thickets which border many of
them a favorite food, and the bears
feast in autumn on the berries which
grow in their drier parts. Within its
range the Dall lemming-vole {Synapto-
mys borealis dalli) is perhaps as charac-
teristic as any species. Long-tailed
shrews {Sorex obscurus and S. personatus)
also find congenial homes in such bogs.

The birds which especially favor
muskegs as breeding places include the
lesser j'ellow legs, and in south-central
British Columbia the greater yellow
legs; Holboell's grebe northerly; pied-
billed grebe southerly; and the Virginia
rail southerly. In places where ponds
of sufficient size occur the loon often
nests on their borders.

Z. Seashores

It has been estimated that British
Columbia has approximately 7000 mi.

of coast line, most of this is rocky but
there are a few good stretches of beauti-
ful sandy sea-shore the most note-
worthy being found near Barkley Sound
on the west coast of Vancouver Island,
at Qualicum on the east coast, and at
Savary Island. Smaller beaches are
scattered here and there along the coast
but from an ecological point of view,
the above offer the best facilities for
the study of the sandy sea-shore
vegetation.

A. Sand areas. Sand-dune regions,
such as occur on the eastern part of
the continent, are rare here; but where
they do exist, Lyme grass (Elymus
mollis), and the large headed sedge
(Car ex macrocephala), associated with
sea purslane {Arenaria peploides var.
major), and sea pea-vine {Lathyrus
maritimus) are the pioneers; lupine
(L. littoralis) ; wormwood {Artemisia
canadensis); and sand-bur {Franseria
bipinnatifida) , often take a conspicuous
place in the sandy sea-shore association.

Amongst the noteworthy pants of the
Sandy Sea-Shores here, may be found
the beautiful sand Convolvulus {Con-
volvulus soldanella) ; the yellow and pink
Abronias {A. laiifolia, and umbellata),
. with their sweet scented flowers. The
Abronias frequently have large mangel-
like roots whose food store is protected
by cells containing needle shaped crj's-
tals or raphides. When a small portion
of the root is chewed, these raphides
painlessly pierce the mucous membranes
of the mouth and produce the same
numbness or loss of sensation as is pro-
duced by several members of the Aracese
which possess similar raphides.

A species of broom-rape {Orobanche
fasciculafa) is often found parasitic on
the roots of the wormwood. This is
also found on roots of Artemisia on sand
hills in the interior of British Columbia.

b. Rocky shores. The Madrona tree
(Arbutus Menziesii) reaches its northern
limit in this Province and many beauti-
ful specimens may be seen on the margin
of the sand dune areas, as well as on the
rocky bluffs of the southern part of the
mainland and on the adjacent islands.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

163

These rockj^ bluffs near the sea generally
have their ledges covered with a layer
of mossy soil which supports a wealth
of spring flowering species mostly
annuals and bulbous plants, including
banks of lobelia-like Collinsia (C
grandiflora) ; sea-blush (Valerianella con-
gesta); Bongard's saxifrage (Saxifraga
Bongardi) ; and other saxifrages, white
dog-tooth lilies, Indian camas [Camas-
sia qumna^h); (Brodiea grandiflora),
brown fritillary, [Fritillaria lanceolata);
wild onions [Allium cernuum and A.
acuminatum,) and where sufficient soil
has accumulated in crevices or pockets
in the rocks are found flowering shrubs
such as flowering currant (Ribes sangui-
neum) ; mock orange (Philadelphus Le-
^visi^), Saskatoon (Amelanchier alni-
folia); barberries (Berberis aquifolium
and B. nervosa), manzanita (Arctos-
taphylos tomentosa) ; with flowering trees
such as western dogwood {Cornus
Nuttallii) ; and wild cherry (Prunus
emarginata), so that although much
of the coast line is rocky it is by no
means barren, especially in spring when
all the above species come into flower.
Later on, however, the ledges become
brown and dried up, and the visitor to
this Province in the summer or autumn
gets no conception of the floral wealth
of the land adjacent to the sea.

Mammals and birds (E. A. P.). The
only mammals which are especially
characteristic of the shores are the seals
and sea lions, listed under marine mam-
mals, which have their young on rocky
ledges just above the surf, usually on
islands.

The more common sea birds which
breed on cliffs include the following:
tufted puffin; horned puffin; rhinoceros
auklet; California murre; and violet-
green cormorant.

During migration many species of
shore birds and plovers use the beaches
as migration routes, and a few hardy
species spend the winter there.

3. Salt marshes

On the south west coast of British
Columbia may be seen some very fine

salt marshes probably the best on the
Pacific Coast, if not on this continent.
In area thcj^ extend over many square
miles and may be seen in all stages from
their origin at the edge of the water,
where eel grass, ditch grass (Ruppia
niaritima); samphire or glasswort iSali-
cornia ambigua) and sea blite {Suxda
maritima) are the pioneers, until they
"come under the plow" and become
fertile agricultural land.

As the salt marsh develops one finds
the usual association of halophytes:
sea milkwort {Glaux maritima) ; sea
plantain {Plantago maritima). In most
of the salt marshes here dodder {Cuscuta
salina) may be found primarily attack-
ing Salicornia but spreading to other
members of this association.

Later on, salt grass (Distichlis spi-
cata), makes its appearance, and aids
greatly in retaining the accumulated
silt. It is quite a common occurrence
to see cattle and even horses grazing
on salt marshes, and the owners of the
stock consider salt grass good fodder.
Naturally, as a result of grazing, many
weeds are introduced and we soon find,
yarrow {Achillea millefolium)', velvet
grass or Yorkshire fog (Holcus lanatus) ;
and other weeds overrunning the grazed
areas.

Through the growth of countless gener-
ations of halophytic plants the soil
becomes very rich in humus, forming a
kind of peat and, by ditching and dyk-
ing, parts of this land have been sepa-
rated from the main marsh areas and
cultivated. On this reclaimed land
farmers have to contend with the same
weeds as prevail on newly reclaimed
bogs, namely lesser sorrel (Rumex acelo-
sella), and several species of smart weed
(Polygonum) together with the dainty
little mud-button (Cotula coronopifolia) .
The abundant rainfall during the winter
soon leaches out the salt, and in a short
time good crops can be raised on this
rich, dark brown silt.

4. Marine areas

The marine flora along the coast of
the Gulf of Georgia— between Vancouver

164

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Island and the mainland — differs inmany
respects from that found on the West
Coast of Vancouver Island, and on the
northern part of the mainland. The
Gulf receives great quantities of fresh
water from many rivers draining the
western slopes of the Coast Range.
The mighty Eraser River, which drains
the largest river basin in the Interior of
British Columbia, debouches here, car-
rying thousands of tons of sand and silt,
discoloring the sea water for miles, and
leaving a deposit of fine silty mud on
the adjacent sea-shores. This muddy
deposit is absent from the shores of the
west coast of Vancouver Island and
northern mainland; these shores, facing
the Ocean, are frequently lashed by
the full force of gales and storms of the
Pacific.

The rocky parts of the coast abound
with a great variety of brown and red
seaweeds, giant kelps occasionally oc-
cupying large areas. The most con-
spicuous kelp in these waters is the
"Sea-pear" [Nereocystis luetkeana)
whose huge thalli, each with a large
pear-shaped float attached to a stipe
often more than forty feet in length,
may be seen in great profusion. This
kelp, and Macrocrjstis which is not so
abundant here, was collected on a com-
mercial scale during the period of the
"world war," and prepared as a ferti-
lizer to overcome the shortage of potash
for agricultural purposes.

In shallow brackish bays, the inter-
tidal area is often covered with eel grass
(Zostera marina) ; while on rocky shores,
this is replaced by its larger relative
false eel grass (Phijllospadix scouleri).
The sheltered waters of the Gulf, the
diminished salinity, and the deposition
of beds of silt in bays and at the estuaries
of rivers, are all conducive to the building
up of salt marshes with their characteris-
tic halophytic flora.

Marine mammals {E. A. P.). The
sea otter (Latax lutris) formerly common
along the entire coast is now nearly
extirpated. The fur seal (Callorhinus
alascanus), which breeds only on the
Pribilof Islands, Alaska, is found in

migration along the entire coast, but is
not known to land. The spotted harbor
seal {Phoca richardii) is rather common
and breeds in certain favorable places.
The southern sea lion {Zalophus calif or-
nianus) barely enters our southern coast
waters, while the northern sea lion
{Eumelo'pias jubata) breeds in consid-
erable colonies in many places along
the coast.

The cetaceans known to inhabit the
coast waters include the killer whale
{Orcinus rectipinna) ; Pacific right whale
{Balaena seiboldii); California gray
whale (Rhachianectes glaucus) ; Pacific
humpback whale {Meyaptera versabilis);
Davidson's finback whale {Balaenoptera
davidsoni) ; Pacific sulphur-bottom whale
{Balaenoptera sulfureus) ; Pacific finback
whale {Balaenoptera velifera) ; sperm
whale {Physeter macrocephalus) ] Pacific
blackfish {Globiocephala scainmoni) , and
common porpoise {Phocaena phocaena).

III. Present Biota (E. A. P.)

Data regarding changes in the dis-
tribution of British Columbia birds and
mammals within historic times concern
mainly the larger game and predatory
mammals. These may be given under
species.

The moose {Aloes americanus) , within
the past 50 years has made a notable
addition to its range, extending west-
ward and southwestward several hun-
dred miles. In the Stikine region it
has moved its frontier from the region
of Dease Lake to the mouths of the
Stikine and Taku rivers. Farther south
it has reached the vicinity of Chilcotin
River and 83 mi. House only during
recent years.

The elk or wapiti {Cervus canadensis
occidentalis) originally ranged over that
portion of the Province east of the Rocky
Mountains north nearly to Liard River.
Here it is now entirely extirpated. In
southern British Columbia also, where
it formerly ranged practically across
the Province, it has suffered great loss
in range, and is now confined mostly to
the Kootenay District and to Vancouver
Island.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

165

The caribou {Rangijer montanus and
related forms) originally occupied suita-
ble areas, including the barren summits
and more sparsely wooded elevated
sections, and excepting the humid coast
region, practically over the entire
Province. Excessive pursuit has practi-
cally extirpated it from most of its range
in the southern half of the Province,
but it remains in numbers in most of
the country drained by the Stikine and
Peace rivers, and northward. A few
still persist, apparently, on Graham
Island, the largest of the Queen Char-
lotte group, which furnishes a number of
examples of mammalian distribution
which are difficult to understand.

The mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus)
confined to the dry interior forests, has
extended its range northward several
hundred miles during recent years, being
now frequently seen in the Skeena and
Peace River, and occasionally in the
upper Stikine valleys.

The mountain goat is found in suitable
places practically all over British Colum-
bia, barring the islands, on which, ex-
cepting Pitt Island, it was never known.

The coyote {Cants lestes) originally
found only in the southern part of the
Province, has pushed northward through
the central valleys nearly to the north-
ern boundary within the past 25 years.

IV. Areas Available fok Biological
Study

a. provincial forests (p. z. c.)

The officials of both the Dominion
and Provincial Forest Branches en-
courage proper use of the forest and are
always prepared to give advice on how
best to reach any locality, equipment
necessary, etc., to anyone entering any
region. Definite boundaries have not
been established for the forests.

*Coast Forest South. Area 23,000,000
acres. A region of mountain and forest
intersected by deep sheltered fjords.
Game is plentiful in woods.

Vancouver, J C.N.R., G.N.R.

Headquarters, District Forester.

Victoria t (80 mi. south west) C.P.R.

*Provincial Headquarters. Forest Ser-
vice, Auto service to most points Van-
couver Island, south, Nanaimo J 40
mi. west C.P.R.

Supervisor, Nanaimo, headquarters
for Vancouver Island.

*Norlh Coast. Area 22,000,000 acres.
Interesting region of coniferous forests,
mountains and inlets. Here Sitka
spruce reaches its best development.

Prince Rupert. J C.N.R., U.S.S. Co.

Headquarters, District Forester.

Gasoline launches available to visit
many interesting spots or for more
extended cruises along the Coast.

*East Kootenay Area. Area 7,500,000
acres. Embraces southern end of main
Rocky Mountains and Rocky Moun-
tain Trench. Altitude 3000 to 9000 ft.
Vegetation zone changes from Dry Belt
types to Alpine type as we ascend the
mountains. Western larch attains its
best development here.

Cranbrook, J C.P.R.

Headquarters, District Forester.

Outfits may be obtained at Cranbrook
for visiting any section of district.

*West Kootenay Area. Area 7,950,000
acres. A region of lakes and mountains.
Very interesting since it embraces
changes from Dry to Wet Belt vegeta-
tion. Lakes abound in fish and forest
in game.

Nelson, J C.P.R. & G.N.R.

Headquarters, District Forester.

*Okanagan. Area 6,000,000 acres.
The typical Dry Belt region.

Vernon, | C.P.R.

Headquarters, District Forester.

Penticton, C.P.R., K.V.R., Princeton,
t K.V.R., G.N.R., Merrit, J C.P.R.

^Thompson Region. The area em-
braces northern border of Dry Belt
and the western slope of Gold Range.

Kamloops, {C.P.R., C.N.R.

Headquarters, Dominion Forest
Branch for British Columbia, and
District Forester.

*Big Bend. Central part of Rocky
Mountain Trench and Selkirk Moun-
tains, a region of rigid mountains and
steep wooded slopes and especially
noted for its bear hunting.

166

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

*Revelstoke. t C.P.R.

Outfitting points for trips into ad-
joining district which can be made
readily with pack animals.

*Carihoo. Area 14,000,000 acres, Cen-
tral section of Interior plateau. Good
hunting and fishing. Forests have
suffered extremely from fires— original
Douglas fir has been converted into
lodgepole pine.

Williams Lake, J P.G.E. Railway.

Headquarters, District Forester.

Quesnel, % P.G.E. Railway, outfitting
point for prospectors and others.

*Northern. The great northern hin-
terland, including the valleys of Parsnip,
Peace, Nelson, Liard rivers, has been
scarcely explored except by prospectors
and trappers, and offers an attractive
opportunity for naturalists.

*Prince George. | C.N.R. Railway.

Headquarters, District Forester.

Outfitting point for parties going
further north.

B. DOMINION FORESTS (P. Z. C. AND
D. G. CAMERON)

The Dominion Government owns and
controls what is known as the Railwaj^
Belt. This Belt was granted to the
Dominion by the Province to aid in the
building of the Canadian Pacific Railway
through British Columbia, the title of
conveyance being executed in 1883. It
includes the land within 20 mi. on each
side of the Canadian Pacific Railway
from the Alberta Boundary to a western
limit bounded by the Meslilloet River
and the North Arm of Burrard Inlet.
To compensate for lands within this
Belt which the Province had disposed of
prior to the transfer the Dominion
Government was also granted some
3^ million acres which was selected by
them in 1907 in a block comprising
73^ sq. mi. adjoining the Alberta Bound-
ary in the Peace River Valley.

As the Railway Belt stretches east
and west across the Province it is subject
to all the changes in forest types as
described for the Province, that is.
The Coast or Wet Belt, Dry Belt, The
Second Wet Belt and the Rocky Moun-

tain section. Of the 16,700 sq. mi.
in the Belt it is estimated that 10,000
is forest land but only 3000 bears timber
of commercial quantity which is esti-
mated at 22 billion feet.

A number of small forest reserves
have been created on the headwaters of
the streams throughout the Dry Belt.
These reserves including the Yoho and
Glacier parks by the same names are
representative of the Rocky Mountain
District.

The reserves of the drybelt district
are: Larch Hills, Mount Ida, Fly Hill,
Martin Mountain, Monte Hills, Niskon-
lith, Long Lake, Tranquille, Nicola,
Arrowstone, and Hat Creek cover about
1| million acres. They serve more as
watershed protection than for the
production of timber, although some 82
sq. mi. is held under timber berth within
these reserves. The timber types on
the reserves are typical of those of the
Dry Belt and the Lodgepole Pine result-
ing from burn on the higher mountains.

The timber conditions on these forest
reserves are similar to those described
in detail in the book entitled "The
Forests of British Columbia," published
by the Conservation Commission of
Canada, 1918, authors— H. N. Whitford
and R. D. Craig. See particularly
pages 63 to 68. The bulk of the forest
reserve area is in the Dry Belt proper
where the timber on the lower slopes is
western yellow pine and Douglas fir.
The plateau areas above are largely
covered by lodgepole pine. This lodge-
pole type is temporarj'- as a result of
forest fires. The climax tj'^pe will be
Engelmann spruce and Alpine fir.
There is, of course, an altitudinal
progression toward these types, the
yellow pine merging into the Douglas
fir and the latter into the Engelmann
spruce as altitude increases. The timber
line type is pure Alpine fir.

The reserves bordering on Shuswap
Lake are in a transition area between
the Dry Belt proper and the interior
Wet Belt of the Columbia valley. The
south and southwestern slopes exhibit
Dry Belt characteristics and the opposite

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

1()7

slopes verge to Wet Belt species. The
climax forest growth in the lower eleva-
tions is Douglas fir, western larch (L.
occidentalis) , western white pine, giant
cedar, western hemlock. Higher up
there is Engelmann spruce, Alpine fir
and white bark pine. The westerly
reserves have been largely fire swept,
particularly on the elevated plateaus.
Fair stands of Douglas fir and yellow
pine remain on the lower slopes. The
summits of the Fly Hills and Niskonlith
Forest Reserves have large areas of the
original climax type spruce-alpine fir
forests. The Fly Hills particularly is
very accessible by Forest Service trails.
The Larch Hills Reserve has also large
areas of second growth and mature
mixed forest.

These reserves are readily accessible
from any point along the line of the
Canadian Pacific Railway, but particu-
larly as follows:

Larch Hills Reserve— Sicamous

Mount Ida 1 g^^^^^^ ^^^

Fly Hills J

Niskonlith— east side Chase, west side

Kamloops
Martin Mountain 1
Monte Ejills Kamloops

Long Lake
Tranquille J

Nicola ]

Hat Creek [ Ashcroft
Arrowstone J

The administrative headquarters of
the reserves is at Kamloops where the
Forest Supervisor is located, while
New Westminster is the headquarters
of the Timber Branch for the coast
section.

C. PARKS

*Mt. Robson Park. (A3.) About
409,600 acres of alpine peaks ranging
up to 13,000 ft. in the Rocky Mountains
of British Columbia. Lower slopes clad
with sub-alpine forests and associated
flora, grading upwards through alpine
belt to regions of perpetual snow. Open
country with talus slopes, ravines and
canyons.

Mt. Robson Station, British Columbia
(G. T. P. R.), near Yellow Head Pass.—
John Davidson.

*Strathcona Park. (A 3.) Area
530,566 acres. Situated in the center
of Vancouver Island, a provincial Park
Reserve; comprising mountain ranges
up to between 6000 and 7000 ft. altitude.
Slopes under 5000 ft. altitude timbered
with northwestern and subalpine trees;
subalpine plateaus, ravines and canyons.
Buttle Lake, a large freshwater Lake,
drains the central part of the Park,
flows north and east to Campbell Lake,
thence via Campbell River to the East
Coast of the Island.

Campbell River, B.C., 30 mi. walk.
Good trail through western mesophytic
forest. Camp outfit necessary. — John
Davidson.

*Yoho Park, B. C. Dominion Park
Reserve 560 sq. mi. of peaks and passes
in the Canadian Rockies, with charac-
teristic northwestern arctic-alpine flora
on mountain slopes and meadows.
Canyons, glaciers, fossil-beds 2000 ft.
thick. Deer, big-horn sheep and Rocky
Mountain goats.

Passes 6000 to 7000 ft. altitude.
Peaks up to 11,000 ft.
Field, U4060 ft.) or Yoho Park, B.C.
(C. P. R.). Coaches and saddle ponies
for hire. — John Davidson, and Dominion
Park Branch.

*Glacier Park, B. C. (A3.) Domin-
ion Park Reserve of 460 sq. mi. of moun-
tains and valleys in the heart of the
Selkirk Range. Peaks up to 10,808 ft.
Northwestern mountain forest, subal-
pine meadows with rich flora. Glaciers,
caves.

Glacier, B. C. (C. P. R.) |4086 ft.
Ponies and alpine guides to hire.—
John Davidson, and Dominion Park
Branch.

*Revelstoke Park, B. C. (A2 I.)
Dominion Park Reserve of 9559 sq. mi.
of coniferous and northwestern moun-
tain forest. Rainbow, Dolly Varden,
cut-throat, gray and ''Nipigon" trout
in streams in vicinity. Rocky and
glacial situations.

Revclstoke (C. P. R.), (H92 ft. alti-
tude) 18 mi. (a). Pack horses for hire.—
John Davidson.

*Slanley Park. (B3.) Near City of

168

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Vancouver, B. C, Dominion Militia
Reserve, 1000 acres of northwestern,
mesophytic, semi-natural, coniferous
forest; cedar, fir and hemlock formation
with great variety of thallophytes and
bryophytcs. Marsh and pond with
natural hygrophytic and hydrophytic
flora.

Vancouver, B. C. Electric Car 1 mi.
west. — John Davidson.

*Garibaldi Park. (A3.) Provincial
Park Reserve of approximately 360 sq.
mi. of mountains of volcanic origin (to
9000 ft.). Several young lakes of which
Garibaldi Lake 3^ mi. long by 1| mi. wide
is the largest. Many torrential and
swift creeks, splendid facilities to study
the movement and action of several
large glaciers.

Extensive subalpine slopes and mea-
dows, rich and varied arctic-alpine flora,
great variety of habitats and corre-
sponding plant associations.

Grizzly bear, timber wolves, goats,
marmots, grouse ptarmigan.

Vancouver, B. C, 45 mi. north,
steamer to Squamish, P. G. E. R. R. to
Brew Station, walk 10 mi. mountain
trail to good camping grounds on Black
Tusk Meadows (5100 ft.). Mountain-
eering outfit desirable. — John Davidson.

Savory Isla?id. (A3.) Five and one-
half miles by approximately one mile of
lowland coniferous forest and semi-
desert flora, broad-leaved evergreen
forest, sand dunes at west, and sandy
and rocky bluffs at east end. Beautiful
illustration of succession, in transition
from sandy sea-shore to luxuriant meso-
phytic forest. Many western sapro-
phytic and parasitic spermatophytes
(Monotropaceae, Orobanchacea?, and
Loranthacea),'. Marine Littoral (Zos-
tera).

Vancouver, B. C, by steamer 82 mi.
north to Savary Island. Hotel accom-
modation during season. — John David-
son, and R. S. Sherman.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Whitford, H. N., and Craig, Roland D.
Forests of British Columbia. Com-
mission of Conservation, Canada.
Ottawa, 1918. (A book of 409 pp.
with pictures and distribution
maps.)

2. WASHINGTON

By Geo. B. Rigg

(accounts of animals by l. r. dice,
helen t. gaige. and horace

GtrNTHORP)

I. General Description
A. physiographic regions

The State of Washington has a great
variety of conditions as to topography
and climate, resulting in a great diversity
of plant and animal communities. The
state, is divided north and south by the
Cascade Mountains. They form a
general elevation 100 mi. wide in places,
and throughout much of their extent
they are 5000 ft. or more in elevation.
In or near this range are 5 notable moun-
tains: Rainier (14,526 ft.), Adams (12,470
ft.), Baker (10,827 ft.). Glacier Peak
(10,436 ft.) and St. Helens (9750 ft.).
The area of perpetual snow is extensive
on all of these and glaciers are numerous
on most of them. At the south side of
the state along the Columbia River, the
lowlands of western Washington are
continuous with those of eastern Wash-
ington.

A good many places in the Cascades
are accessible by train, stage and private
conveyance. Other portions are acces-
sible only by horse trail, while still others
can be reached only by rather strenuous
trips on foot.

East of the mountains the region tends
to be semi-arid, while on the west the
conditions are much more humid. West
of the mountains the climate tends to be
equable, while on the east side the differ-
ences between the summer temperatures
and those of the winter are greater.
East of the mountains there are elevated
plains of considerable area, 'the soil of
which is in some places of volcanic ash
and in other places is of basaltic origin.
West of the mountains the characteristic
soil is largely glacial till or gravelly out-
wash. The Blue Mountains in the
southeastern portion of the state have
an elevation of 5000 ft. The north-
eastern portion of the state is also some-
what mountainous.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

169

The Pacific Ocean borders the state on
the west, forming in many places, long,
straight beaches of sand behind which
sand dunes are often extensive. Such
dune areas are found in the vicinity of
Willapa Bay and Grays Harbor. These
dune regions may be reached from Aber-
deen, Hoquiam, South Bend or Ilwaco.
The mouth of the Columbia River
forms a broad navigable indentation
between Washington and Oregon. A
little north of this river is Willapa Bay
which forms an extensive harbor, largely
enclosed by a long peninsula of sand
extending north from the rocks at the
north side of the mouth of the Columbia
River. There are extensive sand dunes
on this peninsula. Grays Harbor, also
enclosed partially by sandy peninsulas,
lies to the north of Willapa Bay.

In some places, notably toward the
north the coast of this state is rocky.
There is a considerable extent of rocky
coast in the vicinity of Cape Flattery.

The most extensive indentation of the
coast is that formed by Puget Sound and
the Strait of Juan de Fuca. This
indentation begins with the Strait, which
forms the northern boundary of the state
for about 100 mi. and is extended by the
Sound, which continues south about 80
mi. The shores of Puget Sound as well
as those of the numerous islands that it
contains are very irregular. High bluffs
of glacial till and of rock are common
along these shores, though in some places
there are sandy beaches and in others
salt marshes are common.

The Olympic peninsula lies between
Puget Sound and the Pacific Ocean. It
is largely mountainous. Mount Olym-
pus (8150 ft.) has extensive glaciers.
The peninsula contains several large
lakes.

The San Juan Islands lying between
the Strait of Juan de Fuca and the Gulf
of Georgia are so attractive from the
standpoint of their natural features as
to deserve special mention. The rain
fall in these islands is scanty— usually
about 20 inches— contrasting with an
average of about 34 inches in Seattle and

over 100 at Cape Flattery and other points
on the west coast of the state. There
are considerable exposures of bare rock
on these islands, and the soil where
present is usually thin. There is glacial
till in some depressions and on some
slopes, especially on north slopes. Lime
is abundant at several places on San
Juan Island. Some of the smaller
islands of the group are flat topped and
extremely dry. Mount Constitution
(2500 ft.) is situated on Orcas Island and
is the highest point in the islands. It
commands a view of the whole group of
the San Juan Islands as well as of some
of the mainland and Vancouver
Island.

B. LAND AND FRESHWATER PLANT AND
ANIMAL COMMUNITIES

The plant communities of the state,
considered in the larger sense, may be
grouped under seven heads. In prepar-
ing the following account of them free
use has been made of the chapter on
Zonal Distribution of Washington Plants
in Piper's Flora of Washington. The
names of the Merriam life zones are
used in parentheses. (The section on
sagebrush vegetation was written by
Ellis B. Harris.)

1. Northwestern moist coniferous forest

{see also British Columbia, page

153, and Oregon, -page 181)

A. Plants.^ The great luxuriant for-
ests of Douglas fir (Humid Transition
zone), are continuous over all of western
Washington that is not included in the
following belts. Characteristic trees in
addition to the Douglas fir, which often
forms 90% of the forest, are giant cedar
western hemlock {Tsuga heterophylla),
red alder {Alnus oregona), broadleaf
maple {Acer macrophylhtm) , and vine
maple {A. circinatum). Large areas of
virgin forest are still found in this belt.
They are extremely damp and their

1 Scientific names of plants and animals men-
tioned in the British Columbia account do not
occur here. (See page 150.)

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NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

undergrowth is luxuriant. The ground
is in many places covered with fallen,
partially decayed tree trunks overgrown
with mosses, lichens and liverworts.
I'Vrns and large-leaved herbs are com-
mon. This zone is composed largely of
evergreens. The large trees are mostly
evergreen conifers, the number of decid-
uous trees being relatively small.
IJroad-leaved evergreens are common.
The madrona {Arbutus menziesii) is a
tree. Among the shrubs are salal, two
species of Oregon grape (Berberis nervosa
and B. aquifoliuyn), the sticky balm
(Ceanothus velutinus), the rhododendron
{Rhododendron calif ornicum), a manza-
nita and Kinnikinnick {A. uva-ursi).
Many herbs such as wild ginger {Asaruvi
caudalum) and others remain green all
winter.

B. Animals.^ The notable mammals
are the shrews {Sorex trowbridgii), Ben-
dire water shrew {Neosorex bendirii),
black bear, bob-cat, deer-mouse, chip-
munk {Eutarnias towns endii) , Douglas
squirrel, silver-gray squirrel {Sciurus
griseus), flying-squirrel {Glaucomys sa-
brinus oregonensis) , sewellel {Aplodontia
rufa), Washington hare {Lepus washing-
tonii), black-tailed deer, and wolf
{Canis gigas). — L. R. D.

In this forest salamanders abound
{Triturus torosus, Amhystoma macrodac-
tylum, A. paroticum, Dicamptodon ensa-
tus, Rhyacolriton olympicus, Plethodon
intermedius, P. vandykei, and Ensatina
cschschoUzii) and the tree-frog {Hyla re-
gilla.) The two frogs, Rana aurora and
R. pretiosa, are common, as also is the
western toad. The discoglossoid toad
{Ascaphus truei) is numerous locally in
streams. Of snakes the garter-snakes
{Thamnophis sirtalis concinnus and T. o.
ordinoides) are common; the lizard
{Gerrhonotus principis) is fairly numer-
ous, especially in clearings.

Seven rather distinct associations are
obvious in this area.

a. Uplands, characterized by salal,
Oregon grape {Berberis nervosa), the
Scouler willow {Salix scouleriana) , red
huckle berry {Vaccinium parvifolium),
thimble berry {Rubus parviflorus) , red-
flowered currant {Ribes sanguineum) ,

sword fern and bracken fern {Pleris
aquiliana) .

b. Bottom lands in which are found
grand fir broadleaf maple, Oregon ash
{Fraxinus oregona), cottonwood {Populus
trichocarpa) , western dogwood {Cor mis
occidenlalis) , crab apple {Pyrus rivu-
laris), vine maple, devil's club {Fatsia
horrida), salmon berry and red-berried
elder {Sambucus callicarpa) .

c. Gravelly prairies (see also Oregon
account) on which are found scattered
oaks {Quercus garryana) mixed with
Douglas fir at the borders of the areas.
Western yellow pine is also found.
These areas are found between Tacoma
and Olympia and southward. In spring
and early summer they are carpeted with
flowers among which are violets, lupines,
dog-toothvio\et{Erythroniunigiganteum)
shooting star {Dodecatheon latifolium),
and many others. In late summer these
areas are dry and appear very barren.

d. Sphagnum bogs, whose surface is
composed mainly of living sphagnum,
which is underlaid with soft, partially
decayed organic matter. They occur in
undrained places frequently bordering
swamps or lakes. Their most charac-
teristic flora is Labrador tea, swamp
laurel {Kalmia polifolia), cranberry
(Vaccinum) sundew {Drosera rotundi-
folia) and cotton grass {Eriophorum
russeolum). Sweet gale is common on
the borders of these bogs in the interior,
and the wax myrtle {Myrica californica)
is found around those near the coast.
Dwarf birch {Beiula glandulosa) also
occurs around these bogs in the vicinity
of Seattle and elsewhere. The bunch-
berry and crow-berry are found in some.
In the later stages of succession these
bogs are invaded by trees, usually
stunted. The western hemlock is usu-
ally the first invader and grows best in
them, though almost pure stands of
western white pine or of lodgepole
pine are found in some. Cedar is com-
mon. Douglas fir invades these bogs
last and grows most poorly in them.
Deciduous trees are rare in these bogs,
though the aspen {Populus tremuloides) ,
the crab apple {Pyrus rivularis) and some
willows are common in the very wet

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

171

zone (marginal ditch), found around
nearly all sphagnum bogs.

e. Salt marshes are common along the
shores of Puget Sound and elsewhere
along salt water. Many of them are lo-
cated near the mouths of streams or
behind high sea beaches. Nearly all of
them are inundated by salt water at ex-
treme high tide, and many of them are
under water at even ordinary high tides.
Glass-wort and saltgrass are the most
abundant species. The former is com-
monly infested with dodder [Cuscuta
squaviigera) . Other species frequently
found in these marshes are seaside
atriplex (Atriplix littoralis), a fleshy
composite {Jaumea carnosa), black slat
wort {Glaux maritima), and seaside ar-
row grass {Triglochin maritima). The
higher sea beaches fronting many of
these marshes commonly have a charac-
teristic seaside flora which does not
extend much into the salt marsh proper.
Among the plants occurring on these
beaches are the beach pea {Lathyrus
maritimus) , sand spurry [Tissa marina),
sand-bur and a hog-fennel {Lomatium
nudicaule) .

f. Sand dunes are abundant on the
ocean coast but do not occur on Puget
Sound. They shift rapidly, over-
whelming forests, many of which are
almost pure stands of lodgepole pine.
Among the plants characteristic of these
dunes and other shifting sand along the
shore are two al)ronias {Abroiiia acuta-
lata, and shaggy pea {Lathvrus littoralis),
a lupine {Lupinus littoralis), a sedge
(Carex macropcephala) , Glchnia littoralis
and many others.

g. There may also be distinguished a
coastal strip of forest in which Sitka
spruce largely replaces Douglas fir.
Lodgepole pine is also common in places,
especially around sand dunes and bogs.
Among the other plants characteristic of
this strip are fool's huckleberry, a currant
and the single beauty (Moneses unijiora) .

2. Arid coniferous forest {western yellow
pine forest)

a. Plants. These forests occupy the
lower portion of the eastern slope of

the Cascades, the lower levels of the
Blue mountains, and nearly all of the
northern portion of eastern Washing-
ton, including considerable portions of
Okanogan, Ferry, Stevens and Pend
Oreille counties. Western yellow pine
is the dominant tree, though some
Douglas fir occurs. Among its shrubs
are nine bark {Opulaster vauciflorus) ,
buck brush [Ceanothus sanguineus) and
rose (Rosa gymnocarpa). In the higher
altitudes huckleberry {Vaccinium macro -
plnjllum) and pine grass are common in
these forests.

b. Animals. The mammals of the
yellow pine forests of eastern Washing-
ton are to a considerable extent an
admixture of elements from the montane
forests and from the bunch grass.
Among the more conspicuous forms are
the coj'ote (Conis lestes), deer-mouse,
pocket-gopher, ground-squirrel [Citel-
lus), chipmunk (Entamias), golden-
mantled ground-squirrel (Callospermo-
philus), and pine squirrel. —

In the yellow pine forests of the
eastern part of the state the bull-snake
[Pituophis catenifer caienifer) and the
racer both occur while garter-snakes
are found chiefly along streams and the
rattle-snake {Crotalus oreganus) chiefly
in rocky places.

3. Mixed mountain forest {Canadian
Zone)

This ecotone type extends upward
from the dense mesophytic coniferous
forest to about 6000 ft. This belt is
poorly defined, since few species are
confined to it alone. It forms a continu-
ous area in the Olympics and the Cas-
cades and is also found adjacent to the
subalpine belt where it occurs in eastern
Washington, as well as in a considerably
area in Ferry County. Among the
trees found in this belt in western
Washington are western white pine
lodgepole pine (murrayana), grand fir,
western hemlock, Douglas fir, silver
fir {Abies amabalis) and noble fir (.1.
nobilis), while in eastern Washington.
Engelmann spruce and western larch
replace the last two species. Among the

172

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

shrubs of this belt are blue huckleberry
(Vaccinum ovalifolium), fool's huckle-
berry (Mcmiesia ferruginca) , mountain
box {Pachisliyna myrsinites) , blackberry
(Rubus nivalis), and dwarf cornel or
bunch-berry, (Cornus canadensis).
Among the herbs are Clintonia (C.
uniflora), fairy-bells {Disporum ore-
ganum) and two species of wood-sorrel
{Oxalis oregann and 0. trillifolia) .

Mammals. The following species of
mammals occur more or less generally
in the montane forests over the state:
raccoon {Procyon psora pacifica), marten
(Maries americana group), black bear,
cougar {Felis concolor group), bob-cat
{Lynx fasciatus group). Cascade redfox
{Vulpes cascadensis, in Cascades), yel-
low-haired porcupine {Erelhizon epixan-
thum), deer-mouse (Peromyscus manicu-
lahis group), woodrat {Neotoma cinerea
occzdeniah's), red-backed vole {Evotomys),
jumping-mouse {Zapus), chipmunk
{Eutamias townsendii), snowshoe hare
{Lepus hairdii group), black-tailed deer
{Odocoileus columbianus) , and elk {Cer-
vus canadensis occidentalis) . In the
Cascade and Olympic mountains the
Douglas squirrel (Sciurus douglasii)
is common, while in the mountains of
eastern Washington it is replaced by the
pine squirrel [Sciurus hudsonicus
richardsonii) . — L. R. D.
^ Among the characteristic reptiles
and amphibians of the montane forests
in the eastern parts of the state are the
rubber-snake {Charina botlae), the racer
(Coluber constrictor mormon), and
especially along streams the garter-snake
[Thamnophis ordinoides ordinoides) , the
western toad (Bufo boreas boreas) and
the western frog (Rana pretiosa).

It. Subalpine forest (Hudsonian Zone)

The Hudsonian Zone is characterized
by alpine trees tending to become pros-
trate at their extreme limits! This is found
largely in the Cascades and the Olym-
pics, though there is a considerable area
of it in the Blue Mountains in the south-
eastern corner of the state, and a line
of it in the extreme northeastern corner

in the Kaniksu National Forest. There
are also five isolated patches of it on
mountain peaks of the northeast-
ern portion of the state (Bonaparte,
Tonk, Baldy, Calispell, and Chewaiah).
The trees found in it are alpine fir,
Alaska cedar, Chamaecyparis-nootka-
tensis, mountain hemlock, white-bark
pine. Among the shrubs of this zone
are a juniper (Juniperus communis si-
berica), the white rhododendron, a cur-
rant, and the western mountain ash.
Bear grass is conspicuous and abundant
in places.

5. Alpine meadow (Arctic Zone)

a. Plarits. This belt is sharply de-
fined and is similar in conditions and to
a certain extent in species to the arctic
meadows of the extreme northern regions
of North America, many of the species
found in this belt in Washington being
common at or near sea level in western
and northern Alaska. This belt is
confined to the higher portions of the
Cascades and the Olympics, and is not
continuous, consisting largely of isolated
patches. Among the plants charateris-
tic of this region are a low bush huckle
berry (Vaccinum deliciosum) producing
delicious fruit in late summer, a butter-
cup (Ranunculus suksdorfii), a marsh
marigold, a shooting star (Dodecatheon
jejferyi), a pasque flower (Pulsatilla
occidentalis) , two lupines (Lupighus sub-
alpinus and L. Lyallii), a painted cup
(Castilleja oreopola) , a cinquefoil (Poten-
tilla flabellifolia), red heather, white
heather, a blue gentian (Gentiana caly-
cosa), a crimson monkey flower (Minulus
lewisii), several arnicas (Arnica spp.),
a saxifrage, partridge foot (Lutkea
pectinata) and three grasses (Festuca
viridula, Poa arctica, and Argosteris
rossae).

b. Animals. Alpine summits. Char-
acteristic mammals of the treeless
alpine summits of the Cascade Moun-
tains are the hoary marmot (Marmota
caligata cascadensis), pika (Ochotona
princeps brunnescens) , bighorn sheep
(Ovis canadensis calif orniana) , and

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

173

Rocky Mountain goat {Oreamnos ameri-
canus). The extensive talus slopes are
the habitat of the marmot and pika.
The marmot [Marmola ohjm'pus) is also
found in the higher altitudes of the
Olympic Mountains.

6. BUNCH GRASS PRAIRIE

(The bunch grass community with
the western yellow pine community
makes up Merriam's Arid Transition
Zone.)

a. Plants. The bunch grass area is
quite extensive and is bordered above
by the western yellow pine forest and
below by the sagebrush area. It oc-
cupies portions of Okanogan, Douglas,
Lincoln, Spokane, Adams, Whitman,
Walla Walla, Columbia, Garfield and
Asotin counties. It is grass covered
and mostly treeless. Willows (Salix
spp.), haw {Crataegus brevispina) , aspen
and Cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa)
are the principal trees and are found
mostly along streams and around
springs. Undershrubs are snowberry
(Symphoricarpos racemosus) , roses (Rosa
nutkana and R. pisocarpa) , gooseberries
(Ribes inerma and R. irriguwn) and
a low birch (Betula microphylla) .
Bunch grass (Agropyron spicatum) is
the most characteristic plant of this
community. Other plants are June
grass {Poa sandbergii), lupines (Lupinus
ornatus, L. sericeus and L. wyethii),
sunflowers {Helianthella douglasii and
Balsamorhiza sagittata), and Indian
paint brush [Castilleja miniota). The
vegetation in this area is frequently
more luxuriant on north slopes than on
south.

b. Animals. Some of the characteris-
tic forms of the bunch-grass of eastern
Washington are the coyote, mountain
weasel (Mustela arizonensis) , skunk
{Mephitis occidentalis major), badger
{Taxidea taxus neglecta), pocket-mouse
{Perognathus), pocket-gopher, ground-
squirrels, and white-tailed jackrabbit
{Lepus townsendii) . In the willow and
Cottonwood timber along the streams
occur a number of other forms, such as
the shrew {Sorex vagrans dobsoni),

mink {Mustela vison energumenos) , har-
vest-mouse {Reithrodontomys megalotis
nigrescens) , deer-mouse, muskrat (Onda-
tra zibethica osoyoosensis), and beaver
(Castor)— L.ll.D.

The bull-snake is the most conspicuous
reptile of the bunch grass areas. Here
also occur the racer and the skink
(Eumeces sMltonianus) . The garter-
snake {Thamnophis a. ordinoides) the
western toad, the leopard-frog (Rana
pipiens), the western tree-frog (Uyla
regilla), and the pond-turtle (Chrysem,ys
bellii bellii) occur chiefly along streams.
— H. T. G.

7. Sagebrush semi desert (see also in
British Columbia and Oregon
accounts) (Upper Sonoran Zone)

a. Plants. This community is almost
wholly included within a line surround-
ing the Columbia basin below an eleva-
tion varying from 1200 to 1700 ft. depend-
ing upon slope and precipitation.
Where the elevation exceeds 1700 ft.
or the rainfall about 12 in. sagebrush
gives way to bunch grass. The annual
precipitation of this basin, as is typical
of such districts, is low, ranging from
6 to 12 in.

Sagebrush is the most conspicuous
plant of the area, though according to
Piper, there are frequently found rabbit
brush, hop sage (Grayia spinosa),
antelope brush (Kunzia tridentata) , and
in alkaline situations, greasewood.
There also occur frequent and character-
istic patches of prickly pear (Opuntia
polyoantha). The sagebrush often
reaches a height of from 8 to 12 ft., and
becomes a veritable thicket, though in
some localities it does not become more
than a few inches high. The appearance
of an extensive sagebrush plain is that
of a desert waste. Another feature of
the sagebrush district is the occurrence
here and there of dunes of drifting sand.
In some places these dunes practically
wipe out all forms of vegetation as they
march on their age-long journey. In
their march, however, they are closely
followed by the ever-present sagebrush.
Along the coulees, on the hills which

174

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

reach an elevation too great to be ir-
rigated, on the basalt stab lands and
along the bluffs bordering the Columbia
river are extensive tracts which must
remain permanently sagebrush.

6. Animals. In the sagebrush of the
Columbia River basin occur such typical
forms as the coyote, badger, pocket-
mouse, kangaroo-rat {Di'podomys ordii
colnmbianus), ground-squirrel, black-
tailed jackrabbit {Lepus calif ornicus
wallawalla), and cottontail rabbit. In
the willows along the smaller streams
are found the shrew, harvest-mouse,
deer-mouse, muskrat, beaver and o^^her
riparian species. — L. R. D.

In the sagebrush occur the rattlesnake,
bull-snake, racer, two small lizards
iScelopors occidentalis occidentalis and
S. graciosus gracilis), the horned toad
{Phrynosoma d. douglassii) and spade-
foot toad (Scaphiopus hammondii) .
Along streams occur the garter-snake
and the leopard-frog.

C. MARINE VEGETATION

The bladder kelp (Nereocysiisluctke-
ana) forms the most conspicuous feature
of the marine vegetation of Puget
Sound. The huge size of the individual
plants, the fact that the bladder-like
float is always at the surface of the
water, and the fact that it forms such
dense beds covering large areas, bring
it to the attention of every observer
who crosses the waters of Puget Sound.
A good bed may be seen at Lincoln
Beach, Seattle, and another at Point
Defiance, Tacoma. Especially good
beds are found in the vicinity of the
Puget Sound Biological Station (Friday
Harbor) and at other points in the San
Juan Islands.

Another kelp {Macrocystis pyrifera)
forms beds of considerable size near
Neah Bay and Cape Flattery. The
sea palm {Postelsia palmaeformis) grows
in the same region, forming dense clus-
ters in the littoral zone on rocks that
are exposed to violent waves. Ptery-
gophora californica, a perennial kelp
with thick, stout stems, grows in the
same region and is commonly washed up

on the beaches. The feather boa kelp
(Egregia menziesii) is also common in
this region and also around San Juan
Island.

Leaf-like kelps of the following genera
are common in tlie waters of Puget
Sound: Laminaria, Crjmathaere, Agarum
Alaria and Costaria. Several other
kelps are also found in certain places.
Rockweed (Fucus sp.) is common along
many of the rocky shores.

The sea lettuce {Ulva sp.) and other
green algae are also common in the lit-
toral zone. Red algae, both filamentous
and thalloid, are found in the littoral
zone and are also commonly dredged at
the Biological Station at Friday Harbor.
Many of the filamentous forms are
unusually beautiful. Some blue-green
algae (e.g. Nostoc) are also found.
Mineral-encrusted red algae (Ampiroa
and Corallina) are abundant in some
places.

Three species of seed plants are found
in salt water along the shores of this
state, especially in Puget Sound. Eel-
grass forms dense growths in shallow
waters, and two species of sea basket-
grass {Phyllospadix scouleri and P.
iorreyi) grow on rocks exposed to wave
action.

Pollution

In general the waters of the Pacific
Ocean, the Strait of Juan de Fuca,
and Puget Sound, where they border
the State of Washington, are not badly
polluted. There is considerable pol-
lution, however, in the vicinity of the
salmon canneries during the summer.
The sewage from some of the cities
(e.g. Seattle) is also discharged into the
Sound. At times oil from boats covers
the surface of the water in places, and
there is more or less of general refuse
near cities and along lines of travel of
boats. Fortunately the sea gulls act
as scavengers and take care of a good
deal of the refuse.

Many of the fresh water lakes are
practically free from pollution, though
those in or near the cities are commonly
more or less polluted. For example.
Green Lake in Seattle is badly polluted,

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

175

but measures have now been taken to
stop pollution and improve conditions
b}^ running pure water through the lake.
Some small lakes are badly polluted with
saw mill waste.

Mountain streams in their upper
courses are mostly unpolluted except
occasional instances where concentrator
water or other material from mines is
allowed to run into a small stream. In
their lower courses many of them receive
the sewage from the towns along their
banks, and considerable refuse is also
thrown into them. The amount of this
sewage, however, is small relative to
the volume of flow in the rivers and the
pollution is so soon taken care of that
the water supply for some of the towns
is taken from the rivers. The Skyko-
raish River is an illustration of the con-
ditions mentioned.

II. Natioxal Park

*MOUNT RAINIER XATIOXAL PARK (A3)

Area 207,360 acres. Elevation of
summit 14,526 ft. Has 28 glaciers, 6 of
which appear to originate at the very
summit of the mountain. The glaciers
and snow fields give rise to numerous
precipitous mountain streams. Fairh'
dense forest, mostly coniferous, up to
4000 ft. Among the conifers are Doug-
las fir, western red cedar, hemlock, grand
fir, silver fir, noble fir, and western white
pine. Among the deciduous trees are
maple, alder, and Cottonwood. Gradual
decrease in density of forest up to
5000 ft. At and above that elevation
the trees are scattered and stunted.
Many rocky ridges and pumice fields
above timber line. Large meadows
above forests, characterized by rich
subalpine flower gardens, containing
heathers, daisies, anemones, columbines,
Erj^throniums, larkspurs, lupines and
other flowers. The park has 150 mi.
of trail including one encircling the
mountain.

Tacoma Seattle. Distance by auto
road from Tacoma 58 miles, from
Seattle 88 miles. Daily stages from
both places to south side of mountain.
Tacoma Eastern R. R. from Tacoma to

Ashford. Stage from Ashford (G mi.)
to south side of park. Guides and pack
animals also available.

Auto road to north side of mountain
from Enumclaw. North side also
reached by trail from Fairfax fR. R
station). Pack animals available at
Fairfax. Automobile road from Fairfax
up the Carbon River extending several
miles within the park.

IIT. State Parks and Reserved Park

Sites

a. parks

1. *Chuckamd State Park. (B4.) A
tract of 20 acres situated 6 mi. south of
Bellingham on Chuckanut Drive. It
fronts on salt water, part of the shore
being sandy beach and part rocky. It
has some virgin timber, mostly fir,
with some alder. Bellinghamt, G mi.
south (a).

2. Jackson State Park. (D4.) A half
acre not in a state of nature, preserved
for historical reasons. Toledo. Also
reached from Winlocki, which is on
Nor. Pacific Pi.y. 5 mi. s.e. (a).

3. *M or an State Park. (B3.) A tract
of 2600 acres on the south side of Mount
Constitution on Orcas Island in San
Juan County. The elevation of the
summit of the mountain is 2400 ft.
and the park extends almost to the
summit. This park includes some fine
stands of Douglas fir and of western
hemlock, as well as some lodgepole
pine. Practically all has been burned
over within the last 25 years, and in
places a pure stand of lodgepole pine
has occupied the burns. The large
firs and hemlocks were not killed by
these fires. Some untimbered rather
xerophytic areas in this park will be
valued by naturalists on account of their
flora of ferns, Selaginella and other
plants. The park includes a lake U mi.
long and § mi. wide. Deer are numer-
ous. A careful estimate puts the num-
ber in the park and the 2000 acre game
preserve adjoining it, at 1500.

Seattlel, 75 mi. north by Steamer; 5
mi. north (h) or (w) from OlgaJ or East
SoundJ.

It is hoped and expected that the

176

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

State Tarks committee may secure also
the tract inchuling the summit of the
mountain, a sphagnum bog and some
water-front on salt water.

4. * Deception Pass Slate Park. (D3.)
This comprises 2000 acres lying on both
sides of Deception Pass. The park
includes four islands— two in the pass
and two east of it. There is a very
strong tide through the pass and it
changes suddenly. It is passable for
small boats at slack tide only. Large ^
beds of bladder kelp occur in the tide-
ways around the pass. There are several
fine sandy beaches and numerous rocky
cliffs with sparse timber and other vege-
tation in the crevices. The timber of
this park is mostly fir, of the stunted
and distorted sort commonly found in
poor soil in exposed situations along
salt water.

Seattle^:, 70 mi. north (or EverettJ 50
mi. north) Great Northern Ry. 14 mi.
south (a) from Anacortes|. Ferrj^ ser-
vice across the pass.

5. *Crawford State Park. (A4.) A tract
of 40 acres including the entrance to
Gardner Cave. The cave is extensive and
is not fully explored. The park is hilly
and is in the western yellow pine zone.

SpokaneJ, 40 mi. n.e. to Newport]:,
thence 50 mi. n. to Metaline Fallsf from
which the park is 6 mi. n.e. by trail.

6. Money Creek Park. (D4.) A tract
of 18 acres near the Skykomish River
among the Cascade mountains. It is on
the Cascade Scenic Highway, and is
privately owned. Heavily timbered,
tall, beautiful Doviglas firs and some fine
cedar, plenty of vine maple; devil's club
and other plants of rich coniferous forest.

EverettJ, 50 mi. east by Gr. Nor. Ry.
or stage, 1 mi. s.e. (w) or (a) from Miller
River|.

7. *Lewis and Clark State Park. (A4.)
An area of 520 acres of virgin coniferous
timber with the undergrowth practically
undisturbed. The smaller animals are
also practically undisturbed. The tract
is nearly level and has a small stream
flowing through it. On Pacific Highway
between Chehalis and Toledo (12 mi.

north of Chehalis). Chehalis is 50 mi.
by rail or auto south of Tacoma.

B. RESERVED PARK SITES

The following park sites have been
selected, although formal reservation
has not, in all cases, been made. These
areas are of interest at present, mainly
to automobile tourists only. Local
inquiries will be necessary in most cases
in order to find them.

*Clarke County. (B4.) Five acres,
located just north of Amboy. Portland,
Oregonf 30 mi. north Nor. Pac-Ry. to
WoodlandJ Wash., thence 15 mi. east (a).

Grays Harbor County. (B4.) (Sec-
tion 36, township 19 north, range 7 west.)
South and east of the county road.
MontesanoJ or SatsopJ.

*Five acres bordering on Boone Street,
Aberdeen. On Westport Highway Aber-
deent, or Hoquiamt.

*King County. (B4.) Five acres on
the Sunset Highway, east of Issaquah.

*Five acres bordering road on east side
of tract. Vashon Island. Seattle! 15
mi. southwest by stage and ferry to
Vashon HeightsJ.

3.92 acres, on south side of main
traveled highway from Seattlef to North
Bendf, near RedmondJ.

Mason County. (B4.) Located east
of the state road and including all tide
lands in front of lot 1. On Olympic
Highway. LilliwaupJ.

*Three acres bordering on Hood Canal
and on the Navy Yard Highway.
UnionJ.

Okanogan County. (B4.) Located in
lot 3, on Whitestone Lake. Sixteen
miles s.w. of Orovillef.

*Pierce County. (B4.) Section 36,
township 18 north, range 3 east. A
strip of land lying on each side of the
county road (now National Park High-
way). Twenty-five miles south of
TacomaJ.

Spokane County. (B4.) Section 16,
township 24 north, range 45 east; on a
county road and creek. On paved high-
way 22 mi. from SpokaneJ.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

177

IV. Bird and Game Sanctuariks

A. federal

All islands on the west coast of the
state from Cape Flattery to the mouth
of the Columbia River are federal bird
reservations. The birds on these islands
are mostly sea birds. No game birds
nest on these islands.

B. state

A game preserve one mi. wide is estab-
lished all around Lake Washington.
This closes an area of about 75 sq. mi.
Mercer Island in the lake is also closed
to hunting. The island is about 6 mi.
long and two miles wide. There are
deer on the island. Lake Washington
is over 20 mi. long and has an irregular
shore line.

C. COUNTIES

1. King County

a. Foss River Valley. (B2.) Sno-
qualmie National Forest, virgin except
trails. SkykomishJ (w), Tonga (w).

b. Lake Dorothy. (Al.) Closed to
fishing. It is about two mi. long and f
mi. wide. It is in the Cascade moun-
tains south of Skykomish. Inquire at
office of King County Game Commission,
Court House, Seattle, for method of
reaching the lake.

2. Chelan County. (H8)

a. Four areas aggregating 151,000
acres on which no mammals or birds can
be killed for an indefinite period, and
no grazing permits can be issued. Set
aside by county Game Commissioner
with assistance of forest oflScials.

V. Other Preserved Areas
A. spokaneJ

1. *Up River Park. (B3.) Area 464
acres. Situated along both sides of
Spokane River. On north side, rugged
hills whose southern slopes are barren
except scattering western yellow pine.
Many vernal plants such as Ranunculus
glaberrimus, Olsynium grandijlorum,

Frittilaria -pudica, Tellima tenella, and
Draba verna; later Balsamorhiza sagit-
tata, Sedum douglasii, Piperia sp., and
various lupines and composites are
found. This park is characteristic of
the semi-arid region in which Spokane is
situated. — Ellis B. Harris.

2. *Hangman Park. (B3.) Area 294
acres. Situated in a deep canyon in
Hangman Creek valley. Bordered on
both sides by high, sandy hills or rocky
cliffs. More moist than Up River Park
because subirrigated from the creek.
Has much the same flora as Up River
Park, but has also willows, dogwoods
{Corniis stolonifera and C. occidentalis) ,
alder, elderberry roses {Rosa nutkana
and R. pisocarpa). The park is in a
totally wild state and is likely to remain
so for several years. — Ellis B. Harris.

3. *Indian Canyon Park. (B3.) Is
in a deep gorge. Besides the plants
mentioned in the preceding descriptions
it has also Philadelphus lewisii, Ber-
beris aquifolium, B. repens, Holodiscus
discolor, Spiraea mensiesii, S. corym-
bosa, Opulaster pauciflorus, amelanchier
florida, A. cusickii, Rubus pauciilorus,
R. leucodermis, Arctostaphylos uvic-
ursi, Vagnera amplexicaulis, V. stellata,
and Veratrum calif ornicum. — Ellis B.
Harris.

4. *Mount Spokane. (B4.) A tract
of 220 acres, including the summit of the
mountain and a 60 ft. roadwaj^ from its
base. The conifers on this tract include
grand fir, alpine fir, Engelmann spruce,
western larch, western white pine, lodge-
pole pine, giant cedar. Rocky Mountain
juniper {Juniperus scopulorum), and
Pacific yew {Taxus brevifolia). The
orchids include Cypripedium parvi-
folium, Corallorhiza striata, and Pera-
mium decipiens. Many of the plants
listed under the city parks of Spokane
are also found on this tract. — Ellis B.
Harris.

B. tacom.\|

1. *Point Defiance Park. (B3.) Area
over 600 acres. Largely coniferous
forest with some deciduous trees.

178

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Broad-leaved evergreens, native shrubs,
flowers, ferns, and mosses, marine water
front. Good kelp bed (Nereocyslis)
easily accessible by rowboat.

2. *Spanaway Park. (B4.) Area 477
acres. Borders on Spanaway Lake,
about 20 miles south of the city. Prairie
vegetation. Oak trees. Reached by
electric car.

S. *Green River Water Shed. (B3.)
A tract 27 miles long and 13 miles wide
along the Green River in King County.
Hunting and fishing prohibited. Confer
with city officials of Tacoma before
visiting.

4. *Liltle Nisqually Watershed. (B3.)
Area 24,000 acres. Located in Pierce
County.

5. *Lake Cushman Power Site. (B3.)
Area 7500 acres. Situated at Lake
Cushman, Mason County. Part of it
will be flooded, but the rest will be left
in a state of nature.

c. bellinghamI

1. *Whatcom Falls Park. (B4.) Area
about 100 acres. Coniferous forest with
ravine and creek.

2. *Cornwall Park. (B4.) Area 150
acres. Coniferous trees, natural water-
fall, ravine and meandering creek.

3. *Fairhaven Park. (B4.) Area 10
acres. Coniferous trees, ravine and
small creek.

D. SEATTLE t

1. *Roosevelt Park. Area 50 acres.
A deep ravine with some level, higher
land on each side. Fir, hemlock and
cedar predominate. Alder, maple and
yew also found. Undergrowth of salal,
Oregon grape and huckleberry. Flow-
ers, ferns and mosses abundant. Some
liverworts. Situated | mile north of
campus of University of Washington.
Trails.

2. *Schmit2 Park. (B4.) Area 45
acres. Native forest with dense under-
growth. Ravines and brook. Natural
vegetation undisturbed. Trails.

3. *Seward Park. (B4.) Area 193
acres. Consists of a peninsula extend-

ing into Lake Washington. Native for-
est with dense undergrowth. Trails.

4. *Lincoln Beach Park. (B4.) Area
2.8 acres. Consists of about 500 feet of
water front on Puget Sound and a
wooded ravine extending up the steep
slope to the street car line. Abundance
of marine algae accessible at low tide.
Good kelp bed {Nereocyslis) about 100
ft. from shore.

5. *Cedar River Watershed. (C2.) A
tract 25 mi. long and 8 mi. wide in-
cluding the Cedar River, its valley and
Cedar Lake, located in King County.
Hunting and fishing prohibited. Log-
ging has been carried on, but much natu-
ral vegetation is still undisturbed. Con-
fer with city authorities before visiting.

6. *The Skagit Power Site. (C2.)
When the upper dam is completed the
Skagit River as far back as the Canadian
boundary (some 25 mi. or more) will
become a lake. This will be an oppor-
tunity to study the colonization of
plants at a new water level. The entire
drainage basin tributary to this power
site is about 1200 sq. mi., the northern
portion of it being in Canada.

E. KITSAP LODGE (C2)

Area 70 acres. Located in Kitsap
County. Owned by the Mountaineers.
Coniferous forest with some deciduous
trees. Hills, ravines and stream. Soil
of hills very gravelly, supporting xero-
phytic vegetation. Pine trees, rho-
dodendron, manzanita, kinnikinnick,
mountain box, flowers, ferns, and
mosses. Confer with officers of the
Mountaineers in Seattle in regard to
visiting.

*F. BUNCH GRASS VEGETATION (B4)

Area 3 acres. On the farm of the
Washington State College, PullmanJ.
Splendidly representative of the condi-
tions that are rapidly disappearing from
Eastern Washington. F. L. Pickett.

*G. QUINAULT LAKE AREA (A3)

Seven thousand acres bordering on
Lake Quinault in the Olympic peninsula.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

179

It includes about three-fourths of the
shore line of the lake (though the lake
itself is a part of the Quinault Indian
Reservation) and extends to the moun-
tain summits on the north and east.
It lies entirely in the Olympic National
Forest, except that 40 acres of privately
owned land is included. It has been set
aside by the district forester as a recrea-
tion area whose scenic features are not
to be disturbed. It is under the super-
vision of the United States Forest Serv-
ice. A summer cottage area has been
established along the lake where a
limited amount of cutting is permitted
under supervision.

A large part of the 7000 acres is covered
with virgin forest, much of it very dense
and consisting largely of enormous trees
of Douglas fir. There is also some cedar.
Ferns and other undergrowth are abun-
dant, and lichens and moss cover many
of the tree trunks and branches pro-
fusely. The original animal communi-
ties are practically undisturbed. Deer,
bear, cougars and bob-cats are common.

Tacoma}, 60 mi. west, Nort. Pac. Ry.
to Hoquiamj, State 35 mi. north from
there to OlsonJ, on Lake Quinault.
Roads (a) to some parts. Trails (w) or
(h) to some others. Guides usually
available.

Marine preserve

A marine preserve was created by the
1923 legislature of the State of Washing-
ton. It is composed entirely of the
shores of certain islands and the waters
lying between these islands. It com-
prises San Juan County and also Cypress
Island which is in Skagit County. The
act provides that with the exception of
bladder kelp {Nereocystis Luetkena)
and of articles used for food, there shall
be no collecting of plants or animals
below the high tide line, except by per-
mission of the director of the Puget
Sound Biological Station. The object
is to prevent the depletion of the plants
and animals of the sea in the region
about the Station. The reason for
excepting the bladder kelp is that it

often interferes with fish traps. The
station has 485 acres of land mostly
cutover timber land which is held as a
wild life preserve. One mile northeast
from Friday Harbor, Wash. — G. B. R.

VI. Other Areas that Should be
Preserved

1. Wooded area. (H8.) Area 3 acres;
deciduous trees; includes a flooded plain;
has typical vegetation of a stream mar-
gin of the region. Much frequented by
birds. Walla Walla.—//. S. Erode.

2. Steppe area. (B3.) Of 160 acres
or more in Walla Walla County. Hills
and river; Cottonwood and willow;
native grass land. PrescottJ, Waits-
burgj. — Lee R. Dice.

3. Area along Snake River. (C3.) In
Walla Walla County; area two square
miles or more, extends one mile along
the river, including the river bank, and
south two miles; includes river valley,
high basaltic cliff, canyon walls, and a
good area of bunch grass on top of hill.
Utilized at present for grazing only.
Lyon's Ferry. Lee R. Dice.

4. Sage Brush. (C3.) An area of one
square mile about two miles east of
WallulaJ and extending north from the
Walla Walla River. Typical sagebrush.
Area should include a small portion of
the Walla Walla River in order to preserve
the native willow conditions along the
stream. Walla Wallat, Walla Walla
County, 30 mi. west via O. W. Ry. to
Wallula. — Lee. R. Dice.

5. A forested area of about 50 acres
around Baker Lake in Whatcom County.
Coniferous and deciduous trees; flood
plains; talus slopes and swamps; moun-
tains, canyons and lake shore; beaver,
deer. Seattle. Great Northern Ry.
100 mi. NE. to ConcreteJ, thence 20 mi.
north by trail (w) or (h).—H. B. Ward.

6. A sphagnum bog {cranberry marsh),
including a bog lake. One hundred and
sixty acres should be preserved. This
includes about 50 acres of typical
sphagnum bog with lake in center; in-
cludes also about 30 acres of hard hack

180

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

swamp, some logged off land and a large
portion of Graham Lake which borders
the bog. Bog flora: Labrador tea,
swamp laurel, cranberry, sundew, lodge-
pole pine. Seattlet, 20 miles N. E.,
N.P.R.R., 1 mi. south (w) Maltbyt

7. Salt Marsh. (B4.) Central por-
tion covered with such salt marsh plants
as S(jlicor7iia, Alriplex, Distichlis, Tri-
glochin and Glaux. Dodder is parasitic
on several of these. Along each shore is
a gravelly, wave-built ridge with a flora
of Gaerineria, Lomatium and grasses.
Vegetation not likely to be disturbed at
present. There are numerous other salt
marshes in the region. One outside of
the city could be obtained much cheaper,
but no others seen show all of the plant
communities found in and around this
one. Situated in the City of Seattle
between Fort Lawton and the West
Point Light house.

8. Wooded ravines on the campus of the
University of Washington, Seattle. (B4.)
About 10 acres of forest. Conifers,
deciduous trees, broadleaf evergreens,
native flowers, ferns (7 species), mosses,
liverworts.

9. Sivamp and ravine on the south side
of Liberty Lake in Spokane County. This
includes very characteristic swamp and
ravine vegetation. The ravine is deep,
and has a mountain stream in it. — Ellis
B. Harris.

VII. Literature List
Botany

1. Allen. Forests of Mount Rainier

National Park, 1916, 32 pages, in-
cluding 27 illustrations, 20 cents.
Contains descriptions of the forest
cover and of the principal species.

2. Document 190, Sixty-second Con-

gress, second session, Washington,
D. C, 1912. Contains several
papers on kelps of this region.

3. Flett. Features of the flora of

Mount Rainier National Park.
1916, 48 pages, including 40 illus-
trations, 25 cents. Contains de-
scriptions of the flowers, trees
and shrubs in the park.

4. Frye and Rigg. Northwest Flora,

University Book Store, Seattle.
(Out of print, but may be con-
sulted at libraries.)

5. Frye, Rigg and Crandall. The size

of kelps on the Pacific Coast of
North America. Bot. Gaz. Vol.
60, pp. 473-482, 1915.

6. Hotson. Sphagnum as a Surgical

Dressing. Northwest Division
Red Cross. Copies of this may be
had free, from Prof. Hotson,
Univ. of Wash., Seattle.

7. Piper and Beattie. Flora of the

Northwest Coast. State College,
Pullman, Wash.

8. Publications of the Puget Sound

Biological Station, Friday Harbor,
Wash. Dr. T. C. Frye, Director,
Univ. of Wash., Seattle. Many
of the papers in these volumes deal
with plants and animals of the
Puget Sound region.

9. Report 100, U. S. Dept. of Agricul-

ture. Contains papers on kelp of
the West Coast and Alaska.
10. Weaver. A study of the root sys-
tems of prairie plants of south-
eastern Washington. PI. World,
Vol. 14, pp. 227. 1915.

Fauna

Bovard, J. F., and Osterud, H. L.
Partial list of the animals yielding
embryological material at the
Puget Sound Biological Station.
Publ. Puget Sound Biol. Sta.,
2: 127-137. 1918.

Bush, Mildred. Key to the Echino-
derms of Friday Harbor, Wash-
ington. Publ. Puget Sound Biol.
Sta., 2: 17-44, 58 figs. 1918.

Dawson, William Leon, and Bowles,
John Hooper. The birds of Wash-
ington. 2 vols., 997 pp., numerous
illust. Seattle, 1909.

Dice, Lee Raymond. The Mammals of
Southeastern Washington. Jour.
Mamm., 1: 10-22, pis. 1-2. 1919.

Johnson, Herbert Berlin. The Poly-
chaeta of the Puget Sound region.
Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 29:
381-437. 1901.

Jordan, David Starr, and Starks, Ed-
ward Chapin. The fishes of Puget
Sound. Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci.,
2nd ser., 5: 785-855, pis. 74^104.
1896.

Kincaid, Trevor. An annotated list of
Puget Sound fishes. Dept. of
Fisheries, State of Wash., 51 pp.,
114 figs. 1919.

Oldroyd, Ida S. The marine shells
of Puget Sound and vicinity.
Publ. Puget Sound Biol. Sta.,
4:l,illus. 1924,

Taylor, Walter P. A distributional and
ecological study of Mount Rainier,
Washington. Ecology, 3: 214-236,
4 figs. 1922.

Way, Evelyn. Brachyura and crab-like
Anomura of Friday Harbor, Wash-
ington. Publ. Puget Sound Biol.
Sta., 1: 349-382, 28 figs. 1917.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

181

3. OREGON'

By Thornton T. Munger, William E.

Lawrence and Howard M.

Wight

I. general CONDITIONS (t. T. M.)

1. Topography

The state borders on the Pacific
Ocean, it is traversed by coast ranges of
mountains near the ocean, and by a much
higher range, the Cascade Range, far-
ther inland, between which is a trough-
like series of valleys of low altitude and
less humidity than the westward slopes of
each range. East of the Cascade Range
is a plateau of arid or semi-arid condition
intersected by deep canyons on which are
scattered detached mountain masses.
The altitudes in Oregon range from sea
level on the west to 11,253 ft. on Mt.
Hood. The prevailing altitude of most
of eastern Oregon is over 3500 ft.

The ocean strip has salt marshes, and
sand dunes; the interior has every type
of flood plain, valley floor, ravine, can-
yon, swamp, hillside and bluff; the high
mountains have talus slopes, old and
fresh moraines, alpine meadows and
wastes, mountain meadows or bogs, re-
cent and old lava flows, waterfalls,
natural lakes and uncontaminated
streams; and the Eastern Oregon plateau
has deserts, alkali and fresh lakes and
swamps, and mountains and valleys of
every description.

Soils. There is a wide range in soils
over the state. Pure sand on the dunes
of the Coast and Columbia River, great
areas of loess in eastern Oregon, glacial
deposits in the mountains, river de-
posits, peats, and of special interest,
great areas of fresh volcanic ash and
pumice which blanket parts of the
Cascade Range and eastern Oregon, to-
gether with lava flows upon which soil
formation has hardly started.

2. Climate

Precipitation. West of the Coast
Range and on the western slopes of the

1 Where there was no cooperation between the
authors their names stand in the order of the receipt
of their manuseripts and the authorship of the
different parts is indicated.

Cascades the annual precipitation is
over 100 in. The valleys between the
Coast and Cascade Ranges have about 40
in. per year, well distributed except dur-
ing a two months' summer drought.
East of the Cascade Range the climate is
dry, ranging as low as 7 in. and averaging
perhaps 20 in.

Temperature. West of the Cascade
Range the climate is very equable, ex-
treme heat and cold being rare. The
diurnal range is small. It is an insular
climate. Along the ocean strip a mini-
mum winter temperature as cold as 20°F.
is uncommon. East of the Cascade
Range the climate is continental and
extremes of both heat and cold are ex-
perienced. Cold nights (frosts at the
higher altitudes) are the rule throughout
the year. Much cloudy weather is
usual west of the Cascades while clear
skies and considerable wind are the rule
east of the mountains. On the moun-
tains an alpine climate prevails.

3. Original biota

A. Plant^ communties {W. E. L.). A
summary of the plant associations of
western Oregon follows:

Douglas fir forest (Hygrophytic conif-
erous forest)

Spruce forest (Hygrophytic coniferous
forest)

Cedar-hemlock forest (Hygrophytic
coniferous forest)

Redwood forest

Siskiyou chaparral

Hill prairie (or grassland)

Valley prairie (or grassland)

The Cascade Range of Mountains ex-
tending from the California line to the
Columbia river, divides the state of Ore-
gon into an eastern dry and a western
humid section. This long mountain
range serves as an effective barrier to the
moisture laden winds from the ocean.
The natural flora of the two sections,
therefore, differs in the principal species
of plants and the landscape aspect.

Westerii Oregon. Western Oregon is
characterized by a moister climate due to
the Cascade barrier. The Coast Range

- Scientific names of plant.s mentioned in British
Columbia and Washington do not occur here.

182

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

in the western half also serves as a
secondary barrier, producing a still
more humid coastal strip. In south-
western Oregon the Cascade and Coast
ranges merge into the Siskiyou moun-
tains. This region is somewhat drier.
The Willamette, Umpqua, and Rogue
River valleys are the principal low
areas between the two mountain ranges.
Elsewhere the western part of Oregon is
broken into numerous mountain peaks
and ridges with small and often long,
narrow valleys between.

The bulk of the mountain and foothill
area is covered by a heavy forest of
Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga mucronata).
Western cedar (Thuja plicata), and
western hemlock Tsuga heteropJujlla may
replace the Douglas fir on the moister
slopes and in the v-shaped valleys. The
lowland white fir (Abies grandis) on the
low lands, the noble fir (Abies nobilis)
silver fir (Abies amabilis), and mountain
hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) on the
higher elevations, and Sitka spruce
(Picea sitchensis) near the coast may
occur as conspicuous associates if not
occasional dominants in the Douglas fir
forest. The Sitka spruce characterizes
the moist coastal strip along the north-
ern half of the state, while the Port
Orford Cedar, Chamaecyparis lawsoniana
is an important Coastal species in the
southwestern part of Oregon. A small
stand of very fine redwood (Sequoia
sempervirens) is found in the fog belt
in the extreme southwestern corner of
the state. Elsewhere the lodgepole
pine (Pinus contorta) occupies the sandy
coastal area.

In the drier mountains of southwestern
Oregon, the western yellow pine,
Douglas fir, and incense cedar (Liboce-
drus decurrens) make, up the coniferous
forest.

A dense undergrowth occurs through-
out much of the humid coniferous forest
in western Oregon. Salal, vine maple
(Acer circinatum), salmon berry (Rubus
spectabilis), Devil's club (Falsia horrida)
and other shrubs often grow so profusely
that it is difficult to travel on foot.
Along the forested streams in the

northern part of western Oregon nu-
merous species of deciduous shrubs
and trees are always seen. Oregon ash
(Fraxinus oregona), broadleaf maple
(Acer macrophyllum) , choke cherry
(Prunus demissa), western flowering
dogwood, and alders (Alnus oregona) are
common. Willows, black cottonwood
(Populus trichocarpa) , hazel (Corylus
calif ornica) , chittim or cascara (Rham-
nus purshiana), and Oregon grape
(Berberis aquifolium) are more common
along the more open streams.

The original forest was composed of
Douglas fir, but in the more mature
stands western cedar and western
hemlock will take the place of Douglas
fir. Extensive lumbering operations,
and great fires in the past have destroyed
large stands of this one time magnificient
and valuable timber. It is a real fight
to preserve these forests from fire, and
the United States Forest Service is doing
a great work in preserving the remainder
of this wonderful national asset. Ore-
gon has more standing merchantable
timber than any other state in the Union,
and it behooves every citizen to assume
personal responsibility for his part in the
prevention of fire and to further re-
forestation.

Fires have probably been recurrent
for an indefinite period in the past so
that the bulk of the forest has probably
always been composed of the Douglas fir.
Under normal conditions these burned
areas will reforest. On the west slope
of the Coast mountains and elsewhere
are large areas that are not reforesting.
These old burns are covered by a dense
growth of the bracken fern (Pteris
aquilinum pubescens) and the accom-
panying herbaceous flora. The bracken
fern is also common on burns and cut
over lands that are restocking. How-
ever in the latter situations the fern is
quickly overtopped by the vine maple,
service berry (Amelanchier florida),
thimble berry (Rubus parviflorus) , red
flowering currant (Ribes sanguineum),
blue elder berry (Sambucus glauca),
ocean spray (Holodiscus discolor) and
young Douglas fir.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

183

Wherever this western mesophytic
coniferous forest borders on the prairie
it is bounded by the Garry or Oregon oak
(Quercus garryana), in the northern part
of the state and by the black oak [Quer-
cus calif ornica), madrona and manzanita
in the southern portion.

The Willamette valley is the largest
of the important valley sections in
western Oregon. It differs from the
Umpqua and Rogue river valleys chiefly
in its size and the more northerly loca-
tion. It is therefore a cooler valley.
A study of the floras of these valleys
shows that the southern floras extend
northward into the Rogue and Umpqua
valleys, while the northern plants may
be found southward into these sec-
tions. Intercepting transverse mountain
divides serve in part as climatic barriers
to the northward and southward migra-
tion of plants. These intercepting
ranges are neither high enough nor com-
plete enough to serve as effective bar-
riers in themselves. Their true signifi-
cance seems to be in the alteration of
the temperature and moisture condi-
tions, which in turn controls the charac-
ter of the vegetation. The numerous
smaller valleys take on the character of
the larger valleys. The Coos Bay, and
Tillamook sections are more humid,
whereas the Hood River Valley which
drains into the Columbia on the north
is more like the Willamette Valley.

The floor of the Rogue river valley was
originally a sagebrush desert surrounded
by grassland. The prairie may be seen
on the higher ground and lower slopes.
Between the hill-prairie and the forest
is a zone of chaparral. There may be a
question regarding the occurrence of
typical chaparral, in Oregon. The name
Siskiyou chaparral may be used to
distinguish the brush lands of South-
western Oregon from chaparral of Cali-
fornia and elsewhere in the Southwest.
However, at present, there is much
ground occupied by manzanita (Arcto-
staphrjlos spp.), antelope bush (Purshia
tridentata) , young madrona, scrub oaks,
and young yellow pine.

In the Umpqua valley and corre-

sponding situations the black oak is
intermixed with the Garry or Oregon
oak and replaces it to some extent on the
exposed hill slopes. Alder, broadleaf
maple, service berry, chinquapin (Cas-
tanopsis chrysophylla), Oregon or Coos
Bay myrtle (Umbellularia calif ornica),
and black Cottonwood are characteristic
hardwoods. The Oregon or Coos Bay
mja'tle is found more abundantly in the
coast sections of southern Oregon.

There are two types of prairie in the
Willamette, Umpqua, and other north-
ern valleys in western Oregon — hill
prairie and valley prairie. These are
not always distinct. The hill slopes
are drier early in the season. At present
weedy bronies and fescues are the
dominant hill prairie grasses. The
grasses of the valley are almost all
introduced. One of the original grasses
{Deschampsia caespitosa) may still be
seen along the roadside places.

Eastern Oregon. The eastern section
is a high plateau that rises rapidly from
the Columbia river southward to 4000 and
5000 ft. in altitude on the interior high
desert. Deep canyons are cut through
the plateau and in the mountains.
Rising above the plateaus are numerous
buttes and mountain ranges varying in
altitude from a few hundred feet above
the plateau to over 9000 ft., above sea
level in the Blue Mountains.

All of the area lies in the Cool Zone of
Livingston and Shreve,^ so that the
character of the flora is determined by
this and the low average rainfall, which
is especially true during the growing
season. Local differences are affected
chiefly by slope exposure and altitude.

The eastern plant communities may
be given as follows:

Sagebrush desert, or (Great Basin :\Iicro-
phyll desert)

Bunch grass prairie, or grassland

Juniper forest, or (Xerophytic Conif-
erous forest)

Yellow pine forest, or (Xerophytic
Coniferous forest)

Mesophytic coniferous forest

'Livingston, B. E., and Shreve, Forrest. "The
distribution of vegetation in the United States, as
related to climate conditions." Carnegie Inst.
Publ. 284;

184

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Sub-Alpine forest
Alpine meadow

The largest single area is known
locally as the "high desert." This area
is characterized by the sagebrush and
the rabbit brush {Chrysothamnus spp.)
on the slopes and well drained bottom
lands. Extensive alkaline lake beds,
river bottoms, and poorly drained flats
are characterized by the dominance of
the greasewood {Sarcohatus vermicula-
tus) and saltgrass (Distichlis spicata).
Sage brush may be associated with the
above plants in the transition zone.
Originally the western wheat grass
{Agropyron spicahim) and other bunch
grasses grew abundantly throughout the
entire desert area. The overstocking of
this sagebrush desert has largely de-
stroyed the grass as an abundant associ-
ate plant. The main desert area lies
south of the Blue Mountains and east of
the Cascade timbered slopes. It ex-
tends northward to the bunchgrass
prairie on the upper reaches and down
the river canyons to the Columbia.
Extensive desert lands also lie along
the Columbia in Gilliam and Umatilla
counties and in Baker county. The
sagebrush desert is called the Great
Basin Microphyll desert by Livingston
and Shreve although it extends beyond
the physiographic limits of the Great
Basin. Lava outcrops as "rim rock" in
frequent places where erosion has cut
through the great lava outpourings.
Along streams and under the rim rock
may be found various herbs and shrubs
that require more soil moisture. Con-
spicuous among these plants are the
western choke cherry (Primus demissa),
service berry (Amelanchier), squaw cur-
rant (Ribes cereum), golden currant
(Ribes aureum), mock orange {Phila-
delphus lewisii), willows and others.
Within the area of the desert plateau
and in Klamath County are large lakes
and marshes, which range from fresh to
alkaline. The lake borders and marshes
of the fresher waters are characterized
by the tule (Scirpus validus), cattail
(Typha lalijolia), water hemlock {Cicuta
occidentalis) and others.

Between the high desert and the tim-
bered area on the south slope of the Blue
Mountains and other similar climatic
situations is a transition belt of western
juniper (Juniperus occidentalis), moun-
tain mahogany (Cercocarpus ledifolins),
and antelope bush.

Perhaps the largest juniper forest in
the world is found as a transition be-
tween the sagebrush desert on the south
and the bunchgrass prairie on the north,
and lying between the Cascade and Blue
Mountains. Sagebrush and also an-
telope bush, are abundantly associated
with the juniper. Originally the west-
ern wheat grass and other grasses were
abundantly found in this area.

The present wheat growing sections
of eastern Oregon were originally bunch-
grass prairie. It lies mainly on the high
rolling lands to the north of the Blue
Mountains. Small remnants of this one
time extensive prairie may be seen in
protected places. Western wheat grass
is the dominant grass. More or less
abundantly associated with it are the
prairie June grass (Koeleria cristata),
and other species of Agropyron, lupines,
prairie sunflower (Balsamorrhiza
sagittata), geranium, and others.
Stream borders are characterized by the
alder {Alnus tenuifolia), hawthorn
(Crataegus brevispina), snowberry, sym-
phoricarpos and clematis.

Within the Blue Mountains proper and
on isolated peaks and small chains,
where the altitude may be responsi])le
for the supply of sufficient moisture, the
slopes are timbered. Western yellow
pine is the dominant tree throughout all
of the lower mountain slopes. The
same may be said for the east slope of
the Cascade Range and the Mountains of
Klamath county. Yellow pine may be
intermixed with sugar pine (Pinus
lambertiana) and a few other scattered
conifers to the south and with western
larch (Larix occidentalis), and Douglas
fir to the north. Western white pine,
lodgepole pine, Engelmann spruce,
white fir, alpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa),
and other conifers are found in increas-
ing abundance with the rise in altitude

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

185

and the corresponding increase in
moisture.

The yellow pine forest is the semi-
desert or xerophytic coniferous forest.
The forest floor is characterized bj^
snow bush (Ceanothus velutinus), ante-
lope bush, manzanita, and Idaho fescue
(Fcstuca idahoense).

It is well known that the herbaceous
and shrubby vegetation varies with the
type of forest. On account of the large
territorial area and the varying climatic
and soil conditions, it is impossible to
accurately picture the smaller vegeta-
tion that accompanies the larger. The
mesophytic coniferous forest is the
habitat of the following: Snowbush,
thimble berry, huckleberries {Vac-
cinium), naked rose (Rosa g}/m7iocarpa),
twin berry {Lonicera involucratn),
Prince's pine {Chimaphila umbellata),
twin flower (Linnaea americana) , colum-
bine (Aquilegia formosa), false bugbane
{Trautiyetieria grandis) and species of
currants and gooseberries.

Alpine meadows in both the Blue and
Cascade Mountains may be found at or
near timber line on the gentle slopes
and valleys. But the rocky ridges and
peaks are more or less covered with
scattered white bark pine {Pinus albi-
caulis), mountain hemlock, and various
shrubs. Following the recession of
snow, alpine erythroniums, and anem-
ones may be found.

B. Animal communities illustrated by
mammals (H. M. IF.). The divide of
the Cascade Mountains separates Oregon
into two areas, Western and Eastern
Oregon. Western Oregon is again cut
by the Coast Range Mountains leaving
the big valleys of the Willamette, the
Umpqua and Rogue Rivers, lying be-
tween the two ranges.

The areas of Western Oregon recog-
nized in this paper are, the Moist coni-
ferous forests of two slopes of the Coast
Range Mountains; the Valley prairie
areas of the Willamette, Umpqua and
the Rogue River, the Hill prairie areas
comprising the foothills of the two
mountain ranges rising out of the val-
leys; and the moist coniferous forests

situated throughout the west slope of
the Cascade Mountains.

The areas of Eastern Oregon con-
sidered are, the Semi-desert coniferous
forests of the Eastern slope of the
Cascades; the Coniferous forests of the
Blue Mountains; the Bunch grass prairie
lying between the Blue Mountains and
the Cascades in the North, and drained
by the Deschutes, John Day and Umatilla
rivers; and the big Sage brush desert
lying south of the Blue Mountains and
Bunch grass prairie.

The flora of Oregon is not as greatly
changed from its original condition as
is its fauna. Few mammals'* have been
entirely exterminated, but the distribu-
tion of many has become restricted, and
the numbers of nearly all show evidence
of decrease. Within the great conifer-
ous forests of Oregon and throughout the
arid section of the Sagebrush desert in
the southeastern corner of the state, and
extending into Idaho and Nevada, the
biota has been remarkably well preserved.
The west slope of the Coast Range
Mountains. Luxuriant open valleys
within this stand of timber furnished
forage for thousands of western wapiti
or elk {Cervus c. occidentalis) . The
black-tailed deer (Odocoileus columbi-
anus) fed within the jungles of Salal,
which carpeted this virgin forest. The
l)lack bear stripped the huckleberry, and
the chittim (Cascara) berries, and
caught the fish from the numerous
streams which drain the west slope into
the Pacific Ocean. These streams were
followed by the western raccoon
{Procyon psora pacifica), the Pacific
mink, the Pacific otter {Lutra canadensis
pacifica). The Pacific beaver (Castor
canadensis pacifica) were abundant as
were in some sections, the Oregon coast
muskrat (Fiber sibethica occipitalis).
The Puget Sound skunk and the spotted
skunk (Spilogale phenax latifrons) were
present. The hillsides were pentrated
by the mountain beaver (Aplodontia
rufa pacifica).

< Soientilic names of mammals mentioned in Brit-
ish Columbia and Washington do not occur in
Oregon account.

186

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Throughout the entire area the cougar
(Felis 0. oregonensis) preyed upon the
young elk and deer. The Douglas pine-
squirrel (Sciurus douglassii), the fuscus
bushy-tailed woodrat {Neotoma cinerea
hisca) and the deer-mouse {Peromyscus
maniculalus riibidus), were constantly
pursued by the bobcat {Lynx fasciatus
pallcscens) the Pacific fisher (mustela
pennonti pasific) and the Pacific marten.
This area is also inhabited by the
Bachman flying-squirrel {glaucomys sa-
hrinus oregonensis) . The bald eagle and
the band-tailed pigeon nested within
this region, while the coast wren built
its home in no other place.

All of these species are still present
in varying degrees of abundance. The
elk is no longer, however, a game animal
and the bear are becoming limited.

The east slope of the Coast Range Moun-
tains. The East slope of the Coast
Range Mountains, characterized by the
Douglas fir, meets the Hill prairie area
in its foothills rising out of the valleys
on the eastern side.

The fauna of the west slope is quite
generally carried to the east slope, and
while several species are now mapped
for the west side, a more detailed study
might show that their range could be
extended.

The western bushy-tailed woodrat was
found throughout this area. The Cali-
fornia skunk (Mephitis occidentalis)
probably extended his range well into
the valleys of the east slope, as did the
timber wolf (Cams gigas) as he pursued
both the black-tailed deer and the
western white-tailed deer (Odocoileus
leucurus).

The Hill Prairie area. The Hill
Prairie area was characterized by open
grass land and Oregon oak which covered
the foothills on either side of the
Willamette Valley. These groves of
Garry oak afford a natural home for the
beautiful silver-gray squirrel (Sciurus
griseus griseus) which, however, extends
its range far back into the coniferous
forest on both sides of the valley and in
the southern section to the Coast.
Especially numerous in this area were

the Douglas ground squirrel (Citellus
beecheyi douglasii), the white-tailed deer
formerly bedded among these hills, and
the sooty grouse were numerous.

The Valley Prairie area. This was
the original home of the western white-
tailed deer. The main streams and their
many tributaries wooded by Douglas fir,
maple, oak, willow and numerous shrubs,
afforded an ideal home for the mink,
otter, raccoon and skunk. Especially
numerous were the beaver of this area,
feeding upon the Cottonwood and willow
which grew close to the water's edge.
The Puget Sound muskrat found an
ideal habitat in the numerous sloughs
caused by the annual flooding. Along
these streams the abundant thorn-
bearing shrubs formed an excellent
location for the dusky-footed woodrat
(Neotoma fuscipes) to build its nest.
The wild rose, Spiraea, and snowberry
associations afforded covers for the
Pacific Coast brush rabbit (Sylvilagus
bachmani ubericolor) and the California
black-tailed jackrabbit (Lepus calif orni-
cus) fed upon the luxuriant vegetation of
the open grass land. In the wooded
areas of this section were found the silver
gray and Douglas pine-squirrels and
Bachman flying-squirrel. The gray fox
(Urocyon californicus totvnsendi) and
the coyote made their dens within the
foothills and sought their prej' through-
out the vallej^s, as did the cougar and
bobcat. The covers along the streams
of service berry, red-twigged dogwood,
hawthorn, and numerous other fruit and
seed bearing shrubs, furnished feeding
grounds for the Oregon ruffed grouse.
The numerous sloughs and streams
furnished natural breeding conditions
for many duck and shore birds.

Probably no section of Oregon has lost
a greater share of its abundant wild life
than the Willamette valley. This has
been brought about through rather in-
tensive grazing and cultivation, but
factors of greater importance have been
the rifle and trap.

The wolf, coyote, and white-tailed
deer have practically disappeared. The
beaver, under protection showed indica-

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

187

tions of reestablishing themselves in
their old haunts, but the open trapping
season of 1923 and 1924 has reduced
their numbers to such an extent that
their extermination seems imminent.

The introduction of the ring-necked
pheasant and bob-white (quail) has
replaced the other game birds which
have become too scarce to any longer be
considered game.

The west slope of the Cascades. This
great area lies entirely within the moist
coniferous forest. It is composed
largely of magnificent stands of Douglas
fir. At higher altitudes are found areas
of lodge pole pine, noble fir and Engle-
mann spruce. Interspersed among these
trees are beautiful mountain meadows
filled with a luxuriant growth of flower-
ing plants. The highest sections of the
timbered areas are marked by the pres-
ence of the mountain hemlock and white-
bark pine, above which the bare moun-
tain peaks rise.

About the numerous rock tumbles
could be heard the cry of the little cony,
or pika (Ochotona), and within these
tumbles the western bushy-tailed wood-
rat, mountain beaver, Apoldontia tufa,
and the yellow-bellied marmot {Marmola
Uavivenlris) whistled from his mound.
The black bear extended throughout
the area while the grizzly remained in
the south.

The Cascade flying-squirrel {Sciu-
ropterus alpinus fuliginosus) and the
Cascade tree squirrel {Sciurus douglasii
cascadensis) were typical of the west
slope, while the silver gray squirrel was
present in the lower elevations.

Both the Washington snowshoe hare
{Lepus w. washingtonii) in the north and
the Oregon snowshoe hare {Lepus to.
klamathensis) in the south were pursued
by the timber wolf, the coyote, and the
Cascade fox {Vulpes cascadensis). The
bobcat and the Canada lynx {Lynx
canadensis) reluctantly shared their
hunting area with the marten, fisher
{Mustela pennanti) and the wolverine
{Gulo luscus). The cougar ranged freely
from the side of the divide to the other
in pursuit of the deer. Below, the otter

and mink shared the stream with the
beaver; the former probably the first to
enjoy the excellent fishing of the Cascade
streams. The porcupine, more at home
on the eastern slope, nevertheless fre-
quented the western slope as well, and
in the south the basserisk or ringtail cat
{Bassariscus astutus oregonus) made his
home. The pacific elk crossed the
valley and entered the valleys of the
west slope of the Cascades.

The mountain chicadee, red-breasted*
nuthatch, mountain blue-bird and Ore-
gon jay are found breeding at an eleva-
tion of 3700 to 6000 ft. From this eleva-
tion to timber line is the breeding area
of Clarke nutcracker, the arctic three-
toed woodpecker and the alpine three-
toed woodpecker.

Above timber line the Hepburn rosy
finch has been observed, feeding its
young at an elevation of 9000 to 10,000 ft.

The eastern slope of the Cascade Moun-
tains. The eastern slope of the Cascades
lies within the semi-desert coniferous
forest. The predominant tree of this
area is the western yellow pine which
extends throughout the entire length
of this slope of the Cascades and follows
the higher cliffs of the rivers well into
the floor of the plateau below.

Many of the western forms were pres-
ent on this eastern slope but of very
great interest is the rather marked
tendency of the black-tailed deer to
remain on the western slope and of the
mule deer to remain on the eastern slope
of the Cascades.

Among those animals present upon
both sides of the divide are the bobcat,
Canada lynx, coyote, wolf, porcupine,
pika, gray fox, mink, beaver, wolverine,
fisher, marten, otter, basserisk, and
snowshoe hare.

The porcupine was exceptionally
abundant within the yellow pine forests
of the eastern slope, and the limit of
the badger's {Taxidea taxxis ncglecta)
western distribution is here reached.
In the north occurred the Cascade
skunk {Mephitis occidentalis notata).
The two jackrabbits of eastern Oregon,
the western white-tailed and the Wash-

188

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

iugton black-tailed (Lepus californicus
wallaioalla) probably made the limit
of their westward distribution in the
lower areas of the east slope of the
Cascades. The black bear was present
throughout this area, while the grizzly
bear inhabited the southern section
only. The bobcat, coyote and cougar
were present in large numbers, and while
the Canada lynx occurred here, its
abundance is uncertain. Undoubtedly
the prong horn antelope {Antilocapra
americana) made this the limit of its
westward migrations.

The bunchgrass prairies. This was
the typical coyote and sharp-tailed
grouse country. The many rivers which
drained the interior of this area coupled
with the rugged foothill country of the
Cascade and Blue Mountain ranges,
transformed this otherwise monotonous
country of bunchgrass prairie into a
rugged and interesting area.

In the south it overlapped and inter-
mingled with the sagebrush country in
such a way as to make any definite
southern boundary impossible.

While there was a marked difference
between this bunchgrass prairie and the
forests of the eastern slope of the Cas-
cades, nevertheless the fauna of each
was very similar; however, due to the
difference in the animals upon which
they preyed, their habits varied con-
siderably. The following were present
throughout the range mentioned: ante-
lope, mule deer, coyote, cougar, Cascade
skunk, mink, otter, beaver, and the
Rocky Mountain muskrat {Fiber z
osoyoosensis) . The black bear, cougar
and both lynxes inhabited the timbered
areas. The badger was numerous within
the big fertile areas, now turned into
wheat ranches, where he dug for the
plentiful pocket-gophers, mice, and
grovmd-squirrels. The most numerous
animals were the jackrabbits, the more
common at that time being the white-
tailed.

The Blue Mountains. The Blue Moun-
tains are a rather extensive range massed
in the north-eastern section of the

state. It was the home of the mule
deer, the marten (Maries pennanlii
pacifica), the fisher, the wolverine, the
coyote, the grizzly and black bears,
and Great Basin skunk [Mephitis occiden-
talis major) were probably common
mammals within this section, while
the pika (Ochotona schisticeps jeivetti)
is typical of the talus slopes.

The sagebrush desert. The sagebrush
desert of eastern Oregon comprises
that area extending from the Blue
Mountains and bunch grass prairie to
the California and Nevada line and lying
between Idaho in the east and the Cas-
cade Mountains in the west.

This big area affords a great variety
in types of conditions. It possesses
mountains, deeply worn and treeless
gulches, rolling sagebrush plains, lakes,
swamps, and timbered areas.

It is the home of several animals that
have with difficulty survived, among
which the most interesting, owing to its
present pending extinction, is the prong-
horn antelope, which originally num-
bered into the thousands and moved in
immense bands instead of the few flocks
of today.

The bighorn sheep (Ovis) was a very
abundant animal and probably before
being molested ranged considerably
throughout the higher areas. The mule
deer inhabited this entire area, as did
both the white-tailed and black-tailed
jackrabbits, the badger, the bobcat,
cougar. Great Basin skunk, and spotted
skunk (Spilogale gracilis saxatalis).

Within the hills were found the pallid-
bellied marmot (Marmota Jlaviventris
avara), the western bushy-tailed wood-
rat, the Washington cottontail rabbit
{Sylvilagus nuttallii) and the Idaho
pigmy rabbit {Brachylagus idahoensis).

The lakes and streams were the homes
and hunting grounds of the otter, mink,
beaver and Nevada muskrat {Ondatra z.
mergens). The cougar probably preyed
upon the jackrabbits, deer, and antelope,
and the bobcats and coyotes pursued
the jackrabbits and smaller game
throughout this area. The grizzly and

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

189

black bear were both inhabitants of
this country and the American bison
{Bison bison) penetrated well into its
interior from the east.

The Great Sagebrush Desert was and
is today a paradise for bii'ds and bird
lovers. Birds too abundant to attempt
any enumeration nested within and
around the many lakes and marshes of
this section. The number of species
and individuals found in this area are
beyond all comprehension of the average
nature student. Among those of special
interest are the egret, white-faced glossy
ibis, black-necked stilt, white pelican,
sandhill crane, and many species of
duck; grebes, gulls, terns, herons,
bitterns, cranes, sandpipers and other
shore birds.

A discussion of the mammals of Oregon
would not be complete without mention
of the islands lying within the Pacific
and off the coast of Oregon. Some of
these islands are notable as breeding
grounds for thousands of sea birds.
It furnished also a resting place for the
Pribilof fur seal, and was the breeding
grounds of the Steller sea lion and the
harbor seal.

Mention should be made particularly
of the south-w^estern section of Oregon,
comprising the Rogue River Valley
and its surrounding hills and mountains.
It is apparently the meeting grounds
of species from the east and west and
the north and south. Present knowl-
edge will not permit an accurate state-
ment regarding this area.

Mollusca {F. C. B.). Binney divided
the United States into regions and
gave the name Pacific Province to that
territory lying between the Cascade
and the Sierra Nevada mountains on the
east and the Pacific Ocean on the west.
The great majority of the land snails
are peculiar to this region and are
largely distinct, even as to genera, from
those of eastern North America. Of
about 100 species 65 per cent are peculiar
to this region. The region is further
divided into the Oregonian W. Meso-
phytic coniferous forest extending from

Humboldt Bay northward to Alaska,
and containing some 15 peculiar species.
The dominant groups are Ephiphragmo-
phora, GJyptostona, Binneya, Ilemphil-
lia, Ariolimax, Ilesperarion. There are
features of vertical distribution which
coincide with distribution of vegetation,
subalpine, alpine, arctic, etc.

ii. present biota (see "national

forests of the pacific

district")

Hofmann's account of forests of District 6
Most of western Oregon was originally
all timbered with northwestern co-
niferous tj'pe of forest. Patches of
deciduous forest occurred here and there.
In the valleys a considerable acreage
of the original forest has been cut and
the land cleared. In western Oregon
there still remains in practically its
virgin forested condition an enormous
area, about half of which is in the
National Forests. Here the plant life
is practically undisturbed except as
fires have increased in severitj- since the
advent of man. The animal life has
been somewhat affected by the proximity
to settlement and hunters, but not
fundamentally changed. In Eastern
Oregon the semi-desert coniferous forest
occupied originally only a small per-
centage of that part of the state and was
confined to the east slope of the Cas- #
cades and to such independent moun-
tain groups as the Blue Mountains. It
is still practically in its virgin condition
as the area logged is small, though
affected so far as its lesser vegetation and
fauna are concerned by man through
fires, hunters and stock grazing. There
is here a large acreage of sagebrush
desert, some alkali country and a
variety of plant and animal com-
munities about such local formations
as springs, lakes, swamps, hot low
altitude canyons and cold high altitude
mesas.— r. T. M.

The forests have encroached upon
the original prairie lands throughout
western Oregon. This is due to the
stopping of extensive prairie fires since

190

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

the advent of the white man. The
prairie areas were burned by the Indian
as a part of his system of hunting the
larger game animals.

Except as specifically mentioned the
flora as described in this paper is today
much the same as originally found by the
early settlers. However, it has not
been practicable to discuss all of the
floristic changes in the state due to
settlement.— IF. E. L.

III. NATURAL AREAS

1. Federal Preserves {T. T. M.)

A large part of the state is likely to
remain in its present virgin condition
for many years to come. The virgin
forest both east and west of the Cascades
is being cut relatively slowly, and much
of the desert and semi-arid country will
remain in its natural state for an in-
definite time. It may be said that every
type of natural condition that originally
occurred in the state is still to be found.
In certain types, definite steps to
preserve natural conditions are now de-
sirable. Certain areas are now ade-
quately safeguarded, such as the Bull
Run division of the Mount Hood Na-
tional Forest, and Crater Lake National
Park; and there may easily be segre-
^ gated for preservation by administrative
action as much more of the National
Forests as it may be deemed best to
leave in a natural condition.

There are in Oregon 13,178,023 acres
of National Forest land distributed
over the mountainous timbered portions
of the state. Most of these lands are
in their natural condition, except in so
far as accidental fires, stock grazing
and the slight occupancy of man have
changed them. They are subject to
timber cutting, as the economic demand
requires, e.xcept that where conditions
of such scientific interest exist that they
should be left in their natural condition
action can readily be secured to preserve
such areas. Several such areas have
already been preserved when timber
sales were being made in the neigh-

borhood, primarily because of their
aesthetic or recreational value. Fur-
thermore, at least half the National
Forest acreage of the state is so inac-
cessible on the high mountains that
commercial exploitation (except for
stock grazing) is practically out of the
question. It seems assured, therefore,
that every set of natural conditions
which occurs within the timbered por-
tions of the state may be perpetuated
under Government control on the
National Forests,

Federal game and bird refuges in Oregon

*Cold Springs of 2520 acres, created
in 1909 on a Reclamation Service project
to protect waterfowl.

*Klamath Lake of 81,619 acres in
Klamath County created in 1908 on a
Reclamation Service project to protect
waterfowl, pelicans, gulls, waders and
shorebirds.

*Lake Malheur of 88,960 acres in
Harney County created in 1908 on
federal land to protect waterfowl and
marsh birds. This is recognized as
one of the most remarkable places in
the United States for study of water
and marsh bird life.

* Three Arch Rocks off the coast of
northwestern Oregon reserved in 1907
as a breeding place for seabirds and
regarded as a very wonderful place for
ornithologists' study.

*A dune region on the Oregon coast.
(In the Sinslaw National Forest.)
Sand dunes border the ocean continu-
ously for a distance of about 50 mi.
from Marshfield on Coos Bay northward.
The area of most active dunes is from
one to four miles wide, and the transition
is gradual through less active dunes to
the very old inactive ones now covered
with forest. On the newer dunes the
following plants were found: A rush
that holds small areas of sand by means
of its abundant rhizomes and roots, a
wild strawberry, a beach pea, and
scattered willows and lodge pole pine.
The willows grow fast enough to keep
their tips above the incoming sand,
and the pines live even when almost

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

191

covered. Sand loving plants observed
in the vicinity of Marshfield are: Poly-
gonum paronycia, Abronia latifolia,
Cakile californica, Fragaria chiloensis,
Lupinus littoralis, Glehnia litloralis,
Godeiia quadrivulnera, Gaerlneria bipin-
natifida, Anaphalis occidentalis, Arcto-
staphylos uva-ursi.

Dunes which represent a stage inter-
mediate between the very young active
stage and the very old inactive stage
are usually occupied by lodgepole pine
{Pinus contorta), Douglas fir (Pseudo-
tsuga taxifolia), manzanita (Arctostaphy-
los tomentosa), rhododendron {Rhododen-
dron calif ornicum) , salal (Gaultheria
shallon), kinnikinnick {Arctostaphylos
uva-ursi), common brake (Pteris aqui-
lina), mosses {Polytrichum juniperinum,
Hylocomnium splendens).

The forest that covers the very old
dunes is the ordinary coniferous forest
of the region. The following trees
make up the forest in the vicinity of
Marshfield: Douglas fir, western hem-
lock, Sitka spruce [Picea sitchensis),
lowland white fir (Abies grandis), west-
ern red cedar, and Port Orford cedar
(Chamaecyparis Lawsoniana). Under-
growth includes Myrica californica,
Ribes sanguineum, and Gaultheria
shallon.

Plants occurring in dune meadows
in the vicinity of Marshfield are: Lyco-
podiurn inundatum, Eriophorum chamis-
sonis, Carex pausa, C. mirata, C. magni-
fica, C. Hindsii, Juncus falcatus, J.
oreganus, Hookera pulchella, Hydostylus
brachypus, Spiranthes stricla, Ranuncu-
lus fiammula iinalaskensis, Argentina
(Potentilla) anserina, Hosnckia parvi-
flora, Trifoliumfimbriatum, Viola adunca,
Gentiana sceptrum, Mimulus Langsdorfii,
Plantago maritima, Orthocarpus castil-
leoides, Aster Douglasii.

Sphagnum bogs occur in or adjacent
to the dune area at Florence, Westlake,
Clear Lake, and Houser. Their flora
comprises peat mosses {Sphagnum spp.),
Labrador tea {Ledum columbianum and
L. groenlandicum) , sundew {Drosera
rotundifolia), cotton grass {Eriophorum
sp.), buck bean {Menyanlhes trifoliata).

The government had put in large
areas of grass on the dunes near the
mouth of the Siuslaw River about 1917
in an effort to keep the sand from blow-
ing into the river. Some of this grass
still flourishes, but much of it has been
blown out and the sand still blows into
the river. The Forest Service has
stopped the grazing and the sand move-
ment has been slowed up.

Near Florence, Glenada, Clear Lake,
West Lake, Houser, and Marshfield on
the S. P. R. R.— G. B. Rigg and T. T.
Munger.

^Summit and upper slopes of Straw-
berry Butte. (Malheur National Forest,
Grant County.) Shows typical altitu-
dinal succession in Blue Mountains of
Oregon. Forest of western yellow pine,
Douglas fir and spruce, with species of
Abie near top, alpine meadows, and
scattered white-bark pine, characteris-
tic rock and alpine flora as well as flora
of the lower forest. See sonnet by C.
H. Sholes on "The White-bark pine"
in Mazama, vol. 3, p. 30, March, 1907.
The mountain has been grazed but
not over grazed. Characteristic Blue
Mountain fauna.

Take John Day Highway east from
Prairie to Blue Mountain Hot Springs.—
W. E. L.

*Crater Lake National Park (A3).
This area of about 249 sq. mi. lies on the
summit of the Cascade Range, about the
wonderful lake of that name. It is
surrounded by National Forest lands.
It is covered chiefly with the type of
forest characteristic of the upper slopes
in the Cascades. A few exposed peaks
have alpine conditions. Much of the
Park is in its absolutely virgin condition
and is likely to remain so. Trapping,
timber cutting, hunting and grazing of
stock are forbidden.

It may be reached during the summer
months by stage from Medford or
Klamath Falls, Ore.— r. T. M.

2. State reserves and available natural
areas

*Reed College Reserve. One-half sq.
mi. deciduous and northwestern conif-

192

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

erous forest with ravine, canyons,
hills, swamps, marshes, ponds, plains.
OrlRinal veRctation and animals. Lo-
cated in Miilnomah Co., Portland,
Ore.—//. B. Torreij.

Rock Creek Poorest. A long stretch of
Douglas fir forest. Along Rock Creek, a
i)ranch of the North Umpqua River in
the central part of Douglas County,
northeast of Hoaglin.— W^. G. Van Name.

Spencer Creek Forest. A long stretch
of unlogged forest, with quite large trees
in manv places. Along the highway
between Klamath Falls and Ashland
(Klamath and Jackson Counties), from
Spencer Creek (some miles west of Kla-
math Falls) to Pinehurst.— TF. G. Van
Name.

Juniper Forest. (Deschutes County.)
Typical mature juniper forest with
sagei)rush, and antelope bush as the
deseft underscrub. About 10 mi. north-
east of Bend, and lying to the east of
the Bend-Powell Butte road.— If . E. L.

High Desert and Sagebrush Desert.
(Lake County.) Large area of typical
sagebrush desert lying east of Butte;
has been grazed for many j^ears. The
traveler ant hills are common, other
animals are the jackrabbit and other
desert associates.

On road between Burns and Silver
Lake via Wagontire mountain, no
water except at distant ranch wells. —
W. E. L.

Yellow Pine Forest and Forest Floor
Vegetation. (Northern Lake County.)
(Deschutes National Forest.) Tj'pical
yellow pine forest with undisturbed
shrub associations also shows lodge-
pole pine areas. Location almost any-
where around China Hat or north of it
or on Sand Spring road. About 30 mi.
north of Fort Rock.— TF. E. L.

Fort Rock Crater. A large amphi-
theatre shaped volcanic cylinder the
south side of which is open allowing
typical desert vegetation and rock bor-
der vegetation to come in. Has been
grazed. Situated about two mi. north
of town of Fort Rock in Lake County. —
W. E. L.

Forest and Desert Tension Areas.
(Lake County.) Typical desert and
forest border shows succession from
sagebrush to yellow pine and Cerco-
carpus. About one mi . south of town of
Silver Lake just outside of the Fremont
National Forest.— IF. E. L.

Sy can Marsh. (Lake County.) Typi-
cal central Oregon marsh of Typha,
Scirpus, etc., shows succession from
marsh to meadow to desert to scrub to
forest of yellow pine, also Cercocarpus

and Juniperus. About 20 mi. south of
town of Silver Lake.^ — W. E. L.

Silver Creek Falls and mountain stream,
glens and canyons in Marion County, Ore.
There are four beautiful falls ranging
from G5 to 180 ft. high on north and south
forks of Silver Creek. Typical mesophy-
tic canon and stream flora to the hill top.
l3ouglas fir forest.

About 32 mi. east of Salem via Silver-
ton. See "Silver Creek Falls as seen
by the Mazamas" by W. P. Hardesty in
Mazama, vol. 4: 32-33, December, 1915.
—W. E. L.

Climax Forest in Clatsop County.
Typical climax forest of cedar — hemlock
— Douglas fir — Thuja — Tsuga — Pseudo-
tsuga, undisturbed, situated on Inland
Double Loop Highway about 15 mi.
southeast of Astoria, Clatsop County,
Ore.— IF. E. L.

Clear Lake and Big Spring, formed by
the filling in of lower end of valley by a
lava flow submerging the forest. Tree
trunks are still standing on the lake
bottom. Lake surrounded by a typical
Douglas fir forest of the Cascades.

About two mi. from Fish Lake on the
Santiam Road over the Cascade Moun-
tains.—H^. E. L.

"Hanging Valley." A beautiful
mountain valley on north slope of Mt.
Jefferson. Shows typical mountain
meadow and forest border, with groups
of trees throughout the park. Located
in Santiam National Forest. Hanging
Valley is partially protected by the
United States Forest Service.

Reached by pack trail about 24 mi.
from Detroit.— TF. E. L.

Mary's Peak in western Benton County,
Ore. Highest peak in the Coast Range,
typical coast range sub-climax forest of
Douglas fir and Noble fir. Shows forest
edge succession from alpine prairie,
protected and exposed slopes. The
alpine meadow has been grazed for a
long time and timber cutting is in prog-
ress, altitude ranges from 570 to 4097
ft. Pure mountain streams.

Take autos for 12 mi. south of Philo-
math, thence trail west to base of peak.
—W. E. L.

Lost Falls in Coast Range of Coos
County, Ore. Typical primitive Coast
forest of fir and cedar along Lost River.
See Scientific American, vol. 130, page 1,
4 figs., January 4, 1919, for further in-
formation and reference to Cape Horn
Falls on the Coquille River, where grows
the myrtle and the "Toe Head Falls"
on Camas Creek, all in Coos County,
Ore.—W. E. L.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

193

S.'phagnum bog and typical sub-climax
forest. In Lincoln County south of
Yaquina Bay and about one-half mi.
from the ocean; typical sphagnum bog
and lodgepole pine forest with salal,
huckleberries and rhododendron, shows
succession from water level to sub-
climax forest.

Take ferry from Newport to South
Beach, walk down railroad for about
one mi. — IF. E. L.

Sand dunes. The sand dunes of Coos
County are the most extensive. See
"The sand dunes of Coos Bay, Oregon"
by H. D. House, Plant World, 17: 238-
243, August, 1914.— IF. E. L.

State game and bird refuges in Oregon
(T. T. M.)

Multnomah County Pheasant Reserva-
tion of 80,640 acres in Multnomah and
Clackamas counties.

Deschutes Game Reservation of 829,440
acres in Crook and Lake counties.

Steens Mt. Gaine Reservation of 414,720
acres in Harney County.

Sturgeon Lakes Game Reservation of
22,000 acres in Multnomah and Colum-
bia Counties.

Grass Mt. Reservation of 34,560 acres
in Lane CountJ^

Umatilla Bird Reservation of 500 acres
in Umatilla County.

Antelope reserve

(From information furnished by Mr.
George Orr, Jordan Valley, Ore.)

"The estimated number of antelope
in this locality, at present, is about 300."
The land is owned by the United States
government. "The sheep are crowding
out the antelope very fast. It is also
reported that there is a band of about 30
bighorn sheep in this locality."

Note: This is in a section little fre-
quented by man. The traveler almost
never goes in this section. The automo-
bile is the best method of travel on
account of the great distance. Gasoline
and other supplies should be procured
at Jordan Valley.

"Southeastern end of Malheur County,
Ore., south of Jordan "^^alley. Ore." —
ir. E. L.

Antelope reserve no. 2

"Northeast of Jordan Valley, Ore.,
near the Cow Lakes." This is about
15 mi. from Jordan Valley. The land
and antelope are "owned by Sam Scott,
postmaster at Jordan Valley, Ore."
I believe Mr. Orr said this man was
doing all he could to preserve this band
of antelope. — W. E. L.

4. CALIFORNIA

By H. C. Bryant

I. general features and oriqinal

BIOTA

Physiographic regions

California is a state of unusual clima-
tic and topographic diversity. The
northern two-thirds of the state is
characterized by mountains on the
coast and mountains near the eastern
border. These come together in the
extreme northern part of the state
and again in the southern third of the
state enclosing a great central valley
which opens to the west centrally
through San Francisco Bay to the
Pacific Ocean. Southeast of this wall
lie the Mohave and Colorado deserts
and those arid portions which require
the use of such guides to watering places
as have been published by the Depart-
ment of Interior. The west coast of
the southern third of the state is a plain
with low hills; this leads back to a series
of mountain ranges some 50 mi. east of
the coast. The paths across these
mountains lie to the east of Los Angeles.

II. GEOGRAPHIC A.VD LOCAL PLANT AND

ANIMAL COMMUNITIES

1. Vegetation

The vegetation is very diversified.
The moist Pacific Coast coniferous
forest which is a luxuriant growth of
conifers with deciduous trees beneath
extends southward to a short distance
south of San Francisco along the western
portion of the Coast Range. The
Great Central Valley (Sacramento-San
Joaquin) was originally grass land,
probably similar to the Russian steppes.
The southern coastal plain is charac-
terized by a type of vegetation similar
to that in the region of the Mediter-
ranean, which is called broad-leafed
Schlerophyll forest. In central Califor-
nia the foothill country appears to have
been a scattered tree savanna, the trees
being live oaks. In the higher portions
the evergreen oaks and associated

194

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

trees (broadleaf sclerophyll) origi-
nally occurred in rather dense stands.
Farther south this type of vegetation
is found at a higher altitude. About
San Diego the country is commonly
classed as semi-desert. Farther back
the live oaks occur at higher altitudes.
The southeastern desert portion of
California includes the Mohave and
Colorado deserts, the former including
Death Valley. Here are some of the
most arid areas in the West, charac-
terized bj'' moving sand dunes, almost
barren tracts covered largely with
creosote bush {Covillea tridentata) and
with only occasional watering places.
Characteristic trees of the various
timber belts of the Sierra are as follows:'

1. Foothill belt, 500 to 3000 ft.: digger

pine {Pinus sabiniana), blue oak
(Quercus douglasii), interior live
oak (Quercus wislizenii).

2. Main timber belt, 3000 to 6500 ft.:

yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa),
black oak (Quercus kelloggii), sugar
pine (Pinus lambertianaj , white fir
(Abies concolor), incense cedar
(Libocedrus decurrens), big tree
(Sequoia gigantea) .

3. Upper portion of main timber belt,

6500 to 9000 ft.: red fir (Abies
magnifica), tamarac pine (Pinus
murrayana), Jeffrey pine (Pinus
jeffreyi).

4. Timber-line belt, 9000 to 11,000 ft.:

white-bark pine (Pinus albicaulis),
Sierra juniper (Juniperus occiden-
talis), mountain hemlock (Tsuga
mertensiana) , tamarac pine, foxtail
pine (Pinus balfouriofna).

The southern and eastern portion of
California is geographically separated
from the northern two-thirds by differ-
ences in climate and location of moun-
tains. This area includes the semi-
desert low country south of Bakersfield,
the Mohave Desert, and Death Valley^
and the Colorado Desert (including
Coachella Valley and Imperial Valley)
and the low mountains which separate
the two areas. These mountains are
characterized by the broad leaf sclero-
phyll type of .vegetation in the upper

> From Jepson W. L.. 1909, The Trees of Cali-
228"pp.' """'"^^'''^' ^^'^"^ ^""^ Welch. S.F.).

reach of the western slopes and conifers
on their highest peaks. Numerous
valleys, very nearly enclosed, with a
flat floor covered with scattered live
oaks and characterized by grasslands,
are common in the foothills. The
east slope of the mountains is quite
different in the character of the vegeta-
tion and these differences have been
used by Shreve to suggest the inade-
quacy of the theory of temperature
control and distribution.

2. Fauna, especially larger vertebrates^

The broken topography, lofty eleva-
tions, and the long coast line extending
from the latitude of Sitka, to the lower
latitudes of Lower California, constitute
some of the important factors which
lead to great diversification locally in
temperature and humidity. Within the
sirigle state of California the effects of
this climatic diversity on the animal
life are abundantly illustrated. Terres-
trial vertebrate animals at home within
the boundaries of the state are represen-
tative of the life of the far North and
of that of portions of Mexico. Marine
life, of both cold and warm waters, is also
abundantly represented. The result is a
very large number of species and higher
groups in proportion to the size of the
area. Within this state alone there
have been detected up to 1915 h total of
361 species of mammals, 539 of birds, 76
of reptiles, and 24 species of amphibians.
It may be stated with confidence that no
other state in the Union, or even a
contiguous pair of states, possesses so
many species as California, unless Texas
proves more prolific than present knowl-
edge indicates.

Dr. Grinnell states that the plants,
most of the birds and some of the mam-
mals which are found restricted to the
chaparral belt "are of relatively ancient
origin and that they are quite certainly
indigenous." He continues:

Among these are to be counted the
huge grizzly bear of California, now
exterminated, and the nearly extinct
condor. Of the smaller mammals pecu-
liar to the same belt we may mention the
dirninutive brush rabbit, the parasitic
white-footed mouse, . . . and cer-

2 From Grinnell, Joseph, 1915, "The vertebrate
fauna of the Pacific Coast," (pp. 104-112) in Nature
and Science on the Pacific Coast (Paul Elder & Co.,
S. F.).302pp.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

195

tain species of 5-toed kangaroo rats.
Of the birds, we must call particular
attention to the California thrasher,
. . . the California brown towhee,
the California bush-tit, the rufous-
crowned sparrow, the Bell sparrow, the
California jay, and the wren-tit. . . .

Birds and mammals in the northern
coast belt are, relatively to adjacent
districts, more plentiful in individuals
than they are in species. Of the more
interesting kinds may be mentioned the
Columbian black-tailed deer, . . .
the Roosevelt elk. . . . The strange
rodent called Aplodontia or mountain
beaver, which lives in burrows in wet
hillsides overgrown with rank clumps of
sword fern; the peculiar shrewmole;
. . . the varied thrush, . . .
south even to the Humboldt redwoods
and in winter generally over west-central
and southern California ; and the diminu-
tive western winter wren whose creaking
song greets one from dense tangles in
ravine bottoms or from mossy logs in the
deepest shade of the redwoods. There
are, in addition, a number of other mam-
mals and birds, of more or less wide
general range elsewhere, though pre-
senting local species or subspecies in
different parts of the humid coast belt.

While reptiles are very few in species
and individuals in the coast belt, amphib-
ians are correspondingly numerous in
both respects, and include some species
of exclusively Pacific distribution. The
big, slug-eating salamander {Chrondro-
tus) is one of these.

The author calls attention to the fact
that the mammals are nearly all of
nocturnal habits whereas the reptiles
are more active during daylight hours.
This accounts for the fact that the rep-
tiles are the most conspicuous of the
vertebrates on the desert. Few reptiles
can be seen abroad during the cool days
of the midwinter season on the western
deserts, but by April they appear in
considerable numbers. Of the poison-
ous reptiles found on the deserts of the
Southwest, only the rattlesnakes occur
in California. Several lizards are com-
mon, including the chuckwalla {Sauro-
malus), the fleet-footed lizards {Scelopo-
rus) and the whiptails (Cnemidophorus) .
Of these, the chuckwalla {S. ater) of
black and orange coloring is the largest,
attaining a length of 15 in. and having a
proportionate!}^ stout body. The desert
tortoise {Gopherus agassizii) is found

excavating its burrows in sandy places
and wandering about over the great
stretches of the Mohave. That there is
a sufficient food supply for the numerous
reptiles of the deserts is accounted for
by the fact that nearly all parts of the
southwestern deserts are visited at
irregular intervals by heavy rains fol-
lowed by luxuriant growths of herbs
which produce an abundance of seeds.
These seeds, lasting over periods of
drouth, support great numbers of in-
sects and rodents, and these in turn
furnish the food supply of the reptiles.

Notwithstanding that reptiles are
more conspicuous, due to their daylight
habits, Grinnell believes that indi-
vidually, mammals outnumber the com-
bined birds and reptile population on
many parts of the Mohave and Colorado
deserts. Among these the seed-gather-
ing rodents, Dipodomys and Perogna-
thus, known as the kangaroo-rats and
pocket-mice are the commonest. The
deer-mice, the carnivorous grasshopper-
mice (Onychomys) and the desert wood-
rats are other night-roaming rodents.
Three species, the antelope ground-
squirrel {Ammospermophilus leucurus),
the round-tailed ground-squirrel {Citel-
lus tereiicaudus) , and the desert jack-
rabbit (Lepus calif ornicus deserticola),
are found abroad during the early morn-
ing and evening hours of daylight.
Two carnivorous mammals are present:
the big-eared kit fox {Vulpes arsipus)
and a species of coyote {Canis ochropus
estor), small and pale in color. There
are also quite a large number of different
kinds of bats which feed upon the abun-
dant insect life of these deserts.

Birds of the deserts

are few in individuals save on the bot-
tomlands along such streams as the Gila,
Colorado and Mohave. Here, where the
deciduous mesquite, cottonwood and
willow furnish directly or indirectly
abundance of food and shelter, birds are
plentiful. . . . The tit-mouse-like
verdin, Abert towhee and crissal
thrasher are resident the year through,
while the Lucy warbler, plumbeous
gnatcalcher. Cooper tanager, white-
winged dove, Sonora yellow warbler,
and a score of other species are but

196

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

summer visitants. Out on the desert
proper, far from water, one may find
here and there a pair of Say phoebes
nesting in some rocky ravine or mine
tunnel; rock wrens associate with the
duickwallas in the bare broken rock
masses; cactus wrens build their con-
spicuous covered nests in clumps of the
most prickly cactus. . . .

The Le Conte thrasher which, owing
to his wary nature and sand-toned color
was formerly "considered the rarest of
southwestern birds," is heard in the
cool morning hours on the desert, while
pairs of ravens and several species of
woodpeckers are also to be noted.

Very few typical animals of the
chaparral belt extend their range above
an elevation of 4000 ft. in the Sierras.
At this altitude one finds blue-fronted
jays, western robins, the sierra junco
and several species of woodpeckers.
In the red fir forests above elevations
of 7000 ft. will be found ruby-crowned
and golden-crowned kinglets, nuthatches
of three species, two species of sap-
suckers, the Townsend solitaire and near
timberline, the famous Clarke nut-
cracker. Characteristic mammals in-
clude certain species of chipmunks
{Eutamias), the Sierra red squirrel
{Sciurus douglasii alboUmbatus) , Sierra
marmot {Marmola flaviventris subsp.),
porcupine (Erethison epixanthum) and
bushy-tailed wood-rat (Neotoma cinerea
subsp.).

Above timberline, at about 10,000 ft.
altitude and for some 1000 or 2000 ft.
farther, plant life of dwarfed types con-
tinues, and here the rosy finch and rab-
bit-like cony find their permanent
abode. They, with other similarly
restricted species characterize the Al-
pine-Arctic Zone.

III. PRESENT BIOTIC CONDITIONS

Much of the Pacific Coast mesophytic
forest of which the redwood {Sequoia
semper vir ens) is the characteristic tree,
is still in its natural state though there
has been much cutting. As the redwood
stump sprouts, a second growth rapidly
appears.

Ilk The great central valleys which were
once steppe or grassland areas are now

largely under cultivation. Much is now
irrigated farm land and the remainder
is heavily grazed.

The great chaparral belt of the foot-
hills of the Sierras is little disturbed
except for areas cleared for fruit land
and the modification due to extensive
grazing.

There has been extensive lumbering
in the main forest belt, inroads having
been made especially on the sugar pine
and western yellow pine, the trees of
greatest commercial value. Most of
the mountain districts have been grazed
by cattle and many mountain meadows
have been modified due to extensive
grazing of sheep. Exotic forage plants
are to be found in unlocked for places.
Perhaps the least modified areas in the
northern part of the state are to be found
in Del Norte County and in eastern
Siskiyou and western Modoc counties
in the area known as the "lava beds"
or "devils garden." Even these areas
are frequented by hunters and cattle-
men.

The streams of the southern and
eastern portions of the Sierras and of
southern California have been diverted
for irrigation purposes. Pollution of
many streams by sawdust and mine
refuse and to some extent by sewerage
is only partly checked by laws. As
a consequence the fauna of some of
them is quite completely changed.

The Pacific slope of southern Califor-
nia is largely under cultivation and
fauna and flora greatly modified. The
deserts of the southwest are cultivated
wherever water is available. How-
ever, large areas of the desert are still
unmodified except as the result of
grazing.

The grizzly bear, burro deer, Colum-
bian sharp-tailed grouse, and trumpeter
swan are now extinct in California and
the elk, pronghorn antelope and bighorn
sheep are candidates for extinction.
The sturgeon has practically disap-
peared from streams, and many game
species are greatly reduced in numbers.
There has been extensive planting of
exotic plants and trees in southern

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

197

California. Perhaps the most con-
spicuous trees are various species of
Eucalyptus and Acacia from Australia
and the pepper tree {Schoenus nwlle)
from South America. A wide variety
of forage plants have been introduced
and many of them are now considered
weed pests, for e.xample Johnson grass
{Sorghum halapense) and Bermuda grass
{Cynodon dactylon).

Among exotic vertebrates now thor-
oughly acclimated are three species of
rats, the house mouse, Tennessee opos-
sum, English sparrow, and ring-necked
pheasant, the latter purposely intro-
duced as a game bird. The opossum
introduced by accident in both south-
ern and central California is already
becoming a serious pest. Many at-
tempted introductions of game species
have proved failures.

In the streams and lakes are to be
found many introduced species of
fishes, including two kinds of black bass,
the striped bass, calico bass, crappie,
ringed perch, blue-gilled sunfish, shad,
carp, two kinds of catfish and four kinds
of trout — eastern brook, mackinaw,
lock leven and brown. Topminnows
have been widely distributed in recent
years as a means of controlling mos-
quitos. Many predatory insects have
been introduced as controls on insect
pests of citrus groves. The accidentally
introduced Argentine ant is proving
one of the worst of pests.

The areas within the national parks
probably come nearest to being pre-
served in a natural state for no hunting
is allowed, grazing and flower picking is
restricted and there is but a slight
amount of timber cut.

The National Forests of the State
furnish considerable protection to fauna
and flora. (See accounts in National
Forests of California, page 216.)

IV. NATURAL, AREAS

Middle Eastern California

*Yosemite National Park (B2 I).
Area, 1125 sq. mi.; elevations 2000 to
13,090 ft.; includes granite-walled Yo-

semite Valley of world-famed Ijeauty;
lofty cliffs; romantic vistas; many water-
falls of e.xtraordinary height; glacial
evidences; ravines, canyons, mountains;
coniferous and mountain forest, chapar-
ral; three groves of big trees (Sequoia
gigantea), including the Mariposa Grove.
Mule deer and black bear commonly
seen. Includes type locality of Yo-
seinite toad (Bufo canorus), Mt. Lyell
salamander {Hydromantes platycephala),
Yosemite pocket gopher (Thomomys
alpinus atvahnee), Yosemite vole {Micro-
ius montanus yosemite), Yoseniite cony,
Yosemite mole, High Sierra bat, Yo-
semite fox sparrow.

190 mi. east of San Francisco by Big
Oak Flat Road and 225 mi. east of San
Francisco by Wawona Road. Southern
Pacific R. R. or Sante Fe R. R. to
Merced; Yosemite R. R. to El Portal
and Yosemite Transportation Company
stages to Yosemite Valley.— TK. F.
Bade.

* Devil Post Pile National Monument
(B2) . Area of 800 acres at the upper end
of the San Joaquin canj^on containing a
spectacular mass of hexagonal basaltic
columns like an immense pile of posts.
Administered by the United States
Forest Service. Madera County, South-
ern Pacific R. R. to Laws thence by
stage to Mammoth, thence by trail.
Also reached by trail from Yosemite
Valley.— £^. N. Munns.

*Sequoia National Park (B2). Cre-
ated 1890. Area, 252 sq. mi. 12,000
sequoia trees over 10 ft. in diameter,
some 25 to 36 ft. in diameter; towering
mountain ranges; steep precipices; cave
of considerable size.

72 mi. east of Visalia, California,
Southern Pacific R. R. Good auto-
mobile roads.

*General Grant National Park (B2).
Area, 4 sq. mi. Created to preserve
the celebrated General Grant Tree, 35
ft. in diameter — 6 mi. from Sequoia
National Park.

71 mi. east of Fresno, California.
Southern Pacific R. R.

49 mi. east of Visalia, California,
Southern Pacific R. R.

198

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

* Lassen Volcanic National Park (B2).
Area, 124 sq. mi. Only active volcano
in United States proper— Lassen Peak
10,465 ft.; Cinder Cone 6879 ft.; Hot
Springs; mud geysers. Lakes, streams,
forests of western yellow and white
pine and lodgepole pine.

Southern Pacific R. R. to Red Bluff
or Western Pacific R. R. to Paxton.

West Central California

*Pinnncles National Monument (B2).
Area, 2080 acres; mountain coniferous
forest, chaparral; waterfall, mountain-
ous and rocky conditions; caves, spring,
excellent canyon. Deer present. In-
cluded in State Game Refuge 3 B.

Entrance via HoUister, California,
91 mi. south of San Francisco, or Sole-
dad, Monterey Co., 140 mi. south of
San Francisco. — Eliot Blackivelder.

*Mount Diablo State Park (B2).
Mountain 4000 ft. high giving a com-
manding view of the entire center of the
state, embracing mountains, rivers,
valleys, bays and cities. 320 acres have
been set aside ; the purchase of 4000 more
is contemplated. Typical sample of
California foothill country including
groves of live oak, California laurel,
chaparral, and so forth. The region
and fauna little disturbed by civilizing
influences save that deer and other
larger mammals are less abundant than
under original conditions.

West base of mountain reached by
branch of San Francisco-Sacramento
R. R. at Walwood, or by Southern Pacific
Railroad at Walnut Creek. San Fran-
cisco 35 mi, west. Reached by auto
over paved roads. — E. N. Munns.

Spring Valley Water Company Proper-
ties (C3). Typical humid coast flora
and fauna, including redwoods; modified
by storage reservoirs and predatory
mammal control with some grazing.
No hunting allowed.

San Mateo County. 30 mi. south of
San Francisco. Southern Pacific R. R.
or over good roads.

Redwood Preserves.^ (The Redwood

'Information from N. B. Drury, Sec, Save the
Redwoods League, July, 1923. Annual Report of the
League for 1922 and publicity material issued by the
League in July, 1923.

Belt is a strip of forest which averages
20 mi. in width and extends some 450
mi. from Monterey County, California,
to just above the Oregon line.)

*California State Redwood Park (B2).
An area of 2500 acres of redwood in the
region known as "The Big Basin."
In addition to the redwood forest,
scattered areas surrounding the park
have been purchased by the state and
set aside by the National Government,
making a total of some 9000 acres in the
entire reservation. Facilities have been
provided for campers in the park, and a
central dining hall and cabins have been
erected which are run as a hotel. As
far as possible, the park is to be main-
tained in a state of nature. Santa
Cruz County.

33 mi. southwest of San Jose on high-
way. Stages from Boulder Creek, 11 mi.

25 mi. northwest of Santa Cruz on
highway.

*Muir Woods National Monument
(B2). Area, 295 acres. Virgin stand of
Sequoia sempervirens and associated
vegetation. The whole Mt. Tamalpais
region is a game refuge and all life is
protected inside the monument.

Marin County. 8 mi. north of San
Francisco; reached by Northwestern
Pacific R. R. and Mt. Tamalpais R. R.

*Armstrong Grove. An area of 419
acres of Sequoia sempervirens, located
near Guerneville and owned and ad-
ministered by Sonoma County. A care-
taker is in charge and all life is
preserved.

Guerneville, 3 mi. south on county
road. Guerneville reached by North-
western Pacific R. R. from San Francisco.

* Bohemian Grove (B2). A stand of
redwoods preserved and owned by the
Bohemian Club of California.

Sonoma County. 85 mi. north of
San Francisco on N. W. P. R. R.

*Edward R. Hickey Memorial Grove
(B2). An area of 40 acres of redwoods.
Mendocino County.

On State Highway, north of Willits.
N. W. P. R. R.

*Humboldt State Redwood Park (B2)
An area of 2216 acres of virgin redwood
in Humboldt County bordering the

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

199

State Highway for 14 mi. between
Miranda and Dyerville in the basin of
the South Fork of the Eel River. The
park is administered by the State Board
of Forestry. Camp facilities are pro-
vided at various points.

230 mi. north of San Francisco.
Reached either by automobile via the
main State Highway to Eureka, or via
Northwestern Pacific Railroad to South
Fork Station or to Eureka, and thence
to the park by automobile.

*Humboldt County Pioneer Memorial
(B2). An area of 166 acres of giant
erd woods on the California State High-
way near Orick, Humboldt Co. Some
of the largest trees in the redwood belt
are found in this tract; these with the
massive firs, maples, spruce, and oaks,
together with the giant ferns and other
undergrowth, make it an area of unusual
beauty. It is still in a primeval state
and the deed stipulates that it shall be
kept in a natural condition. The grove
is crossed by Prairie Creek which adds
to the beauty of the grove and its ad-
vantages from a park and recreational
standpoint.

About 60 mi. north of Eureka on the
California State Highway.

V. PROPOSED AREAS

Proposed Redwood National Park

1. It is hoped that eventually a Red-
wood National Park, consisting of a
tract of primeval forest possessing the
scenic features most characteristic of the
region, will be established in the north-
ern limit of the redwood belt (Del Norte
Count}'). It should be truly represen-
tative of the redwoods in their maturity,
and should be of adequate size — prob-
ably not less than 20,000 acres, should be
accessible, and should present adequate
opportunities for recreation. In accord-
ance with a resolution passed by Con-
gress in 1920 , surveys have been made
and the problem studied extensively.
The groves along the approach to this
national park will be preserved through
private donation and through state and
county appropriations, ultimately mak-
ing a "Highway of the Giants," extend-
ing from their southernmost limit to
their northernmost, and connecting the
various groves and parks.

2. The redwood region of Humboldt
and Del Norte Counties i along and near
the Trinidad-Crescent City Highways).
In view of the efforts being made to
save areas of the coast redwoods and of
the good information that is available
regarding them from other sources,
attention is called merely to the impor-
tance, from an ecological point of view,
of preserving not only areas of pure
stands of redwoods (to which the efforts
of the Save the Redwoods League
will doubtless l)e chiefly directed), bm
also of the several very different types of
mixed forest of redwoods and other trees,
and especially of the covering forest
(largely Sitka spruce and lowland white
fir) which intervenes between the red-
wood belt and the ocean shore, and is
necessary to protect the redwoods from
the ocean winds unless hills intervene.
Along the old Trinidad-Crescent City
Highway, much of the forest is of the
mixed type and contains magnificent
examples of Douglas firs, hemlocks and
white firs. Firs 250 to 260 ft. high are
common in these forests.

The forest consists in some places of
almost pure Sitka spruce, sometimes of
large size and great height. Much of it
has already been destroj^ed. It is easilj^
killed by fire and exposure to wind and
sun. Prompt efforts should be made
for the permanent protection of some
of this tract of spruce and lowland
fir.

There are magnificent stands of Sitka
spruce in the vicinity of Requa, Del
Norte County, and Orick, Humboldt
County (some of them are probably 280
ft. tall). The finest lowland white fir
along the highway is in two rather small
tracts of mixed redwood forest between
Orick and Trinidad. There is little
forest anywhere in the United States
more worth saving from a scientific
and aesthetic point of view than some
of the tracts along this highway and in
its immediate vicinit}', especially from
the Del Norte-Humboldt County line
to near Orick, although so far as the red-
woods themselves are concerned, better
stands can be found elsewhere, especially
near Smith River and South Fork.

3. Monterey Coniferous Forest.
Northwestern coniferous forest, sand
areas, ravines, canyons, sand and rocky
shores, and marshes. Fine stand of
Monterej' pine and coast redwood.
Monterey cypress along the shore
line.

Monterej' County. Pacific Grove or
Monterey, California, 3 to 10 mi. north.
— Prof. Lynds Jones, Oberlin College,
Oberlin, Ohio.

200

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Northeastern California

*The Mc Arthur Burncy Falls Park
(B2). An area of IGO acres in Shasta
County, including original forests of
pine with various species of game pres-
ent. Includes Burney Falls and Burney
Creek, the falls being 187 ft. high. Five
mi. from the highway between Redding
and Alturas.

Redding 75 mi. southwest. — Stephen
Mather, Memorandum on State Parks.

Southwestern California

*Torrey Pines Park (B3). An area
of about 700 acres in San Diego
Co. including the rare Torrey pines
(Pinus torreyana) and an association of
typical semi-desert vegetation. Owned
by the city of San Diego and set aside
as a wild life reservation. Important as
the habitat of the mainland group of
Torrey pines, a prostrate form of Arcto-
staphylos, and other shrubs of botanical
interest and of certain birds and small
animals. — Guy Fleming.

San Diego 22 mi. south on State
Highway.

Los Angeles Summer Camp (B3).
Los Angeles County has purchased
property with Jeffrey pine and pinon
timber west of Cajon Pass, San
Bernardino County for summer camp
ground. It will be kept in a semi-
natural state. For further particulars,
address County Forester, Los Angeles,
California. — H. C. Bryant.

Mt. Pisgah Lava Field. A verj^ irregu-
lar area covering about 15 sq. mi. An
old lava field, or rather a series of fields
of varying ages, but without evidences of
very recent volcanic activity. Is ex-
tremely rugged and difficult of passage;
crossed by jagged ridges and yawning
fissures; sand has drifted in from the sur-
rounding desert and become deposited
in the cracks and depressions afford-
ing soil for the support of scattered
shrubs and annuals for a mile or more
from its nearest border. Area for obser-
vation of white-footed mice, by Scripps
Institution.

San Bernardino County. Adjacent
to (south of) the main line of Santa Fe

R. R. at Lavic and Pisgah stations.
Ludlow 12 mi. east.— F. B. Sumner (see
Journal of Mammalogy, vol. II).

Southeastern California

Lankershim Semi-Desert. Twelve
acres semi-desert, San Fernando Valley
in Los Angeles County, with cacti and
level plain and with sand areas. Mam-
mals: pocket-mice, kangaroo-rats and
grasshopper mice; such birds as: black-
tailed gnatcatcher, cactus wren. Bell
sparrow, and rufous sparrow.

Lankershim, California, is 6 mi. north-
west direction from Hollywood.

Near "Toluca," on Santa Monica
Quadrangle, U. S. G. S.—J. Grinnell.

Tujunga Wash. Five square miles of
semi-desert, chaparral and cacti, flood
wash, and sand area. Few spots of wild
desert left in the rapidly developing
San Fernando Valley.

Los Angeles County. Burbank, Cali-
fornia, 5 mi. northwest; north of
Newhall Division of S. P. R. R.— /. E.
Law.

Los Angeles Live Oak. Two acres of
deciduous forest, chaparral, mountain
ravine, and canyon; a narrow strip
between Los Angeles River and steep
slope of mountains just south contain-
ing a magnificent grove of gigantic live
oak, fern-filled, well-wooded, steep
canyon.

Los Angeles County. Los Angeles,
adjacent to Griffith Park.—/. E. Law.

Big Prospector Meadow. An area of
500 acres of steppe, 10,500 ft. altitude,
sagebrush, alpine meadow on the moun-
tain top. Threatened by sheep; almost
tramped out now. Home of Merrill
horned lark, sage grouse, sage thrasher,
Brewer sparrow, short-tailed meadow
mouse, and white-tailed jackrabbit.

Inyo County in White Mountains.
Laws, California, 13 mi. northeast.
Shown on U. S. G. S. map of "Bishop"
Quadrangle. — /. Grinnell.

Oro Grande Rock Area. Consisting of
hills, covered with large masses of igne-
ous rock of pale buff and pinkish hues,
interspersed with sand and gravel.
The vegetation is of the usual type of
the western Mohave desert region. Se-
lected as a trapping station for white-
footed mice, as control for Pisgah Lava
Field (see above), the object being to
test the alleged effect of color of back-
ground upon color of these rodents.
Altitude 2700 ft.

Barstow 31 mi. north, San Bernardino
50 mi. south on Santa Fe R. R. San
Bernardino County. — F. B. Sumner.
Kelso Desert. Hundreds of square

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

201

miles of creosote bush desert showing a
scattered stand under extreme arid
conditions, the brush supporting two
species of grasshoppers that are common
in autumn; scorpions and lizards numer-
ous; horned rattler present. Providence
Mountains 10 mi. southeast with moun-
tain sheep present. Kelso, California,
immediate environs; Salt Lake Route
Railway ; water station with a restaurant
for railroad men and probability of
lodgings among the few residents. Con-
venient points for study of Mohave
Desert.— F. E. Shelford.

Desert Moving Dunes. An area of 25
sq. mi. of desert moving dunes just south
of the L. A. & S. L. R. R., between Flynn
and Kerrens. Kelso, California; 5 mi.
west to Flynn, California.— F. E.
Shelford.

Mohave Yucca Forest. An area of
about 720 sq. mi. including one of the
finest of tree yucca forests and the un-
settled parts of the Tehachapi Moun-
tains, Antelope Valley, and the Sierra
de la Liebre, the pine-clad slopes of Mt.
Frazier, ancl finally, the arid desert at
the mouth of Jawbone Canyon. The
fauna includes a few antelope (1914),
black-tailed deer, black bear, cougar,
and bighorn sheep together wdth the
smaller mammals, birds, and reptiles,
coftimonly associated with these animals.
The geological features are interesting.
The San Francisco earthquake rift with
springs and lakes along it, runs through
Fort Tejon, Elizabeth Lake, and Palm-
dale. There are important fossil beds
at Ricardo, in Red Rock Canyon.

Los Angeles and Kern counties. Teha-
chapi, adj acent to the mountains. S. F. &
S.P.R.R. Mohave-Inyo R.R. gives access
to northeastern portions in the regions
of Jaw-bone Canyon and El Paso Moun-
tains. Saugus, Southern Pacific, adja-
cent to the southern portion. Bakers-
field-Los Angeles Highway crosses
through Tejon Pass near the base of Mt.
Frazier.— C/ms. L. Camp (1922).

California's game sanctuaries

California is assured a perpetual sup-
ply of game by having set aside areas
where no hunting is allowed and where
game is allowed to breed unmolested.
The state is responsible for the creation
of most of them, the Federal Govern-
ment for others. Certain areas known
as Game Refuges have been set aside by
legislative enactment. Others known
as State Game Preserves have been
created by the Fish and Game Com-
mission after the owner of the property
has ceded all hunting privileges to the
state for a period of not less than ten

years. The Federal Government has set
aside three Bird Reservations and pro-
tects all of the wild life within the Na-
tional Parks and National Monuments.
As a consequence, game is now abso-
lutelj^ protected on nearly 3,000,000
acres within the State of California, an
area roughly equivalent to three per cent
of the total area of the state. On these
areas fishing is allowed.

Game refuges (C3)

NAME

COUNTY

AREA

Q

n

<

acres

1 A

Siskiyou

22, 540

1917

1 B

Modoc

83, 060

1917

1 C

Modoc

21,760

1917

1 D

Trinity

82,560

1915

1 E

Shasta

37, 760

1917

1 F

Lassen

46. 720

1917

1 G

Tehama

33,920

1917

1 H

Plumas

37,760

1917

1 I

El Dorado, Cala-
veras

67, 840

1917

1 J

Amador

58, 320

1917

1 K

Fresno

34, 240

1917

1 L

Tulare and Kern

35,520

1917

1 M

Kern

81,920

1919

2 A

Mendocino, Lake
and Butte

35, 200

1917

3 A

Santa Cruz

4,480

1915

3 B

San Banitoand Mon-
terey

14, OSO

1909

3 C

Santa Barbara

41,600

1917

3 D

Ventura

125, 760

1917

3 E

Santa Clara

3,600

1919

3 F

Contra Costa

10, 240

1921

4 A

Los Angeles

293, 120

1915

4 B

Los Angeles

325, 120

191o

4 C

Orange

99, 840

1913

4 D

Riverside

69, 120

1917

4E

San Diego

51,840

1917

4 F

Los Angeles and
Kern

46, OSO

1919

Mount

Marin

28, 000

1917

Tamalpais

Lake Merritt

Alameda County

1809

(Oakland)

1, 792, 000

State game preserves (G7)

No. 5

No. 6
No. 7

Monterey and San

Benito
Santa Barbaral
Santa Barbara/

8,570
42,000

50, 570

Federal bird reservations (HS)

Klamath

Lake
Clear Lake
Farallon

Islands

Siskiyou

Modoc
Pacific Ocean, near
San Francisco

22. 400'
1,600'

24, 000

1916
1918

1908

1911
1909

' Approximate.

—II. C. Bryant.

202

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Crinnell, J.

1908. The Biota of the San Bernardino
Mountains. Univ.Calif. Publ.,
vol. 5, pp. 1-170, pis. 1-24.

1913. A Distributional List of the

Mammals of California. Proc.
Calif. Acad. Sci., 4th ser., vol.
3, pp. 265-390, pis. 15, 16.

1914. An account of the Mammals and

Birds of the Lower Colorado
Valley, with Especial Refer-
ence to the Distributional
Problems Presented. Univ.
Calif. Publ. ZooL, vol. 12, pp.
51-294, pis. 3-13, 9 figs, in
text.

1914. Barriers to Distribution as Re-

gards Birds and Mammals.
American Naturalist, vol.
xlviii, April, 1914.

1915. A Distributional List of the

Birds of California. Pac.
Coast Avifauna (Cooper Or-
nithological Club), no. 11,
217 pp., 3 pis. (maps).
1917. Field Tests of Theories Concern-
ing Distributional Control.
American Naturalist, vol. li,
Feb., 1917.

Grinnell, J., and Storer, T. I.

1924. Animal Life in the Yosemite.
An account of the mammals,
birds, reptiles and amphibians
in a cross section of the Sierra
Nevada. (Univ. Calif. Press),
750 pp., 12 colored pis., 48
pis., 2 maps, 65 figs, in text.

Hall, H. M.

1902. A Botanical Survey of San
Jacinto Mountain. Univ.

Calif. Publ. Bot., vol. 1, pp.
1-140, pis. 1-14.

Hall, H. M., and Grinnell, J.
1919. Life-zone Indicators in Cali-
fornia. Proc. Calif. Acad.
Sci., 4th ser., vol. ix, no. 2,
pp. 37-67, June, 1919.

Jepson, Willis Linn

1909. The Trees of California. (Cun-
ningham, Curtis & Welch,
San Francisco), 228 pp., 125
figs, in text.

Merriam, C. Hart

1898. Life Zones and Crop Zones of the

United States. U. S. Dept.
Agric, Div. Biol. Surv., Bull,
no. 10, 79 pp., 1 map (colored).

1899. Results of a Biological Survey

of Mount Shasta, California.
U. S. Dept. Agric, Div. Biol.
Surv., N. Amer. Fauna, no.
16, 179 pp., 5 pis., 46 figs, in
text.

Smiley, F. J.

1921. A report upon the boreal flora
of the Sierra Nevada of Cali-
fornia. Univ. Calif. Publ. Bot.
9, pp. 1-423, pis. 1-7.

1915. Nature and Science on the
Pacific Coast. Edited under
auspices of the Pacific Coast
Comm. of the A. A. A. S.
(Paul Elder & Co., San Fran-
cisco), 302 pp., 19 figs, in text,
29 pis., 14 maps.

5. NATIONAL FORESTS OF THE
NORTH PACIFIC DISTRICT (6)

By J. V. HOFMANN

The National Forests of Oregon and
Washington include large areas of moun-
tainous country and some of the most
gigantic forests of the world. The total
National Forest area covers nearly
52,000,000 acres of which about 15,000,000
are in Oregon, and 10,000,000 acres in
Washington. 1

The wide variety of conditions exist-
ing in these forests affords a mecca for
the nature lover and scientist alike.
These regions provide fertile fields for
the pursuit of studies in biology, geology
and any of the botanical sciences.

The preservation of natural conditions
in the Pacific Northwest for purely
ecological or biological purposes, or for
keeping intact some of the forest forma-
tions that exist at the present time and
which will not be reproduced under
forest management, can best be served
by considering the region as a whole.

The present economic conditions are
such that there will undoubtedly be
regions left untouched in this section
for several decades, and large areas of
types will be preserved without any
special effort. This will apply to this
region more than to various other
sections because the National Forest
land covers practically all the types and
conditions of the region, and portions
of these forests will be left untouched
until the lumber industry advances to
the stage where the last areas of the
present mature stands of timber are

' The national forest areas mentioned in this and
the following accounts are as of July 1, 1923.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

203

logged. For these reasons types that
are included in such forests need not be
designated at the present time because
the future development of these large
bodies of timber can not be foreseen,
and the selection of the areas should be
made in accordance with conditions at
the time any special type is being cut.
Conditions arise under which areas can
be set aside very easily during the prog-
ress of logging without any special
effort or inconvenience to the operators
or any great financial sacrifice by the
Government.

To consider the different types of the
Pacific Northwest, it appears best to
divide the region into its natural areas
or types. This would divide Washington
and Oregon into three distinct areas;
namely, the Eastern Oregon or Blue
Mountain division, the Cascade Moun-
tain division and the Coast division
including the Olympic Peninsula. The
range of elevation in each division
divides it again into forest types. The
species in the Coast and Cascade divi-
sions are similar at similar elevations
and form the following types:

1. Lower slope type, sea level to about
3500 ft. forms the Douglas fir-hemlock-
cedar type, including Douglas fir;
western red cedar; western hemlock,
sitka spruce, in the coast region; sugar
pine in southern Oregon; Port Orford
cedar, in southwestern Oregon; western
j^ellow pine, in the Willamette Valley
and the east side of the Cascade Moun-
tains; western white pine, lowland white
fir, lodgepole pine, in isolated occur-
rence; western larch, on the east side
of the Cascade Mountains, and Alaska
cedar in northern Washington. Minor
hardwood species are scattered through-
out the region.

2. Upper slope type, 3500 to 4500 ft.,
forms the true fir type including noble
fir, silver fir, Englemann spruce, white
fir, Douglas fir, western hemlock, west-
ern red cedar, lodgepole pine, western
yellow pine, western white pine, Alaska
cedar in northern Washington, and
sugar pine, knobcone pine, and Shasta
red fir in southern Oregon.

3. Subalpine type, 4500 ft. to timber
line at 5000 to 6000 ft., including moun-
tain hemlock, alpine fir, white-bark pine,
dwarf juniper, Rocky Mountain juniper,
western juniper, lodgepole pine, white
fir, noble fir, silver fir, Englemann
spruce, western white pine, Shasta red
fir in southern Oregon, and Alaska cedar
in northern Washington.

The Blue Mountain group of forests
consists largely of western yellow pine
and includes also Douglas fir, western
hemlock, white fir, lodgepole pine, and
western larch.

The conditions included within each
of these regions are so similar that any
convenient locality may be selected to
preserve a representative area of the
general type of vegetation. The selec-
tion of any area for ecological or scien-
tific purposes should contain the optimum
conditions for the type of vegetation
concerned, consequently such mixtures
as occur in eastern Washington, where
the loogepole pine, western larch,
western white pine, Douglas fir, white
fir and other species are in mi.xture,
would not be representative of any one
species. The same condition prevails
in southern Oregon where the sugar
pine, knobcone pine, and the Shasta
red fir occur in mixture with the typical
species of Oregon. In other words,
areas should be selected in the region
in which the species develops not neces-
sarily to its optimum growth, but at
least the average or better, and where it
forms the greatest per cent of the stand.

At present there are no areas in the
western yellow pine type of Oregon and
Washington that are more permanently
preserved than that they are a part of a
National Forest. The large areas of
yellow pine within the National Forests
gives adequate assurance of the preser-
vation of the western yellow pine type
for a long time to come. The only
factor concerned is grazing, and there
are extensive ungrazed areas on which
studies may be made where natural
conditions are desired

The Cascade forests vary in elevation
from 100 ft. to timber line at between

204

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

5000 and 6000 ft. Vegetation does not
extend far al)ove timber line, although
at the higher elevations the beautiful
mountain meadows occur among the
scattered stands of the subalpine species.
The next lower zone is occupied by the
noble and silver firs, some alpine fir and
moimtain hemlock, below which occurs
the Douglas fir forest, which is the pre-
dominating forest of the region. The
Douglas fir forest varies from a pure
stand to a mixture with western hem-
lock, western red cedar, lowland white
fir, and some other minor species. In
these various zones of the Cascade
Mountains the greater per cent of the
area is in its natural condition. All
stages of the forest may be found in
various localities.

Where the forest has been reburned
several times the large huckleberry
fields occur, and where two or more fires
have occurred at varying intervals, or
in patches, the mixed succession forest
occurs, and on areas where single forest
fires have destroyed mature forests the
typical succession forest consisting of the
species of the original forest is present.

The Olympic Peninsula is of special
interest because it contains some of the
largest Douglas fir in mixture with
Sitka spruce, western hemlock and
western red cedar. This is probably the
best region for preserving some of the
largest timber of the Pacific Northwest.
At present, very little logging is being
done in regions that would destroy the
last remnants of this type, and it will
probably be a long time before this area
is opened up for general logging. It
would be difficult at this time to desig-
nate any special area that would be
suitable for preservation because the
development of the peninsula is uncer-
tain, and during the process of cutting
it will be more feasible to determine
what areas should be selected.

The situation on the southwestern
coast of Oregon is somewhat different.
In this region the Port Orford cedar
occurs in a very limited range. The
Port Orford cedar is at present the most
valuable individual tree of the entire

region, and it is being cut in regions
where logging was not considered even
a few years ago. The selective logging,
by which Port Orford cedar is being cut,
is threatening the extinction of this
species. This calls for action if this
type of forest is to be preserved. For-
tunately, some of the best stands of
Port Orford cedar are included in the
Siskiyou National Forest on the Sixes
River watershed. This region possibly
may be cut, at least in part, in the near
future, and some definite action should
be taken to preserve a part of this type
of forest. The Port Orford cedar merits
attention and preservation equally as
much as the redwoods. It appears that
this species is a remnant of the forests
of the bjrgone ages. The Port Orford
cedar is re-producing very well, and
various age classes may be found. The
area mentioned ranges from sea level to
about 2000 ft. and is located from 10
to 15 mi. from Port Orford, Oregon.
The Port Orford cedar is the only species
of this region that is in immediate danger
of being exploited to the point that will
leave none of the mature forests.

In the Cascade Mountains there are
at present several areas that are per-
manently preserved, and no doubt there
will be future selections for various
purposes that will add to these areas.
Areas already preserved are: The Crater
Lake National Park, The Rainier Na-
tional Park, The Bull Run Water-
Shed on the Oregon National Forest
which supplies the water for the cit}^ of
Portland, The Sultan River Water-
Shed on the Snoqualmie National Forest
which supplies the water to the city of
Everett, and the game preserve on the
Stilaguamish River above Silv^erton,
Washington on the Snoqualmie National
Forest and a similar preserve around
Lake Chelan on the Chelan National
Forest. There is also a reservation
surrounding the Government Mineral
Springs in the Wind River Valley on the
Columbia National Forest.

Areas that are set aside for such
purposes as these are usually left intact.
Such areas are also valuable for the

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

205

study of natural conditions, for scien-
tific research, and for biological purposes.
There are other mineral springs, natural
camp sites, recreation grounds, and
other localities that will undoubtedly
be set aside in the near future. This
selection of areas is distributed along
the Cascade Range and includes practi-
cally all of the types of vegetation of
the region.

The sagebrush region in eastern
Oregon and Washington may not receive
attention, although no doubt there
always will be sections available for
study if left as it is. It includes the
region on the east side of the Cascade
Mountains. This is a border type
between the forest and desert and is an
interesting type from both ecological
and biological standpoints.

Wild animal life abounds throughout
this northwestern region and varies
very little in the different sections.
The black bear and grizzly bear are
found throughout the region. Timber
wolf and coyote are found throughout
the region, especially on the east side
of the Cascades. Deer are plentiful
throughout the region, and elk are also
found. Bands of elk are known at
present around Mt. St. Helens in North-
ern Washington; on the Siskiyou Na-
tional Forest; in the Southern Cascades
of Oregon, and in the Olympic Peninsula.
Cougar, fox, marten, fisher, and numer-
ous smaller animals are found through-
out these forests. Good fishing is
found in all of the streams, many of
them being restocked periodically.

NATIONAL FORESTS

Cascade JSational Forest (Oregon).
The Cascade National Forest has an
area of 1,022.312 acres. It ranges in
elevation from 1000 ft. along the Mc-
Kenzie River to over 10,000 ft. where the
boundary reaches the Three Sisters
Mountains. These three peaks are
covered with perpetual snow, and the
melting snow from the Cascade Range
feeds the many scenic waterfalls and
cascades from which the forest derives
its name. Most noted among the falls

are the Salt Creek Falls with a perpen-
dicular drop of over 275 ft., and the
McKenzie Falls.

The forest consists of a dense stand of
Douglas fir estimated to contain 20
l)illion board feet of merchantable
timber. The higher ridges contain the
upper slope and the alpine species.

The headquarters of the forest are at
Eugene on the Southern Pacific Railway.
The southern part of the forest is reached
on the branch to Oak Ridge, and the
northern part of the forest is reached
over the McKenzie Highway.

Chelan National Forest (Washington).
The Chelan Forest covers an area of
1,997,988 acres and ranges in elevation
from about 3000 to nearly 7000 ft. This
forest includes the famous Lake Chelan
which is a rival of the world famed Lake
Brienz of Switzerland. This forest
contains western yellow pine on dry soil
at lower altitudes good stands of Doug-
las fir at the lower elevation, and has
the typical upper slope and subalpine
types at the higher, also the beautiful
mountain meadows near timber line.

An area around Lake Chelan has been
set aside as a game preserve and this
area harbors the mountain goat and
sheep as well as deer, bear and other
game.

The headquarters are at OkanoganJ
and the forest is accessible b.y stage and
boat on Lake Chelan.

Columbia National Forest (Washing-
Ion). Includes an area of 785,224 acres.
It lies in the southcentral part of the
state and includes the Cascade Range.
The elevation varies from 100 to over
12,000 ft. at Mt. Adams.

The forest includes Mt. Adams and
Mt. St. Helens; the latter is the youngest
of the glacier peaks of the Cascade
Range. The range in elevation makes it
possible for ail forest tj'pes to be found
on the Columbia Forest. In the low-
lands are the heavy, mature stands of
Douglas fir and associated species.
On the higher slopes is the upper slope
type of true firs, above which is the
true subalpine type which adjoins the
mountain meadows at timber line.

206

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

On the Columbia National Forest
the Wind River Forest Experiment
Station is located in the Wind River
Valley, eleven miles from Carson on the
S. P. & S. Ry. This Station is the head-
quarters for research on the forests of
the Pacific Northwest.

The headquarters of the Columbia
Forest are at Portland, t and the forest
is reached by the S. P. & S. Ry. to points
along the Columbia River.

Colville National Forest (Washington).
The Colville Forest covers an area of
754,737 acres and ranges in elevation
from 950 to over 7000 ft. Within the
Colville Forest are the Kettle Falls
at which point the Columbia River
falls nearly 100 ft.

The forest tj'pe ranges from the
Douglas fir type in the lower elevation
to the subalpine type and mountain
meadows. It also includes large areas
of lodgepole pine forests.

The headquarters are at Republic
from which point the forest is reached
by stage.

Crater National Forest (Oregon). The
Crater Forest is divided into two sepa-
rate tracts aggregating 852,158 acres.
The larger tract includes the southern
slope of the Umpqua Range of mountains
and the other is in the Siskiyou Moun-
tains. The elevation ranges from 1500
ft. to over 9000 ft. on Mt. McLoughlin.

On the Crater Forest the traveller
will see 5 forest types: western yellow
pine, lodgepole pine, Douglas fir, white
fir, and the alpine species.

Within the Crater Forest lies Crater
National Park which includes Crater
Lake.

The headquarters of the forest are at
Medford, J and the Cascade division of
the forest is reached over the highway
to Crater Lake. The Siskiyou division
is also accessible by auto road from
Medford.

Deschutes National Forest (Oregon).
The Deschutes National Forest is
located entirely on the east side of the
Cascade Range in central Oregon. It
includes 1,283,808 acres and ranges
from about 4000 ft. in elevation to over

10,000 ft. The boundary of the Deschu-
tes joins the Cascade and includes a
part of the Three Sisters. This forest
contains Mt. Jefferson which is one of
the picturesque peaks of the Cascade
Range and, due to its almost perpendicu-
lar summit, is a peak that is of special
interest to mountain climbers.

The forest is typical western yellow
pine and lodgepole with some of the
subalpine species.

The headquarters are at Bendf which
is reached by a branch of the O. S. L.
R. R.

Fremont National Forest (Oregon).
The Fremont National Forest is located
in south central Oregon and is on the
east side of the Cascade Range. It is
a typical western yellow pine forest.
It includes 849,526 acres and ranges in
elevation from 4200 to 7000 ft.

The headquarters are at LakeviewJ
which is reached by stage from Bend or
Klamath Falls.

Malheur National Forest (Oregon).
The Malheur Forest is one of the group
of forests located in the Blue Mountain
region of Eastern Oregon. It has a total
area of 1,043,777 acres. Its elevation
ranges from 200 to 8000 ft. The forest
surrounds Strawberry Mountain which
is one of the highest peaks in the Blue
Mountains.

The forest is like all of the Blue Moun-
tain group of forests and contains
western yellow pine on the south slopes
and white fir, larch and Douglas fir on
the north slopes. Areas of lodgepole
pine also occur in places that have
been burned several times.

The headquarters are at John Dayf
which is reached by stage from Burns. |

Ochoco National Forest (Oregon). The
Ochoco Forest is another of the Blue
Mountain group. It contains 717,994
acres and ranges in elevation from 3000
to 7400 ft. It is a typical western yellow
pine forest with the white fir-larch-
Douglas fir type on the north slopes.

The supervisor's headquarters are at
PrinevilleJ which is reached by the
O. S. L. R. R.

Olympic National Forest (Washington).

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

207

The Olympic Forest covers an area of
1,535,503 acres and ranges in elevation
from near sea level to over 8000 ft. at
Mt. Olympus. The Olympic Forest con-
tains some of the heaviest stands of Doug-
las fir, Sitka spruce and western hemlock
of any of the north Pacific forests. Al-
most pure stands of Sitka spruce may be
found, and large areas of western hem-
lock, as well as Douglas fir. On the
higher altitudes are the upper slope
types merging into the subalpine types
and mountain meadows. Within the
forest are found Quiniault and Crescent
lakes.

The headquarters are at Olympiaf
and the forest may be reached by stage
or by boat on Puget Sound.

Oregon National Forest {Oregon). The
Oregon Forest includes the famous
Columbia Gorge on the Oregon side and
is traversed by the Columbia Highway
which makes it very accessible from
Portland. J It contains 1,053,820 acres
and ranges in elevation from about 100
ft. at Cascade Locks to over 11,000 ft. at
the summit of Mt. Hood.

The Eagle Creek Camp Ground along
the Columbia Highway is a large camp
site maintained by the Forest Service.

The Oregon Forest contains heavy
stands of Douglas fir in the lower alti-
tudes and includes some of the best
upper slope types of the true firs, and
also the subalpine stands.

The headquarters are at Portland^ and
the forest is reached principally by stage,
although the north end is very accessible
by the O. W. R. & N. R. R. and Columbia
River boats.

Rainier National Forest {Washington).
The Rainier Forest covers an area of
1,316,517 acres. It is located in south-
central Washington along the Cascade
Range, and the elevation varies from
200 ft. to over 14,000 ft. on Mt. Rainier.

On the Rainier may be found all of the
forest types from the heavy timber
types of the lowlands to the subalpine
species and the e.xtensive mountain
meadows.

The headquarters are at TacomaJ and
the forest is reached over the Tacoma &

Eastern R. R. to Morton or by stage line
to various points.

Santiam National Forest (Oregon).
The Santiam Forest covers an area of
607,097 acres and ranges in elevation
from 1500 to over 10,000 ft. on Mt. Jeffer-
son. The lower slopes are covered by
heavy Douglas fir forests, and there are
also large areas of the upper slope types.

The headquarters of the forest are at
Albanyl on the S. P. R. R., and a branch-
line to Detroit! takes one into the heart
of the forest.

Siskiyou National Forest {Oregon).
The Siskiyou Forest is one of the coast
forests in southwestern Oregon and
northwestern California covering an
area of 1,346,901 acres. It ranges in
elevation from sea level to about 6000 ft.
On this forest are a variety of types
changing from the Port Orford cedar
of the northern and the redwoods of the
southern lowlands, to the Douglas fir-
hemlock types at the higher elevations.
On this forest are located the Oregon
Caves which are the most beautiful caves
in the western United States. These caves
are reached by stage from Grants PassJ.

The headquarters of the forest are at
Grants Passf, from which point any part
of the forest may be reached by stage.

Siuslaw National Forest {Oregon).
The Siuslaw is another of the coast for-
ests, covering an area of 545,750 acres.
It ranges in elevation from sea level to
about 4000 ft.

On the Siuslaw Forest the Douglas
fir produces very heavy timber, and
some of the best young stands of this
species may be found there.

The headquarters of the forest are at
EugeneJ, from Avhich point the forest
may be reached by stage.

Snoqualmie National Forest {Washing-
ton). The Snoqualmie Forest includes
693,733 acres. It is located in the cen-
tral part of the state along the Cascade
Mountains and varies in elevation from
300 ft. in the foot hills to over 10,000 ft.
Some of the most scenic areas of the
Cascades may be found within the forest
because of its perpentlicular canyons and
picturesque mountain peaks.

208

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

All of the tj'pes of forest typical of the
Cascade Range may be found. The Sun-
set Highway is the main channel of
travel from the Puget Sound region to
Spokane and makes this forest accessi-
ble. Along the Highway is the Denny
Creek Camp ground.

The headquarters are at SeattleJ from
which point the forest is accessible by
stage or over the N. P. R. R. to Darring-
ton or Monte Cristo, also points on the
main line of the G. N. R. R.

Umatilla National Forest (Oregon and
Washington). The Umatilla is another
of the Blue Mountain group which covers
an area of 1,228,793 acres and ranges in
elevation from 3000 to 7000 ft. This
is a typical western j-ellow pine forest.

The headquarters are at Pendleton,
OregonI and the forest is accessible by
stage from this point.

Umpqua National Forest (Oregon).
The Umpqua Forest is one of the west
side forests in the Cascade Range and
includes 1,229,060 acres. The elevation
ranges from about 1000 to nearly 9000 ft.
on the summit of Diamond Peak.

This is one of the heaviest timbered
forests and contains large, untouched
tracts of mature Douglas fir.

The headquarters are at RoseburgI
and the forest may be reached by stage.

Walloiva National Forest (Oregon).
The Wallowa is one of the Blue Mountain
group comprising 957,419 acres. The
forest contains some of the finest scenery
in Oregon along the Snake and Imnaha
Rivers. The elevation ranges from 1000
ft. in the canyons to nearly 10,000 ft. in
the peaks.

The timber is typical of the Blue
Mountain group of western yellow pine
forests.

The headquarters are at VVallowa| and
the forest is reached from there by stage.

Washington National Forest (Washing-
ton). The Washington Forest includes
and area of 1,461,193 acres. It covers
the Cascade Range along the Canadian
boundary and ranges in elevation from
500 to over 10,000 ft. on the summit of
Mt. Baker. The rugged country and the
wide range in elevation makes possible

all of the forest types and combines them
with the scenic beauty of the country.

The headquarters are at Bellinghamf
and the forest is reached by stage.

Wenatchee National Forest (Washing-
ton). The Wenatchee Forest includes
an area of 818,334 acres. The elevation
varies from about 1000 ft. to over 10,000
ft. on Glacier Peak, consequently all of
the forest types and mountain meadows
are included within the forest.

Three transcontinental railroads, the
G. N., the C. M. & St. P., and the N. P.
cross the forest, and -t^he remainder of
the forest is accessible by stage.

The headquarters are at Wenatchee. |

Whitman National Forest (Oregon).
The Whitman Forest completes the Blue
Mountain group. It contains an area
of 1,313,523 acres and ranges in elevation
from about 3000 to over 8000 ft.

On the high plateaus are some of the
best western yellow pine forests of the
Blue Mountain region, and the north
slopes contain the typical white fir-larch-
Douglas fir type.

The headquarters are at Baker} and
the forest is accessible by stage.

6. NATIONAL FORESTS OF THE
NORTHERN DISTRICT (1)

By J. A. Larsen

In Montana and Idaho north of the
Salmon River, the natural forest types
fall into altitudinal belts, the boundaries
of which vary according to aspect, de-
gree of slope and drainage courses. The
same forest type does not always occupy
corresponding elevations east and west
of the main mountain chains or principal
divides. It is therefore necessary to
treat this subject according to the differ-
ent topographic divisions, as follows:

(1) The section west of the Bitterroot
mountains in Washington and Idaho;

(2) Flathead and Bitterroot valleys
lying between the Bitterroot Divide and
the Continental range; (3) the Montana
section of the Great Plains culminating
in the high Yellowstone Plateau and the
main Rocky mountains.

The lower forest line borders on the

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

209

prairies in each of these sections, at
2000 ft. in altitude on the western, at
3000 ft. in the central and 4000 to 4500 ft.
in the eastern section. The high points
along the Bitterroot range and in south-
western Montana reach 8000 ft. while the
principal high ridges vary between 6000
and 7000 ft. Ridge elevations in the
northern Rockies on the Flathead Na-
tional Forest and in Glacier National
Park vary between 8000 and 9000 ft. in
altitude, the peaks frequently rise to
10,000 and 11,000 ft. and have permanent
glaciers. This is also true of the forests
bordering the Yellowstone Park on the
northeast and east. Topography in
western Montana and northern Idaho is
characterized by very steep canyon
slopes and easier grades at the higher
levels, indicating a recent uplift. Else-
where the general slopes from mountain
tops to creek bottoms are more regular
and uniform. The southeastern Mon-
tana forests center around remnants of
an old tableland which rises 1000 to
3000 ft. above the rolling plains.

Aside from the occasional grassland
and upper barrens six broad natural
forests types exist. These are in their
order of altitudinal occurrence, begin-
ning with the lowest; western j^ellow
pine ; cedar-hemlock-grand fir-white pine
in Idaho ; replaced by Douglas fir-western
larch in western Montana; Douglas-fir-
lodgepole pine in central and eastern
Montana; isolated bodies of Englemann
spruce in northwestern Montana; and
subalpine forests of mountain hemlock-
white bark iDine, alpine fir and lodgepole
pine.

GRASSLANDS AND PRAIRIES

The prairies or natural grasslands oc-
cur generally below 2000 ft. elevation
in Idaho, below 3000 ft. in western
Montana and below 4000 ft. in central
Montana. The vegetative communities
on different parts of the Palouse plain
in Idaho have been well described by
Piperi and by Weaver. ^ For description

1 Piper, Chas. V. "Flora of the State of Washing-
ton." Contributions U. S. National Herbarium, XI:
38-40. 1906.

of plant communities in IMontana see
Harshberger's Phylogeography of the
United States. The air temperature over
the prairies in summer averages higher
than for the lowest forest type. The
mean annual temperature for the former
in Washington-Idaho is 49.7° and that
for the western yellow pine type 47.3°.
At the same time the prairies show
greater extremes of air temperature,
lower snowfall, and lower relative
humidity than the western yellow pine
forests. Precipitation in the western
yellow pine type varies between 15 and
22 in. per year while that for the prairies
averages below 15 in. The total snowfall
on the prairies is 17 in. while in the
western yellow pine type it is 52 in.

FOREST TYPES

Yellow pine type {Transition Zone)

Western yellow pine {Pinus ponderosa)
grows in pure stands at the lower eleva-
tion border of the forest: from 1000 ft.
altitude up to 4500 ft. in the Clearwater
drainage; from 2000 to 4000 ft. in North
Idaho generally; and from 3000 to 4000
ft. in western Montana. In central
Montana the elevations are generally
too high for the development of this
species. The characteristic open stands,
the clear trunks and sparse undergrowth
give this forest a park-like appearance.
There is more air movement, more sun-
light, more heat and less precipitation
in yellow pine forests than in the other
forest types and therefore more evapora-
tion. These conditions, combined with
scant humus and litter, result in a soil
poor in loam and water-holding capacity.
There is invariably more rock and gravel
in the soil which causes it to heat by day
and cool at night in much greater degree
than in other forest tj^pes. Deer, coy-
otes, squirrels, ground squirrels, pocket
gophers, rabbits, pack rats and pheasants
are found in this type.'

2 Weaver, J. E. "A study of the \ CECtation of
Southeastern Washington and Adjacent Idaho.
Univ. ofNebr. Stiulies, 17, No. 1, 1917.

3 For some of the more common plants see: L,ar-
sen J \.. "Association of Trees, Shrubs and other
Vegetation in the Northern Idaho Forests. Ecol-
ogy 4: 63-67, 1923.

210

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

It is not possible to give with any
degree of certainty a distinct bird life
for the various forest types since most
of the birds inhabit several types. A list
of these is given under the cedar-hem-
lock-grand fir type.

Western yellow pine, Pinus ponderosa
scopulorum, is the only coniferous tree
occurring in southeastern Montana on
the Sioux and Custer National Forests.
This type represents outposts of the
Black Hills Yellow Pine type.

The western yellow pine occurs in
largest bodies on the following National
Forests :

NATIONAL

supervisor's

RAILROAD

FOREST

HEADQUARTERS

Bitterroot

Missoula, Mont.

N. P.

Missoula

Missoula, Mont.

N. P.

Kootenai

Libby, Mont.

G. N.

Sehvay

Kooskia, Mont.

N. P.

Nexperze

Grangeville, Mont.

N. P.

Sioux

Miles City, Mont.

N. P.

Cedar -hemlock grand fir-western white
pine type

The Thuja plicata-Tsuga heterophylla-
Abies grandis-Pinus monticola type
occurs chiefly in northern Idaho be-
tween 2000 and 4500 ft. elevation.
This type is not necessarily confined to
higher elevations than the western yel-
low pine but marks a region of much
heavier rainfall. Air temperatures are
lower than those observed in the western
yellow pine forests. The cedar-hem-
lock-white pine forests have a mean
annual air temperature of 42.4° and an
annual precipitation up to 40 in. Snow-
fall, which is 112 in. per year is also
much heavier and the humidity greater
here than in the western yellow pine
type. This type is found on more
protected slopes and aspects over
broken topography where the extremes
of climate are tempered by greater pre-
cipitation and cloudiness, and where the
texture and moisture holding qualities
of the soil are improved and maintained
by a dense stand, deep shade and rapid
accumulation of humus. This type of
forest, therefore, shows a wealth of
herbaceous species, shrubs and conifers.

The fauna is also rich in species of
birds and of fur-bearing mammals. The
following birds and animals have been
observed: Woodpeckers (pileated, flicker,
red-headed, hairy, downy, andsapsucker),
screech owl and great horned owl, mourn-
ing dove, swallow, kingbird, ruby-throat-
ed humming bird, bronzed grackle, junco,
winter wren, chickadee, songsparrow,
vesper sparrow, ruffed grouse, occasional
quail, pine grosbeak, American crossbill,
varied thrush, Steller's jay, and Canada

jay."

Among the important animals may be
mentioned the mule and white-tailed
deer (Odocoileus hemionus and O. sp.),
elk (Cervus canadensis occidentalis) ,
black bear (Ursus americanus), cougar
(Felis concolor group), lynx and bob-cat
(Lynx spp.), coyote and timber wolf
(Canis spp.), skunk (Mephitis), weasel
(Mustela), porcupine (Erethizon), pine
squirrel (Sci^lrus hudsonicus rich-
ardsoni), snowshoe hare (Lepus hairdii),
flying squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus
subspp.), pack rat (Neotoma cinerea
subspp.), jumping-raouse (Zapus), beaver
(Castor), muskrat (Ondatra zihethica
osoyoosensis) , mink (Mustela vison ener-
gumenos), and rarely otter (Lutra)
occur along the streams.

Forest fires have been frequent and
destructive in this tj^pe of forest and
have greatly limited the distribution
of the species, which are moisture-
loving, tolerant of shade and less fire
resistant than larch and Douglas fir.
Because of prolific seeding and the ease
with which lodgepole pine and western
white pine reproduces on burns these
species, particularly the latter, are much
in evidence. In fact the Idaho forests
are known for areas of stately virgin
forests of almost pure white pine. These
trees reach 180 and 200 ft. in height and
are found up to 50 and occasionally 60 in.
in diameter. The highest cut on record is
one million board feet of lumber on 10
acres. This tj^pe, therefore, marks the
greatest activity of the lumbering indus-
try in the Inland Empire. Virgin stands

■• I am indebted to Ranger G. Kempff for help in
preparing the list of birda.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

211

of this species are rapidly yielding to
lumbering and not a few to fire.

The cedar-hemlock-grand-fir — white
pine type occurs on the following
National Forests in Idaho:

NATIONAL

supervisor's

FOREST

HEADQUARTERS

Kaniksu

Sandpoint,
Idaho

G. N.

Pend O'Reille

Sandpoint,
Idaho

G. N.

Couer d'Alene

Couer d'Alene,

C. M. & St. P.,

Idaho

N. P., G. N.
via Spokane

St. Joe

Couer d'Alene,

C. M. & St. P.,

Idaho

N. P.,G. N.
via Spokane

Clearwater

Orofino, Idaho

N. P. via Spo-
kane

Douglas fir — western larch type

This type prevails in Flathead and
Bitterroot valleys in western Montana.
The larch {Larix occidentalis) is really
not a climax species but since it is so
prevalent everywhere, having gained by
repeated fires, its name has become
linked with Douglas fir in the designa-
tion of this association. These species
are of much less commercial value and
have therefore been less exploited than
western yellow pine and western white
pine. The larch grows on moist soils
from the lower edge of the forest up to
an altitude of 5000 ft. Douglas fir has a
much wider altitudinal range. The
mean annual air temperature in this type
is 40.9°F., and the annual precipitation
is 18 to 25 in., snowfall 70 in. and over.
Bird and animal life is similar to that of
the cedar-hemlock-grand fir type but
less varied and not so plentiful.

The Douglas fir — western larch type
occurs on the following National
Forests :

NATIONAL

supervisor's

R.\ILRO.\D

FOREST

HEADQUARTERS

Kootenai

Libby, Mont.

G. N.

Blackfeet

Kalispell, Mont.

G. N.

Flathead

Kalispell, Mont.

G. N.

Cabinet

Thompson Falls,
Mont.

N. P.

Lolo

Missoula, Mont.

N. P., C. M. &

St. P.

Missoula

Missoula, Mont.

N. P., C. M. &
St. P.

THE ENGELMANN SPRUCE TYPE

This is characterized by Picea Engle-
manii. Solid areas of this type are
relatively rare in Montana and northern
Idaho. This species is not plentiful
around the headwaters of the Clearwater
drainage nor generally in Montana. It
is confined to the cool northern aspects
and canyons where the snow is deep and
lingers late in sununer, particularly in
northeastern Montana on the Blackfeet
and Kootenai National Forests. In-
dividuals or grouped specimens line all
the principal mountain streams. There
is also considerable spruce at higher
elevations on the forests surrounding
Yellowstone Park. Repeated forest
fires in the past have no doubt greatly
restricted the spruce type. This forest
has not been exploited. Bird and
animal life is much the same as that
noted in the Cedar-Hemlock-Grand fir
type. Grizzly bear and moose {Alces)
should be added for northwestern
Montana.

The Engelmann spruce type may bo
studied in the following National forests ;

NATIONAL
FOREST

supervisor's
headquarters

R.\.ILR0.\D

Pend O'Reille
Kootenai
Blackfeet
Flathead

Sandpoint, Idaho
Libby, Mont.
Kalispell, Mont.
Kalispell, Mont.

G. N.
G. N.
G. N.

G. N.

(Also Glacier National Park, Bolton, Montana.)

Douglas fir — Lodgcpole Pine Type

Douglas fir {Pseudolsuga iaxifoUa) anil
Lodgepole pine {Piniis contorta) occur
on all of the National forests in Montana
and northern Idaho. It is however in
the higher forests of central and southern
Montana, where climatic conditions are
unsuitable for the previously described
types, that these two species occur in
greatest abundance. These species are
invariably found at the lower tree line
at 2000 ft. in Idaho, 3000 ft. in western
Montana and 4000 ft. in central and
southern Montana. In Idaho this tyiie
attains an elevation from 7000 to SOOO ft.

Repeated fires greatly increase the
proportion of lodgepole pine, often

212

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

resiiltinpj in dense impenetrable thickets
which show very slow growth. This
forest is composed of trees of small
diameter and has a low volume produc-
tion compared with the Idaho forests,
thereby reflecting the lesser annual
precipitation in Montana than in Idaho.
This type grows under a mean annual
air temperature ranging from 35° to 40°
and annual precipitation of 20 in., while
the snowfall is about 150 in. The flora
and fauna are quite similar to those
found in the Douglas fir-western larch
tj^pe. Since this type embraces the
major portions of the forests of central
and southern Montana there is quite a
local demand for the timber for mines,
railroads and for building material, but
there is no immediate danger of excessive
cutting such as would eliminate natural
virgin areas. Grazing is very important
in this part of the state, especially on
the open grasslands at lower elevations.
The Douglas fir-lodgepole pine type
occurs on most of the National Forests
in northern Idaho and Montana but
may be studied to best advantage on the
following:

bark pine and lodgepole pine are most
abundant on the upper sunny aspects.

At these elevations the summer is
short but warm and much clear weather
prevails. The mean annual air tempera-
ture at Roosevelt in the Thunder Moun-
tains of Idaho at 7000 ft. averages 36.4°;
the annual precipitation is 26.5 in.

Wherever the mountain hemlock holds
sway on high ridges, as in the Clearwater
drainage, Engelmann spruce is largely
wanting. Perhaps the dry summer
winds coming from the Snake River
desert limits it to the more northern
and eastern forests. In the subalpine
forest to the east of the Bitterroot
range, limber pine (Pinus flexilis)
replaces whitebark pine (Pinus albi-
caulis) .

In this type or belt the vegetation
varies greatly according to soil moisture
and aspect. The fauna does not differ
greatly from that of the cedar-hemlock-
grand-fir type. Blue grouse, fool hen,
grosbeak, hawk are found, in addition.

This type of forest may be studied to
advantage on the following National
forests:

NATIONAL
FOREST

supervisor's
headquarters

RAILROAD

Deerlodge

Helena

Jefferson

Madison

Beartooth

Gallatin

Anaconda, Mont.

Helena, Mont.
Helena, Mont.
Sheridan, Mont.
Billings
Bozeman

C.M.&St.
P., N.P.

N. P.
N. P.
N. P.
N. P.
N. P.

SUBALPINE FORESTS

Above 5500 ft. in altitude in Idaho
most of the forest trees mentioned in
the cedar-hemlock-grand fir type give
way to mountain hemlock [Tsuga merten-
siana), whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis),
alpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) ; Douglas fir
and lodgepole pine continue upward
above 5500 ft. Engelmann spruce
usually lines the water courses on north
aspects. Alpine fir is more generally
distributed but prefers northern and
eastern aspects. Mountain hemlock is
the climax species on the broad ridge
tops in the Clearwater basin while white-

NATIONAL
FOREST

supervisor's
headquarters

RAILROAD

Clearwater
Selway
Bitterroot
Lolo

Orofino, Idaho
Kooskia, Idaho
Hamilton
Missoula

N. P.
N. P.
N.P.
N.P.

ALPINE FORESTS AND BARRENS

Points above 8000 ft. elevation repre-
sent alpine conditions. Such areas are
marked by permanent glaciers and bar-
rens and are found in the northern sec-
tion of the main Rocky mountains, and
on the Beartooth National Forest. The
forest at these high elevations is repre-
sented by more or less dwarfed Engel-
mann spruce and Lyall larch (Larix
Lyallii), the latter not occurring east of
the main Continental Divide in northern
Montana. The alpine flora of the
Yellowstone National Park has been
listed by F. Tweedy. This list shows
several species also found in similar
situations in Europe and Asia. The

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

213

highest weather station from which
records are available is Yellowstone
Park, 7733 ft. which shows a mean annual
air temperature of 31.4°, an annual pre-
cipitation of 24.5 in. and an average
snowfall of 178 in.

The alpine conditions may be studied
on the following National Forests:

NATIONAL FOREST

Flathead

Glacier National Park

Beartooth

sltervisor's
headquarters

Kalispell, Mont.
Kalispell, Mont.

Billings, Mont.

RATL-
KOAD

G. N.

G. N.
N. p.

In different places within these forest
areas are smaller units of considerable
interest for study of characteristic flora
and fauna under natural conditions.
The Yellowstone and Glacier National
Parks offer a great variety of typical
conditions from low prairie to alpine and
glaciers with a great variety of lakes and
streams. These two parks contain typi-
cal forests of western j-ellow pine,
Douglas fir, Engelmann spruce, white-
bark pine, limber pine, lodgepole pine
and juniper. The fauna within these
two parks is rich, embracing many
species of bear, goat, sheep, elk, moose,
and fur-bearing mammals, as well as
birds, and fishes.^

The future may demand the preserva-
tion of additional natural areas within
Montana and northern Idaho. Areas
arc desirable for the study of the hydro-
phytic and mesophA'tic forests of western
white pine, western red cedar, western
hemlock and grand fir in Idaho. For
this purpose three areas are listed in
northern Idaho in the Priest Lake region,
one of which, the Roosevelt Grove of
Giant cedar, has already been preserved.
The other two represent some of the best
and oldest stands of the rapidly vanish-
ing western white pine and associates.

In addition to these three areas which
lie outside the National Parks another
area of western white pine occurs in the
Capt. Mullan park near Coeur d'Alene

5 For Glacier National Park, see: Wild Animals of
Glacier National Park; U. S. Department of the
Interior, National Park Service (1918); and Flora of
Glacier National Park; Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 22:
Pt. 5 (1921).

and a mesophytic formation is repre-
sented by the Heyburn park on Coeur
d'Alene Lake. The Rocky Mountain
National Monument near Helena shouM
also prove valuable. Some action will
be needed to have this last one preserved.

The area near Anaconda where the
trees and vegetation for many miles
around have been killed by smelter
fumes is listed; also an area in western
yellow pine representative of the Black
Hills type in the Custer National Forest
in southeastern Montana.

The region generally is rich in al-
pine and subalpine conditions. These
abound within the two national parks.
There are listed a few places at high
elevations lying in the Clearwater Na-
tional Forest along the Lolo trail be-
cause it is doubtful whether similar
areas can be found within the parks.
These are flat alpine meadows like the
one near Cook Mountain. The old
mountain hemlock stands and the
heavy burns of 1910 and 1919 may also
be studied along the Lolo Trail and near
Cook Mountain in the Clearwater
National Forest. Alpine larch occurs
on the Kootenai-Priest River Divide in
northern Idaho. Alpine larch occurs
also within Glacier National Park but
mountain hemlock may be seen to best
advantage and best development along
the Bitterroot Divide and the Clear-
water Mountains in Idaho.

In Carbon County, ^Montana, are
typical high altitude forests, timberline
conditions, glacial lakes and glaciers.
One of these glaciers has numerous grass-
hoppers imbedded in the ice. Elevat ions
5000 to 10,000 ft., precipitous.

The burned areas near Cook Mountain
and the older burns near Upper Priest
Lake, will probabh^ remain undisturbed
for many years, and the alpine areas will
remain in a natural state indefinitelj-.

NATURAL AREAS

Roosevelt Grove of Giant Red Cedar

^Coniferous Forests, Northtvestern. In
Bonner Co., northern Idaho, within
Kaniksu National Forest. About 100

214

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

acres on Forks of Granite Creek. Typi-
cal hydrophytic forest of western red
cedar up to 12 ft. in diameter said to be
over 1000 years old. Characteristic
flora of mosses, lycopods, ferns, ever-
greens. 4000 ft.

Priest Ilivert G. X. Ry. Coolint (auto),
motor boat to Reeder Creek, trail (h) 12
mi.

Priest Lake

^ Fresh Water Lake surrounded by north-
western coniferous forests. Fresh water
vegetation, swamps, marshes and ponds.
In Bonner Co., _ Idaho, ^within the
Kaniksu National^ Forest. On govern-
ment land a strip^along this lake will
be preserved or atjeast cut very spar-
ingly.

Priest Rivert, G. N. Ry. Coolint on
Priest Lake (a). Motor boats and Evin-
rudes. See more particularly "The
Thoroughfare."
"The Thoroughfare" Priest Lake, Idaho

^Coniferous Forest, Northwestern.
About 640 acres in Bonner County,
northern Idaho, within Kaniksu Na-
tional Forest in Sees. 4 and 9 T. 62 and
Sec. 33 T. 63 N. R. 4 W. Boise M.
along "Thoroughfare," a channel which
connects upper and lower Priest Lake;
typical mesophytic mature forest of
western white pine, western red cedar,
western hemlock, western larch, lowland
grand fir, alpine fir, Engelmann spruce,
with characteristic northern Idaho vege-
tation of shrubs, grasses, evergreens and
annuals. 2300 ft. Recommendation to
preserve in a natural state will be made
by the U. S. Forest Service.

Priest Riverl G. N. Ry. Coolint 25
miles by auto; motor boat on lake 20 mi.
to Forest Lodge hotel| close by area.

Grove of Virgin White Pine Forest^

^Coniferous Forest, Northwestern. 120
acres in Bonner Co., Idaho, in Sec. 22 T.
64 N. R. 5 W. B. Mer. within Kaniksu
National Forest in northern Idaho,

* Name tentatively given; not yet approved; will
be recommended as such; name for E. C. Rogers,
deceased, one of the first Forest Research men in
this region.—/. A. L.

north of upper Priest Lake. Typical
mesophytic virgin forest of western
white pine, western red cedar, western
hemlock, grand fir, alpine fir, western
larch, Engelmann spruce, and charac-
teristic northern Idaho vegetation.
3000 ft.

Priest RiverJ G. N. Ry. CoolinJ (a);
motor boat to Forest Lodge; to area (h)
20 mi.

Mullan Park

Coniferous Forest, Northwestern.
About 50 acres in Kootenai Co., Idaho,
Sec. 6, T. 49 N., R. 1 W. within Coeur
d'Alene^ National Forest. Burns sum-
mit 20 mi. from Coeur d'Alene, 40 mi.
from Wallace on Yellowstone Trail.
Typical forest of western white pine,
Douglas fir, western larch, some western
red cedar, western hemlock, characteris-
tic vegetation. 3000 ft.

Coeur d'Alenel N. P. Ry. (a) 20 mi.

WallacelN.P. (a) 40 mi.

Heyburn Park (Idaho)

Coniferous Forest, Northwestern. In
Kootenai Co., Idaho, on southern end of
Coeur d'Alene Lake about 2 sections.
Typical mesophytic forest of western
larch, Douglas fir, some western yellow
pine, riverside and hillside flora. 2000-
3000 ft.

Coeur d'AleneJ N. P. Ry. and C. M.
& St. P. Ry. via Spokane.

Steamer to hotel !| in park.

"Montana State Game Preserve"

(Northern Rockies)

Coniferous Forest Prairie and Aspen.
In Lewis and Clark Co., Mont., within
Lewis and Clark National Forest and
Montana State Game Preserve. Also
valuable for study of forest succession
after fires. Forests of Douglas fir,
lodgepole pine, Engelmann spruce, west-
ern yellow pine, aspen, zerophytic
prairie, open range and forest border.
Fauna-elk, deer, moose, grizzly bear,
black bear, beaver, otter, mink, marten,
muskrat, squirrels, gophers. 5000-
10,000 ft.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

215

Great FallsJ G. N. Ry. local to Cho-
teauj, 20 mi. (a) to Allen's hotelt 5 mi.
from game preserve.

"Rocky Mountain National Monument"
{near Helena, Mont.)

Coniferous Forest, Northwestern. In
Teton Co., in T. 12 and 13 N., R. 3 W.,
Montana P. Meridian, within Helena
National Forest, Montana, along Hauser
Lake and the upper Missouri River.
Typical xerophytic forest, Douglas fir,
western yellow pine and lodgepole pine
and xerophytic vegetation. Principally
limestone rock which in places is jagged
and pinnacled with sheer cliffs. 4500 ft.

Helena!. N. P. Ry. and C. M. & St.
P. Ry. Electric to lake, 18-20 mi.

Recommendation made for a preserve
by U. S. Forest Service, and by Montana
Legislature. See Substitute for House
Bill No. 3 introduced by committee on
Federal Relations, 1921. Proclamation
pending. Depends also upon purchase
of additional land by government.

Bear tooth National Forest [Mont.)

Ice Caves and Glaciers Timberline
Lakes. In Carbon Co., Mont., within
Beartooth National Forest. The ice
caves are on Pryor Mountain division,
the glaciers on the main part of the
forest. Typical high altitude forests;
vegetation and fauna not much different
from Yellowstone National Park. In-
teresting from standpoint of small
glaciers, glacial lakes, timberline condi-
tions. 5000-11,000 ft.

BillingsJ, N. P. Ry. Burlington Ry.

Local train to Bridger for Pryor
Mountain.

Local train to Redlodge for main part
of forest (h)§.

Along Lolo Trail

Coniferous Forest, Northwestern,
heavily burned. In Clearwater Co.,
Idaho, within Clearwater National For-
est. Typical single and double burn by
two of the worst forest fires known in
the Northwest, 1910 and 1919. One may

observe the effects of the 1910 fire alone,
both fires or only the 1919 fire. Excel-
lent chance for study of succession of
forest vegetation and influence of fire on
site.

Elev. 5000-7000 ft., mountainous.

Missoula, Mont. J N. P. Ry., C. M. &
St. P. Ry. 35 miles; to Lolo Hot Springs
(a) Lolo Trail to Cook Mountain 30 mi.
(h)**.

Alpine Meadow. In Clearwater Co.,
Idaho, within Clearwater National For-
est along Lolo Trail. Typical hydro-
phytic alpine meadow; alpine and sub-
alpine vegetation, and fauna at 6575 ft.
level.

Missoula, Mont. I, N. P. Ry., C. M St.
P. Ry. Lolo Hot Springs 35 mi. [|. Cook
Mountain 30 mi. (h)**.

Sub alpine Forest, Northwestern. In
Clearwater Co., Idaho, within Clear-
water National Forest along Lolo Trail
near Cook Mountain. Typical sub-
alpine forest of mountain hemlock, very
old climax stand, and characteristic
subalpine vegetation; xerophytic, meso-
phytic and hydrophytic. 7000 ft.

Missoulaj, N. P. Ry. and C. M. & St.
P. Ry. Lolo Hot Springs, (a) 35 mi. (h)**.

Smelter Fume Damage

Coniferous Forest, Northwestern. In
Deerlodge Co., Mont., within Deerlodge
National Forest. Typical mesophytic
lodgepole pine forest. Excellent oppor-
tunity to observe effect of smelter fumes
on foi'est and vegetation.

Anacondal, Mont., N. P. Ry., C. M. it
St. P. Ry., (a) 5 to 10 mi.

Alpine Forest, N orthxvestern

Alpine Larch, Lari.t Lyallii. In Bon-
ner County, northern Idaho, within
Kaniksu National Forest. About 200
acres of alpine larch, mature trees and
reproduction on summit of divide be-
tween Kootenai and Priest Rivers at
Roman Nose Lookout. Subalpine flora
of alpine fir, Engelmann spruce, white-
bark pine, heather, sedges and grasses.
6000-7000 ft. Precipitous.

216

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Priest RiverJ, G. N. Ry. 25 mi. to
Coolint 12 mi. by trail to Lookout (h)§.

Old Burns

Coniferous Forest, Norlhwestern. In
Bonner Co., Idaho, north end of upper
Priest Lake in Kaniksu National Forest.

About one township of forestland
burned over at different times now show-
ing succession of vegetation and amount
of restocking of the forest trees after the
fires. Flora shows great variety of
evergreens, deciduous shrubs and an-
nuals, mosses, lichens, lycopods. 3000-
4000 ft.

Priest RiverJ. G. N. Ry. Cooling,
motor boat to Forest LodgeJ. Evin-
rudes.

Priest River Experimental Forest

Subalpine Meadoiv. In Bonner Co.,
northern Idaho, within Kaniksu Na-
tional Forest. About 45,000 acres on
west slopes of Selkirk Range. Typical
subalpine meadow, and associated vege-
tation, the result of repeated fires.
Forest extending from 2300 to 6000 ft.
elevation. Subalpine meadow and for-
est of alpine fir, whitebark pine, and
Engelmann spruce. 6000 ft.

Priest Rivert, G. N. Ry., (a) 15 mi. to
Priest River Forest Experiment Sta-
tion§.

7. NATIONAL FORESTS OF CALI-
FORNIA. VEGETATIONAL
TYPES

By E. N. Munns

The vegetation of California is prob-
ably more diverse than that to be found
in any other state, ranging from the
deserts of the southeastern part to the
rich mesophytic forests of redwood
and spruce along the northwest coast
through various kinds of brushland
growths, woodlands, pine, fir and sub-
alpine forests. Because of the range in
latitude, the forests have different alti-
tudinal levels, and the lower tree limit
of 6500 ft. near the Mexican boundary is

reduced to 1000 near the Oregon line.
"Deserts" occur in the northeast at
elevations of 3000 ft. while in the south,
they run below sea-level; the optimum
of the redwood region is reached but a
few feet above sea-level along the north-
west coast.

Such a bewildering complexity of
plant life is due to the great variation in
climate brought about by latitude,
altitude and topography. The state is
characterized by a wet cold winter and a
hot dry summer, the winter storms us-
ually descending down the Pacific Coast,
the farther south the path of the storm,
the heavier the precipitation. Con-
versely, during the summer, the farther
north the storm crosses the coast-line,
the hotter and drier is the summer, the
convectional thunderstorm is common
in the high mountains during the sum-
mer. The southern part of the state
receives less precipitation than the
northern, and having a greater insola-
tion, is much warmer. The storm
clouds passing over the region deposit
most of their moisture on the mountains,
leaving the bulk of it on the seaward
slopes, the inland slopes and high
plateaus receiving comparatively very
little moisture. Precipitation increases
with altitude to an optimum in the
Sierras and then tapers off, but because
of lower temperatures, snow banks last
longer giving the appearance of greater
moisture. Along the northern coast,
summer fogs are frequent and result in
a rather even temperature and a general
high atmospheric moisture.

The principal vegetative types of the
state include the desert, grassland,
chaparral, oak and juniper woodlands,
western yellow pine, mixed conifer, fir,
alpine, Douglas fir, and redwood forests.
In addition, there are minor types such
as the Torrey pine, localized on the
southern coast, the Monterey pine of the
central coast, and the big cone spruce of
the southern mountains. These types
are all influenced by the climate, and
altitudinal limits vary greatly with soil
and exposure.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

217

DESERT (lower SONORAN)

The desert region embraces the eastern
side of the major mountain masses in the
south and includes the local deserts of
the Colorado River, Mojave Desert and
Death Valley. Vegetation is scanty or
absent and is usually simple. The
Yucca and palm are the largest plants,
with the cacti and creosote bush as
typical. Rainfall varies from practically
nothing to 10 in., with temperatures from
20° to 132°, the summer maximum run-
ning well above 100°. Evaporation is
tremendous and winds blow more or
less constantly. The humidity often
remains around 5 per cent during the
summer season.

The fauna of the desert region e.xclud-
ing reptiles is as scanty as the vegeta-
tion but includes the desert coyote, the
Kit fox, Arizona fox, Arizona skunk,
grasshopper mouse, desert jack-rabbit,
Arizona cottontail, desert bighorn sheep
and burro deer. Bird life is represented
by the Gambel partridge, white-winged
dove, elf owl, cactus woodpecker, west-
ern nighthawk, Abert towhee, hooded
oriole, LeConte thrasher, cactus wren.

GRASSLAND (sONORAn)

The former grassland region of Cali-
fornia is now practically under cultiva-
tion except for those areas too rough or
dry for agriculture. Over-grazing has
resulted in the practical extermination
of the native grasses which formerly
covered the plains of the Sacramento and
San Joaquin River vallej's which form
a trough between the Coast Ranges and
the Sierras proper. Rainfall varies from
10 to 20 in. with no rain for 3 to 7 months
during the summer. The temperature
varies between an average summer
maximum of 90° and an average winter
minimum of about 40°.

In the grassland region, the demands
of agriculture have forced the animal life
to inhabit other life zones, or caused
them to change their mode of life or to
disappear. The most typical of the
larger animals are the dwarf elk, San
Joaquin fox, Valley coj'ote, Fisher

ground squirrel, San Joaquin jack and
cottontail rabbits. Bird life includes
the prairie falcon, the Swainson hawk,
ferruginous rough-leg, towhee, yellow
warbler, road-runner, burrowing owl,
Texas nighthawk, crow, bicolored black-
bird and San Joaquin wren.

CHAPARRAL (UPPER SONORAN)

The chaparral is found as a climax
type with a great variety of sub-types
below the lower limit of the forests. It
forms a practical cover for all areas
where tree growth is unable to exist, or
in the forest belt where poor soil condi-
tions make local "islands." On the
poorer sites, chamise or greasewood
{Adenostema fasciculaturn) takes full
possession, giving way under better con-
ditions of soil or climate to the scrub
oaks (Quercus dumosa, Q. msHzenii),
ceanothi (Ceanothus cuneatus, C. cordu-
latus and C. divericatus) and manzanitas
(ArctostapJiT/llos patula, A. manzanita
and A. glauca). Along the coast, under
the influence of fogs, chaparral growth
becomes ranker, and stands where the
brush reaches 30 ft. or more are not un-
common. Here other species enter the
stand, which still retains its brushy
characteristic. On moister sites, tree
growth such as the laurel {Umbellularia
Calif ornica), madroila (Arbutus men-
ziesii) and the woodland oaks, enters
the stands. In the transition to grass-
land, the digger pine (Pimis sabiniana)
is found, while in the transition to forest,
the Coulter pine (Pinus couUcri) occurs
in southern California and the knobcone
pine (Pinus attenuata) in the north. In
the moister and cooler canyons, of south-
ern California, the big cone spruce [Pseud-
olsuga macTocarpa) occurs as a pure tj^pe.
None of these trees are of commercial
value except the Coulter pine, because of
the lack of large stands, of large size, or
of good form. Along the streams is a for-
est of alder (Alnus rhombijolia), sj'ca-
more (Platanus californica) and poplar
(Populus frcmonlii) .

As a t3'pe, the chaparral is of little
economic value except as a soil cover in
preventing erosion and retarding floods.

218

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

In this field it is of primary importance
and to protect the watersheds of south-
ern California, large areas of chaparral
are included in three National Forests.
Most of species sprout readily and there
is little danger of the stands being
obliterated. Some grazing occurs in the
chaparral and the larger stems are cut
locally for fuel.

In the chaparral region proper, which
may extend from sea-level to 7000 ft. in
southern California, the precipitation
varies from 10 to 25 in. annually, most of
it being received in the period from
December to March, inclusive. Snow
falls occasionally but seldom lasts.
The temperature extremes vary from 10°
to 120°, the mean summer maximum
temperature being about 85°, with a
mean minimum temperature for the win-
ter of about 35°. The mean annual
temperature is around 50°.

The mammals of the chaparral region
include the California ring-tailed cat
{Bassariscus astutus raptor), California
raccoon {Procyon psora), California
weasel (Mustela xanthogenys), California
spotted skunk (Spilogale phenax), Cali-
fornia jackrabbit (Lepus calif ornicas) ,
brush rabbit (Sylvilagus hachrnani
group), and wood rat (Neotoma spp.).
Among the bird life in this region are
the owl, sparrow, hawk, California
towhee, spurred towhee, black-headed
grosbeak, titmouse, grasshopper spar-
row, several song sparrows, while many
birds of the transition zone and from
farther north, winter in this belt.

WOODLAND (upper SONORAN)

The woodland types include the oaks
and the juniper. The oaks are charac-
teristic of the better sites and moister
soils in the valley region and the rolling
hills in the grassland and chaparral belt
along the coast where the precipitation
ranges from 10 to 20 in. and the maximum
temperatures in summer do not exceed
110° but average about 85°. In this
belt, the mean temperatures do not fall
low enough to preclude growth the year
round. Three species of oaks are usually
found (Querms douglasii, Quercus lohata

and Qvercns agrijolia). Because of
their presence near the agricultural and
urban population, these oaks, which
reach heights of 60 ft. and diameters of
36 in. are being rapidly cut for firewood
and it is but a question of time till the
old stands are completely cut out.
Many places which once boasted exten-
sive areas of this type can now show only
scattered trees and pasture land. City
parks in various places will preserve
some usually ragged and open remnants
of a once continuous woodland.

The juniper woodland is found in the
northeastern part of the state with a
similar rainfall, but lower winter and
summer temperatures on the lava soils.
The juniper (Juniperus occidentalis and
Juniperus uiahensis) merges into pure
western yellow pine on better soils and
at higher elevations, while at lower
elevations and on poorer soils this type
merges into the Nevada desert. The
stands are more or less open and are
now being cut for fence posts and pencil
stocks. Along with this juniper wood-
land type on the edge of the desert re-
gion is also the pinyon pine (Pinus mono-
plujlla) which in places forms extensive
stands. It is not now being exploited
commercially except locally and many
stands will remain in a virgin condition
for a long time.

In the woodland type, bird life is
similar to that of the chaparral and
grassland and many mammals use one
locality as their home while foraging
over the adjacent region. The Cali-
fornia jay, red-shafted flicker, Lewis
woodpecker, road-runner,cuckoo, screech
owl, California thrasher, western mock-
ingbird, western bluebird, and California
towhee are often seen in this belt.

YELLOW PINE (TRANSITION)

The western yellow pine (Pinus pon-
derosa) and Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi)
form extensive forests at the lower eleva-
tions in the Sierra and Coast Mountains
and on the extensive plateau lands of the
lava flows of the northeastern part of the
state. At the lower limits— 7000 ft. in
the extreme south and 1000 ft. in the

NATURAT. AREAS AND REGIONS

210

north — the 3-ellow pine forest merges
with the chaparral growth, and at the
upper limit, mingles with the firs and
cedars in a complex coniferous forest.
The yellow pine type covers a greater
area than any other in the state and
furnishes a large amount of the pine
lumlier manufactured. The forests are
utilized as far as desirable as a sum-
mer pasture for sheep and cattle. The
precipitation varies from 18 to 30 in.
Temperatures in summer reach a maxi-
mum of 95°F. with an average summer
maximum of 85°F. and an average winter
minimum of 30°F. The average annual
temperature is about 45°F. The period
of rest ranges from two weeks to four
months, and up to 30 per cent of the
precipitation occurs as rain.

MIXED CONIFEROUS TYPE (XR.'i.NSITION)

The yellow pine type merges gradually
at higher elevations into a mixed conif-
erous type which includes the western
yellow pine as a dominant member but
with the sugar pine {Pinus lamhertiana)
as its companion. With these white fir
{Abies concolor), Douglas fir {Pseudo-
tsuga taxifolia) and incense cedar (Liboce-
drus decurrens) are also found. In
scattered groves, occurs also the big
tree {Sequoia gigantea) famous because
of its tremendous size. In the central
part of the Sierras, the pines, cedar and
Sequoia reach their optimum develop-
ment, and the forest, without the gloom
that usually characterizes dense forests,
are light and airy, and offer excellent
recreational possibilities. The bulk of
this type, as the preceding, lies inside
the boundaries of the National Forests.
In addition, several National parks are
maintained in this type, chief of which is
the Yosemite.

These pine forests include the really
valuable commercial pine forests of the
state and are being exploited to the ut-
most. On private lands, natural con-
ditions are quite often badly upset
through destructive lumbering and fire,
and too often become brushfields until
succession can reestablish a forest. On
government lands, exploitation is possi-

ble, but under restrictions that do not
permit the destruction of the stand
through careful marking of trees for
cutting, fire protection, and supervised
lumbering. All of this forest area is not
accessible now for logging so that small
patches will exist for a long time in a
virgin condition, but these areas are
quite often not typical stands, and are
being grazed by both sheep and cattle.
The Forest Service is now setting aside
small areas of timber which will not be
cut or touched in so far as is i)ossible, to
serve as miniature virgin forests, as
demonstration and experimental areas.
Several have already l)een established
and more will be set aside from time to
time. In addition, the National Parks
maintain natural conditions in forest
types typical of those being lumbered.

Precipitation varies from 30 to 70 in.
mostly coming as snow, which remains
on the ground from November to April
or May. The mean annual tempera-
ture is around 45° with a mean sum-
mer temperature of 65°. In this belt,
which runs up to an average elevation of
6000 ft., is the zone of maximum precipi-
tation in the Sierra region.

DOUGLAS FIR (TRANSITION OR CANADIAN)

The Douglas fir type is characterized
by almost pure stands of the Douglas
fir {Pseiidotsuga taxifolia) associated
with the white fir {Abies concolor) in-
cense cedar {Libocedrus decurrens), and
occasionally with other species. The
Douglas fir forms rather dense pure
stands in the northern part of the state
particularly along the coast range at
elevations from 1000 to 4000 ft. In the
Sierras proper it is a tree of the mixed
forest. Pure stands are confined to
north slopes, and cool moist bottom
lands, and the coast ranges. The
average monthly temperatures do not
vary greatly from winter to midsummer.
The precipitation is heavy, occurring
mainly as rain, though some areas
receive considerable snow. Atmos-
pheric moisture is high and often forms
fogs. The average summer temperature

220

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

is about 80° and the average winter
temperature is around 30°.

Cutting is not extensive because of
the rather poor quality of the timber.
Grazing is not an important factor.
Fire is the only seriously damaging
agent.

fauna of the yellow pine and

douglas fib forests

(transition zone)

In the yellow pine and Douglas fir
forests the fauna is so intermingled that
it is impossible to separate out those
species characteristic of one locality.
This region is the home of the black and
grizzly bears, mountain coyote {Canis
levies), mountain weasel {Mustela arizo-
nensis), pine marten {Maries caurina),
Pacific raccoon {Pyocyon psora), Cali-
fornia gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargen-
teus group), bushy-tailed wood rat
(Neotoma cinerea subspp.)- Douglas
ground squirrel (Citellus beecheyi group j,
many chipmunks (Eutamias), Sierra
flying squirrel {Glaucomys sabrinus
group), mule deer {Odocoileus hemionus),
black-tailed deer (0. columbianus
subspp.). Bird life in this region in-
cludes the western red-tailed hawk,
golden eagle. Pacific horned owl, spotted
owl, California woodpecker, nighthawk,
Sierra woodpecker, Lewis woodpecker,
flicker, blue-fronted jay, western and
mountain bluebird, Sierra cross-bill,
sierra junco, tree swallow, dipper,
mountain chickadee, mountain quail
and Sabine ruffed grouse.

FIR TYPE (Canadian)

Altitudinally, the true fir type is just
above the mixed coniferous. It includes
the forests of white fir {Abies concolor)
and red fir {Abies magnifica), both pure
and in mixture. The altitudinal limits
vary widely with the latitude, but
average from 6000 to 8000 ft. The stands
are often dense and few annuals or
grasses prevail except in meadows
where heavy grazing by sheep and cattle
is permitted. The stands, because of
their relative inaccessibility, and low
value for commercial lumber, are not

being exploited to any extent and proba-
bly will not be for some time to come.

The precipitation is chiefly in the
form of snow, and varies between 30
and 50 in. annually. Average minimum
temperatures during the winter do not
exceed 25°, and the mean summer tem-
perature is not over 65°, the average
annual temperature is not above 40°.
Because of low temperature and depth
of snowfall, the snow lasts till late in
the summer season. The growing season
is from June to October.

In the fir type are found the mountain
weasel. Cascade red fox and high Sierra
red fox (Vulpes cascadensis and V.
necator), Pacific fisher, bob-cat {Lynx
rufus calif ornicus), bushy-tailed wood-
rat {Neotoma cinerea subspp.), alpine
chipmunk {Eutainias alpinus), golden-
mantled ground squirrel {Callospermo-
philus chrysodeirus), yellow-haired por-
cupine, chickadee. In this region is
also the Sierra sooty grouse, the gos-
hawk. Sierra nighthawk, Hammond
flycatcher, Lincoln sparrow, and varied
thrush.

SUBALPINE (hUDSONIAN)

The sub-alpine forests include a
variety of species at elevations where
the growing season is short and tem-
peratures are not excessive even in
summer. Included in this forest are
the mountain hemlock {Tsuga merten-
siana), white bark pine {Pinus albicau-
lis), foxtail pine {Pinus balfouriana),
western white pine {Pinus monticola)
and lodgepole pine {Pinus contorta).
The forests are not extensive, and are
utilized to some extent by grazing. No
lumbering of consequence will be carried
on in this region because of the relatively
poor quality and inaccessibility of the
stands. The trees of this zone exist
chiefly only on the higher mountain-
peaks and ridges.

Climatic conditions are usually severe;
the minimum temperature during the
winter is not known, but probably is
not below that of the fir type, while the
precipitation is probably not over 30
or 40 in. annually, practically all coming

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

221

in the form of snow. The average sum-
mer temperature is about 53°, maximum
temperatures do not exceed 70°, while
the average maximum is probably not
over 63°. The daily range is slight, not
over 30°, and frosts occur throughout
the summer.

This high mountain country is the
home of the wolverine {Gulo luscus
luteus), Belding ground-squirrel (Citei-
lus beldingi), alpine chipmunk, pika
(Ochotona) and the rare Sierra sheep
{Ovis canadensis sierrae). In addition
to the visitors from the lower zones,
occur also the Arctic three-toed wood-
pecker, Clark nutcracker, western even-
ing grosbeak, pine grosbeak, white-
crowned sparrow and Sierra hermit
thrush.

REDWOOD TYPE (HUMID TRANSITION)

The redwood region is restricted to the
coastal area of northern California and
is characterized by the coast redwood
[Sequoia sem-pervirens) , and the Sitka
spruce [Picea sitchensis). Douglas fir,
white fir, and the prickle-cone pine
{Pinus muricata) are found in certain
areas. The redwood is rapidly being
exploited. All of the forests are pri-
vately owned, though there are small
areas being set aside as parks in which
the type will be preserved in its virgin
condition. As redwood sprouts readily,
there is little chance of the area remain-
ing unforested. Some of the region
after being cut over has been badly
burned, but a dense undergrowth soon
springs up and forest reappears.

In the redwoods, the annual march
of the temperature is even, the average
annual temperature being about oO°
with a heavy rainfall during the six
coldest months of the year. Freezing
temperatures are unusual, and though
snows are occasional the snow seldom
lies long on the ground. Fogs are heavy
and frequent and keep the forests more
or less moist throughout the year.

The redwood region, because of its
very humid climate, has a characteristic
fauna of its own, differing from the
Sierra transition. Many of the Sierra

species are found in this belt and many
similar species occur as sub-species.
Native to this region is the Columbia
black-tailed deer {Odocoileus columbi-
anus), redwood chipmunk {Eutamias
townsendii ochrogenys) (redwood brush
rabbit (Sylvilagus hachmani ubericolor),
redwood weasel (Muslela xanthogeny
munda), redwood gray fox (Urocyon
californicus sequoiensis) , and coast
flying-squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus
stephensi). Among the bird life are
the Harris woodpecker, dusky horned
owl, California pigmy owl, varied thrush,
northwest flicker, red-breasted sap-
sucker, and coast jay.

The National Forests of California
are chiefly in the pine and fir region of
the state and include practically every
vegetational type except the redwood,
though there are large private holdings
within the exterior boundaries of the
National Forests.

The tremendous increase in the uti-
lization of the forest lands of the state
and of the National Forests in tlie past
few years should be emphasized as in-
dicating the necessity for at once setting
aside some natural areas. The in-
dividual descriptions of the National
Forests follow.

NATURAL AREAS

Angeles National Forest

1. Area— 826,331 acres.

2. Present condition— approximately
one-fifth of total area has been burned
within the last 20 years. Large numbers
of campers and recreationists use the
forest annually. Some portions of the
area are inaccessible and will probably
remain so for many years. The Forest
Service will probably set aside between
GOO and 1000 acres in the timber type
as an experimental area.

3. Succession is shown to good
advantage.

4. Very little grazing e.xcept in the
higher elevations and that by cattle.

5. Forest types include low and high
chaparral, western yellow pine, JclTrey

222

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

pine, mixed conifers, lodgepole pine,
pinyon and desert.

G. Two game refuges in the Forest
cover practically the entire area. Pred-
atory animal work carried on by the
Biological Survey. The chief wild mam-
mals are deer, cougar, wild-cat, fox.

7. Elevation from 500 to 11,500 ft.—
average elevation 6000 ft.

8. Supervisor's office at Los AngelesJ
is 15 mi. from Forest. Other important
towns are PasadenaJ, 8 mi.; Pomonat,
8 mi.; San Bernardino}, 6 mi.

California National Forest

1. Area — 818,459 acres.

2. Present condition — much of area
natural state. Area to be set aside
by the Forest service about 1200 acres.

3. Forest heavily grazed, especially
by sheep.

4. Types — low and high chaparral,
yellow pine, mixed conifers, fir.

5. Small game refuge on forest. Deer
very abundant, cougar, coyote, fox,
bear.

6. Elevation from 1200 to 8000 ft.—
average elevation about 5500 ft.

7. Distance from Willows}, 30 mi.

Cleveland National Forest

1. Area — 549,271 acres.

2. Present condition — many recrea-
tionists visiting forest annually and in
increasing numbers. Most of the forest
readily accessible to large centers of
population. About 600 acres to be set
aside as experimental forest.

3. Slight amount of grazing — cattle,
sheep and horses.

4. Types — low and high chaparral,
yellow pine, mixed coniferous forest.

5. Three game refuges on the Forest
cover approximately one-tenth the area.
Deer plentiful.

6. Elevation from 200 to 10,500 ft.—
average about 4000 ft.

7. Distance from San Diego}, about
8 mi.; from Riverside}, 12 mi.

Eldorado National Forest

1. Area — 552,918 acres.

2. Forest being heavily cut; it is

doubtful if any experimental areas
will be set aside on the Forest.

3. Moderate grazing by sheep and

cattle.

4. Forest types— yellow and sugar
pine, sugar pine and fir, mixed fir, sub-
alpine.

5. Small game refuge on the Forest

6. Elevation from 3000-9000 ft.—
average 6200 ft.

7. Distance from Placerville}, 12 mi.

Klamath National Forest

1. Area— 1,533,980 acres.

2. The forest has been very little
known and is practically inaccessible.
No forest activities at the present time.
1000 or more acres will be set aside as
an experimental area.

3. Grazing to a moderate degree by
sheep and cattle.

4. Types — Douglas fir, yellow pine,
mixed conifers, brushfields.

5. Small game refuge on the forest.

6. Elevation ranges from 500 to 7500
ft.— average 4000 ft.

7. Distance from Yreka}, 6 mi.

Lassen National Forest

1. Area— 943,197 acres.

2. Present condition — semi-natural
state, large cutting operations now in
progress. Small areas will be set aside
as experimental areas.

3. Forest is heavily grazed by sheep.

4. Important types — yellow pine,
mixed conifers, lodgepole pine.

5. Elevation ranges from 2500 to
10,000 ft., average elevation about
4500 ft.

6. Distance from Red Bluff, 25 mi.

Modoc National Forest

1. Area — 1,461,599 acres.

2. Present condition — semi-natural,
some cutting now in progress; heavy
grazing.

3. Forest grazed by sheep, cattle and
horses.

4. Types — sagebrush, desert, pinyon,
juniper, western yellow pine and mixed
conifers.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

223

5. Elevation from 3500 to 8000 ft.,
average elevation 6500 ft.

6. Distance from AlturasJ, 10 mi.

Plumas National Forest

1. Area — 1,153,044 acres.

2. Present condition — semi-natural;
forest being very heavily cut. Several
areas will be set aside for experimental
purposes.

3. Moderate amount of grazing by
cattle and sheep.

4. Types include brushfields, western
yellow pine, j'ellow and sugar pine,
mixed conifers, fir.

5. Elevation from 3000 to 8000 ft.—
average elevation 4500 ft.

6. Distance from Ouincyl, 3 mi.

Santa Barbara National Forest

1. Area— 2,017,398 acres.

2. Present condition — semi-natural;
area has been badly burned in the last
ten years — approximately one-fourth of
area has been burned since 1910.

3. Area is grazed by sheep, cattle
and goats to a moderate amount.

4. Forest types include chaparral,
western yellow pine, Jeffrey pine, mixed
conifers.

5. Wild animals include deer, cougar,
wild-cat, coyote.

6. Elevation ranges from 500 to 8000
ft. — average elevation about 4000 ft.

7. Distance from Santa Barbarat,
4 mi.

Sequoia National Forest

1. Area — 1,879,779 acres.

2. Area very largely natural, rela-
tively inaccessible. Includes within its
boundaries National Parks and Monu-
ments.

3. Forest grazed, by sheep and cattle.

4. The important types are sugar
pine and yellow pine, sugar pine and fir,
and fir.

5. Elevation from 300 to 15,000 ft.—
average elevation about 7000 ft.

6. Distance from Portervillet, 30 mi.

Shasta National Forest

1. Area — 849,656 acres.

2. Present condition — forest badly
burned and heavily cut. Some areas
will be withdrawn for experimental
purposes, probably 2000 acres in all.

3. Forest grazed by sheep and cattle;
in places heavily.

4. Types — brushfields, western j-ellow
pine, mixed conifers, fir, alpine.

5. Elevation from 2500 to 14,500 ft.;
average elevation 4000 ft.

0. Distance from SissonJ, 5 mi.

Sierra National Forest

1. Area— 1,493,400 acres.

2. Forest in a semi-natural condition;
much of the area obligated to timber
operators and being logged at a rapid
rate. Some areas to be preserved for
experimental purposes.

3. Grazing to a moderate amount by
sheep and cattle.

4. Important types are sugar and
yellow pine, sugar pine and fir, and fir.

5. Range in elevation about 3000 to
10,000 ft.— average elevation 0500 ft.

6. Distance from FresnoJ, 40 mi.
Supervisor's headquarters at North-
fork|.

Stanislaus National Forest

1. Area— 810,802 acres.

2. Forest being rapidly cut over or
obligated to timber operators. Areas
to be set aside for experimental purposes.

3. Moderate amount of grazing by
cattle, sheep and horses.

4. Types— yellow and sugar pine,
sugar pine and fir, and fir.

5. Range in elevation from 3000 to
10,000 ft.— average 6000 ft.

6. Distance from Sonoraf, about 12
mi., Stockton 50 mi.

Tahoe National Forest

1. Area- 512,748 acres.

2. Present condition — very badly cut
and burned over. Some areas will be
withdrawn for experimental purposes.

3. Heavy grazing by cattle and aheep.

224

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

4. Important types— yellow pine, yel-
low anil sugar pine, Jeffrey pine, red
fir, : n' sugar pine i!n(' fir.

5. Elevation from 3000 to 8000 ft —
average 4500 ft.

6. Distance from Nevada CityJ, 10 mi.

Trinity National Forest

1. Area- 1,409,490 acres.

2. Present condition— practically in-
accessible. Experimental area will be
established.

3. Forest heavily grazed by sheep,
and to moderate extent by cattle.

4. Important types include yellow
pine, mixed conifers.

5. Elevation from 2500 to 7500 ft.—
average 4000 ft.

6. Distance from ReddingJ, 30 mi.
Supervisor's headquarters at Weaver-
villet

8. NATIONAL FORESTS OF THE
IKTERMOUNTAIN DISTRICT (4)

By F. S. Baker and S. B. Locke

The national forests of the Inter-
mountain Region (Utah, Nevada and
Southern Idaho) cover practically all
the forested land which bears tree
growth other than pinyon (Pinus edulis),
juniper {Juniperus utahensis and J.
monoftperma) , within the states of Utah,
Nevada and the portion of Idaho south
of the Salmon River. The only notable
exception in western Idaho is where
considerable areas of western yellow
pine {Pinus ponderosa and Pinus pon-
derosa scopulorum) timber land are held
in private ownership. Ecologically,
however, this area contains nothing not
found within the national forests ad-
joining. These forests lie within an
area of varying climatic conditions and
present very different appearances in
different portions. In every region
there is a typical altitudinal zonation of
forest types on the mountains, but
within the Intermountain Region the
zonation is quite variable from north
to south, while in many places it is
further modified by the fact that the

high plains of the Snake River valley
further modify the lower lying alti-
tudinal types on account of the
topography.

In western and southwestern Idaho
the plains are covered with sagebrush
{Artemisia trideniata) and present nearly
unmodified ecological conditions, and
will do so for a great many years to come
as irrigation at best is only a local
possibility and vast areas of this land
will remain in a virgin condition. Win-
ter grazing of sheep is practiced to
a certain extent and has modified the
herbaceous vegetation (to that degree).

The lower slopes of the foothills are
usually covered with grasses, largely 6
weeks grass {Bromus tectorvm) which is
in itself evidence of greatly modified
vegetational conditions. It is safe to
say that the flora and fauna in this
zone have been very greatly modified
by grazing and fires.

This grassy belt extends into the
yellow pine type which in the mountain
valleys usually extends directly to the
agricultural lands, although in the main
Snake River valley it is separated by
the grass land on the foothills mentioned
above. At elevations almost as low as
where the yellow pine first appears,
Douglas fir {Pseudotsuga taxifolia), is
found on north slopes. As altitude in-
creases the Douglas fir increases in
proportion to the yellow pine, becoming
more extensive on the north slopes
than on the flats, finally occupying all
the ground except rugged knobs and
ridge tops. This occurs at fairly high
elevations, however, where the potential
Douglas fir type is covered very largely
with the temporary lodgepole pine type
{Pinus murrayana) which has come in
as a result of fires.

Still higher, lodgepole pine, alpine
fir {Ahies lasiocarpa), and Engelmann
spruce {Picea engehnannii) predomi-
nate. Through all the timber types,
fairly natural conditions exist, except
around the outermost edges of the
National forests, and around mining
camps. Grazing is and has been gener-
ally moderate and the herbaceous flora

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

225

is only moderately affected. Absolutely
virgin conditions in this respect can be
found on the more remote parts of the
Idaho, Salmon, and Challis National
Forests. Hunting and trapping have
gone on for many decades and game
conditions are consequently below nor-
mal. The same is true of fishing.

The foregoing description applies to
the region west of the Sawtooth Range
and along the Salmon River eastward as
far as Salmon City. To the west of
the Salmon Mountains in the region
covered by the greater part of the
Salmon, Challis, and Lemhi National
Forests the western yellow pine type
disappears, its place being taken by a
grass formation. Farther eastward the
Snake River plains become more and
more elevated and carry their sagebrush
formation directly to the lodgepole
pine and aspen {Populus tremuloides)
types in the mountains, virtually crowd-
ing out the grass tj'pe which appears
farther west. In the Targhee National
Forest of Idaho as w^ell as in the Teton
and Wyoming National Forests of
Wyoming, virgin stands of lodgepole
pine characterize the mountains. These
extend to the lowest slopes of the moun-
tains. The higher elevations are cov-
ered with stands of alpine fir and Engel-
mann spruce, the same being true indeed
of all the forests throughout this region.
Very little cutting has been done in any
of these and grazing is generally light to
moderate. In the Teton National for-
est especially in the neighborhood of
the Yellowstone National Park game
conditions are practically unaffected
by the activities of man. In the Cari-
bou National Forest a change begins
to appear. The timber types become
broken and scattered, interspersed with
large areas of open country and the
aspen begins to assume a prominent
place. The valleys between the ranges
are high, so that lodgepole pine and
aspen extend to the foot of the moun-
tains. The higher summits and north-
ern slopes bear stands of alpine fir and
Engelmann spruce. Conditions are
similar on the Cache National Forest in

Utah, although here in main valleys
become lower and a brush type made up
largely of mountain mahogany (Cerco-
carpus pariifolius), dwarf oak (Quercus
utahensis), skunk-bush (Rhus trilobala)
and chokecherry (Prunus demissa), is
found between the lower parts of the
lodgepole pine and Douglas fir types and
the agricultural valleys. Farther south
this brush holt becomes wider, and is
largely dominated by scrub oak (Quercus
utahensis). Lodgepole pine is less prom-
inent and aspen becomes more con-
spicuous. South of the headwaters of
the Provo River on the Uinta National
Forest lodgepole pine drops out entirely.
On the Manti National Forest the
altitudinal succession of types is ex-
tended by the appearance of a well
developed pinyon-juniper type below
the brush belt and above the agricul-
tural valleys, making the succession;
sagebrush (largely under cultivation),
pinyon-juniper, brush, aspen-Douglas
fir, and lastly spruce-fir. On the higher
elevations are many open grassy mea-
dows. Eastward from the Wasatch
and Uinta National Forests, on the
Uinta Mountains conditions again be-
come somewhat different. On the Ash-
ley and parts of the Uinta National
Forest, lodgepole pine is prominent at
high elevations. Toward the east end
of the Ashley National Forest at lower
elevations, adjoining the sagebrush, the
western yellow pine tj'pe reappears.
Southward from the Manti National
Forest in Utah, the Fishlake and Fill-
more National Forests present similar
aspects. On the Powell and Dixie
National Forests, the western yellow
pine again reappears taking the place
of the brush type farther north. The
pinyon-juniper type is very well de-
veloped at the lower elevations. The
Kaibab National Forest in northern
Arizona consists of a plateau covered
primaril}' with western yellow pine
encircled by an escarpment bearing an
open stand of pinyon and juniper. On
the National Forests of Nevada the
pinyon-juniper anil brush types are
common and the arborescent flora is

226

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

generally scattering, both as to numbers
and species. Throughout Utah and
Nevada the wild life is decidedly below
normal and herbaceous vegetation has
been considerably affected by grazing
in many places by decided over-grazing.

NATURAL AREAS

Ashley National Forest (Utah and
Wyoming)

The Ashley Forest (980,135 acres)
is located upon the east end of the Uinta
Range and consists of a broad mountain
range with a high barren east and west
backbone. The whole central part is
in a nearly virgin condition due to
light grazing that results from very
dense timber and the high barren alpine
region. The leading types in order of
extent are: Lodgepole pine 45%, Engel-
mann spruce 14%, barren 13%, grass
6%, western yellow pine 5%, sagebrush

5%.

Deer, elk, and bighorn sheep range in
the northeastern part of the Forest.
At high elevations there are many
glacial lakes of considerable interest
from a geological standpoint. The
streams in the high mountains contain
a pure stock of native trout.

Vernal, Utahf. Supervisor's head-
quarters.

Boise National Forest (Idaho)

The Boise Forest (1,062,698 acres)
lies in central Idaho upon a granite
uplift deeply cut by canyons. It is
largely a virgin Forest. Grazing is
general although not heavy. Timber
cutting is mostly around the edges and
in the vicinity of several mining camps
on the Forest. The chief types are:
subalpine 37%, Douglas fir 24%, western
yellow pine 19%, grass 10%, lodgepole
pine 4%.

The game preserve in the northeastern
part of the Forest on the South Fork
of the Payette River is well stocked with
deer, mountain goat, and elk.

BoiseJ. O. S. L. R. R. Supervisor's
headquarters.

Bridger National Forest (Wyoming)

The Bridger Forest (698,325 acres)
lies upon the west slope of the Wind
River Range, which is high and rugged
and is largely virgin. At the south tip
of the Forest and also at the north end
are State Game Preserves. Grazing is
general. Timber cutting is very limited.

There are considerable numbers of
big game such as bighorn sheep, elk,
and grizzly bear well distributed over
the Forest. Geologically this area is
very interesting, containing fully 500
lakes formed principally by glacial
action. At the head of the streams
rising in the Wind River Range there
are a few living glaciers.

Kemmerert O. S. L. R. R. Super-
visor's headquarters.

Cache National Forest (Utah and Idaho)

The Cache Forest (770,131 acres)
lies mainly on the north extension of the
Wasatch Mountains with minor divi-
sions upon other small north and south
ranges in northern Utah and southern
Idaho. The Forest has an absolutely
protected area of about 15 sq. mi. in
the lower part of Logan Canyon. The
Forest is completely grazed, except
for about 25 sq. mi. in the Pocatello
Division where grazing is prohibited
upon the Pocatello municipal water-
shed; and is all cut over except for a
small area at the north end now under
sale. In this Forest are three 5-acre per-
manent sample plots one of which is to
be maintained in its natural condition
except that grazing is not restricted.
The south end of the Forest is within
a State Game Preserve. The major
types are: brush 34%, sage 20%, aspen
18%, Douglas fir 11%, subalpine 5%,
lodgepole pine 4%, Engelmann spruce
3%, juniper 3%. The northern limit
of the range of Abies concolor is on this
Forest.

Logan, Utah|. O. S. L. R. R. and
U. I. C. R. R. Supervisor's head-
quarters.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

227

Caribou National Forest (Idaho and
Wyoming)

The Caribou Forest (703,858 acres)
lies upon a series of mountain ranges of
moderate elevation in eastern Idaho.
Timber bodies are not extensive and
are largely limited to north slopes.
Cutting has been general especially
toward the south end of the Forest.
Grazing is general throughout the
Forest. The major types in order of
abundance are: sagebrush 29%, aspen
26%, lodgepole pine 14%, brush 11%,
Douglas fir 10%, grass 9%.

Montpelier, IdahoJ. O. S. L. R. R.
Supervisor's headquarters.

Challis National Forest (Idaho)

The Challis Forest (1,253,856 acres)
is located upon a broken mountainous
uplift marked by high rugged major
ridges, which are barren and rocky.
There is a state game preserve on the
Middle Fork of Salmon River and one
area in the north part of the Forest is
protected from grazing by domestic
stock in order to furnish fall and winter
game range. A larger area adjoining is
virtually ungrazed because of the den-
sity of the timber. High ridges are
barren and not grazed. Timber cutting
is unrestricted, but is limited so far
chiefly to one area around Bonanza.
The major types in order of abundance
are: lodgepole pine 50%, subalpine 28%,
Douglas fir 7%, sagebrush 6%.

Inaccessible parts of this Forest con-
tain many deer, mountain goats, and
bighorn sheep. There are abundant
spawning grounds for migratory fish
within the Forest, several species com-
ing from the Pacific Ocean to these
grounds.

ChallisJ. Supervisor's headquarters.

Dixie National Forest (Arizona, Nevada
and Utah)

The Dixie Forest (795,000 acres) lies
in southern Utah upon two uplifts,
the Markagunt Plateau and the Pine
Mountains, both largely composed of

igneous rocks in their higher forested
parts. Small isolated units occur in
Arizona and Nevada. Grazing is un-
restricted and fairly heavy, the only
ungrazed parts are the extensive lava
beds of the Sevier Forest proper. Much
of the timber in the upper mountains is
virgin. Cutting is nowhere prohibited.
The entire Dixie division is a game
preserve together with a small area in
the north part of the Sevier division.
On the Dixie division the main tj'pes are:
pinyon-juniper 57%, brush 25%, western
yellow pine 9%, sage 7%. On the Sevier
division they are: western yellow pine
39%, pinyon-juniper 19%, brush 9%,
Engelmann spruce 8%, barren 8%.

Navajo or Duck Lake is interesting,
since it discharges through sinks and
is probably a solution lake. Occa-
sionally the water becomes sufficiently
low that the sinks are exposed.

Cedar City, Utah J. Supervisor's
headquarters.

Fillmore National Forest (Utah)

The Fillmore Forest (701,696 acres)
lies upon the Tushar Range (high,
volcanic) and the Pahavnt Plateau
(lower, sedimentary). It is not e.\-
ceptionally well forested and is all cut-
over to some degree, except three virgin
areas, two in Beaver Creek drainage and
one in Chalk Creek drainage. The
major types in order are: pinyon-
juniper 35%, Douglas fir 20%, brush
19%, Engelmann spruce 8%, sage 5%.

Richfieldt D. & R- G. R. R.
Supervisor's headquarters.

Fishlake National Forest (Utah)

The Fishlake Forest (665,275 acres)
lies upon the Fishlake Plateau and a
part of the Sevier Plateau in central
Utah. The Forest has been heavily
culled and grazing is general throughout
its area. There are no permanently
protected areas on the Forest, although
there is one area of virgin timber on
Thousand Lake Mountain. .V small
area at Fisli Lake has almost complete
protection from grazing. Nearly the

228

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

whole forest lies within a State Game
Preserve, and in the lower Salina Canyon
watershed a small herd of elk has been
introduced. Fish Lake has a remark-
able growth of vegetation and accom-
paning water life. It has a large pro-
duction of trout maintained principally
by fish cultural activities. The major
types of vegetation are pinyon-juniper
31%, brush 23%, aspen 15%, sage 9%,
grass 7%, Engelmann spruce 7%.

Richfieldt D. & R. G. R. R. Super-
visor's headquarters.

Humboldt National Forest (Nevada)

The Humboldt Forest (1,332,450 acres)
is located upon three widely separate
mountain ranges in Nevada. Many
portions are slightly forested, but rep-
resent interesting conditions. There
is one limited area with absolute per-
manent protection near Jarbidge, but
a more general policy is now in effect
on the Santa Rosa division whereby
periodic protection is practiced to
secure aspen reproduction and range
revegetation. Elsewhere, grazing is
generally heavy. Cutting is limited in
extent. Upon the Ruby Division of
this Forest, is an unexplored cave of
apparently large dimensions. The
major types are: grass 48%, aspen 12%,
pinyon-juniper 10%, sage 7%, subalpine
3%, barren 3%.

ElkoJ. So. Pac. R. R. Supervisor's
headquarters.

Idaho National Forest (Idaho)

The Idaho Forest (1,864,321 acres)
lies upon a deeply eroded broad granite
uplift characterized by deep canyons
and a generally level horizon seen in
looking across the ridgetops. On ac-
count of its general inaccessibility it
will remain virgin for a long time.
Although grazing is unrestricted about
5 of the area is virtually ungrazed due
to inaccessibility. There is almost no
logging done upon the Forest. Forest
fires are frequent and there are many

burned over areas. The major types
in order of abundance are (excluding
Thunder Mountain region): lodgepole
pine 54%, western yellow pine 15%,
Engelmann spruce 13%, subalpine 11%.

A few specimens of the western red
cedar (Thuya plicata) are found along
the main tributaries to the Salmon
River.

McCallt O. S. L. R. R. Supervisor's
' headquarters.

Kaihab National Forest (Arizona)

This Forest (752,217 acres) is located
upon the Kaibab Plateau just north of
the Grand Canyon. The entire Na-
tional Forest is a National Game Pre-
serve and faunal conditions are not
greatly disturbed, although predatory
animals are hunted diligently. It is
the home of the Kaibab squirrel. The
grazing of game and domestic stock is
general and heavy and the herbaceous
cover is not generally in a virgin state.
The grazing of domestic stock has been
greatly restricted. Game animals are
heavily overgrazing certain forage
classes and action has been necessary to
reduce the number of deer to the capac-
ity of the range. The timber is virgin.
Cuttings are small at present, but the
whole area is open to sale. All natural
conditions as represented within this
Forest are found also within the Grand
Canyon National Park under complete
protection. The major types are west-
ern yellow pine 32%,, barren 33%, pinyon-
juniper 20%, grass 7%.

Kanab, Utah. Supervisor's head-
quarters. The Forest may be reached
from the south with a pack outfit by
crossing the Colorado River and gorge
at the town of Grand Canyon (A. T. &
S. F. R. R.), or by automobile from
Flagstaff, Arizona, crossing the river at
Lees Ferry. It may also be reached
from the north by w^ay of Marysvale
or Cedar Citj% Utah. For description of
the Kaibab Forest, see Hough, Emer-
son.— The President's Forest. Saturday
Evening Post, January 14 and 21, 1922.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

229

La Sal National Forest {Colorado and
Utah)

The La Sal Forest (538,717 acres)
lies upon two isolated mountain masses
in southeast Utah. They are generally
poorly timbered, although local bodies
of considerable extent may be found.
Three areas (unforested) are being
protected from grazing as a measure of
watershed protection upon overgrazed
range. There are also two areas of
considerable extent in the Abajo Moun-
tains inaccessible to stock together with
local areas of cliff and slide rock in
many parts of the Forest. The major
types are: brush 45%, pinyon-juniper
32%, western yellow pine 16%, Engel-
mann spruce 3%.

Moab, Utahf. Supervisor's head-
quarters.

Lemhi National Forest {Idaho)

The Lemhi Forest (1,109,779 acres)
is located mainly upon the Lost River
Mountains of south central Idaho, high
rugged narrow ranges. Natural con-
ditions obtain in many places on account
of natural obstacles. Considerable
areas in both the Lost River and Lemhi
Ranges are inaccessible to stock (about
60 sq. mi. in three main areas). Else-
where, grazing is general. Timber cut-
ting is very local, largely in the vicinity
of Mackay. The Big Lost River State
Game Preserve covers the southwest
portion of the Forest. The major types
are: grass 34%, subalpine 24%, Douglas
fir 19%, barren 16%, lodgepole pine 6%.

One of the few remaining bands of
antelope range on the Lost River and
Pahsimroi River.

Mackeyt O. S. L. R. R. Super-
visor's headquarters.

Manti National Forest {Utah)

The Manti Forest (778,651 acres) is
located upon a plateau of sedimentary
rocks (Wasatch Plateau) in central
Utah. The whole Forest has been cut
over with the exception of a few scat-
tered areas rather difficult of access
located mostly in the heads of tributaries

of Huntington Canyon. Grazing is
general and heavy. The only inacces-
sible areas being the "breaks" of cliffs
and talus slopes on the east edge. Such
areas are usually barren or covered with
the pinyon-juniper type. There are a
number of permanent sample plots
established by the Forest Service on this
Forest in the aspen type. They are not
absolutely protected, as normal grazing
is allowed upon them. Cutting, how-
ever, is prohibited. The major types
are: aspen 26%, sage 17%, brush 16%,
grass 14%, Engelmann spruce 11%,
pinyon-juniper 11%. Fish and game
are rare.

Ephraimt. D. & R. G. R. R. Super-
visor's headquarters.

Minidoka National Forest {Utah and
Idaho)

The Minidoka Forest (590,485 acres)
lies in southern Idaho and northern
Utah upon a number of small mountain
ranges. It is not heavily timbered. It
is generally grazed. There are practi-
cally no areas of virgin timber, the whole
Forest being cut over. The chief types
are: sage 65%, aspen 15%, pinyon-
juniper 15%, Douglas fir 4%.

Burley, Idahot O. S. L. R. R.
Supervisor's headquarters.

Nevada National Forest {Nevada)

The Nevada Forest (1,175,355 acres)
is located upon several mountains
ranges in east central Nevada. These
ranges are generally poorly timbered,
although locally there are considerable
bodies of several types. A considerable
area upon the rocky range crests and in
localities without water which are
inaccessible to stock and are ungrazed
so that botanically, these areas are
natural. Tree growth is rare on these
sites. There have been extensive cut-
tings upon this Forest, but in the higher
country there are still many limited
areas representing natural timber con-
ditions. The major types are: pinyon-
juniper 55%, sage 27% subalpine 6%.
Engelmann spruce b%.

230

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Elyt. Nev. Nor. R. R. Supervisor's
headquarters.

Payette National Forest (Idaho)

The Payette Forest (1,202,451 acres)
lies upon an extensive granite uplift
in central Idaho. There is no general
structural trend to the ridges which
are products of erosion. The canyons
are steep sided and frequently very rocky.
Much of the Forest lies in a country
difficult of access and is practically
virgin in every respect. There are
practically no areas closed to stock or
inaccessible to them, although grazing
is very light on the Middle Fork of the
Salmon River and will probably be
entirely stopped within a few years,
the State having established a game
preserve there. Timber cutting is light.
The major types in order of abundance
are: western yellow pine 29%, Douglas
fir 20%, subalpine 20%, lodgepole pine
16%, brush 8%, grass 6%.

Permanent sample plots in the yellow
pine type have been established by the
Forest Service on this Forest. These
plots are grazed, and are to be cut over
under different methods (check plots
reserved). Abies grandis and Larix
occidentalis find their southern limits
on this Forest.

There are extensive game areas within
the Payette Forest where deer, bighorn
sheep and mountain goats are abundant.
There is a great variety of fish and con-
siderable numbers of migratory species
spawn within the boundaries of the
Forest. In some of the inaccessible
regions practically virgin conditions
are found in the streams. The introduc-
tion of various fish species will, within
a few years bring about an adjustment
of the native species.

Emmettt O. S. L. R. R. Super-
visor's headquarters.

Powell National Forest (Utah)

The Powell Forest (about 1,046,000
acres) lies upon the Aquarius, Sevier
and Paunsagunt Plateaus, which bear
on their tops, stands of spruce, fir,

and pine, breaking off into pine and
juniper slopes. Grazing is heavy and
general, except where the topography is
locally precipitous. Little logging has
been done in the yellow pine type.
Forest conditions are essentially virgin.
The major types (Powell Division only)
run: western yellow pine 28%, Engel-
mann spruce 27%, pinyon-juniper 27%,
aspen 8%, grass 7%.

WidtsoeJ. Supervisor's headquar-
ters.

Salmon National Forest (Idaho)

The Salmon Forest (1,620,265 acres)
lies in central Idaho upon several moun-
tain ranges. It is generally rough and
in the higher and more remote sections
natural conditions are generally found.
There are no completely protected areas
on the Forest. Grazing is general, but
a large area on the Middle Fork of the
Salmon River and the northwest corner
of the Forest is too rocky and steep to
be accessible to domestic stock, while
an area near Salmon City is protected on
account of the municipal watershed and
a small area in the north end (Ditch
Creek) is preserved from grazing as a
huckleberry patch. A State Game Pre-
serve occupies a part of the area inac-
cessible to domestic stock and about two
townships of the accessible area ad-
joining. Cut-over areas are small. The
major types are: lodgepole pine 37%,
Douglas fir 31%, western yellow pine
10%, sage 6%, subalpine 6%. The
southeastern limits of western yellow
pine in Idaho are found on this Forest.

Salmonf. Gilmore and Pittsburg R.
R. Supervisor's headquarters.

Sawtooth National Forest (Idaho)

The Sawtooth Forest (1,159,339 acres)
consists of a broken mountainous coun-
try characterized by main ridges of
great height and ruggedness. The types
in order of extent are grass 41%, Douglas
fir 23%, brush 8%, barren 8%, lodgepole
pine 6%, subalpine 6%, aspen 2%, west-
ern yellow pine 2%, miscellaneous small
types making up the balance. Graz-

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

231

ing is general all over the Forest except
in areas around the Redfish and Alturas
Lakes region where there is full protec-
tion. This preserved area is covered
largely with virgin lodgepole pine.
Interesting experiments in fish stocking
and fish food productions are being
xmdertaken. Logging is permitted
except in this region. Cut-over areas
are limited largely to the Wood River
drainage.

Haileyt O. S. L. R. R. Supervisor's
headquarters.

Targhee National Forest {Idaho and
Wyoming)

The Targhee Forest (1,357,297 acres)
lies largely upon a lava plateau in east-
ern Idaho and western Wyoming. The
Forest consists principally of lodgepole
pine. The whole Forest is naturally
ecologically similar to the Yellowstone
National Park adjoining. Grazing is
general but not heavy. Both cut-over
and virgin areas of timber are well
represented. The major forest types
in order of importance are; lodgepole
pine 34%, grass 21%, Douglas fir 15%,
brush (incl. sage) 14%, subalpine 8%.

St. Anthony, Idahof. O. S. L. R. R.
Supervisor's headquarters.

Teton National Forest (Wyoming)

The Teton Forest (1,880,825 acres)
is located in a mountainous country
immediately to the south of Yellowstone
National Park. The Forest as a whole
is slightly used. It contains large areas
of virgin lodgepole pine type which is
slightly grazed and although there are
no protected areas there are large areas
in a natural condition. The Grand
Teton peak, 13,747 ft. high, extends far
above timberline. There is a great deal
of game on this Forest and the north
part above the latitude of Jackson Lake
is a State Game Preserve. The major
types are: lodgepole pine 29%, grass
21%, barren (high rocky) 21%, sub-
alpine 16%, brush 5%, Engelmann
spruce 5%.

Jacksonf . Supervisor's headquarters.

Toyahe National Forest (Nevada)

The Toyabe Forest (1,883,837 acres)
lies upon several mountain ranges in
central Nevada. These are generally
poorly timbered. Grazing is unre-
stricted. There are, however, certain
high rocky areas inaccessible to domestic
stock used primarily by mountain sheep
and deer. Cutting has been heavy
locally (in the vicinity of old mining
camps), but most of the Forest is virgin
as to timber. The major types are:
pinyon-juniper 51%, brush 30%, aspen
10%, subalpine 3%.

Austint Nevada Cent. R. R. Super-
visor's headquarters.

Wasatch National Forest (Utah)

The Wasatch Forest (609,576 acres)
lies mainly upon the Wasatch and
Uinta Mountain Rangesof central Utah,
although two minor divisions lie farther
west upon small isolated ranges.
Nearly the whole Forest has been cut
over and is generally grazed. Several
watersheds near Salt Lake City are
closed to grazing. There is also a
State Game Preserve in this region. In
the most easterly part of the Forest is
a considerable area (about 35 sq. mi.)
of virgin lodgepole pine forest. The
major types in order of abundance are:
lodgepole pine 23%, barren 13%, sub-
alpine 11%,, brush 11%, grass 11%, sage
10%, aspen 8%, Douglas fir 6%, pinyon-
juniper 4%, Engelmann spruce 3%. The
northern limit of Finus ponderosa
scopolorum in Utah is on this Forest.
Salt Lake City|. D. Sc R. (i. R. R.,
O. S. L. R. R. and W. Pac. R. R. Super-
visor's headquarters.

Weiser National Forest (Idaho)

The Weiser Forest (566,002 acres) is
located in western Idaho upon a moun-
tainous highland which becomes very
rugged in the northwestern part. Two
burns (Sec. 3 and 4, T. 21 N., R. 1 W.
and Sec. 8 and 9, T. 20 N., R. 1 W.,
Boise Mer.) of about one sq. mi. each
are protected from grazing. In the

232

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

northwest corner about three townships
lie in a State Game Preserve. Graz-
ing is general. Timber cutting is very-
localized and the greater part of the
Forest is virgin. The major types are:
western yellow pine 30%, grass 24%,
Douglas fir 17%, larch-fir 12%, sub-
alpine 10%.

Weisert. O. S. L. R. R. Supervisor's
headquarters.

Wyoming National Forest (Wyoming)

The Wyoming Forest (966,954 acres)
lies upon a mountain range of a plateau-
like character, becoming more rugged
northward. This Forest contains large
areas of lodgepole pine which are being
widely cut over at the present time.
The Swift Creek watershed near Afton
is closed to sheep, however, as a protec-
tion to the Afton water supply. At the
north end of the Forest in high moun-
tainous country is a game refuge. Graz-
ing is general and timber cutting is not
restricted on any areas. The major
types in order of abundance are: brush
25%, lodgepole pine 21%, Douglas fir
15%, aspen 9%, sage 8%, grass 6%.

Kemmerer, Wyomingf. O. S. L. R.
R. Supervisor's headquarters.

9. NATIONAL FORESTS OF THE
SOUTHWESTERN DISTRICT (3)

By G. a. Pearson

The National Forests of Arizona and
New Mexico cover about 22 million
acres and comprise approximately 65%
of the forest area in the two States.
They are situated in high mountain
regions ranging from 2000 to 13,000 ft.
in altitude. Although the forest boun-
daries occasionally take in desert and
brush lands down to 2000 ft. in elevation,
the true forests, as distinguished from
brush and woodland, rarely occur below
7000 ft. The upper altitudinal limit
of tree growth is around 11,500 ft. Four
distinct forest associations or forest
types are recognized. They are, in
order of altitudinal occurrence, begin-
ning with the lowest, the woodlands,

the yellow pine type, the Douglas fir
type and the Engelmann spruce type.
The altitudinal limits vary with soil,
climate, aspect and other local condi-
tions. Other factors being equal, any
given forest type occurs roughly 1000
ft. higher on southerly than on north-
erly aspects. Since the same forest
type varies but little on different Na-
tional Forests in the Southwest, the
following descriptions will apply in a
general way over the entire region.

WOODLANDS (UPPER SONORAN ZONE)

Woodland areas are not, strictly
speaking, classed as forests because the
trees do not attain saw timber size.
The woodlands occur mostly between
the altitudinal limits of 5000 and 7000
ft., though in some localities they extend
above or below these extremes. The
average annual precipitation seldom
exceeds 17 in. and falls as low as 12 in.
Mean annual temperatures range from
50° to 55°.

Two distinct types of woodland occur.
In the one most commonly encountered,
the dominant trees are the junipers
(Jtmiperus rnonosperma, J. utahensis,
J. pachyphloea and /. scopulorum) ,
and the piiion, {Pinus edulis). In
southern Arizona, notably the Coronado
National Forest, is a woodland composed
mainly of oaks, (Quercus emoryi and Q.
arizonica) .

Woodland stands are usually open
and the space between the trees is
generally occupied by short grasses.
Cutting for fuel and posts removes
most of the mature and overmature
trees, but provision is always made for
seed trees to restock cut-over areas.
Because of the accessibility of the wood-
lands to settled communities and the
demand for their wood and grazing
resources, it is probable that they will
be exploited to the limit of their capac-
ity. The piiion jay, scaled partridge,
Woodhouse's jay, wild turkey, white-
tailed deer (Odocoileus), mule deer
(Odocoileus hemiomis group), coyote
{Canis sp.), rock squirrel (Otospermo-
philus), prairie dog (Cynomys), cotton-

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

233

tail rabbit (Sylvilagus audubonii group),
and black-tailed jackrabbit (Lejnis cali-
fornicus group) and woodrat {Neoioma
sp.) inhabit this zone, but are not
confined to it.

YELLOW PINE TYPE (TRANSITION ZONE)

Western yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa
sco-pulorum) forms stately forests on the
tablelands and lower mountain slopes
between altitudes of 7000 and 8500 ft.
The parklike character of the stands,
the ease with which travel is accom-
plished, the delightful summer climate
and the wealth of plant and animal life,
give these forests a peculiar charm.
The mean annual precipitation totals
between 20 and 25 in. and the mean
annual temperature is around 45°.
Grasses dominate the herbaceous vege-
tation, but brilliant flowered plants lend
color to the landscape during the sum-
mer rainy period of July and August.
Birds are represented by the pigmy
nuthatch, long-crested jay, western
robin, chestnut -backed bluebird, Mearns
quail and wild turkey. Among the
characteristic mammals are Abert squir-
rel (Sciurus aberti group), white-tailed
deer, mule deer, coyote, wolf (Canis
mexicanus), and black bear (Ursus
americanus group). Since this forest
is the main source of saw timber in the
Southwest, natural conditions will be
disturbed by lumbering, though not to
the extent of destroying forest con-
ditions. Extensive areas exist which,
because of the lack of transportation
facilities, will probably remain unex-
ploited for fifty years. Grazing inter-
feres with the normal development of
herbaceous vegetation, but this in turn
aids in the control of fires which other-
wise would endanger the forest itself.

DOUGLAS FIR TYPE (CANADIAN ZONE)

Douglas fir {Pseudotsuga taxiJoUa),
associated with white fir {Abies con-
color), limber pine {Pinus fiexilis), and
several minor species, forms dense stands
on cool slopes between altitudes of
8000 and 10,000 ft. Undergrowth is

usually light and consists mainly of
shrubs and broad-leaved herbs. Natu-
ral reproduction of forest trees is usually
abundant. Extensive areas in this
forest type have been burned over and
have grown up to aspen. In many cases
the aspen thickets are being invaded by
conifers which will eventually replace
the aspen. The mean annual tempera-
ture is about four degrees lower, and the
precipitation about five inches higher
than in the yellow pine type. Cutting
is progressing rapidly in certain locali-
ties; in others rugged topography or
distance from lines of transportation
will bar the lumberman for many years
to come. Grazing is less intensive than
in the Yellow Pine type. Characteris-
tic birds and mammals are the Clarke
nutcracker, blue grouse, wild turkey,
porcupine {Erethizon epixanthum), red
fox {Vulpes fulva group), and spruce
squirrel {Sciurus fremonli group).

ENGELMANN SPRUCE TYPE (UPPER

CANADIAN ANT) LOWER HUD-

SONIAN ZONES)

The densest forests of this region are
composed of Engelmann spruce {Picea
engelmanni), associated in varying de-
grees with alpine fir {Abies lasiocarpa),
corkbark fir {Abies arizonica), and
bristle-cone pine {Pinus aristata). As
in the Douglas fir type, extensive areas
have been burned and have grown up to
aspen which will eventually give way to
the conifers. Since the highest slopes
are above the range of aspen, burns in
such situations remain bare until re-
stocked by coniferous trees. Exploita-
tion has been limited usually to the re-
moval of ties and poles. Much of this
forest will remain undisturbed by cut-
ting for an indefinite period because of
the difficulties encountered in transport-
ing the timber to market. The Engel-
mann spruce type extends to the upper
limit of tree growth which is encountered
at around 11,500 ft. Precipitation is
little, if any, higher than in the Douglas
fir tvpe, but the temperature is lower.
Snow lies on north exposures until
July. Undergrowth is usually sparse.

234

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Init forest reproduction is often dense.
The fauna is very similar to that of the
Douglas fir type.

ALPINE ZONE

This term is applied to the areas lying
above the upper limit of normal tree
growth, which is not, strictly speaking, a
forest type. Engelmann spruce, bristle-
cone pine and alpine fir, where present,
assume a bushy or trailing posture. The
trailing juniper {Junipeuis comviunis)
is characteristic. Some of the grasses
and other herbs whose usual habitat is
several thousand feet below, occur here
in a dwarfed form. This is the home of
the ptarmigan, the pipit, the marmot
(Marmota fiaviventris group) and the
pika {Ochotona).

PARKS

Within all of the forest types are tree-
less areas known as parks, prairies and
mountain meadows. The parks and
prairies occur mainly within the yellow
pine forests, and their existence is at-
tributed to various causes. They are
occupied by grama grass (Bouteloua)
or bunch grass (Muhlenbergia) , or in
some cases by shrubs such as sagebrush
(Artemisiairidentata) or shadscale {Atri-
plex canescens). The term mountain
meadow as usually understood applies
to wet valleys or other comparatively
fiat lands in the high mountains. They
bear a luxuriant growth of grasses,
sedges, and often of showy flowering
plants such as the iris and gentian.

FOREST RESEARCH

A research organization is maintained
by the Forest Service for the purpose of
solving problems in forest and range
management. Forest research is con-
centrated to a large extent at the South-
western Forest Experiment Station lo-
cated near Flagstaff, Arizona, but
studies are being conducted on a number
of National Forests. Permanent sta-
tions for the study of range problems are
maintained on the Santa Rita Range

Reserve near Tucson, Arizona, and the
Jornado Range Reserve near Las Cruces,
New Mexico. So-called permanent sam-
ple plots for the study of forest reproduc-
tion and growth are being maintained on
several National Forests. They vary
in size from 5 to 480 acres. On all but
one of these plots, cutting has removed
from 40 to 75% of the original stand of
timber, and all are subject to further
cutting in from 50 to 75 years. Some of
the plots are fenced against all grazing,
but present plans do not contemplate
exclusion of grazing more than from 20 to
25 years, or until natural restocking is
completed. In short, the purpose of
the sample plots is not to create natural
conditions, but rather to demonstrate
various methods of forest management.
Similar plots are maintained for the
study of herbaceous vegetation and
methods of range management. Fur-
ther information regarding these plots
can be obtained from the District Fores-
ter, Albuquerque, New Mexico.

The present administration of Na-
tional Forests, though safeguarding
against devastation, does not insure the
preservation of any areas in a natural
state. Extensive tracts, because of
inaccessibility, will remain relatively
free from industrial development for
many years, but this status cannot be
regarded as permanent. From the for-
ester's point of view, as well as that of
the botanist and zoologist, the reserva-
tion of typical forest areas under dis-
tinct provisions for keeping them in a
natural state is desirable.

The Forest Service invites scientific
workers to avail themselves of the
opportunities for research afforded by
the National Forests. It is possible in
summer to travel by automobile over
considerable portions of all the Forests.
Sections which are inaccessible by
automobile can usually be reached by
wagon roads or trails. Camping equip-
ment is often necessary and always
desirable. Information regarding roads,
means of transportation and subsistence
can always be secured at the office of
the local Forest Supervisor.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

235

NATURAL AREAS

Apache National Forest {Arizona)

Area 1,185,512 acres, mainly coniferous
forest representing the woodland, yellow
pine, Douglas fir and Engelmann spruce
types, almost entirely in the virgin state.
The topography varies from level table-
lands to rugged peaks, an^d altitudes
range from 4000 to 12,000 ft.

HolbrookJ, 100 mi. north, A. T. & S.
F. R. R. ; auto stage to Springervillei,
Supervisor's headquarters.

Carson National Forest (Neto Mexico)

Area 869,320 acres. All of the conifer-
ous forest types of the Southwest are
represented; altitudes 5000 to 13,000 ft.;
fine streams, numerous prehistoric ruins.

Taosf, Supervisor's headquarters.
Reached by way of Santa Fe and Taos
Junction, D. &. R. G. R. R.; auto stage,
25 mi. to Taos.

Coconino National Forest (Arizona)

Area 1,637,052 acres, mainly conif-
erous forest representing all the forest
types. Altitudes range from 3000 ft. on
the Verde River to 12,700 ft. on the San
Francisco Mountains. The topography
is mostly level or gently rolling mesas
intersected by occasional deep canyons
and dotted by volcanic cones. Prehis-
toric ruins occur in several localities.
This Forest and the Tusayan which
adjoins it on the west, are the scene of
the most extensive lumbering operations
in the Southwest. Five permanent
sample plots, three fenced.

Flagstafft, A. T. & S. F. R. R., Super-
visor's headquarters.

Coronado National Forest, Arizona and
New Mexico)

Area 1,430,043 acres. This Forest is
made up of several "islands" rising out
of the desert. Altitudes range from 3000
to 9000 ft., and vegetation zones from the
scrub and woodland to the Douglas fir
forest. Emory oak and Arizona oak
attain their best development here.
Desert mountain sheep have been re-
ported in the woodlands.

Tucson, ArizonaJ, E. P. S:. S. W. and

S. P. railroads, Supervisor's head-
quarters.

Crook National Forest (Arizona)

Area 889,939 acres. This Forest con-
sists of four small units or separate
mountain masses which rise to a suffi-
cient height above the desert to support
coniferous forests. The forest types
range from the woodland to Engelmann
spruce. Altitudes range from about
4000 to 10,500 ft.

SaffordI, A. E. R. R., Supervisor's
headquarters.

Datil National Forest (Neiv Mexico)

Area 2,641,521 acres, coniferous forest,
woodland to spruce type; altitudes 4000
to 10,000 ft.; little cutting. A large por-
tion of the timbered area will probably
remain inaccessible for many years.
Ten game refuges, averaging 21,000 acres
each are located within this Forest.

Magdalenal, Supervisor's headquar-
ters, A. T. &. S. F. R. R.

Gila National Forest (Neto Mexico)

Area 1,596,296 acres; coniferous forest,
woodland to spruce; altitudes 5000 to
11,000 ft.; little cutting; large areas
relatively inaccessible. Two permanent
sample plots; four small game refuges.

Silver City|, Supervisor's headquar-
ters, A. T. & S. F. R. R.

Lincoln National Forest (Netv Mexico)

.Area 1,123,868 acres; desert, scrub and
coniferous forest, the latter representing
all forest types, including the alpine
above 11,000 ft. The forest is made up
of several snuiU mountain masses rising
abruptly out of the desert. A fine sum-
mer resort is located in the heart of the
fir forest at Cloudcrof tt, 9000 ft . Desert
Mountain sheep have been rei)ortetl on
this Forest.

Alamogordol, Supervisor's headquar-
ters, E. P. &. S. W. R. R.

236

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Mamano National Forest (New Mexico)

Area 702,208 acres. Coniferous for-
est, including woodland, yellow pine,
Douglas fir and Engclmann spruce, up
to 11,000 ft. ; small lumbering operations.

Albuquerquet, Supervisor's headquar-
ters, A. T. & S. F. R. R.

Prescott National Forest (Arizona)

Area 1,447,024 acres, coniferous forest
with some oak woodland. Only the
forest types below the Engelmann
spruce are represented. Altitudes
range from 2000 to 8000 ft.

Prescottt, A. T. & S. F. R. R., Super-
visor's headquarters.

Santa Fe National Forest (New Mexico)

Area 1,364,585 acres. Coniferous for-
est, including all forest types to timber
line; altitudes 6000 to 13,000 ft.; very
rugged topography, well watered; six
small sample plots. Famous prehistoric
ruins of Rito de los Frijoles near Santa
Fe.

Santa FeJ, Supervisor's headquarters,
A. T. & S. F. and D. & R. G. Railroads.

Sitgreaves National Forest (Arizona)

Area 631,474 acres, mainly virgin
western yellow pine, though small areas
of Douglas fir may be found. Alti-
tudes range between 5000 and 9000 ft.
The topography is characterized by
high, comparatively level tablelands
dissected by deep, precipitous canyons.

Holbrookl, A. T. & S. F. R. R. Super-
visor's headquarters, 35 mi. by automo-
bile stage.

Tonto National Forest (Arizona)

Area 2,112,888 acres. Relatively small
areas bear a true forest, the greater
portion being desert brush or woodland,
which are included because of their
watershed value. The famous Roose-
velt Dam and Reservoir and the Natural
Bridge are located on this Forest.
Roosevelt Lake is a game preserve.

Rooseveltt, 38 mi. from Globe, A. E.

R. R., and 60 mi. from Phoenix, A. E.
and A. T. & S. F. R. R., reached from
either place by automobile stage. Super-
visor's headquarters, Phoenix.

Tusayan National Forest (Arizona)

Area 1,289,351 acres. This Forest is
generally similar to the Coconino which
it adjoins on the west. To the north
lies the Grand Canyon National Park.
One permanent sample plot.

WilliamsJ, A. T. & S. F. R. R., Super-
visor's headquarters.

Jornado Range Reserve (New Mexico)

Area about 200,000 acres; desert
plains and foothill country, ranging
from 4000 to 7000 ft. in altitude. No
forest occurs within the reserve. The
prevailing vegetation includes grama
grasses, tobosa (Hilaria mutica), drop
seed (Sporobolus), creosote bush (Covil-
lea iridentata) and mesquite (Prosopis
glandulosa). The area is maintained
for the purpose of carrying on experi-
ments and demonstrations in range
management.

Las CrucesI, headquarters of Grazing
Examiner in charge; A. T. & S. F. R. R.

Santa Rita Range Reserve (Arizona)

About 49 sq. mi. of desert and semi-
desert, fenced against cattle from 1903
to 1915. Since the latter year it has
been handled by the Forest Service as an
experimental range for livestock. Much
research work has been done on the
succession of natural types of vegeta-
tion. Altitudes 3000 to 5000 ft.

Tucsonf, S. P. R. R., headquarters
of Grazing Examiner in charge.

Sample plots within National Forests
(Arizona)

Coconino and Tusayan National For-
ests. Sample plots S-1 to S-6 inclusive.
The areas vary from 120 to 480 acres.
All are in pure yellow pine stands at
altitudes around 7000 ft. All but plot
S-6 have been cut, removing 40 to 70%
of the timber. Topography: gently roll-
ing; soil clay loam derived from basalt.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

237

Within each area are several plots of
from 4 to 12 acres on which all trees are
numbered and located on a map.
Diameter and height measurements
are made every 5 years. Progress of
reproduction is checked annually. A
few of these small plots are fenced
against all grazing, but this condition
will be maintained only until reproduc-
tion is established. All but S-6 are
subject to future cutting in 50 to 75
years. Established 1909-1913.

FlagstaffI, A. T. & S. F. R. R., 10
to 30 mi. Detailed information at
Southwestern Forest Experiment Sta-
tion.— G. A. Pearson.

Sample plots wilhin National Forests
(New Mexico)

Datil National Forest. Sample plots
SIA, SIB, S2A. Area about 10 acres
each. SIA and SIB are in a canj^on at
about 8300 ft. elevation. The composi-
tion is western yellow pine, Douglas
fir and limber pine. Plot S2A is com-
paratively level, pure western yellow
pine. All plots logged and established
1910; all are grazed. Trees numbered
and mapped, diameters and heights
measured every 5 years.

MagdalenaJ, A. T. & S. F. R. R.,
Supervisor's headquarters.

Gila National Forest. Sample plots
SIA and S2B. Area 6 acres each, practi-
cally pure western yellow pine, about
707c cut. Plots established 1911. Trees
measured every 5 years. Both plots
are grazed.

Silver Cityt, A. T. & S. F. R R.,
Supervisor's headquarters.

Santa Fe National Forest. Sample
plots, Pecos SIA and SIB and Jemez
SIA and S2A and S3A. Area G acres
each; western jellow pine with varying
mixture of Douglas fir and limber pine.
Altitudes around 7500 ft. All plots cut,
removing 60 to 70%, and all grazed.
Established 1911.

Santa FeJ, A. T. & S. F. and D. &
R. G., Supervisor's headquarters. —
G. A. Pearson.

10. NATIONAL FORESTS OF THE

ROCKY MOUNTAIN

DISTRICT (2)

By C. G. Bates

There are 26 National forests in this
district, Colorado having 15, Wyoming
5, South Dakota 2, Nebraska 1, Michigan
1 and Minnesota 2.

Owing to the extremely diverse clima-
tic conditions found in going from South
Dakota to the Rocky mountains, from
the southern border of Colorado to Min-
nesota, and from the western to the
eastern slope of the Rockies it has been
thought best to give a detailed account
of each forest rather than to attempt
a general description for the entire
district.

For the sake of brevity and to avoid
monotony, a tabulation is given be-
low showing the name and area of
the forest, the supervisor's headquarters
and the directions for reaching it.
Under each description there is given a
brief account of the plant and animal
life, the special physiographic features
and the natural areas reserved or suita-
ble for reservation.

NATIONAL FOREST

HEADQUARTERS TOWN

DIRECTIONS FOR REACHING HEADQUARTERS

ACREAGE
OF THE
FOREST

Colorado (15)

Arapaho

Cochetopa
Colorado

Grand Mesa
Gunnison

Hot Sulphur

Springs
Salida
Ft. Collins

Grand Junction
Gunnison

D. & S. L. R. R. from Denver

D. & R. G. W. R. R.

C. & S. R. R. and U. P. R. R. from
Denver or Cheyenne

D. ct R. G. W. R. R.

D. & R. G. W. R. R. (narrow gauge
from Grand Junction or Salida)

634,284

907,000
853,641

660,823
905,382

238

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

NATIONAL FORESTS

HEADQUARTERS TOWN

DIRECTIONS FOR REACHING HEADQUARTERS

ACREAGE
OF THE
FOREST

Colorado (15)

Holy Cross

Glenwood
Springs

D. & R. G. W. R. R.

1,171,921

Leadville

Leadville

D. & R. G. W. R. R. and C. & S.
R.R.

930,568

Montezuma

Mancos

R. G. S. R. R. from Durango or
Montrose

697, 742

Pike

Colorado

R. I.;D. &R. G. W. R. R.;SanteFe;

1,093,073

Springs

C. & S. R. R.

Rio Grande

Monte Vista

D. <t R. G. W. R. R.

1,135,728

Routt

Steamboat
Springs

D. & S. L. R. R. from Denver

744,856

San Isabel

Pueblo

D. & R. G. W. R. R.; Sante Fe;
M. P. R. R.

599,096

San Juan

Durango

D. & R. G. W. R. R. from Alamosa
or Denver and R. G. So. Ry. from
Montrose

1,240,141

Uncompahgre

Delta

D. & R. G. W. R. R. (narrow gauge
from Grand Junction or Salida)

778,291

White River

Glenwood
Springs

D. & R. G. W. R. R.

845,104

Wyoming (5)

Bighorn
Hayden

Medicine Bow
Shoshone

Washakie

Sheridan
Encampment

Laramie
Cody

Lander

C. B. &Q.R. R.

U. P. R. R. branch or stage from

Walcott, Wyoming
U. P. R. R.
C. B. & Q. R. R. from Frannie on

Billings-Casper Line
C. & N. W. R. R.

1,124,617
394,011

477,701
1,583,489

852,315

South Dakota (2)

Black Hills
Harney

Deadwood
Custer

C. B. & Q. and C. & N. W. R. R.
C. B. &Q.Ry.

620,556
508,514

Minnesota (2)

Superior
Minnesota

Ely

Cass Lake

D. & I. R. R. from Duluth
G. N. R.R. ;Soo Line

857,339
190,602

Michigan

Michigan

East Tawas

D. &M.R.R.

123,647

Nebraska

Nebraska

Halsey or Nei

tizil C. B. &Q. orC. &N.W. R. R.

205,944

NATURAL AREAS

Arapaho National Forest {Colorado)

The forest forms the headwaters of
the Colorado River and also North
Platte River, with numerous small
lakes at heads of streams.

514,053 acres of lodgepole pine {Pinus

contorta) and Engelmann spruce (Picea
engelmannii) ; small amount of Douglas
fir {Pseudoisuga tarifolia) ; two small
isolated areas of Western yellow pine
(Pinus -ponderosa Scopulorum); nu-
merous open un-timbered land above
areas of aspen. There are 120,202 acres
timber-line, and sagebrush.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

239

Deer, elk, and black bear are found
over a large portion of the forest. Cou-
gar occur in small numbers and bighorn
sheep occasionally. Trout are found
in most streams and lakes.

Eraser, D. & S. L. R. R., is center of
lodgepole pine and Engelmann spruce
areas and several sawmill operations.
Ranger at Idlewild R. S., 5 mi. SE.
Small hotel at Eraser.

Grand Lake is one of largest in state;
reached by stage from Granby, 20 mi.,
or from Estes Park. Summer resort;
ample accommodations. Center for num-
ber small mountain lakes and peaks.

Monarch Lake, 20 mi. from Granby
by auto road or 12 mi. from Tabernash
by trail.

Plots 20 ft. square have been fenced
against grazing to study effect of grazing
on forage species. One is near Gilsonite
R. S., auto from Granby and two more
near Hot Sulphur Springs, walk.

Winter range of deer and elk near Hot
Sulphur Springs. Williams Fork State
Game Refuge (1923) lies back of this
and extends to timber-line. 400 deer
and 400 elk in vicinity.

Cochetopa National Forest (Colorado)

Contains extensive areas of lodgepole
pine in northern portion, which is the
southern limit of lodgepole pine; Engel-
mann spruce at high elevations; mixed
stands of Douglas fir and yellow pine
at lower altitudes. Extensive burns in
spruce type on Saguache, Mineral and
Spring Creek drainages, 1893. Typical
burns may be seen at Marshall Pass
(D. & R. G. W. narrow-gauge) as well
as anywhere. Burns also in the lodge-
pole pine type during the last 35 or 40
years; probably entire tj^pe has followed
fires which occurred in the last 200 years,
and original tj^pe on northerly slopes in
present lodgepole pine stands was
largely Douglas fir.

Bighorn sheep range, an area of 3200
acres, lies between the cattle range on
Spring and Mineral Creeks and the high
sheep range, so rough and inaccessible
that it is not grazed by domestic stock.
Reached bv few miles on foot, snow-

shoes, or horseback from Cathedral
after 40-mile stage from Gunnison.
(D. & R. G. W. R. R.) Ranger at Cathe-
dral entire year.

Poncha Pass State Game Refuge
(1923) lies near Salida and is bounded on
the north bj- the transcontinental auto-
highway over Monarch Pass. Similarly
the Cochetopa State Game Refuge
(1923) may be reached from Salida or
Saguache over the Cochetopa Pass high-
way, the area lying to the south of this
road and east of the Continental Divide.
Both highways are main routes of travel
to Gunnison and the west.

Sargents (D. & R. G. W. R. R. froni
Salida) is in the center of the lodgepole
pine forest. Eight sample plots have
been established in this vicinity, 7 of
which are j acre and one 1 acre in area.
Designed to show the results of thin-
nings in lodgepole pine timber which
matures at mine-prop size. For further
details of location see ranger stationed
either at Sargent's or at Long Branch
ranger station 3 mi. distant.

Sample plot of h acre on overgrazed
range badly infested with pingue (Hij-
menoxys). The original grama-grass
tj'pe has been largely replaced l)y pingue.
Grazing has been excluded from the
sample area by fence to determine
whether grama grass will recover and
dominate the pingue. Reached from
Moffat (D. & R. G. W. R. R.) by an 18-
mi. stage trip to Saguache, thence 17
mi. by auto to the area. Ranger at
Carnero R. S. can be reached by phone
from Saguache.

Colorado National Forest (Colorado)

The Forest covers portions of the
North and South Platte watersheds and
bounds the Rocky Mt. Nat. Park on
3 sides. Forests of lodgepole pine,
Engelmann spruce and alpine fir (Abies
lasiocaria) cover large areas in the higher
elevations. The type in the foothills
embraces yellow pine, with an admixture
of Douglas fir. About 20St burned and
cut-over.

The Colorado State Game Refuge
(1921) covers a large part of the Forest.

240

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Portions of the area are accessible by
auto from Boulder, Loveland, Long-
mont, Lyons, Ft. Collins and other
R. R. points. The NW. portion may
be approached via mail stage from
Laramie, Wyo. (U. P. R. R.) to Glen-
devey P. O., 55 mi., thence about 10
miles to Refuge. Rangers at Boulder,
Bellvue (near Ft, Collins) and 2 miles
from Glendevey. At west edge of
Refuge in Boulder district are Arapaho,
Isabel and St. Vrain glaciers.

Trail End. A licensed game preserve
of 200 acres for the propogation of west-
ern animals. Reached by auto from
Ft. Collins, 43 mi., or Tie Siding Wyo.
(U. P. R. R.) 33 mi.

West Lakes. A reserve of 2560 acres
containing lakes which are used by State
for trout-spawning purposes. Reached
via stage from Ft. Collins to Log Cabin,
thence 7 mi. west.

Proposed Red Rock Lake botanical
area, of about 20 acres, should be fenced
to exclude stock and perpetuate the
great variety of plants to be found in a
restricted area. Reached by auto stage,
Boulder to Ward, thence distant 2| mi.

Grand Mesa National Forest {Colorado)

Grand Mesa, which forms the main
unit of the Forest, is a table-like moun-
tain with a top area of 53 sq. mi. and a
perimeter of 60 mi . The sides are abrupt
and rise over 6000 ft. above the floor of
the valley, the top being comparatively
level meadow-land interspersed with
groves of spruce and fir. The moun-
tain owes its existence to a huge lava
flow which capped the soft sedimentary
formations. Erosion has exposed large
cross-sections of the underlying strata,
making over 100 lakes just under the
volcanic rim or on top of the mesa.

The flora and fauna characteristic
of the altitudinal zones can be very
conveniently studied as good roads
have been built from the floor of the
Colorado and Gunnison Rivers to the
top of Grand Mesa, and a range in
altitude from 4500 ft. to 10,500 can be
traversed in less than three hours. The
characteristic vegetation of the desert

extends to the base of the Grand Mesa;
from there up timber is present from the
pinyon type up through the oak and
aspen to the spruce-balsam. The aspen
and spruce belts are rich in plant growth
and elk, deer and bear are plentiful,
besides a variety of smaller mammals.
Beaver are found in every stream upon
the Mesa; bird life is abundant; the
lily-pad lakes furnish nesting places
for waterfowl.

Forty lakes have been made accessible
to automobiles.

Hotels have been built at three prin-
cipal groups. Horses, boats and private
cabins are available. Grand Mesa
reached by 25-mi. stage from Delta,
56 mi. from Grand Junction and 28
mi. from Debeque. (All on D. & R.
G. W. R. R.)

Gunnison National Forest {Colorado)

The forest consists of 43% productive
timberland, 19% woodland, chiefly as-
pen, 6% brushland, 14% grass or sage-
brush, 1% burn not restocking, 17%
barren and above timber-line. It is
further characterized by extensive burns
and large areas of lodgepole pine.

Crater Lake, an unstocked fresh-
water lake lies near the summit of Mt.
Gunnison at an elevation of approxi-
mately 10,500 ft. Area 40 acres. Sur-
rounded on the east, south and west by
dense stands of Engelmann spruce and
alpine fir. Approached by saddle and
pack 17 mi. from Paonia, Colo. (D. &
R. G. W. R. R. from Delta) where are
good accommodations and ranger. Four
miles from end of pack trip to Lake.

Storm Range Game Refuge is an area
of 21 sq. mi. from which grazing is
excluded by Forest Service policy.
Mostly barren of timber, on a high mesa,
bounded on three sides by high cliffs.
Forage on the mesa is of alpine type.
Reached by horse or on foot, 6 mi.
from Baldwin, Colo. (C. & S. R. R.
from Gunnison) where there is a
ranger.

Gunnison State Game Refuge (1923)
a large area to the north of Sapinero
and west of Crested Butte, may be

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

241

reached from either of these towns or
from Gunnison.

About 100 acres permanent sample
plots in lodgepole pine illustrating re-
production after clear-cutting and vari-
ous degrees of thinning, estal)lished in
1911. Reached from Pitkin (D. & R.
G. W. R. R.) or from Gunnison (a),
thence one mi. S.W. ranger at PitkinJ.

Holy Cross National Forest (Colorado)

The greater part of this forest was
burned over in connection with early
settlement and mining oi)erations. It
is characterized by extensive areas of
rugged mountainous country, support-
ing scattered bodies of Engelmann
spruce and lodgepole pine. Douglas
fir and an occasional yellow pine occur
along the lower reaches of several
streams.

Two Elk and Battle Mountain Game
Protection Area. 7680 acres closed to
gi'azing of domestic stock and used by
game animals for winter range, mainly
on south slopes along Eagle River Canyon
adjoining an extremely rugged range
country. Reached by leaving D. &
R. G. train at Minturn or Red Cliff,
whence Eagle River Canyon may be
traversed by auto in a few miles.
Ranger at Red Cliff, hotels at either
place.

Woody Game Refuge. An area of
11,600 acres in high country between
Roaring Fork and Frying Pan Rivers,
characterized by scattered stands of
Engelmann spruce with open grassy
parks. Not used for grazing domestic
stock and has become a sanctuary for
game animals during the summer.
Reached from Aspen (D. & R. G. W.
R. R. from Glenwood) 10 mi. by saddle
horse. Hotel and ranger at Aspen.

Capitol Peak Game Refuge. (By
Colo, statute, 1923, this area included in
Snowmass State Game Refuge.) An
area of 12,120 acres, including Avalanch.
Comprises extremely rough high moun-
tains between Crystal River and Roar-
ing Fork. Serves the same purpose as
the Woody Refuge. Reached (h) from

either Aspen or Carbondale (D. & R.
G. W. R. R.) distance 15 mi. Ranger at

Carbondale.

Permanent sample plots of 3 acres
established 1914 in heavy spruce forest,
illustrating different weights of cutting
with resultant growth and reproduction.
No virgin area retained. Two other
plots established 1924. Both areas
reached from Red Cliff (D. & R. G.
W. R. R.) (h) about 7 mi. up Wearyman
Creek. Ranger at Red Cliff J.

Leadville National Forest {Colorado)

Approxim,ately 2590 acres have been
burned and 1590 cut-over. Extensive
areas of lodgepole pine and Engelmann
spruce at high elevations, Douglas fir
and yellow pine renmants on border of
Arkansas valley.

Gore Range, 12,000 acres (higher
portions on east side) is of special in-
terest because so rugged and precipitous
that along its higher portion no cattle
or domestic sheep graze, and it is ahnost
inaccessible even on foot. Deer, elk,
and bighorn sheep; small, clear lakes;
abundant trout. Reached from Dillon
(C. & S. Ry.) by horse, finally reverting
to foot travel. Ranger \\ mi. south of
Dillon. Hotel at Dillon

Twin Lakes, 2000 acres. Two fresh-
water lakes joined by narrow neck
at an altitude of 9000 are set back in
rugged mountains with spruce and pine
timber along their shores. Reached by
Ocean-to-Ocean highway, 20 mi. by
auto from Leadville, or 9 mi. by stage
from Granite (D. & R. G. W. R. R.).

Proposed Game Preserve. 189,000
acres in Buffalo Peaks and adjoining
country down to Arkansas River. All
forest types; comparatively low; parts
free of snow year round; small portion
above timberline; mountain grasses,
herbs and shrubs; ideal sununer and
winter range. Adjacent to Buena Vista
(D. & R. G. W. R. R.) Hotel and ranger.

Montezuma National Forest {Colorado)

Most of the southern and western
parts of the forest support yellow pine

242

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

timber. The north and east parts sup-
port mixed Engehnann spruce and alpine
fir timber. About 10% burned over
and many burned areas support aspen.

There are a few deer and elk and many
bear and also a few bighorn sheep.

Silver Creek Watershed for town of
Rico is closed to grazing. Area 6 sq.
mi. Timber growth consists of aspen,
Engelmann spruce and alpine fir.

Pike National Forest (Colorado)

Practically all parts of the Forest,
including some areas above timberline
are accessible by good auto roads, and
during summer fair accommodations may
be had at nearly all towns and resorts.
The land is 78% timbered, 2% aspen,
1% brush lands (oak), 2% grassland,
5% burns not restocking and 12% bar-
ren and grassland above timber-line.
Elevations below 9000 ft., characterized
by open stands of western yellow pine
and Douglas fir. Limber pine occurs
on the ridge crests and exposed sites.
From 9000 ft. to timber-line, Engel-
mann spruce is the principal species,
with a mi.xture of Douglas fir and limber
pine at the lower elevations, and on the
exposed ridges, bristle-cone pine (Pinus
aristata). The spruce forms stands with
an unusually light mixture of alpine
fir. In the north half of the Forest,
lodgepole pine occurs, the southern
limits of lodgepole east of the Continen-
tal Divide being near the South Platte
River.

Successful elk plants were made in
1916 in the vicinity of Idaho Springs
and Pikes Peak.

Sample plots 4 acres in extent estab-
lished 1920 for study of thinning in a
40-j'ear Douglas fir sapling stand
through commercial sales of Christmas
trees, to shorten the rotation for tie and
saw-timber production. Accessible (a)
from Denver or Sedalia; 8 mi. from
Sedalia over Decker Springs road.
Auto service and fair accommodations at
Sedalia.
Grazing— Planting — Erosion Sample
/^jPIots, involves 30 acres of fenced land

from which grazing is excluded with
similar area adjacent and unfenced
and subject to usual grazing by cattle
and horses. Planted and unplanted
areas both within and without enclosure.
Vegetation quadrats for the study of
effects of erosion are established on each
plot. Forest type is essentially yellow
pine. Vegetation characterized by
mountain mahogony, deer bush and
grama grass. Reached from Denver
via C. & S. Ry. to South Platte. Thence
two mi. SW. via old abandoned wood
road. Local residents familiar.

Planted areas of several thousand
acres in vicinity of Pikes Peak, Cascade
and Monum.ent, some dating from 1909,
illustrate possibilities of artificial re-
forestation. Forest Service Nurserv for
production of tree stock at Monument.
Leave any local train between Denver
and Colorado Springs; or auto from
Colorado Springs.

The Denver Mountain Parks State
Game Refuge, 500,000 acres, ranging in
elevation from 6000 to 14,000 ft. Vege-
tative types very diverse. Accessible
from Denver (a).

Pikes Peak State Game Refuge,
129,000 acres, covers a range of from
6250 to 14,000 ft. Deer, elk, bighorn
sheep, beaver, coyote, bear, cougar,
ptarmigan, and grouse are found.
Accessible from Colo. Springs and Mani-
tou by rail and (a). Towns on all
sides. Rangers at Colo. Springs and
Cascade.

Watershed, City of Colorado Springs
and Town of Manitou. This area
includes some 60,000 acres, closed to
grazing, and mostly within the game
preserve described above. One of the
most readily accessible spots of the
United States in which to gain an in-
timate knowledge of practically all
forms of plant and animal life character-
istic of the region. Within the area are
the Fremont Forest Experiment Station
of the U. S. Forest Service, and the
Alpine Laboratory of the Carnegie
Institution.
The City of Denver Watershed, con-

(

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

243

sists of Lake Cheesman and 10,000 acres
of land. The area is fenced to exclude
stock and owned by the City of Denver.
Forests of yellow pine and Douglas
fir. Accessible (a) from Denver, via
Sedalia-Decker Springs Road. Fair ac-
commodations at Decker's.

Rio Grande National Forest {Colorado)

This is an enormous basin forming the
headwaters of the Rio Grande river and
including vegetative tj'pes from practi-
cally desert at the edge of the San Luis
Valley to vast areas of almost perpetual
snow-fields and alpine meadows above
the line of spruce timber. A very large
part of the area is used for grazing,
especially of sheep, which winter on
ranches in the Valley. The yellow pine
tj^pe is sparsely represented in the foot-
hills, while lodgepole pine is entirely
absent. A peculiar feature of the
forest is the occurrence of blue spruce
(Picea pungens) in mixture with Douglas
fir, far removed from the usual stream-
bed habitat.

Pole Mtn. Bighorn Sheep Breeding
Ground. About 3000 acres closed to
sheep-grazing to permit development of
bighorn sheep. Reached by pack trip
of about 50 mi. from Creede (D. & R.
G. W.).

Elk Mountain and Goose Creek Elk
Ranges. These two separate areas
cover about 10,000 acres, and are closed
to grazing of domestic stock. Several
hundred elk range here. Both are
reached from Wagon Wheel Gap. (D. &
R. G. W.) by saddle horse, about 15
mi. Summer hotel only at Wagon
Wheel Gap.

Wheeler National Monument. An
area of 400 acres containing unusual
"toad-stools" and other peculiar erosion
forms of interest to geologists. Reached
by saddle-horse from Creede (D. &
R. G. W. R. R.) about 15 mi.

Wagon Wheel Gap Streamflow Ex-
perimental Area. The two watersheds
which have been under study since 1910
comprise 400 acres. After preliminary
study one was denuded in 1919-20 to

determine the effect of forest removal
on streamflow. This will also present
excellent opportunity for the study of
plant succession. Only limited sheep
grazing is to be permitted on denuded
watershed; none on other. Expected
visitors may usually be cared for at
Station headquarters, 2 mi. from Wagon
Wheel Gap. (D. & R. G. W.) Ref:
"First Results in Streamflow Experi-
ment, Wagon Wheel Gap. Colo., Carlos
G. Bates, Jour. Forestry, Vol. XIX,
No. 4, pp. 402 to 408.

Routl National Forest (Colorado)

Comprises a forest of which the lower
portions, once occupied by Douglas fir,
have been so badly ravaged by fire as
to result in extensive stands of aspen.
Large areas at higher elevations are
covered by lodgepole pine and Engel-
mann spruce which has been little ex-
ploited. The herbaceous and shrubby
vegetation is very diverse and charac-
teristic of western slope conditions.

Deer, bear, elk and bighorn sheep
occur in unusual numbers, owing to the
undeveloped nature of the country.
Elk winter within a few miles of Steam-
boat Springs. Whitefish are found in all
branches of Bear River.

San Isabel National Forest (Colorado)

The accessible timber was cut in the
early days. Fires have left scars over
the entire forest. A large part of the
Sangre de Cristo Range contains virgin
timber types, as well as remarkable
alpine lakes and rugged scenery.

Most lakes are stocked with fish.
Good acconnnodations can be found at
various towns adjacent and several
summer hotels located within the For-
est. The D. & R. G. W. R. R. passes
along the north end, with branches into
Wet Mountain ^'alley and on the west
and south sides into San Luis Valley.
Rangers at Wetmore, Rye, Gardner,
Westcliffe, Mirage and La Veta.

Reserved areas: City of Florence
Watershed, 8000 acres on Newlin Creek,

244

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

extending from yellow pine to Engel-
mann spruce. Grazing is limited upon
the area. Reached by auto from Flor-
ence. (D. & R. G. W. R. R.) 10 mi.

Spanish Peaks State Game Refuge.
Contains 75,416 acres, extending from
the foothills type up to the Spanish Peaks
elevation 13,600 ft. Game is also being
protected upon the Sangre de Cristo
Grant just west of the Refuge; large
herd of bison under enclosure. Reached
from La Veta by auto. Summer hotels
within the Refuge.

City of Trinidad Watershed. 10,000
acres on North Fork of the Purgatory,
and within the Spanish Peaks Game
Refuge. Heavy fires occurred in early
days. Wild turkeys are found. Graz-
ing limited. Reached from La Veta (a)
25 mi. Summer hotel 5 mi. from
watershed.

San Juan National Forest {Colorado)

The forest is 5% burned and 5% cut-
over. The pine timber near Pagosa
Springs has for years been the center
of an important lumber industry.

Animals consist of deer, bear, bighorn
sheep; grouse are fairly plentiful;
native trout in nearly all streams.

The Needle Mountains are very rough
and inaccessible. The summits of four
of the peaks are over 14,000 ft. in eleva-
tion, while 6000 ft. below Animas River
rushes through a canyon which separates
the West Needles from the main group.
A large portion of these mountains is
above timber-line. The area is so
broken that domestic stock cannot be
profitably grazed on it, and the timber,
consisting principally of Engelmann
spruce, may be preserved in its natural
condition without sacrifice or expense.
Reached from Needleton, a station 35
mi. north of Durango on Silverton
. branch of D. & R. G. W. All arrange-
ments should be completed before
leaving Durango.

The Durango Reservoir Grant, 3050
acres of natural forest land is approxi-
mately 32 mi. northeast of Durango

on the headwaters of the Florida River.
This area can be reached only by saddle
horse or on foot, this inaccessibility
comprising its principal virtue for
purposes of nature study. Information
should be obtained and arrangements
made at Durango.

Uncompahgre National Forest (Colorado)

The larger part of the forest is on the
Uncompahgre Plateau, which rises
gently to the south from the Uncom-
pahgre-Gunnison valley, then breaks
off more abruptly to the San Miguel-
Dolores valley on the south.

The plateau changes gradually from a
pinyon-juniper or desert type on the
north edge to a fair yellow pine forest
with increasing elevation, then through
Douglas fir to very excellent spruce.
The fir forest, however, is represented
only by remnants and occupied largely
by aspen. A striking characteristic
of the middle-lower zone, especially on
the south escarpment, is the prevalence
of oak-brush.

The Ouray Mountain Sheep and Elk
Refuge (1923) covers 40 sq. mi. Several
hundred mountain sheep are fed by the
people of Ouray each winter. Arrange-
ments made to plant elk during 1922-23.
Ouray (D. & R. G. W. R. R.) from
Montrose, is in center of area. Travel
from Ouray by horseback; stables,
hotels, ranger.

White River National Forest (Colorado)

The forest is 1% cut-over and 5%
burned. There is a heavy belt of
Engelmann spruce under rim of flat-
tops, with some lodgepole pine at lower
elevations. Small bodies of Douglas
fir are found in gulches and a body of
yellow pine on South Derby Mesa.

The following game refuges are such
only by exclusion of domestic stock:

Elk range of about 5000 acres around
Sleepy Cat Peak. Elk on this range
throughout the summer. Reached via
Yampa, also from Meeker, inland town,
45 mi. from Rifle (D. & R. G. W. R. R.)

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

245

daily stage or Craig (D. & S. L. Ry.)
tri-weekly stage.

Deer refuge areas, in Trapper's Lake
region, four of al)out 1000 acres each.
Black-tailed deer during July, August
and September. Best seen July 15 to
August 15. Best areas west of Trapper's
Lake. Reached by saddle and pack,
30 mi. from Yampa (D. & S. L. Ry.).
Outfit at Yampa; hotel, ranger.

Mountain sheep refuge of about 2000
acres on Sheep Mountain. Bighorn
sheep can be easily seen throughout
summer. Big open country surrounded
by rim rock. Can be connected with
trip to deer refuges. Outfit at Yampa.

Bighorn National Forest (Wyonmig)

This foiest covers the Bighorn Moun-
tains in north central Wyoming. The
lower portions of the uplift are mainly
sedimentary rocks, while the upper
belongs to the Archean.

The forest on the slopes up to 7500 ft.
is western yellow pine, Douglas fir,
limber pine and some juniper in mixed
stands. The upper portions are covered
with extensive bodies of lodgepole pine
and Engelmann spruce. Open grass and
sagebrush parks are extensive and are
gi-azed by domestic stock. Grassy
meadows and willow thickets are
frequent.

Game animals are elk, deer, bighorn
sheep, black and grizzly l)ear. Original
elk herd reinforced by artificial stocking
in 1912; have increased so that they are
again plentiful on north end of Forest.
Bighorn sheep scarce; only few bands
remain around the peaks in central
part of Forest. A few grizzly bear on
the north end. Fur-bearing animals
include coyote, beaver, lynx, fox, mar-
ten, and weasel. Wolf and cougar are
scarce.

Winter Elk Range on Horse Creek in
Tongue River Canyon. Includes approx-
imately 1600 acres. Domestic stock is
excluded by natural barriers and fenc-
ing. 500 elk use it as a winter feeding-
ground. Reached by (a) from Sheridan
to Dayton, 25 mi. thence 8 mi. (w) or (h).

Hayden National Forest (Wyoming)

The Fore.st lies astride the Sierra
Madre Range in southern Wyoming,
extending a few miles into Colorado.
The formation is almost -wholly granitic.

It is estimated that lodgepole pine
occupies 135,000 acres, Engplmann
spruce 30,000 acres and aspen 100,000
acres of this forest, the last on the west
slope. During the mining l)oom most
of the north end was burned and cut-
over. A large part of this area is re-
stocking naturally witli lodgepole pine.
On Big Creek watershed some virgin
lodgepole is to be found.

Native trout in streams on west side
of the Forest. Elk and black-tail deer
are present but not alumdant. Big-
horn sheep not seen in recent years.
Antelope present on sheep range north
of Forest. Black bear, coyotes, bob-
cats, cougar, beaver, marten, mink and
fox are fairly abundant. Sheep and
cattle graze almost the entire Forest.

In 1924 small fenced areas have been
set aside to determine effect of grazing
on the forage types and on progress of
pine reproduction. Obtain details of
location from Supervisor.

Between the Hayden and Medicine
Bow Forest lies the broad and beautiful
valW of the North Platte, abandoned
ages ago when that stream found a new
channel well back in the mountains to
the east. The remarkable situation can
best be viewed on the Rocky Mt. high-
way from Laramia, bj^ which Encamp-
ment may also be reached.

Medicine Boio National Forest (W yoming)

Nearly this entire area is accessible
to stock and is grazed by cattle and
sheep. 85% of entire area is timber-
producing, and of this 95*^^ is lotlgepole
forest, mostly virgin though this Forest
has been center of tie-producing region
for many jears. 9% of area has been
burned within 30 to 50 years and bears
dense stands lodgepole reproduction.
Forpark is center of tie industry, on
C. W. & E. Ry. from Laramie, which
reaches other points within Forest.

246

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Cinnabar Park Range Rotation Area.
A senii-pcnnanent fenced area of 160
acres in which for several years the
develoi)nient of the forage plants by
natural rescedin^ has been assisted by
careful study of the proper season for
grazing. A dry grassy park at 9G00 ft.
surrounded by timber. Reached by
stage from Albany (C. W. & E. Ry.)
to Holmes, where Forest Ranger will
furnish accommodations and directions.

Foxpark Permanent Sample Plots,
an area of 5 acres in lodgepole forest on
which various methods of cutting were
practiced in 1909, one-fourth also being
left in virgin condition. Permanently
fenced. Presents interesting reproduc-
tion study. On outskirts of Foxpark
where ranger and fair accommodations
may be had. Within a mile are also
thinning experiments in lodgepole sap-
ling stands.

Shoshone National Forests {Wyoming)

The elevation is 7000 to 13,000 ft.;
rock formations are granite, limestone
and conglomerate. Extensive areas of
open grassland, mountain meadows,
lodgepole pine, Engelmann spruce, lim-
ber pine and Douglas fir forests.

Common animals are elk, deer, big-
horn sheep, pronghorn antelope, moose,
bear (grizzly and black), cougar, coyote,
lynx, and bobcat. Very large areas are
closed to or inaccessible to domestic
stock. Practically all points of interest
are reached from Cody but a number
may be approached from the Yellow-
stone National Park, which adjoins on
the west.

Hoodoo State Game Preserve, 120,000
acres, used as summer range for deer,
elk and bison. Reached from Cody;
15 miles auto to Two Dot ranch, thence
30 mi. by horse or wagon to Painter
Ranch or Sunlight R. S., thence by pack
outfit up North Fork Shoshone River.
Can also be reached by pack outfit from
Cooke, Montana or through Yellow-
stone Park.

Shoshone Game Preserve. 500,000
acres of summer and winter range for
elk and deer. (Elk Fork is main winter

elk range.) Accessible from Cody via
auto. Good auto road to Wapiti,
Canyon Cr. R. S., Wapiti R. S., Holm
Lodge and Pahaska Tepee. From these
places pack outfit is necessary. Also
reached from Cody to Valley by fair auto
road and pack outfit from that place.

Carter Mountain Game Preserve,
150,000 acres of summer and winter
range for elk, deer, and bighorn sheep.
From Cody by auto and pack outfit via
Valley, Wyoming, Belknap R. S., South
Fork R. S. and Ishawooa.

U. S. Bird Refuge, 10,000 acres, in-
cluding Shoshone Reservoir and a nar-
row fringe of shore. Reached from
Cody (a) 9 mi.

Washakie National Forest {Wyoming)

Two blocks of land east of Continental
Divide at headwaters of Popo Agie and
Wind Rivers, the latter forming a large
basin.

The prevailing forest type is lodgepole
pine, yellow pine being only poorly
developed at low elevations, the Douglas
fir forest represented by remnants only,
while at high elevations are large bodies
of spruce almost wholly inaccessible.
Very large lodgepole cutting operations
on Wind River, using river for transport
to the railroad.

There are no reserves of interest but
three trios of sample plots have been
established in lodgepole cutting areas,
to show effects of thinning. Near
Sheridan Creek and Dunoir ranger
stations 20 mi. (a) from Dubois, 100 mi.
from Riverton, 100 mi. from Lander.
Dubois is on Rocky Mt. Highway to
southern entrance of Yellowstone.

Black Hills and Harney National Forests
{South Dakota)

An isolated range of mountains ap-
proximately 100 mi. long by 60 mi.
wide, rising to 7000 ft., surrounded by
semi-arid plains. Intensely interesting
geological structure. Within a range
of a few miles one may pass from fossil-
iferous sedimentary deposits through
gypsum, limestone, sandstone, con-
glomerate, quartzite, porphyries,

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

247

schists, and slates to the igneous granite
core of the Black Hills uplift. Nearly
all parts of Forests are accessible by
auto from towns on the two railroads
and good accommodations maj^ be had.
Rancers scattered throughout the Hills

Western yellow pine constitutes 95%
of the forest. Has a habit of growth
resembling lodgepole pine in the char-
acter and density of stands. Forest
50% cut-over and 15% burned. Meeting
ground of eastern and western floral
and faunal species.

Mt. Roosevelt State Game Refuge of
approximately 50,000 acres is easily
reached from Deadwood. Affords abun-
dant food for deer, elk, and game birds,
good cover and also open feeding
grounds. Contains the beautiful Spear-
fish Canyon summer resort, where the
game is seen by tourists. Beaver
colonies are numerous in Canyon and
other fur-bearing animals present (musk-
rat, mink, marten, skunk), are all
protected.

Several small permanent sample plots
representing natural and thinned yellow
pine 25 to 200 years old, in vicinity of
Nemo, Merritt and Benchmark, furnish
examples of forestry practice. All
reached most quickly by auto from
Deadwood.

The So. Dakota State Park represents
one of the best State Forest properties
and game preserves in the country. A
portion has been fenced as a game pre-
serve in which are herds of deer, elk,
buffalo and antelope; an attempt is
being made to stock it with moose.
Topography and forest cover similar
to rest of Black Hills region: a well
timbered and very picturesque locality
developed by the State for recreational
purposes as well as a game preserve.
An extension of its boundaries takes in
Harney Peak and the Sylvan Lake
region, the latter purchased by the
State and run as a summer resort.
Reached from C. & N. W. R. R. at
Fairburn, or C. B. & Q. R. R. at Custer.
Most accessible from Custer. Excel-
lent hotel facilities at State Park lodge
and at Sylvan Lake|l.

Custer Federal Game Sanctuary, an
area of 30,000 acres around Harney Peak
and Sylvan Lake. Practically entire
area covered by virgin forest. Most of
it inaccessible to lumber operations
owing to the roughness of the country.

Wind Cave National Monument, ap-
proximately 11,000 acres, adjoins Harney
Forest on the southeast corner. Princi-
pal feature is Wind Cave, containing
over 100 mi. of cavern. The park con-
tains bison, elk, pronghorn antelope
and deer. Very little timber, most of
the area being prairie. Nearest town
Hot Springs, good hotel accommodation
(Branch lines of C. B. & and C. & N.
W. R. R., from Minnekahta and Buffalo
Gap, respectively). Auto roads to Cave
from Hot Springs, passenger bus twice
daily in the summer months.

Jewel Cave National Monument.
Limestone caves of large extent; un-
developed. Forests of western yellow
pine and an occasional limber pine.
Reached (a) from Custer over passable
road.

Nebraska National Forest {N'ebraska)

The two divisions are the Bessey and
the Niobrara. The Bessey Division is
in very rough sandhills with scant
vegetation. Niobrara Division more
rolling with better soil and vegetation.

There are some native hardwoods,
also yellow pine and red cedar; largely
grassland. 10,000 acres have been artifi-
cially afforested, principally with jack
and western yellow pines.

Small number of native deer on Bessey
Division. Prairie chickens, sharp-tailed
grouse, and quail. Entire Forest set
aside as a State Bird and Game refuge.

The following reserves in Nebraska
have no connection with the National
Forest:

Niobrara Game Preserve, 20,000 acres,
along scenic Niobrara River, 4 mi.
east of Valentine, a city of 2000 popula-
tion on C. & N. W. R. R. Preserve
formerly Fort Niobrara, U. S. Biological
Survey protecting native birds and
animals and breeding herds of elk and
bison numbering about fifty of each.

248

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Native yellow pine and hardwood timber
in canyons; balance grass-covered sand-
hills and tableland.

ScottsblutT National Monument, ap-
l)n)xiinatclv 1900 acres. Central attrac-
tion is mountain 46G7 ft. above the sea
and 800 ft. above the river. Most of
area is of rugged nature. "The bad
lands" consist of twisted and corrugated
rocks of the White River period, several
hundred acres lying between the moun-
tain and the river. Fossils of the
Eocene and Oligocene are quite abun-
dant. Historically the mountain has
groat interest. Reached from Scotts-
hluff (C. B. & Q. Ry. from Sterling or
Alliance or Gering) (U. P. R. R. from
No. Platte) approximately 2 mi.

Fontenelle Forest, about 2000 acres,
5 mi. south of Omaha. Native hard-
wood timberland, oaks, hickory, elm,
.-sycamore, etc. About the only native
hardwood forest being preserved in its
natural state for use of nature lovers
and citizens of the state. A rich field
for botanists and also has interesting
archeological history. Fontenelle For-
est Association, Omaha, owner. Reached
(a) or trolley from Omaha.

Minnesota National Forest (Minnesota)

The characteristics of the area are
best shown by the following typical
reserves :

Star Island Game Refuge, 1200 acres
(entire island). Lake Helen about 200
acres in extent, lies within this island.
Virgin stand of timlter, chiefly white and
Norway pine, with some jack pine and
hardwoods. Reached from Cass Lake
by motor boat.

Ten sections of virgin forest, com-
prising the shore line of Cass Lake,
Pike Bay and connecting lakes. A
virgin stand of timber 200 j'ears old, to
be cut only as it dies or is blown down;
consists of chiefly white and Norway
pine, some jack pine and hardwoods, and
swamp species.

Itasca State Park (Game Refuge)
20,000 acres, a virgin stand of timber,
chiefly white and Norway pine, some
jack pine and hardwoods. Lake Itasca
is the accepted source of the Mississippi

River. Reached from Arago by bus
from Park Rapids (G. N. Ry.) or Bemidji
(G. N. R., Soo Line and N. P.).

Superior National Forest (Minnesota)

Ely, centrally located for western
half of Forest. Grand Marais, port on
Lake Superior (east or Lake Superior
entrance), good accommodations, no
railroad— on North Shore Drive (auto
road). Forest ranger. Travel after
leaving railroad mainly by boat, canoe or
launch, or by auto and boat. Boats
necessary for all or parts of every trip.
80% burned, 10% cut-over.

Characterized by a network of thou-
sands of lakes and streams, mixed conif-
erous and broad-leaved forests, swamps
and rock ridges. The forest consists
of white, Norway and jack pines, white
and black spruce, tamarack, cedar,
birch, poplar and maples. Game
Refuges.

Superior Game Preserve covers a

large part of the Forest and extends

beyond its boundaries, with acreage of

1,290,000. Principal game animals are

moose, caribou, white tailed deer, black

bear, snowshoe hare, red, gray, and

flying squirrels, and grouse (ruffed,

pin-tailed, spruce hens). Fur-bearing

animals are marten, fisher, weasel,

muskrat, mink, wolf (timber), coyote,

red fox, beaver, lynx, and bobcat.

Principal fish are pike, pickerel, bass,

and trout (lake and brook) .

Michigan National Forest (Michigan)

An extensive area, mostly of sand
"plains" 100 to 200 ft. above Lake level,
once bearing excellent forests of Norway
pine (Pinus resinosa) and some white
pine (Pinus strobiis).

It has been cut-over and repeatedly
burned in past years so that there
remains only a few scattered clumps of
Norway pine, largely failing to re-
produce, but with much of the ground
occupied by jack pine (Pinus divaricata)
and scrub oak. Ecologically most in-
teresting for observations of vegeta-
tional succession following establish-
ment of forests by planting.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

249

11. IDAHO

Bv R. A. MUTTKOWSKI

T. GENERAL FEATURES AND ORIGINAL
BIOTA

1. Physiographic regions

Idaho might be compared to a chair,
the back and seat of which consist of
mountain ranges along the eastern
border. The area between the upper
and lower rung of the chair is occupied
by a great plateau, the Snake River
Plains.

In the northern panhandle the moun-
tains are relatively low, chiefly of the
round top type. Toward the middle
of the state, the "seat of the chair,"
the mountains grow very rugged and
precipitous.

Throughout the state the bases of the
mountains lie in volcanic lava, upon
which are heaped the aeolian soils.
This is seen in the Snake River Plain
which is a built-up plain formed by out-
pouring sheets of tertiary lava inter-
bedded with accumulated sediments of
the tertiary Lake Payette, which two
processes of upbuilding were contem-
poraneous within the basin, out of which
this plain was formed. Through this
plain the Snake River eroded a canyon,
and finally drained this geologic lake.
Except for the extreme southeastern
part.

2. Plant and animal communities

All of the original types of communi-
ties are still available for study. Orig-
inally, two-fifths of Idaho comprised
the forests and mountains, two-fifths
the arid plains, and one-fifth the fer-
tile prairies. These proportions have
changed somewhat in regard to the
extent of the forests and the arid plains,
due to lumbering, grazing, irrigation
and reclamation.

a. Forests. There are two types of
forests in Idaho, the western white pine
forests of the north (see page 210) ex-
tending from the Canadian boundary
to the Clearwater Preserve; and the

western yellow pine forests in the central
and southern parts of the state. In
central and southern Idaho especially
the forests were interspersed with great
fertile prairies, called Camas Prairies,
by the early travellers, from their con-
tinuous Camas blue.

In the montane forests of the northern
part of the state are found character-
istically the black bear (Ursus america-
nus group), grizzly bear, wolverine
(Gulo biscus), marten (Maries americana
group), fisher (Maries pennanti group),
weasel (Muslela sp.), marsh shrew
(Neosorex), masked shrew (Sorex per-
sonalus group), red-backed vole (Evoto-
mys), mountain lemming-vole (Phena-
comys orophilus), chipmunks (Eulamias
spp.), pine squirrel (Sciurus hudsonicus
richardsoni), flying squirrel (Glaucomys
sabrinus group), yellow-haired porcu-
pine (Erelhizon epixanlhum group),
snowshoe hare (Lepus hairdii), moose
(alces americana group), and black-
tailed deer (Odocoileus). — L. R. D.

Among the reptiles and amphibians
occurring in the Montane are the rubber-
snake (Charina botlae), a garter-snake
(Thamnophis), the western frog (Rana
pretiosa), the western toad (Bufo b.
boreas), and a salamander (Ambysloma
macrodactylwm) . — H. T. G.

Idaho and Utah are filled with small
mountain ranges which are for the most
part isolated by stretches of arid ter-
ritory. Each range usually contains a
group of species peculiar to itself and
in many cases certain species are
apparently confined to some one of
these ranges. The genus Oreohelix here
reaches its greatest development in
species. While little study has been
given to the ecological features of dis-
tribution, a good idea of the distri-
bution of the genus Oreohelix among
the mountain ranges may be obtained
from the paper by Henderson and
Daniels, Proc. Acad. Nal. Sci. Phil.,
191G, pp. 315-339.—/'. C. B.

b. Yellow pine forests. (See page 209.)

c. Al'p'ine tundra. The central peaks
carry snow and ice fields the j-ear round.
The vegetation is typically alpine.

250

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

The principal mammals of the Alpine
summits above timberline are the Rockly
Mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus
subsp.), bighorn sheep {Oris canadensis
group), hoary marmot (Marmota caligata
group), and pika (Ocholona).

d. Prairies. (See under Oregon.)

e. Sagebrush semi desert. The great
sagebrush region of Idaho is traversed
by the Snake river. It is a lava desert,
with great extinct craters, solidified lava
flows, canj'ons, crevices, caves with ice,
super-chilled springs.

They have as characteristic mammals
the co5'ote (Caiiis lestes), grasshopper-
mouse {Onychomys leucogaster subspp.),
pocket-mouse (Perognalhus), kangaroo-
rat {Dipodomys), ground-squirrel {Citel-
Ivs spp.), sage chipmunk {Eutemias
minimus pictus), pigmy rabbit {Brachy-
lagus idahoensis), white-tailed jack-
rabbit (Lepus townsendii) 1 black-tailed
jackrabbit {Lepus californicus group),
cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus muttallii
group), and pronghorn antelope {Anti-
locapra americana). — L. R. D.

Reptiles include the collar lizard
(Crotaphytus collaris baileyi), the leop-
ard-lizard {Crotophytus wislizenii), the
swifts {Sceloporus graciosus gracilis
and S. occidentalis hiseriatus), the
rattle-snakes (Crotolus oreganus and C.
conjluenlus), the bull-snake {Pituophis C.
catenifer), the racer {Coluber constrictor
mormon), and the horned toad {Phyrn-
osoma d. douglassii and P. platyrhi-
nos).—H. T. G.

In the mountains there are innumer-
able small lakes, cascades, and falls.
Along these streams there are springs
both hot and cold, notably so in the
central and southern regions. Larger
lakes are Payette, Coeur d'Alene, Pend
Oreille, Priest and Bose. Idaho grows
higher from north to south, with an ele-
vation of about 1800 ft., in the north to
about 5000 ft., in the south. The only
"low" spot is at Lewiston (west-
central, near the Washington boundary),
lying in a canyon of 700 ft. elevation.
The Snake River Plains also slope down
from east to west, so that Idaho slopes

down from southeast to northwest,
from 5000 to ISOO ft.

/. Aquatic communities. The aquatic
communities present perhaps the great-
est variety of all. In the mountains
there are innumerable alpine lakes which
form the headwaters of precipitous
creeks. The creeks have dug deep
canj^ons, through which they tumble
in rapids, falls, cascades, with occasional
placid stretches. Such lakes and
streams are most numerous in the
Salmon River and Clearwater River
drainage. Swamps are found in a
number of the valleys throughout Idaho,
although none of them occupy more
than a few square miles of area.

The fresh water mollusca are abun-
dant, especially in the northern part of
Idaho, in Lake Pend Oreille, and the
rivers and streams flowing into and from
this lake. Nearlj^ all are related to
those of eastern North America, and
include the genera Lymnaea, Planorbis,
Rhysa, Amnicola, Valvata, Fluminicola,
Ferrissia, Hydrobia, Pisidium, Sphae-
rium. Only a few Naiades are found nor
are the Pleuroceridae abundant, as both
of these groups are in the central part
of the United States. A few species are
peculiar to the region. For the ecologi-
cal distribution of the Lymnaediae, see
Baker, Monograph of Lymnaediae,
1911.— F. C. B.

II. PRESENT BIOTIC CONDITIONS

Except for the American bison and
perhaps the prong-horned antelope,
the original biota of Idaho are found in
at least a part of Idaho, chiefly in the
mountain fastnesses and the Snake
River Desert.

Along the border of Washington and
in the central valleys of northern Idaho
three factors have tended to alter the
biota, or at least to diminish their
extent. These are, first, the great
fires which from time to time have swept
over millions of acres and left barren
wastes which are slow in reforesting
themselves. The second factor was the
discovery of gold and other precious

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

251

ores. This, with its need for clearings
for the settlements, timber for build-
ings, fuel, and the mines, has thinned
the forests, while the sewage from the
settlements, the wastes from the mines
and the fumes of the smelters polluted
land and stream and killed plant and
animal life for miles around. Lumbering
has been the third factor in the with-
drawal of the biota in the north. In the
wake of cutting has followed agricvUture
which has still further restricted the
natural areas. In the same areas in
central and southern Idaho irrigation
and reclamation have gone hand in hand
and turned many arid sage-brush prai-
ries into fertile farms and orchards.

III. POLLUTION

On the whole Idaho streams have
suffered relatively a slight pollution.
There are streams, notably in the mining
regions of the north, east and southwest,
that receive considerable waste and
refuse from the mines. Thus, the Coeur
d'Alene and Clearwater Rivers of
northern Idaho, before they pass into
Washington, receive both sewage and
mine refuse from the small cities along
the lower stretches of the streams.

IV. NATURAL AREAS

1. Idaho State Game Preserves

The Idaho State Game Preserves are 7
in number and cover an area of over 2000
sq. mi. or approximately 1,500,000 acres.
In these preserves all game animals are
protected. Hunting is prohibited ex-
cept by the game wardens and dulj^
authorized persons.

^Preserve on South Fork of Paijeile
River. (B2.) About 456 sq. mi. —
292,000 acres. Located in northern
portion of the Boise National Forest
at the base of the Saw tooth Range.
All hunting, trapping, and killing of
any species of game and birds is for-
bidden.

Game animals protected: bear, lynx,
wolverine, fox, otter, beaver, marten,
mink, and fisher.

Predatory animals permitted to be
destroyed by game wardens: mountain
lion, timber wolf, coyote, wild cat.

*Black Lake Game Preserve. (A3.)
About 350 sq. mi.— 225,000 acres. Lo-
cated in north portion of Snake River
Section of the Nez Perce National
Forest. Since it is very inaccessible,
this promises to continue as a perma-
nent preserve. Ail animals protected
here. Beaver, otter, marten, fisher, fox,
mink, wolverine.

Predatory animals; cougar, bear, lynx,
wolf, coyote, and wild cat may be
destroyed by game wardens only.

*Lewislon Orchards Preserve. (03.)
About 19 sq. mi. — 12,000 acres. Located
in Nez Perce, and covering the depres-
sion in which the Lewiston Orchards lie.

In this preserve birds of all kinds are
protected, including game birds, water
fowl, and song birds.

*Big Lost River Gavie Preserve. (B2.)
About 432 sq. mi.— 290,000 acres. Lo-
cated in north and northeastern portion
of Sawtooth National Forest.

Birds include grouse, wild geese, wild
ducks, pheasant, partridges, quail,
prairie chicken, sage hen, swan, snipe,
plover, eagle, mourning dove, hawks,
crow, and magpy.

Mammals include: deer, elk, caribou,
moose, mountain goat, bighorn sheep,
pronghorn antelope, beaver, otter, mar-
ten, fisher, fox, and mink, cougar, black
bear, lynx, wolverine, wolf, coyote, wild
cat, rabbits, badger, weasel, and skunk.

*Selway State Game Preserve. (A2.)
About 725 sq. mi. 460,000 acres. Lo-
cated in northern part of Selway Na-
tional Forest.

*Big Creek Game Preserve. (B2.)
About 192 sq. mi.— 125,000 acres. Lo-
cated in Salmon National Forest.

*Pocatello Game Preserve. (B2.) 49.5
sq. mi. — 61,680 acres. Located south-
east of Pocatello in Cache National
Forest.

Owyhee County. (CI.) (Bl.) An
available Game Preserve, of about 5000
sq. mi.

This county constitutes the south-
western corner of Idaho, comprising

252

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

nearly SOOO sq. mi. It has recently l)een
much mentioned :is a possible game
preserve, especially for antelopes. Ore-
gon Short Line to Nampa, a spur to
Silver City, then by wagon road to Rid-
dle, near the Indian Reservation, or by
road along Bruneau River.

2. Springs

Idaho has literally hundreds of thou-
sands of springs.

Thousand Springs Valley. (B4.) Lie
in East Fork Basin of East Fork of
Salmon River. Innumerable hot and
cold springs here. There are several
"Warm Springs Creek." On road from
Ketchum to Stanley, then Salmon
River Highway to Springs.

Gui/cr Hot Springs. (D5.) Huge
mineral springs, and Warm Springs
Creek near Ketchum Springs commer-
cialized. Piped to houses for heat.
Oregon Short Line R. R. to Ketchum.
Scenery here marvelous, the "saw
teeth" of the Sawtooth Range con-
spicuous.

Ilailey Hot Springs. (D5.) Near
Hailey, Blaine County. Somewhat com-
mercialized. Piped to Hailey for heat.

Hot Springs in Elmore County. (B4.)
Within 8 mi. northeast of Moun-
tain Home. 103° to 167°F. Mud spring
northwest of Mountain Home. Fairly
large. Also natural cave of consider-
able size. Near good auto roads. — E. F.
Mason.

South Fork of Boise River between Pine
and Feathcrbillc has half a dozen large
hot springs along road (D4) . One piped
for a large outdoor bathing pool. Fish
spring flows hot from small islet in Boise
River.

Soda Springs and Vicinity. (B5.)
Originally famous for its Soda springs,
has been commercialized to a large ex-
tent. The region "was a miniature
Yellowstone Park."

Lava Hot Springs. (B5.) In Bannock
County, a state reserve. On Oregon
Short LineR. R.

3. Caves

Among other attractions, Idaho has a
large number of caves. Unfortunately,
very little is known of most of them, as
they have been little explored. A
number of caves are found in Caribou
County, in Franklin County (perpetual
ice), Elmore County. Cooding County
(perpetual ice), and Valley of the Mooii
in Blaine County.

4. Sand dunes

Sand dunes covering considerable
area are found in Freemont County north
of St. Anthony. These adjoin some old
lava fields and craters, and are inter-
mingled with good grazing prairie. At
least 20 sq. mi. Local roads from St.
Anthony north.

5. Lava flows

a. The Sinks. (B4.) The lava flow
in the region of the Snake River Desert
has produced a phenomenon called the
"Sinks" where considerable streams
appear from the surface and continue
their way underground to the Snake
River miles away. Located in Butte
County some miles below and east of the
Howe at the edge of Snake River desert.
There the Big Lost River and Little
Lost River disappear into the ground, to
reappear at intervals. Further up the
Birch Creek Sinks can be found. These
streams here go under the lava to the
depth of hundreds of feet and emerge
finally as gigantic springs on the sides
and bottom of the Snake River Canyon
60 mi. away. Reached best from Arco
on the Oregon Short Line, then by auto
road through Howe to the various sinks.

b. Lava Fields. (B2.) Fields of roll-
ing or broken lava are found in a number
of places in southern Idaho; in Free-
mont, Minidoka, Bingham, Owyhee,
Bonneville Counties.

c. Craters. (A3.) May be found in
most of the southern counties, also in
the central counties northward to
Idaho County.

d. Buffalo Hump. (A3.) A lone
butte in the middle of Idaho County,
active in 1866, with lava flow accom-
panied by tremors. Active in August-
September, 1881. Reached from
Grangeville, then by road to Concord.

e. Snake River Desert. (B3.) (B2.)
About 3400 sq. mi. Available. Occu-
pies middle center of Idaho, particularly
the region north of the Snake River
extending from Wood River northeast
past the Sinks of the Big Lost River.

Lava fields partly covered with sage-
brush, with patches of small trees.
Sagebrush fauna most abundant. Big
Lost River, Little Lost River, Camas
Creek and Birth Creek enter the desert
in the north, but soon become lost in the
"sinks;" these are fissured areas where
shallow lakes form in spring, which later
disappear. According to geologists
there is a subterranean bed in which the
streams flow hundreds of miles south-
west and west and reappear as gigantic
sprmgs from the north wall of the Snake
River Canyon, in the 18 mi. between

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

253

Shoshone Falls and Bliss. Smaller
streams than those mentioned also dis-
appear.

A particular feature are the crevices
which interline the lava fields in the
desert, from two to fifty feet wide, from
thirt}' to hundreds of feet in depth, and
extending for long distances. In the
larger crevices there is a distinct fauna of
snakes, lizards, insects, and other
animals.

Between Blackf oot and Big Lost River
there is a Juniper forest of 175 sq. mi.
From Arco south a belt 15 mi. wide and
50 long, at least 800 sq. miles of pine and
fir, extends to Cinder Buttes. Smaller
patches at many points. Area adjoining
forest with bunch grass, not sagebrush,
forming splendid pasture land.

Sand dunes occur in a great many
places and great stretches of recent flows
of lava in many parts of Plains.

/. Big Butte, 5600 ft., and Pillar Butte,
5300 ft., are famous land-marks on the
plains and rise directly from rolling
plain. Big Butte is unscalable. Ap-
proach from many points. Short trips
inward easily arranged by automobile,
but better with pack-horses. (See "Val-
ley of the Moon.")

"The latest evidence shows molten
rocks in recent historical times, perhaps
not over one hundred years ago. It
came up through volcanic cones, out of
which highly liquid lava in vast quanti-
ties flowed away in all directions where
it hardened in a horizontal position.
There are scores of vents, cones, and
craters within this area, Big, Middle,
and East Buttes being conspicuous
examples. ' ' — Russell.

6. "Valley of the Moon"

t About 100 sq. mi. a proposed Na-
tional Monument. Comprises a portion
of the western end of the Snake River
Desert, named "Valley of the Moon,"
especially the northwest region known
as the "Craters," because of its marked
resemblance to the conventional as-
tronomers pictures of the moonscape.

Topography of barren lava fields,
canyons, hills, craters. Area is exceed-
ingly rough, in places utterly depressing
through its somber coloration, in others
startling, through the brilliant blues and
vermilions. One crater known as Echo
crater 700 ft. deep. Close by 63 craters
can be seen from one spot. An extinct
volcanic and lava flow. Ice caves plen-
tiful, icy springs, and short streams.

A dwarf bear of si>ecial interest.
Pines, some sagebrush, and a nearly
white "pigmy buckwheat."

This region has never been explored
and was virtually rediscovered by R. W.

Limbert, of Boise. After a trip into the
desert in 1917 he made several expedi-
tions. Reported that in Summer, 1921,
an expedition of the National Geo-
graphic Society entered the desert. It
is proposed to create a national monu-
ment of the whole or a portion of this
area.

Approach from many points : from the
south from a number of towns between
Idaho Falls and Minidoka on the Oregon
Short Line R. R. west from Shoshone to
Hailey, north from Arco. The highway
from Hailey to Arco passes within four
miles of the lava fields, where some of the
craters can be seen. — R. A. M., after
R. W. Limbert.

V. REFERENCES

Bancroft, H. H. History of Washington,
Idaho, and Montana. In Vol. 10
of Collected works, Idaho, pp. 393-
588, 1889.

Bailey, F. M. Handbook of the Birds
oftheWestern UnitedStates. Hough-
ton, Mifflin Co., 1921, pp. 590, 33
plates, 601 text figures.

Fountain, Paul. The Eleven Eaglets of
the West. New York (Dutton &
Co.). 1906. Snake or "Mad" River,
pp. 91-99. Idaho, pp. 125-153. De-
scription of journey made in late
seventies.

Rees, John E. Idaho: Chronology, Nu-
menclature, Bibliography, pp. 125.
Published by the author, Salmon,
Idaho.

Merriman, C. H., and Stejineger, L.
Biological Reconnoissance of South
Central Idaho. W. A. Fauna, no. 5,
1891.

Limbert, R. W. The Valley of the Moon,
in Nat. Geogr. Mag., 1924.

12. ALBERTA

By a. B. Connell

I. general

The Province of Alberta, the western-
most of the prairie provinces of Canada,
extends from the Montana boundary
north to the 60th parallel of north
latitude. The 110th meridian of longi-
tude forms the eastern boundary and
the province extends west from this
line to the crest of the Rocky Mountains
in the south and to the 120th meridian
in the north. The area is approximately
260,000 sq. mi.

254

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

II. PHYSIOGRAPHY

The province may be divided into
four physiographic regions.

1. The Rocky Mountain region: In
the south of the province the mountains
occupy a narrow zone some 25 mi. in
width extending from the front ranges
westward to the British Columbia
boundary upon the Continental divide.
The mountains trend sharply to the
northwest until the 120th meridian is
reached near the 54th parallel of lati-
tude. At this point the provincial
boundary turns northward and the
Rockies continue northwesterly into
British Columbia. The montane region
of Alberta broadens to the north with
a decrease in elevation. The higher
peaks reach an elevation of over 11,000
ft. The passes vary from 7000 ft. at
the South Kootenay pass in the south
to 3700 ft. at the Yellowhead pass in
the north.

2. The Foothill region: The foothills
are extremely narrow or almost lacking
near the International boundary in
the south. As they follow the moun-
tains northward, however, they broaden
out forming an extensive area of low
rolling ridges with a general northwest
and southeast trend.

S. The Alberta plateau: The Cretace-
ous plains extend eastward from the
foothills forming a high shelf-like pla-
teau which sinks gradually from an
elevation of 3500 ft. in the southwest
to 1500 ft. in the northeast. Along
the eastern boundary of the province
south of the North Saskatchewan River
the elevation averages 2000 ft. The
larger rivers have cut broad and deep
valleys in crossing the plateau eastward
from the mountains. The valley of the
Peace River in the north of the prov-
ince is in places upwards of 700 ft.
in depth and over two miles in width
from rim to rim.

^. The northeastern -portion of the
province: This is occupied by a com-
paratively low flat plain having an
average elevation of 800 ft. above sea
level. The western portion of Lake

Athabaska and the lower course of the
Peace River lie within this area.

III. BIOTIC CONDITIONS

The vegetation of Alberta may be
divided broadly into five climatic
formations.

1. The Alpine belt extends along the
higher mountains above timber line.
Climatic conditions are severe with low
temperatures, a short growing season,
high and dry winter winds and low
atmospheric pressure. The climatic cli-
max is meadow-like and characterized
by heaths and saxifrages.

2. The Montane belt occupies the
slopes of the mountains from timber
line to the eastern border of the foot-
hills. The precipitation varies between
20 and 30 in. and occurs mainly in the
spring and summer. The climatic cli-
max is a xeromesophytic coniferous
forest characterized by Engelmann
spruce {Picea Engelmannii), western
larch {Larix Lyallii), lodgepole pine
{Pinus murrayana), white spruce {Picea
canadensis) and Douglas fir {Pseudot-
suga mucronata). Limber pine {Pinus
Uexilis) and whitebark pine {Pinus
albicaulis) are found on the upper slopes
of the higher foothills and outer ranges
in the south.

Engelmann spruce gives place to the
white spruce toward the north. West-
ern larch occurs well up to timber line
south of the Crow's Nest pass. Lodge-
pole pine in pure stands is very
extensive.

3. The great plains in the south of the
province are occupied by a xerophytic
grassland climax which is an extension
northwards of the mixed Prairie Asso-
ciation of Montana. The precipitation
is in the neighborhood of 15 in., mainly
in the summer. The winters are dry
with little snow and marked by many
"Chinook winds." This condition ex-
tends north from the Montana boundary
to and beyond the Red Deer River.
Buffalo grass, grama grass and wire
grass are present, together with tumble
weed and sage brush. (The northern

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

255

portion of the grassland becomes a
more mesophytic turf grass prairie
association in which wheat grass, wild
rye and red top are dominant. — G. D.
Fuller.)

4. A transition belt of poplar-savanna
fringes the northern border of the grass-
land region. This belt extends from
the foothills eastward across the south
central portion of the province to the
Saskatchewan boundary. The south
boundary of this region runs eastward
from a point a short distance south of
the town of Red Deer on the C. P.
railway between Calgary and Edmonton.
The north boundary extends from
Whitecourt west of Edmonton north-
easterly to the great bend of the Atha-
basca river some ten miles north of the
town of Athabasca, thence southeast-
erly south of Lake La Biche to the
Saskatchewan boundary line a few miles
north of the Saskatchewan river. This
region has a width north and south of
from 100 to 150 mi. The characteristic
trees are the aspen and balsam poplar.
(In the south the trees become smaller
and the small aspens in turn give way
to willows from 3 to 12 ft. in height.
This aspen and willow scrub occurs
continuously over considerable areas
but more frequently exists as scattered
clumps and groves in the rather meso-
phytic prairie. — G. D. F.)

Northwards the trees become more
dense and as the southern boundary
of the northern conifei'ous forest is
approached more or less dense forests
of poplar occur with occasional large
areas of meadow and prairie land.

5. The northern coniferous forest
extends from the transition region
northward to the northern boundaries
of the province. The climax is a meso-
phytic coniferous type. The precipita-
tion is not high but the summers are
short and cool and the saturation deficit
low. The predominant trees are the
white spruce, balsam {Abies halsamea),
poplar, paper birch iBetula papyri/era),
jack pine {Pinus banksiann), and tama-
rack {Larix laricinn). An interesting
condition occurs along the southwestern

border of the coniferous forest where it
approaches the foothills of the Rockies
in the region of the Peace River \'alley.
Large areas of open prairie land are
found here together with a preponder-
ance of poplar in the surrounding for-
ested areas. Some of these openings,
such as that known as Grande Prairie,
contain upwards of 1000 sq. mi.

The fauna of the province has been
modified considerably in the south but
comparatively little in the north. Bison
(Bison bison), once very plentiful, are
extinct in the southern portion of the
province with the exception of a large
herd in the Buffalo Park Reserve near
Wainwright. Several herds of wild
wood bison {Bison bison athabascae),
however, are still in existence in north-
ern Alberta and have been reported
west and south of Fort Smith. Prong-
horn antelope {Aniilocapra americana)
are in existence on some of the smaller
preserves. Coyotes are numerous on
the open plains. In the northern forest
fur-bearing animals and moose {Alces
americana) are plentiful. Bighorn
sheep {Ovis canadensis), goats {Oreamnos
montanus group), grizzly and black
bear are found in the mountains. ^

IV. PRESERVED XATURAL AREAS

*Rocky Mountain National Park (A2)

Area 2750 sq. mi. This area extends
along the eastern slopes of the Rockies
from the Kananaskis Lakes on the
south to the Clearwater river on the
north. It includes the Sawback, Ver-
million, Palliser, Goat and Kananaskis
ranges. The peaks range from 9000 to
12,000 ft. in altitude. The forest is of
the Rocky Mountain coniferous type.
Bison, deer, elk, bear, sheep, and goat
are found. The main line of the C. P.
R. R. west from Calgary traverses the
Park. BanffI is the central outfitting
point. Guides, ponies and camp equip-
ment can be obtained there.

' For further information on the fauna of the for-
ested part of tlie province, see under MacKenzie
Watershed, page 116.

256

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

*Jasper National Park (A2)

Area 4400 sq. mi. Eastern slope of
the Rocky Mountains. Extends from
the Brazeau River on the south north
to the Smoky river divide and from the
Continental divide on the west to the
foothills on the east. The main trans-
continental line of the Canadian Na-
tional Railway passes through the park.

Jasper is the central outfitting point.
Good hotel accommodation, camp equip-
ment and supplies can be obtained
there. C. N. R. R. from Edmonton.
For information and maps write Superin-
tendent, Jasper Park, Jasper, Alberta.

*Waterton Lake National Park (A2)

Area 423 sq. mi. Adjoins Glacier
National Park at extreme southwestern
extremity of the province. Eastern
slope of the Rocky Mountains. Reached
from Cardstont on the C. P. Ry. 20
mi. by motor.

*Buffalo Park (A2)

Area 150 sq. mi. Located in the
plains in the eastern portion of the
province. Poplar-savanna with much
open rolling grassland. The largest
herd of bison in Canada is located here.
One mi. from WainwrightJ on the C. N.
Ry. east from Edmonton.

* Rocky Mountains Forest Reserve (B2)

Area 12,000 sq. mi. This Dominion
Forest extends along the entire eastern
slope of the Rockies from Waterton
Lake National Park in the south to the
54th meridian in the north. The eastern
boundary coincides approximately with
the eastern limits of the foothills.
Both the Rocky Mountains National
Park and Jasper National Park are
within the boundaries of this forest.
The southern portion of the forest
south of the main line of the C. P. Ry.
is easily accessible from any point
along the MacLeod branch of the C. P.
Ry. south from Calgary, notably High
River, Nanton and Claresholm. Along
the Crow's Nest branch Pincher Creek
and Coleman are excellent outfitting

centers. There is hotel accommodation
at all of these points and wagon or motor
roads lead to the forest. Travel by
wagon along the outskirts of the forest
in the south is quite feasible. The
interior trails are usually open for
pack and saddle animals only. North
of the main line of the C. P. Ry. travel
is generally by means of pack ponies
only. A branch of the C. N. Ry. from
Red Deer penetrates the forest along
the valley of the Saskatchewan river
to Brazeau. Rocky Mountain House
is the most suitable outfitting center
in this part. The Coal Spur branch of
the C. N. Ry. from the main line near
Edson enters the northern part of the
reserve. The portion of the reserve
lying north of the main line of the C.
N. Ry. may be easily reached with pack
ponies from Entrance. In this case
supplies should be taken from Edmonton
and ponies obtained locally. The forest
is administered by the Dominion
Forestry Branch from Calgary. Super-
visors' offices are located at Pincher
Creek, Rocky Mountain House and
Entrance.

*Lesser Slave Forest Reserve (A2)

Area 4000 sq. mi. The Lesser Slave
Reserve lies northwest from Edmonton.
It is upon the Alberta plateau beyond
the foothill zone. It is a rough residual
elevation rising some 2000 ft. above the
general level of the plains to elevations
of 4000 ft. or more. It is underlain by
soft shale and heavily mantled with
drift. The northern coniferous forest
extends over these hills. There is a
considerable amount of lodgepole pine
with scattered areas of muskeg in the
depressions. The bulk of the area is
well drained and svipports an association
of spruce and poplar. Lesser Slave
Lake at the northern base of this high-
land supports a considerable fishing
industry. Camp outfit required. Out-
fit at Edmonton. C. P. Ry. to Sawridge.
Pack trails over which pack animals
can be taken extend into the hills from
this point. A detached portion of this
forest lies northeast of the lake and

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

257

may be reached from Sawrid^e whence
a pack trail runs north to Wabiscaw.
Hotel at Sawridge. The Forest is ad-
ministered by the Dominion Forestry
Branch from Calgary.

*Cooking Lake Forest Reserve (B3)

Area 40 sq. mi. The Cooking Lake
Forest is a small area of wasteland 20
mi. east from Edmonton. It is acces-
sible by motor from Edmonton and is
a popular resort.

*Cypress Hills Forest Reserve (C3)

Area 50 sq. mi. This area lies in the
southeastern portion of the province
upon the boundary between Alberta
and Saskatchewan. It is a rough
elevated tract rising to a considerable
elevation above the surrounding plains.
The hills are covered with a forest of
lodgepole pine and surrounded by the
short grass plains. This is the most
easterly point reached by the lodgepole
pine in western Canada. The hills are
20 mi. south of Walsh on the C. P. Ry.
and southeast from Medicine Hat which
is the nearest large outfitting center.
They may be reached by motor and
camp outfit is desirable.

*Foremost Antelope Reserve (A3)

Area 9 sq. mi. A small area in the
short grass plains of southeastern
Alberta. The topography is rough and
the soil sandy in places. Sagebrush is
common. Both pronghorn antelope and
bison are reported on this area. The
altitude is 2900 ft. The reserve lies
west of the Cypress Hills and is 3 mi.
north of Nemiskam on the C. P. Ry.
Hotel at Foremost 10 mi. west. Roads
are good and the reserve is easily reached
by automobile.

*Elk Island Park (A3)

This small area of 16 sq. mi. lies north-
east from Edmonton and adjoins the
Cooking Lake Forest on the north.
Spruce swamps and bogs are frequent
with poplar on the higher ground.
Bison, beaver, elk, deer, moose and
pronghorn antelope are reported here.

Altitude 2196 ft. Lamontt on the
C. N. Ry. 30 mi. from Edmonton is
close to the Park. Hotel accommoda-
tion and equipment may be obtained
there.

*Buffalo Lake Bird Sanctuary (B3)

Area 51 sq. mi. Altitude 2536 ft.
Located close to BashawJ on the C. N.
Ry. between Calgary and Edmonton.

*Pakoiwki Lake Bird Sanctuary (B3)

Area 44 sq. mi. Altitude ^893 ft.
Located in southeastern Alberta 8
mi. southeast from EtzikomJ on the
C. P. Ry.§ Pronghorn antelope is
reported here.

*Birch Lake Bird Sanctuary (B3)

Area 15 sq. mi. Altitude 2228 ft.
Located two mi. from Innisfree| on
the C. N. Ry. east from Edmonton.

*Lac La Biche Bird Sanctuary (B3)

Area 92 sq. mi. Altitude 1788 ft.
Lac La BicheJ station on C. P. Ry. north-
east from Edmonton.

*Ministik Lake Bird Sanctuary (B3)

Area 25 sq. mi. Located 25 mi.
southeast from Edmonton near TofieldJ
on the C. N. Ry. Reserve 12 mi. dis-
tant may be reached (a).§

*Miquelon Lake Bird Sanctuary (B3)

Area 11 sq. mi. Altitude 2427 ft.
Located 14 mi. north from Camrose.J
on the C. N. Ry. May be reached (a).

*Many Islands Lake Bird Sanctuary (B3)

Area 21 sq. mi. Altitude 2448 ft.
Located in the plains of southeastern
Alberta 12 mi. north of WalshJ on the
C. P. Ry.

Proposed Forest Reservations

Proposed Athabasca Forest Reserve.
(B2.) Area 7000 sq. mi. This area
forms an extension of the Rocky M-ovin-
tains Forest upon the north. It lies
between the present boundary of the
Forest and the Grande Prairie settle-
ments to the north and the Lesser Slave
Forest to the northeast. The average
elevation is over 2000 ft. The surface

258

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

is undulating. The forest cover is
fairly open with many patches of prairie
anil " meadow land. The forest is an
extension of the Rocky Mountains
coniferous forest but is mingled to a
certain extent with the Northern Conif-
erous forest which extends southwards
from the Lesser Slave Lake region.
May be reached from EdsonJ or En-
trance on the C. N. Ry. west from
Edmonton** (h).

Proposed Embarras Forest Reserve.
(B2.) Area 700 sq. mi. A proposed
extension to the Rocky Mountains
Forest in the Coal Spur district south
of Edson on the main line of the C. N.
Ry. west of Edmonton. Rocky Moun-
tain coniferous forest. Outfit at Edson. J
Proposed Lac La Biche Forest Reserve.,
(B2.) Area 1400 sq. mi. This area lies
northeast from Lac La Biche and is
traversed by the A. & G. W. Ry. from
Edmonton to McMurray. The country
is rolling with an average elevation of
1800 ft. Northern coniferous forest.
Good hotel at Lac La Biche. Camp
outfit and pack ponies required.

Proposed Pelican Mountain Forest
Reserve. (B2.) Area 700 sq. mi. Situ-
ated at the east end of the north block
of the Lesser Slave Forest. A rough
highland reaching elevations of 3000 ft.
Northern coniferous forest. May be
reached by pack trail from AthabascaJ or
by canoe by means of the Athabasca and
Pelican rivers. The canoe route is
very interesting and not difficult with
the exception of the portage at Pelican
Settlement.

Proposed Peace River Forest Reserve.
(■B2.) Area approximately 1000 sq. mi.
This tract is in three blocks which lie
immediately south of the Peace River
at the western boundary of Alberta.
The country is a high rolling plateau
averaging 2500 ft. in elevation. North-
ern coniferous forest. May be reached
from Spirit River j on the Grande Prairie
branch of the C. P. Ry. from Edmon-
ton** fh) or (c). Also by boat up the
Peace River from Peace River Crossing^.
Proposed Clear Hills Forest Reserve.
(A2.) This is a large area comprising
over 1000 sq. mi. lying north of the
Peace River at the western boundary of
the Province. The hills form a rough
rolling elevation rising to 3500 ft.
Northern coniferous forest with patches
of open country. Peace River Crossing^
C. P. Ry. from Edmonton. Pack ponies
and camp outfit required. Trails are
rough and poor. Little travel in this
region.

Proposed Wapiti River Forest Reserve
(B2.) Area 200 sq. mi. A small area
of northern coniferous forest at the j unc-

tion of the Wapiti and Smoky Rivers
and south of the Grande Prairie settle-
ment. Four miles south of the town of
Grande Prairief on the C. P. Ry. north
from Edmonton. The northern bound-
ary of the area may be reached by{w)
or (a), but the interior is accessible with
pack ponies only.

Available areas

North of the Athabasca River and Lac
La Biche Alberta is very thinly settled
with the exception of the Peace River
settlements west from Peace River
Crossing, t The bulk of this immense
area is little travelled except along the
main waterways.

Lake Athabasca is easily reached from
Edmonton to McMurray over the A. &
G. W. Ry. and thence by boat down the
river to Fort Chipewyan. The country
about the western end of Lake Atha-
basca is very low and marshy. It is
one of the notable localities for water-
fowl in the north. The eastern portion
of the lake lies within the boundaries
of the Laurentian plateau.

The Peace River is reached from
Edmonton via C. P. Ry. to Peace River
Crossingl. Regular steamboat service
down the river to Fort Vermilion, Lake
Athabasca and Fort Smith on the Slave
river. Hay River may be reached with
pack ponies north from Vermilion.
Fort Vermilion may also be reached
from Athabasca by way of the Wabisca
and Loon rivers.

13. SASKATCHEWAN
By John Smith Dexter

Saskatchewan, the middle one of the
three "Prairie Provinces" of Canada,
lies between the 49th and the 60th
parallels of latitude, and between ap-
proximately the 102nd and the 110th
meridians west of Greenwich. It is
more than 750 mi. from north to south;
and along the southern boundary, its
width from east to west is some 388 mi.

The surface is comparatively level,
though gently rolling. The altitude is
markedly higher in the southwest
corner, where the Province approaches
the foothills of the Rockies. In that
region (the Cypress Hills) its highest
elevation is 4243 ft. Wood Mountain,
150 mi. farther east, reaches 3371 ft.
The average elevation in the southwest
part of the province is above 3000 ft.,

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

259

and this region is a portion of the Mis-
souri Coteau.

At the southeastern corner of the
province, and north along the eastern
boundary to the 52nd parallel, the
average elevation is 1700 ft., and ascends
to about 2500 ft. in the Porcupine Hills
between the 52nd and 53d parallels.
From this point the descent is fairly
rapid until a low point of 870 ft. is
reached where the Saskatchewan River
crosses the boundary. North of this
point, the ascent is gradual to about
1250 ft. at the northeast corner. Lake
Athabasca, in the northwest corner,
has a level of 700 ft., the lowest point
in the province. Numerous hills of
glacial origin occur in various parts of
the province, and rise in some cases
nearly a thousand feet above the sur-
rounding territory.

The chief rivers drain into Hudson
Bay. The Qu'Appelle, running east-
ward at about 50° 30' north latitude, is
a tributary of the Assiniboine River
which joins the Red at Winnipeg. The
Saskatchewan has two great branches
which rise in the Rocky Mountains
west of Alberta. The Churchill River,
crossing the Province still farther north,
drains a great part of the northern
forest, and has its source in central
Alberta. Among the lesser rivers, two
of special interest are (1) Frenchman
River, arising in the Cypress Hills,
which empties into the Gulf of Mexico,
via the Missouri; and (2) Clearwater, a
strong tributary of the Athabasca,
that drains to the Arctic Ocean.

The direction of the isothermal lines
shows markedly the influences of the
Rocky Mts., and of Hudson Bay, for
they have a well-defined dip from north-
east to southwest. The range of tem-
perature is great, occasionally reaching
above 90° in summer, and below -50° in
winter.

The annual rainfall in the southwest
is from 10 to 13 in. in the forested north-
ern half, it is frequently more than 20 in.

South of a line drawn across the
Province from 52° 30' on the western
boundary to 51° 45' on the eastern, the

vegetation is typically that of the
prairies, with few trees or none, and with
grasses predominating. (In its western
part, a continuation of the plains of
Alberta, page 254; toward the east,
passes into the true prairie. North of
this line, a belt perhaps 50 to 75 mi.
wide is called "the park country," and
in this belt, dense thickets of aspen and
willow are interspersed with typical
grassy plains.) (The transition zone
of poplar-savanna; see Alberta, page
255, and Manitoba, page 263.)

The forested area includes the rest
of the Province (for description, see
northern coniferous forest of Alberta,
page 255, and Manitoba, page 264).
North of a line drawn through the south-
west extremities of Athabasca, Cree,
Reindeer Lakes, the forest becomes
thin, and at the extreme northeast
corner of the Province, almost vanishes
into the Barren Grounds (see Manitoba,
page 264).

Aside from considerable collecting of
plants, insects, and birds in the prairie
region, a very little collecting of birds
in the north by numerous naturalists,
and some work on life histories of
insects by Prof. A. E. Cameron of the
University of Saskatchewan, the prov-
ince is virgin territory to the naturalist.
As for bird life, the southwest corner
has been described by F. M. Chapman
in Camps and Cruises, and by A. C. Bent
in the Auk for 1907 and 1908. P. A.
Taverner of the Victoria Museum,
Ottawa, Mr. H. H. Mitchell, Provincial
Naturalist, Regina, Sask. and others,
have collected birds in many parts of
the prairies. Still earlier work in this
field is well digested in Macoun's Cata-
logue of Canadian Birds. Cap't, Angus
Buchanan, whose book on his 1914 trip
through northern Saskatchewan has
been published by John Lane, collected
birds as he travelled, and his collection
has been described by J. H. Fleming
in the Canadian Field-Naturalist.

A rich hunting-ground for the natural-
ist is offered in the prairie pools. At
Saskatoon, within 5-minute walk of the
biological laboratories of the University,

2G0

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

the evanescent pools still standing in
May from the niclted snows of April
swarm with all sorts of invertebrates.
There are various tiny turbellarians,
some of which are fillecl with Zoochlorel-
lae. Especially abundant are the small
Crustacea ns. including Branchipus,
I.rf'pidurus, Estheria, and countless
daphnids. Some of the pools are tinged
rod by myriads of C nnlhocamplus sp.
and by the huge Diaptomus shoshone.
Forest reserves and game sanctuaries
have been set aside to a fairly satisfying
extent. These regions are almost un-
touched by civilization, except in the
form of local forest fires. They cannot
be advantageously studied without a full
camp equipment. They are, naturally,
located on land ill-suited to agriculture
in regions of hills or of marshes or both,
and all of them have abundant supplies
of water in the form of sloughs or lakes.
(For information regarding animals of
the northern part of the province see
index account of Mackenzie Watershed
page 116, and Seton's Life Histories of
Northern Animals (Scribner's).)

NATURAL AREAS

The Forest Reserves

The Dominion Government has set
aside in Saskatchewan, Forest Reserves
totalling in area some 9000 sq. mi.
In the following descriptions, the areas
are only approximately estimated in
most cases. Two parallel lines, thus |1,
indicate "camp outfit necessary."

*Cypress Hills, No. 1. (A4, 1.) 54
sq. mi. (Described with *Cypress Hills,
No. 2. 3200-3700 ft.)

Maple Creekl, on the C. P. R., with
Post Office, stores, is 25 mi. (a)§.

Cypress Hills, No. 2. (A4.) 18 sq.
mi. The two Cypress Hills Reserves
are rather inaccessible, being in the arid
sandhills of southwestern Sask. Lodge-
pole pine, white spruce, birch, aspen,
black poplars make up the forest.
Small cacti occur. Antelope, cougar,
elk, lynx, and timber wolves are found,
though not abundantly. The first two
named, are found nowhere else in the

Province save in this corner. Hawks,
coyote, beaver, ground-squirrel, badger,
rabbit, prairie chicken, and water-
fowl are common. 3200-3700 ft.

Maple CreekJ, on the C. P. R., with
Post Office, stores, is 15 mi. (a)§.

* Moose Mountain. (B2.) 156 sq. mi.
Poplars, willows, birch, box elders and
ash are the principal trees. Hawks,
weasel, coj-ote, beaver, owls, and water-
fowl, are the chief animals. Large
game are rare. 2000 ft.

CarlyleJ, on the C. P. R., with Post
Office, stores§, is 12 mi. (a).

*Beaver Hills. (B2.) ** 99 sq. mi.
Poplars and willows are the chief trees.
Large game are rare. "Moose Mountain
and Beaver Hills are two small Reserves
with much slough land. . . . Both
have the usual history — stripped of
timber and overrun by fire, and now
carrying a reproduction of poplar,
mostly immature." (1915 Report of
Canadian Commission of Conservation)
1800 ft.

Itunat, on the G. T. P., with Post
Office and stores, is 6 miles (a).

*Elbow. (B2.) 115 sq. mi. In two
parts, one along the west shore of the
South Saskatchewan River at the
"Elbow;" the other among the head
waters of the Qu'Appelle River, ten
miles further east. 1800 ft.

Elbowt, on the C. P. R., with Post
Office and stores, is two mi. (a).

*Dundurn. (B2.) 63 sq. mi. Sandy
soil, drifting in some localities. 1750 ft.

DundurnI, on the C. N. R., with Post
Office and stores, is 5 mi. (a).§

*Duch Mountain, No. 2. (B2.) 81
sq. mi. A rolling country on the eastern
boundary line of the Province. Jack
pine, tamarack, balsam fir, black spruce,
white spruce, aspen, balsam poplar,
and birch are common. Skunk, coyote,
weasel, muskrat, beaver, ground-squir-
rel, moose, deer, and bear, are charac-
teristic of the fauna. 1400-2500 ft.

KamsackJ, on the C. N. R., with Post
Office and stores, is 8 mi. (a)§.

Porcupine, No. 2. (A4.) 3220 sq.
mi. This is another large area of waste
land, very similar to that of the Duck

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

261

Mountain Reserve, and with a similar
fauna and flora. Its eastern end has
been set aside as a Game Preserve.
1000-2500 ft.

Hudson Bay Junctionf, on the C. N. R.,
with Post Office and stores, is 3 mi.
distant by wagon,' (h), or (w)§.

*Pasqiiia Hills. (A4.) 2592 sq. mi.
Similar in character to the last two
described. All three contain elevations
of land rising to approximately 2500 ft.,
which with Riding Mountain and Turtle
Mountain in Manitoba, make up a range,
of which Pembina Mountain at the
boundary of Manitoba, Minnesota, and
North Dakota, is the southern member.
900-2500 ft.

Hudson Bay Junctionf, on the C.
N. R., with Post Office and stores,
is two mi. distant (h) or (w), over a
muskeg trail §.

*Manitou Lake. (B2.) 180 sq. mi.
On the western border of the Province,
south and west of the alkali lake of the
same name. It lies in the so-called
"park country" in which prairie and
aspen associations alternate. Coyote,
ground-squirrel, and crane, abound.
The Reserve contains many sm.all
lakes, many without outlet. 2000 ft.

Yonker, on the G. T. P., with Post
Office and stores, but no hotel, is one-
half mi. (a) from the Reserve §.

*Keppel. (B2.)** Some 85 sq. mi.
in three small patches of brush-covered
country in the prairies south of Battle-
ford. Hawks, ground-squirrel, and coy-
ote are plentiful. 1700 ft.

Perduel, on the C. P. R., with Post
Office and stores, is seven miles (a) from
the Reserve.

*The Pities. (B2.) 165 sq. mi. A
particularly interesting Reserve, being
readily accessible and on the very
boundary between park country and
dense northern forest. It is heavily
forested on its northern parts with
spruce-aspen associations, while in the
southern portion aspen thickets alter-
nate with typical prairie grass-lands.
It touches both the north and south
branches of the Saskatchewan River,

and contains numerous sloughs and
lakes. 1500 ft.

Duck Laket, on the C. N. R, with
Post Office and stores, is 6 mi. (a)§.

*Nisbet. (B2.) 150 sq. mi. A re-
serve of Irregular outline, north of the
North Saskatchewan River at Prince
Albert, which is two miles distant by
auto. There is a good deal of spruce
bog, and the forest is extremely dense.
The winter wrens and Canada jay
("whiskey jack") are common, and the
pine siskin, ruby-crowned kinglet and
olive-sided flycatcher are not rare.

Prince Albert, which may be reached
by various branches of the C. N. R.,
is one of the chief commercial centers
of the Province.

*Steep Creek. (B2.) 7 sq. mi. A
spruce bog 16 mi. distant (a) east from
Prince Albert, and situated on the south
shore of the North Saskatchewan.!

*Fort a la Come. (A4, 1.) 506 sq. mi.
At the juncture of the two main branches
of the Saskatchewan, and Ij'ing chiefly
on the north shore. Not notably
different in character from the Nisbet
Reserve at Prince Albert. 1200 ft.

(a), 30 mi. from Prince Albert, or
20 mi. from Kinistinot, on the C. N. R.,
where there are stores and Post Office§.

*Big River. (A4.) 1250 sq. mi. A
large tract of densely forested land, with
much spruce-poplar vegetation, and a
good deal of large game, as well as
water-fowl in abundance. Some areas
have been forested, some have been
burned over, but much is still primitive.
1600 ft.

Big Riverl, on the C. N. R., with
Post Office and stores, is one-half mi.
by road from the Reserve §.

*Sturgeon River. (A4.) 70S sq. mi.
A little-known tract, (a) by a 30-mi.
ride either from Prince Albert, or from
Canwoodt (C. N. R., Post Office, stores).
This Reserve is heavily forested and its
sand hills rise to a height of over 2300 ft.
The Sturgeon River is a tributary of the
North Saskatchewan. Waskesiu Lake,
in the northeast corner of the Reserve
is more than fifteen miles long, and is

262

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

more than five miles broad at its widest
place. 1600-2300 ft.§.

Bird Sanctuaries in Saskatchewan

Cabri Lake. Covers 3^ sq. mi. of
prairie, sagebrush, cactus, and alkali
area with a ravine and rocky situations,
lake and spring. Altitude 2300 ft.
Located 5 mi. south of Mantario,t
Saskatchewan on the Canadian National
Railroad. §—Canadton National Parks
J. B. H.-L.H. . ^, ,

Crane Lake. Covers 23 sq. mi. ot lake
and islands with prairie, sagebrush and
cactus, marshes. Located 5 mi. east of
Piopott Station on the Canadian Pacific
Railroad.!— Conadian NationcA Parks,
J. B. H.-L.H.

Lenore Lake. Includes 37^ sq. mi. of
lake, shore and islands, deciduous forest,
prairie and swamp. Altitude 1865 ft.
Located 18 mi. north of HumboldtJ on
the Canadian National Railway. §—
Canadian National Parks, J. B. H.-
L.H.

*Last Mountains Lake. Embraces 92
sq. mi. of lake with marshes, shores, and
some prairie. Located 10 mi. west of
GovanI on the Canadian Pacific Rail-
way. This is probably the first bird
sanctuary in North America. It was
reserved in 1887. § — Canadian National
Parks, J. B. H.-L. H.

Quill Lake. Covers 250 sq. mi. of
shore, water and islands. Deciduous
forest, prairie, marsh. Located at Quill
LakeJ Station on the Canadian National
8 mi. north of Wynyard| on the Cana-
dian Pacific! — Canadian National
Parks, J. B. H.-L. H.

Big Stick Lake. Includes 20 sq. mi. of
prairie, sage brush, sand areas, marshes
with antelope present. Altitude 2500
ft. Located 20 mi. north of Maple
Creek on the Canadian Pacific Rail-
road.!— Canadian National Parks, J. B.
H.-L. H.

While Bear Lake. This is 3 sq. mi. o/
steppe, semi-desert, sage brush, and
cactus, with some ravines. Valuable
duck breeding ground. Altitude 2050
ft., located 5 mi. south of Elrose. —
Canadian National Parks, J. B. H.-
L.H.

Chapin Lake. Includes 73 sq. mi. of
which 18 are water, prairie, sagebrush,
and cactus, sand areas, shore, marsh, and
lake. Located at Chapin, Canadian
Pacific Railway. The lake is strongly
alkaline.! — Canadian National Parks, J.
B. H.-L.H.

Redberry Lake. Embraces 30? sq.
mi. chiefly water, but with deciduous
forest, prairie, marsh, and shore. Alti-
tude is 1700 ft. Located at lledberry
Station, Canadian National Railway.

No hotels available.**— Canadian A^a-
tional Parks, J. B. H.-L. H.

Basin Lake. Includes 28 sq. mi. of
water and island, deciduous forest,
prairie, some marsh. Altitude 1865 ft.
Is 24 mi. northwest of Humboldtf on the
Canadian National Railway.^— Cana-
dian National Parks, J. B. H.-L. H.

Johnston Lake. Covers 125 sq. mi.
with prairie, sagebrush, cactus, marsh
and the lake. Altitude 2189 ft. Located 2
mi. north of ExpanseJ on the Canadian
Pacific Railway, 25 mi. south of Moose
Jaw, Canadian Pacific Railway, can be
reached from Moose Jaw by automobile. !
— Canadian National Parks, J. B. H.-
L.H.

I

Game preserves set aside hy the provincia
Government

The Provincial Government has set
aside as Game Preserves the three
following areas:

The water and shores of the north and
south branches of the Saskatchewan
River from the Alberta boundary to the
point where the two branches unite at
Fort a la Corne.

The water and shores of Wascana
Lake, in the city of Regina, Sask.

The Isle of Bays, a small rocky island
in Lake Johnston, 25 mi. south of Moose
Jaw, Sask. (See account of Lake Johnston
Bird Sanctuary.) On this island, white
pelicans, double-crested cormorants, and
other birds breed. — John Smith Dexter.

Miscellaneous areas not elsewhere
described

The Churchill River Basin. Includes
1000 mi. of river, wet spruce forest, and
broad, marshy hay-meadows. Birds
abundant, including grebes, ducks,
cranes, rails, herons, pelicans, cormo-
rants, gulls, terns, snipe, etc. Bear,
moose, and smaller mammals abound,
with muskrat and porcupine prominent
among them. The breeding season for
birds begins in May. Ducks hatch in
June and July. In spite of many forest
fires in various portions of it, the country
could hardly be more primitive. Alti-
tude, 1200-1500 ft.

The region may be entered by the
Canadian National Railway to Big
River Sask., Prince Albert Sask., or

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

203

The Pas, INIan. Camp outfit necessary,
but may be obtained at any of the three
towns named. Indian guides are ad-
visable, Cree Indians being probably
preferable to Chipewj^an. (The Angli-
can or Catholic Missionaries are excel-
lent advisers with reference to the
selection of a guide.) — John Sniilh
Dexter.

14. MANITOBA

By a. B. Connell
i, general

The province of Manitoba is the
easternmost of the three prairie prov-
inces of Canada. It extends from the
northern boundary of Minnesota and
North Dakota north to the fiOth parallel
of latitude a distance of 750 mi. The
west boundary follows the 102nd merid-
ian of longitude. The Ontario bound-
ary on the east runs northwards near
the 95th meridian for a distance of 275
mi. and then swings noi'theast to the
shore of Hudson Bay. The width of the
province in the south is approximately

^00 mi.

II. PHYSIOGRAPHY

Manitoba is divided into four distinct
ph^'siographic regions.

1. The Cretaceous plains, entering
the Province from the west, terminate
abruptly in an escarpment which ex-
tends fi'oni the Pembina Mountain upon
the International boundary northwest-
erly to the Porcupine Hills. The surface
of this region is rolling and the elevation
averages 1400 ft. above sea level. The
line of the escarpment is marked by a
series of drift-covered elevations rising
in places to 2500 ft. The most important
of these are the Duck and Riding j\Ioun-
tains. The Cretaceous plains occupy
the southwestern portion of the
Province.

2. A relatively narrow structural plain
of undisturbed Paleozoic strata extends
eastwards from the line of the escarp-
ment to Lake \Yinnipeg. This plain
has an average elevation of 800 ft. above
sea level. It is upwards of 100 mi. in

width east and west and extends from
the international boundary north
beyond the Saskatchewan river. The
Winnipeg system of lakes, the residue
of the glacial Lake Agassiz, occupies a
portion of this area. Soils are deep and
drainage in the northern part is poor.

3. East and north of Lake Winnipeg
the Laurentian Peneplain stretches to
within 100 mi. of Hudson Bay. The
surface is rolling and the soils thin.
The rocks are of a disorganized crystal-
line character. The elevation is gener-
ally less than 1000 ft. especially in the
valleys of the Nelson and Churchill
rivers. The region is one of low relief,
disorganized drainage and innumerable
lakes. The general slope of the plains
from the Rocky Mountains to Hudson
Bay seems to be continuous across this
Laurentian section of Northern Mani-
toba.

4. A level plain underlain by lime-
stone borders the shore of Hudson Bay
in the vicinity of York Factory.

III. BIOTA

The vegetation of the Province may
be separated into four climatic for-
mations.

1. The Prairies

The extreme southwestern portion of
the Province is characterized by a grass-
land formation composed of tall, deep-
rooted mesophytic grasses. Typical
flood plain forests of ash, Manitoba
maple, poplar and willow occur along
the stream courses. Alkali sloughs are
frequent.

Antelope {Antilocapra amcricana) and
bison (Bison bison), once plentiful,
are now extinct. The region is well
developed agriculturally.

2. The transition zone of grassland and
deciduous forest (poplar-savanna)

This condition covers an area varying
in width from 50 to over 100 mi. It
extends eastwards from the prairie
country to the vicinity of South Junction
on the C. N. R. near the south boundary

264

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

of the province. Thence the boundary
with the northern coniferous forest
follows roughly a line north through
Molson on the C. P. R. to Ft. Alexander
at the mouth of the Winnipeg river.
From this point the line crosses Lake
\\innipeg to Washow Bay on the west
sliore and continues north and west
around the north of Lake St. Martin to
the foot of Lake Winnipegosis. Cross-
ing Winnipegosis near Red Deer Point
the base of the Porcupine highland is
reached near Norva on the C. N. R.
The trees are mainlj^ aspen and balsam
l)oplar. Scrub white oak is sometimes
found. This area together with the
prairies is the agricultural section of the
Province and contains the bulk of the
population.

S. The Northern Coniferous Forest

North of the transitional area the
northern coniferous forest formation
appears and occupies the northern part
of the province practically to Hudson
Bay. The climax trees are the white
spruce (Picea canadensis), black spruce
{Picia mariana), balsam {Ahies bal-
samia), paper birch {Betula papyrifera) ,
aspen {Popuhis tremuloides) , and balsam
poplar (Pop'ulus balsamifera) . Along
the southern border flood plains are
characterized by the green ash {Fraxirius
lanceolata), Manitoba maple, American
elm {Ulmus americana), and willows.
Jack pine {Pinus divaricata), is found
on sand plains and areas of poor soils.
Larch {Larix laricina), and black spruce
occur in the swamps. Outlying areas
of this forest occur along the Manitoba
escarpment upon the Riding, Duck, and
Porcupine Mountains. These areas
have been incorporated into forest
reserves and are easily accessible.

The characteristic mammals of the
northern forest are the moose {Alces
americana), black and cinnamon bear
{Ursus americanus), timber wolf (Canis
occidentalis), red fox (Vulpes fulva),
beaver {Castor canadensis), muskrat
(Ondatra zibethica), mink {Mustela vison
group), lynx {Lt/hx canadensis), otter
{Lutra canadensis), fisher {Maries pen-

nanti), marten {Martes americana),
snowshoe hare {Lepus americanus), red
squirrel {Sciurus hudsonicus), skunk
{Mephitis hudsonica), and weasel {Mus-
tela cicognanii). For further informa-
tion see Seton's Life Histories of North-
ern Animals (Scribner's). Waterfowl
are still plentiful in the valley of the
lower Saskatchewan river and in the
level plain about the Winnipeg system
of lakes. Hawks, owls, and partridge
are numerous. Deer are not numerous
except along the south border of the
forest country. Whitefish and lake
trout occur in most of the larger lakes.
Sturgeon are fairly plentiful. Pike,
pickerel, and suckers abound.

4. Tundras

The extreme northern portion of the
province extends beyond the coniferous
forest into the Arctic tundra. The
barren ground caribou {Rangifer) are
plentiful, ranging south to Reindeer,
South Indian and Split lakes.

IV. NATURAL AREAS

* Riding Mountain Forest Reserve.
(B2.) Area 1000 sq. mi. A rolling
drift-covered plateau. The sharply dis-
sected eastern slopes rise steeply from
the Agassiz plain at 900 ft. to elevations
of 2500 ft. The western slopes fall
gently to the level of the Cretaceous
plain at 1400 ft. The elevation is
covered by northern coniferous forest
and is surrounded at the base by poplar
savanna. In addition to the climax
trees mountain maple {Acer spicatum),
hazel {Corylus americana), alder, pin
cherry {Primus pennsylvanica) and
mountain ash {Sorbus sp.) are found
as an understory usually in the poplar
and spruce association. Glacial pot-
holes and poorly drained depressions
are occupied by sphagnum swamps.
Meadows and sloughs are frequent.
Elk are present in this area in addition
to moose, deer, and bear. Natural
conditions have been interfered with to
some extent by fire and lumbering.

The reserve is administered by the
Dominion Forestry Branch with office

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

265

at Dauphin. There have been set aside
1161 sq. mi. as a game preserve by the
Manitoba provincial government.

Dauphini. Canadian National Rail-
way from Winnipeg!. Outskirts of
reserve can be reached by motor car,
interior by wagon. Flies are bad in
June and July normally.

*D?/c^• Mounlain Forest Reserve. (B2.)
Area 1500 sq. mi. This elevation is
similar to the Riding Mountain from
which it is separated by a broad valley
upon the south. Elevations reach ap-
proximately 2500 ft. Eastern slopes
are steep and sharply dissected while
the western slope is long and gentle.
The plateau is covered by northern
coniferous forest and is surrounded by
poplar savanna. Elk, moose, and deer
are present. Madge lake in the west
of the reserve is a popular summer
resort. 432 sq. mi. have been estab-
lished by the Provincial Government
as a game preserve. Wagon trails have
been opened through the reserve and the
outskirts can be reached by motor car.
Administration is by the Dominion
Forestry Branch from the DauphinJ
office. C. N. R. from Winnipeg§.

*Porcupine Forest Reserve. (B2.)
Area 1000 sq. mi. The Porcupine hills
extend across the western boundarj^ of
Manitoba from Saskatchewan just south
of the 53rd parallel of latitude. They
are separated from the Duck Mountain
on the south by a broad valley 20 mi.
in width through which the Preeceville
branch of the C. N. R. runs. The
Prince Albert branch of the C. N. R.
skirts their eastern base from Swan
river to Westgate.

The highland is similar to the Duck
and Riding Mountains but is higher and
rougher. The eastern slopes rise steeply
some 2000 ft. from the level of the
Agassiz plain, to a total elevation of
nearly 3000 ft. Westward in Saskatche-
wan the fall is gentle. The plateau
is underlain by soft shales and is heavily
mantled with drift. A series of beach
lines can be traced around the eastern
base. The area lies upon the south-
western border of the northern conif-

erous forest. The forest extends with-
out a break from the north and east
over these hills but ends abruptly upon
the south slopes where it gives way to
poplar savanna. The deep well drained
soils of the upland are occupied by a
typical climax association of spruce,
balsam fir, poplar and white birch.
Muskegs are not extensive. Lumbering
and fires have interfered to some extent
with natural conditions.

Bison which formerly ranged into
these hills are now extinct. Woodland
caribou and elk have been noted.
Moose and deer are plentiful.

Swan Riverl is the nearest outfitting
center. C. N. R. from Winnipeg.
Wagon trails extend to the boundary
of the reserve from Bowsman and
Birch river. Interior accessible (h)
only. No hotel accommodation at flag
stops upon the railway between Bows-
man and Hudson Bay Junction. Ad-
ministration by Dominion Forestry
Branch.

*Spruce Woods Forest Reserve. (C3.)
108 sq. mi., southwestern Manitoba.
An area of sand dunes and light soils
surrounded by developed agricultural
lands. Scattered natural spruce.
Some artificial plantations. Game
Preserve.

Reached from Carberry, C. P. R. (a).
The Canadian National railway crosses
the tract. Administered by Dominion
Forestry Branch, Customs Building,
Winnipeg.

*Turtle Mountain Forest Reserve.
(B3.) Area 100 sq. mi. Located on the
International Boundary in southwestern
Manitoba. A low rolling drift-covered
upland surrounded by agricultural
prairie land. Covered with small poplar
with many areas of tj'pical mesophytic
prairie. Sloughs and ponds are numer-
ous. Game Preserve. Administered by
Federal Forestry Branch, Winnipeg.
Reached from Waukopa or Atlepha,
C. N. R. Boisevain or Deloraine
nearest outfitting center§. Accessible
by wagon.

*Cedar Lake and Winnipegosis Game
Preserves. (A2.) Area 3G00 sq. mi.

266

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

These two adjacent areas are in north-
ern Manitoba extending from the head
of Lake Winnipegosis north to the
Hudson Bay railway. The tract lies
upon the level plain of Paleozoic lime-
stones which stretches from the Mani-
toba escarpment to Lake Winnipeg.
The soils are stratified lake clays mainly
with scattered areas of drift deposits.
The elevation averages 800 ft. The
Saskatchewan river flows through Cedar
lake in the southern part of the preserve.

The tract is typical of the northern
coniferous forest formation as modified
by a low terrain and lack of drainage.
Open muskegs and black spruce and
tamarack swamps occupy the bulk of
the area. Upon ridges and well drained
areas the climax association of white
spruce, balsam fir, birch and poplar
appears but is greatly restricted in
extent and has often suffered from fire.
The lakes are shallow and surrounded
by broad zones of carex and willow.
They are filling rapidly. An opportu-
nity is offered upon this area for study-
ing the successional relationships of
drained and undrained swamps and
flood plains. The area has been slightly
modified by fire but not by lumbering.
Occasional woodland caribou are found
here. Moose are fairly plentiful. Deer
few. Wolves, foxes, mink, muskrat
and beaver are numerous. Ducks, geese
and other waterfowl are exceptionally
plentiful especially during the fall.
White fish, lake trout, sturgeon, pike
and pickerel are caught in the lakes.

The Pas on the Canadian National
railway 400 mi. north of Winnipeg is
the most convenient outfitting center.
Cedar or Moose lake can be reached
down the Saskatchewan river by steam-
boat, (c). They may also be reached
from Winnipeg by steamer to Grand
Rapids over Lake Winnipeg§. Take
supplies from Winnipeg or The Pas for
duration of trip. Maps can be obtained
from the Game Branch at Winnipeg or
Natural Resources Intelligence Branch
at Ottawa.

Birch Island Game Preserve. (A3.)
Area 57 sq. mi. An island in Lake

Winnipegosis underlain by limestone.
Northern coniferous forest. Outfit at
Winnipegosis, C. N. R. (c).§

Red Deer Point Game Preserve. (A3.)
Area 39 sq. mi. In Lake Winnipegosis
15 mi. north of Winnipegosis, C. N. R.§
(c). Northern coniferous forest.

Peonan Point Game Preserve. (A3.)
Area 72 sq. mi. Northern end of Lake
Manitoba. Northern coniferous forest
Outfit at Winnipeg. C. N. Ry. Gypsum-
ville branch, to Fairford.§ (c).

Lake St. Martin Game Preserve. (A3.)
Area 240 sq. mi. Northern coniferous
forest. Much muskeg. Outfit at Winni-
peg. C. N. Ry. to Fairford. This area
has also been set aside as a proposed
forest reserve.

Grindstone Point Game Preserve. (A3.)
Area 42 sq. mi. Southern part of Lake
Winnipeg. Drift underlain by un-
disturbed limestones. Northern coni-
ferous forest. Outfit at Winnipeg.
Steamer from Selkirk. (c).§

Dog Head Point Game Preserve. (A3.)
Area 225 sq. mi. Narrows of Lake
Winnipeg. Level limestone strata over-
lain by drift and lake clays. Northern
coniferous forest. Much muskeg. Out-
fit at Winnipeg. Steamer from Sel-
kirk.§ (c). This is also a proposed
forest reserve.

Reindeer Island Game Preserve. (A3)
Area 65 sq. mi. Island in Lake Winni-
peg. Northern coniferous forest. Out-
fit at Winnipeg. Steamer from Selkirk. §

(c).

Whitemouth Proposed Forest Reserve.
(A2.) Area 200 sq. mi. Southeastern
Manitoba. Northern coniferous forest.
Large proportion is muskeg. Outfit in
Winnipeg. Go to Bedford or Sandilands
onC. N. Ry.§ Wagon (c).

Manigotagan Proposed Forest Reserve.
(A2.) Area 2000 sq. mi. This area lies
east of Lake Winnipeg between the
Wanipigou River on the north and the
English River on the south. It extends
eastwards to the Ontario boundary and
is within the Laurentian area of eastern
Manitoba. The country is rolling and
rocky with thin soils. Lakes and
streams are numerous. The forest is of
the northern coniferous type with con-
siderable muskeg and burn.

C. P. Ry. from Winnipeg to Lac du
Bonnet; also by steamboat from Selkirk
to Manigotagon. Outfit at Winnipeg.
Camp outfit and canoes required. Small
hotel at Lac du Bonnet.

Available areas

The settled area of Manitoba is re-
stricted largely to the south. Northern
Manitoba, comprising the bulk of the
province, is still very largely in a virgin

Fig. 9. Map of Minnesota
Showing original distribution of forest and grassland; location of National and
state forests and state parks, and game and wild life refuges. (The latter from State
Game and Fish Commission.)

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

267

condition. It lies mainly within the
boundaries of the Laurentian plateau
and is covered with the northern coni-
ferous forest. Travel is by canoe in
summer and dog team in winter. The
Pas, a town of 2000 people, is the usual
outfitting center for travel in the north.
Hotel accommodations are good and
camp equipment, canoes and supplies can
be obtained there. C. N. R. from Win-
nipeg. The Hudson Bay Railway has
been completed from The Pas to within
90 mi. of Port Nelson on Hudson Bay.
Regular boat service is available from
The Pas up the Saskatchewan River to
Cumberland House and Sturgeon Lake.
Thence the Churchill River can be
reached easily (c). Northeastern Mani-
toba is generally reached by steamer
from Winnipeg to Norway House at the
north of Lake Winnipeg. From here
the old Hudson Bay canoe route runs
to York Factory on Hudson Bay by
way of the Hayes River.

15. MINNESOTA

By Carl Otto Rosendahl

i. general features

1. Physiogra-phy

The whole state of Minnesota with the
exception of the extreme southeastern
corner has been heavily glaciated and
a typical glacial topography is therefore
characteristic of most of the state.
The glacial soil or drift varies from a
few feet to 300 ft. in thickness and occurs
mainly as unmodified till plains or
ground moraines, as gravelly and sandy
outwash plains, and as terminal mo-
raines. The generally level surface of
the main body of the state is due to the
predominance of the two fii'st mentioned
types of drift. The four corners of the
state, drained each in its own direction
from the central portion, exhibit con-
siderable variations from the typical
sheet of till which covers the rest.

The southeast corner is characterized
by a broken and hilly surface where high
uplands alternate with numerous deeply
eroded valleys running in various direc-
tions. These valleys have been cut in
the generally level strata to a depth of
300 to 500 ft. through the bygone ages
and have undergone very little sub-
sequent disturbance by the glacial

period. Both the glaciated and un-
glaciated portions of this part of the
state are overlaid with a sheet of loess,
varying in thickness from a few inches
to 30 ft. or more. In general this deposit
shows the greatest depth on the uplands
but in some valleys, where subsequent
erosion has not been too extensive, a
depth of twenty feet is not uncommon.
From some areas the loess has been
completely washed away.

The northeast corner of the state is
rough and rugged and may be said to be
semi-mountainous in places. Eleva-
tions of 1200 to 1500 ft. above Lake
Superior are attained in the Sawteeth,
Mesabi, and Giant's Ranges. This
part of the state was heavily glaciated
and much of the area is covered with
an uneven deposit of drift. In the
region north and east of Vermillion
Lake the rocks for the most part are
bare or only thinly mantled with soil
formed in situ.

In the northwest part of Minnesota,
embracing part of the Red River Valley
of the North, the surface is very flat and
even. Over this part of the state once
stood glacial Lake Agassiz and the level
nature of the land is due to lacustrine
deposits laid down evenly and to a
considerable depth over the till sheet.
The southwest corner has a gently
rolling to flat surface but the plain is
interrupted by a height of land known as
the Coteau des Prairies, running from
northwest to southeast and rising 400
to 500 ft. above the general level. Near
the e.xtreme corner occur large outcrops
of quartzite rocks.

Extensive moraines, marking either
the limits of advance of the various ice
sheets or places where they rested in
their retreats, form belts of low hills,
isolated knobs, or ranges which rise
above the general plain. These mo-
raines are found in many parts of the
state but the most extensive are those
which occvu' in the west-central portion
through Kandiyohi, Pope, Douglas,
Otter Tail and Becker counties, the
region of the upper Mississippi River
and the region surrounding Minneapolis

268

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

niul St. I'aul. They give to these
portions of the state a rolling or even
hilly aspect.

\ very .striking feature of the Minne-
sota landscape is the numerous glacial
lakes estimated to number about 10,000
and ranging in size from a few acres in
area to large l)odies of water 15 to 35
mi. in exjianse. Together with the
streams and rivers these lakes give
Minnesota a greater fresh water area
than any other state in the Union,
amounting to approximately 5637 sq.
mi., without including Lake Superior.
These lakes can l)e divided into three
classes as follows, depending upon the
nature of the topography of the region
in which they are situated:

1. Lakes of morainic till areas.

2. Lakes of modified drift areas.

3. Lakes of bare rock areas.

The first class is the most numerous
embracing about three-fourths of the
total number. The most remarkable
of these areas is that of the Leaf Hills
of Becker and Otter Tail counties
where nearly half of the surface is cov-
ered l)y water. This area extends in a
southerly direction to Douglas, Carver,
Hennepin and Le Sueur counties and
northward to Clearwater, Beltrami, and
Itasca counties. The second class em-
braces the largest lakes of the state
including Red, Mille Lacs, Leech,
^^'innibigoshish, and Cass Lakes. They
are for the most part shallow and are
situated on extensive outwash plains or
otherwise modified drift. The third
class embraces the lakes of rocky basins
and are mostly confined to the north-
east corner of the state which was
subjected to the severest glaciation.
These lakes are very numerous. They
are usually long and narrow with tor-
tuous and bold shores. Many are of
considerable depth and they are fre-
quently connected by swift flowing
streams.

Drainage systems and elevations

• It is a remarkable fact that the state
of Minnesota, although possessing no
great elevation above sea-level, gives

rise to three of the great drainage sys-
tems of the North American continent.
Within its borders arise the Mississippi
River system, draining about 45,000 sq.
mi. of the area of the state; the St.
Lawrence system, arising in the north-
east and draining approximately 8500
sq. mi.; the Red River of the North
system, arising in the northwest and
draining 15,000 sq. mi. The remaining
area of the state is drained by four other
rivers which reach the three main
systems beyond the borders of the state.
Approximately 4730 sq. mi. of the south-
western and south-central parts are
drained by the Rock, the Des Moines,
and Cedar Rivers into the Mississippi;
and 10,300 sq. mi. of the northeastern
part by the Rainy River into the Hudson
Bay outlet.

Relative elevations of different parts of
the state

The lowest part of the state is the
land bordering on Lake Superior whose
elevation is 602 ft. Where the Missis-
sippi River leaves the state it has an
elevation of 620 ft. and the lowlands
bordering the main stream and its
tributaries in this region rise only a few
feet above that level. The flat land
adjoining the Red River of the North
where it enters Manitoba is approxi-
mately 770 ft. The highest elevation in
the state is attained in the Mesabi Range
north of Lake Superior which rises 2200
ft. above sea level. It is thus seen that
the lowest and the highest elevations
are in close proximity to each other.

2. Geographic and local plant and animal
communities

Minnesota occupies a strategic posi-
tion in a biological sense since diagonally
across it from northwest to southeast
runs the dividing line between the
coniferous forest type (Canadian Zone
of the Boreal Region) on the one hand
and the grassland and deciduous forest
(Transition Zone of the Austral Region),
on the other. The northeastern part of
the state is occupied by the Coniferous
Forest Formation which originally ex-

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

269

tended in a somewhat irregular line from
about longitude 96° \V., near the north-
west corner, to about latitude 45° 45' N.
on the eastern border. All of the south-
western part, and including the Red
River vallej' of the North, belongs to the
Grassland Formation, all of which was
originally treeless except for fringes of
forest along certain lake shores and
stream borders. Between these two
great formations stretched a belt of
varying width of deciduous forest which
might properly be designated the Decid-
uous Forest Formation since it is fairly
sharply marked out from the other two.
Originally the state had about 31,800
sq. mi. of prairie and 52,200 sq. mi. of
forest.

The nature and extent of the five main
vegetation areas of Minnesota are deter-
mined mainh' by climatic factors. It
is probable, however, that the original
border line between the forest and the
grassland was to some extent determined
by prairie fires periodically started by
the Sioux Indians, partly to increase the
extent of their hunting grounds, and
partly to keep back their woods enemies
the Ojibwas or Chippewa Indians.

The five plant formations, deciduous
forest, coniferous forest, . oak grove
savanna, poplar savanna and grassland
or steppe, although in the main well
delimited naturally showed considerably
overlapping along their borders. Thus
in the coniferous forest area numerous
outposts of hardwood timber, mostly
hard maple, oak and elm occurred and
in the southeast irregular tongues of the
prairie extend into the deciduous forest
formation. Similarly in the southwest
and the west hardwood timber formed
scattered groves out on the prairie, and
followed up along some of the main river
valleys like the Minnesota, the Cedar,
the Des Moines and the Rock. In each
of the five areas the climax stages, of
development had probably been reached
and each one was characterized by a
goodly host of important species.

1. Coniferous forest. Thus in the
coniferous forest area the principal
species of trees were white pine (Finns

slrobus), Norway pine (Pimis resinosa),
Jack pine (Pmws hanksiana), white
spruce {Picea canadensis), black spruce
{Picea mariana), tamarack (Larix lari-
cina), balsam fir [Abies balsamea),
white cedar {Thyja occidentalis), to-
gether with some intermixture of paper
birch (Betula papyrifera), aspen (Popuhis
tremuloides), red oak {Quercus rubra),
bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa), black
ash (Fraxinus nigra), green ash (Fraxi-
nus lanceolaia), yellow birch (Betula
lutea) and mountain agh (Pyrus ameri-
cana). The characteristic shrubs are:
yew (Taxus canadensis), juniper (Juni-
perus communis), willow (Salix dis-
.color, S. lucida, S. balsavnfera, S.
Candida), beaked hazel (Corylus ro-
strata), dwarf birch (Betula pumila var.
glandulif era) , hoary alder (Alnus incana),
meadow sweet (Spiraea salici folia),
red raspberry (Rubus idaeus aculeatis-
simus), pin cherry (Primus pennsylva-
nica), choke cherry (Prunus virginiana),
wild rose (Rosa acicularis), northern
gooseberry (Ribes oxyacanthoides) , wild
black currant (Ribes floridum), leather-
wood (Dirca palustris), mountain maple
(Acer spicatum), red osier dogwood
(Cornus stolonifera), Labrador tea
(Ledum groenlandicum) , leather leaf
(Chamaedaphne calyculata), bearberry
(Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi), trailing arbu-
tus (Epigaearepens), wintergreen (Gaul-
theria procumbens), bog rosemary
(Andromeda polifolia), blueberry (Vac-
cinium pennsylvanicum , V. canadense),
cranberry (Vaccinium Oxycoccus, V.
macrocarpon) , pipsissewa (Chimaphila
umbellata), snowberry (Symplwricarpos
racemosus), bush honeysuckle (Diervilla
Lonicera), mountain fly honeysuckle
(Lonicera caerulea), swamp fly honey-
suckle (Lonicera oblongi folia), red
berried elder (Sambucus racemosa),
downy arrow-wood (Viburnum pubes-
cens), highbush cranberry (Viburnum
americanum).

The predominant herbaceous plants of
the coniferous forest of the state aside
from numerous species of grasses, sedges
and rushes, are bracken fern (Pteris
aquilina), shield fern (Aspidium spin-

270

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

ulosum, A. cristatum), beech fern
(Phegopleris Drijopteris), club moss
(Lycopodium obscurum, L. clavatum, L.
annolinum, L. complanalum), horsetail
{Equiselum pratense, E. si/lvattcum),
Clintonia {Clinlonia borealis), false
lily-of-the-valley (M aiantheimim cana-
dcnse), lady's slipper (Cypripedium
hirsutum, C. parvijlorum C. acaule), rein
orchis {Habenaria hyperborea, H. obtu-
aata, H. dilalata, H. Hookeri, H. orbicu-
lata), coral root {Corallorrhiza trifida,
C. maculata), ladies' tresses {Spiravthes
gracilis S. cernua), Ilepatica {Hepatica
triloba), northern strawberry {Fragaria
americana), running swamp blackberry
(Rubue triflorus), sundew (Drosera ro-
tundifolia), pitcher plant (Sarracenia
purpurea), dwarf cornel {Cornus cana-
densis), wild sarsaparilla {Aralia nudi-
caulis), shin leaf {Pyrola secunda, P.
minor, P. chloraniha, P. asarifolia, P.
americana), lungwort {Mertensia pani-
culata), twin flower {Linnaea borealis),
bedstraw (Galium trifidum, G. boreale,
G. Irijlorum), Aster {Aster macrophyllus,
A. puniceus, A. junceus, etc.), golden-
rod {Solidago juncea, S. bicolor, S.
nemoralis etc.) and sweet coltsfoot
(Petasites palmatus, P. sagittatus).

Within this formation soil factors
determined largely the plant communi-
ties. On the clayey moraines, which
constitute the best soil of the region,
were developed either pure stands of
white pine or mixed communities of
white pine with a few species of decidu-
ous trees like hard maple, bur oak, red
oak and occasionally basswood. Where
the soil is gravelly or sandy occurred
forests of Norway pine, while over all
the sandy barrens Jack pine held un-
disputed sway. All the low areas which
had reached the tree stage of their
succession, were either muskegs with
Sphagnum and heath undergrowth or
characteristic tamarack and spruce
swamps.

In a similar way the distribution of
the shrubby and herbaceous under-
growth was largely determined by soil
and moisture conditions except in the
case of a few species like the dwarf

cornel, twin flower, wild sarsaparilla,
the northern strawberry and the running
swamp blackberr}', all of which seem to
grow equally well in the spruce-tamarack
swamps, and in the pine forests of the
moraines and gravelly outwash plains.
A study of the fauna of the different
parts of Minnesota reveals a rather
striking correlation in regard to the
distribution of its various elements and
the principal vegetation areas. Aside
from a number of adaptable and wide
ranging species, belonging to several of
the major classes of the animal kingdom,
there are numerous forms which are
mainly and in some cases wholly con-
fined to the principal plant formations.
Within the coniferous forest area
there occurred originally the following
species of mammals : Canada lynx {Lynx
canadensis), wolverine {Gulo luscus),
marten {Maries americana), fisher
{Maries pennanti), least weasel {Mustela
rixosa), short-tailed weasel {Mustela
cicognanii), skunk {Mephitis mephitis),
woodland caribou {Rangifer caribou)
moose {Alces americana), northern,
Virginia deer {Odocoileus virginianus
borealis), long-tailed chipmunk

{Eutamias minimus neglectxis) , Canada
woodchuck {Marmota monax cana-
densis), deer-mouse (Peromyscus
maniculatxis gracilis), Canada porcupine
{Erithizon dorsatum), snowshoe hare
{Lepus americanus phaeonotus).

The following northern birds occurred
as permanent residents of the coniferous
formation although straying further
south as winter visitants: Canada
spruce partridge, Richardson's owl,
Arctic three-toed woodpecker, American
three-toed woodpecker, Canada jay
northern raven, purple finch, red
crossbill, pine siskin, and Hudsonian
chickadee.

Most of the following species are
mainly summer residents of the northern
wooded area of the state : Loon or great
northern diver, herring gull, red-
breasted merganser, golden-eye, north-
ern hairy woodpecker. Nelson's downy
woodpecker, northern pileated wood-
pecker, white-winged crossbill, white-

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

271

throated sparrow, slate colored junco,
Bohemian waxwing, Philadelphia virco,
blue-headed vireo, northern parula war-
bler, Tennessee warbler, pine warbler,
myrtle warbler, mourning warbler,
magnolia warbler, black-throated blue
warbler, Blackburnian warbler, palm
warbler, Grinnell's water-thrush, Con-
necticut warbler, Wilson's warbler,
Canada warbler, Louisiana water-
thrush, olive-backed thrush, hermit
thrush, winter wren, brown creeper,
red-breasted nuthatch, Hudsonian
chickadee, and golden-crowned kinglet.

A considerable number of animal
species were not so strictly confined to
the Coniferous area but ranged farther
southward and westward into the ad-
joining deciduous forest formation. Of
these the principal ones were: elk
{Cervus canadensis), northern flying-
squirrel (Glaucomys sabriniis), Min-
nesota red squirrel {Scitcrus hudsonicus
minnesota), red-backed vole (Evotomys
gap-peri), bog-lemming {Synaptomys co-
operi), black bear {Ursus americanus),
eastern cougar {Felis couguar), red fox
[Vulpes fulva), timber wolf {Canis
nubilus), short-tailed weasel (Mustela
cicognanii), marsh shrew {Neosorex
paluslris), Canada beaver (Castor cana-
densis), and the muskrat {Ondatra
zibethica).

Among the more notable fishes of this
region might be mentioned the fol-
lowing: Lake sturgeon {Acipenser rubi-
cxmdus), common whitefish {Coregonus
clupeiformis), lake herring (Argyroso-
mus artedi), tullibee (Argyrasomus tulbi-
bee), Great Lake trout {Cristimover
namaycush), brook trout {Salvelinus
fontinalis), muskallunge [Lucius
masquinonqy) .

2. Deciduous forest. The deciduous
forest formation, interposed between
the coniferous forest and the western
grassland formed an almost continuous
belt from the southeastern to north-
western corner of the state except for
an irregular tongue of prairie extend-
ing from middle northern Iowa north-
eastward almost to the Mississippi river
through Freeborn, Mower, Steele, Dodge,

Rice, Dakota and part of Goodhue coun-
ties. The portion of this formation
stretching nortliward from the big bend
of the Minnesota River as far as Otter
Tail County was named the "Big
Woods" by the earlj* explorers and was
a hardwood forest of imposing propor-
tions. Along the 45° parallel of latitude
it was nearly 100 mi. in width but from
the 46° parallel northwestward it nar-
rowed down to an average width of
about 25 mi. with frequent deep indenta-
tions of the prairie formation.

The dominant trees of this forest
were hard maple {Acer saccharum),
slippery elm {Ulmus fulva), white elm
{Ulmus, americana), basswood {Tilia
americana), bur oak {Quercus macro-
car pa), red oak {Quercus rubra) and
ironwood {Ostrya virginiana). Other
species occurring less typically were
coarse toothed aspen {Populus grandi-
dcniata), black cherry {Prunus serotina),
green ash, black ash, hackberry {Cellis
occidcntalis), pignut hickory {Carya
cordiformis) and butternut {Juglans
cinerea).

The characteristic shrubs of this
formation were: prickly gooseberry
{Ribes Cynosbati), Missouri gooseberry
{Ribes gracile), thorn apple {Crataegus
punctata), choke cherry, juneberry
{Amelanchier canadensis), prickly ash
{XantJwxylum aniericanum) , stag-horn
sumac {Rhus typhina), alternate-leaved
dogwood {Cornus alternifolia) , round-
leaved dogwood {Cornus circinata),
black haw {Viburnum lenlaga) and
honeysuckle {Lonicera dioica). A few
climbers occurred in this forest such as
bitter sweet {Celastrus scandens), wild
grapevine {Vitis vulpina), Virginia
creeper {Psedera quinquefolia) and
moonseed {MenispeYmum canadense).

In the southeastern corner of the
state along tlie Missis.sippi River and
the lower portions of its tributaries
existed originally a deciduous forest of
very similar nature to the "Big Woods."
This forest, being rather sharply sepa-
rated from the latter by the above men-
tioned extension of the prairie formation
differed in some important respects and

272

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

was very interesting as marking the
northern limits of some of the character-
istic species of the Ohio-Kentucky-
Tennessee forest. Prominent among
these are honey locust {Gledilsia tria
canthos), black oak (Quercus velutina),
shell-bark hickory (Carya ovala), river
birch (Beiula nigra), chinquapin oak
(Quercus prinoides) and black maple
(.■leer saccharum var. nigrum). A few-
other species, occurring typically in
this southeastern hardwood forest of
the state, had migrated up the main
Mississippi Valley and had established
outposts as far northwestward as the
vicinity of Minneapolis. These are:
black walnut (Juglans nigra), swamp
white oak {Quercus hicolor), Kentucky
coffee tree {Gymnocladus dioica), wild
crab apple {Pyrus ioensis), red mulberry
(Morus rubra), and lastly the white oak
(Quercus alba) which apparently found
congenial conditions in the sour soil
of the red Wisconsin drift and penetrated
as far as the eastern shores of Lake
Mille Lacs.

A few shrubs and vines also occurred
in this forest which did not reach the
Big Woods. They were witch hazel
(Hamamelis virginiana), Sullivant's
honeysuckle (Lonicera Sullivantii), but-
ton bush (Cephalanthus occidentalis) ,
and blue grape ( V'itis bicolor)

The herbaceous undergrowth of the
deciduous forest formation was so rich
and varied that only a few of the more
striking and characteristic species can
be enumerated here. In the rich soil
of densely shaded slopes occurred
Virginia grape fern (Botrychium vir-
ginianum), interrupted fern (Osmunda
claytoniana), maiden-hair fern (Adian-
tum pedatum), Jack-in-the-pulpit (Ari-
saema triphyllum), bellwort (Uvularia
grandiflora), Solomon's seal (Polygona-
tum commutatum), false Solomon's seal
(Smilacina racemosa), wake robin (Tril-
lium cernuum, T. declinalum), showy
orchis (Orchis spectabilis), wild ginger
(Asarum canadense), Hepatica (Hepa-
tica acutiloba), baneberry (Aclaea rubra,
A. alba), blue cohosh (Caulophyllum
thalictroides), May apple (Podophyllum

peUatum), bloodroot (Sanguinaria cana-
densis), Dutchman's breeches (Dicentra
Cucullaria), mitrewort (Mitella diphylla),
ginseng, (Panax quinque/olia) , wild
spikenard (Aralia racemosa) and Greek
valerian (Poleinonium reptans).

On the rich wooded bottomlands
and in the lower portions of ravines
abounded ostrich fern (Onoclea struthi-
opteris), shield fern (Aspidium spinu-
losum), lady fern (Asplenium augus-
lum), green dragon (Arisaema dracon-
titmi), dog's-tooth violet (Erythronium
albidum), water leaf (Hydrophyllum
virginianum) , touch-me-not (Impatiens
pallida, I. biflora), golden glow (Rud-
beckia laciniata) and others. In the
upland portions of the forests the species
more commonly met with are yellow-
lady's slipper (Cypripedium pubescens),
rattlesnake plantain (Epipactis pubes-
cens), rein orchis (Habenaria bracteata),
columbine (Aquilegia canadensis), en-
thanter's nightshade (Circaea hitetiana),
snakeroot (Sanicula marilandica S.
gregaria), shin leaf (Pyrola elli plica),
lopseed (Phryma leptostachya) .

The deciduous forest formation in
Minnesota is embraced within the
AUeghanian Faunal area and as is the
case with many plant species a con-
siderable number of animals reached the
northwestern limits of their range in
this formation. Some of the typical
species are: southern flying squirrel
(Glaucomysvolans), fox squirrel (Sciurus
niger rufiventer), gray squirrel (Sciurus
carolinensis hypophaeus), rufescent
woodchuck (Marmota monaz rufescens),
Mearns cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus
floridanus mearnsii), long-tailed weasel
(Mustela longicauda spadix), Wisconsin
gray fox (Urocoyon cinereoargenteus ocy-
thous), prairie mole (Scalopus aquaticus
machrinus). Some species like the rac-
coon (Procyon lolor) and the eastern
red fox (Vulpes fulva), although most
typical of this area, ranged considerably
bej^ond the hardwood forest, while
others belonging to the coniferous and
prairie areas were, and are, fairly com-
mon in parts of the hardwood forest.
Representatives of this class are the

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

273

coyote {Cams lalrans), mink (Mustela
vison letifera), otter {Lulra canadensis) ,
wild cat {Lynx rufus), Hudsonian skunk
{Mephitis hudsonicus), badger {Taxidea
taxus), Missouri Valley mole {Scalopus
aquaticus viachrinoides) .

Since the area of Minnesota under
discussion lies mainly within the path
of the great mid-continental spring and
fall migrations and furthermore because
of the great numbers of fresh water lakes
and streams, it is obvious that numerous
species and vast hordes of birds fre-
quented the region for longer or shorter
periods. To enumerate only a small
portion of the species which originally
were encountered would require too
much space in this brief survey and it
must suffice to list only such as are more
or less permanent or summer residents
of the main natural areas already out-
lined. Accordingly the avian fauna
more strictly limited to the southeast-
ern deciduous forest area embraced
the following species: Red-bellied wood-
pecker, field sparrow, prothonotary
warbler, blue-winged warbler, and Louis-
iana water-thrush. The egret {Hero-
dias egretla) and snowy egret {Egretta
candidissima candidissima) have both
been recorded from the extreme south-
eastern corner of the state. Among
species which ranged somewhat farther
north (up to Lat. 46°N.) are to be men-
tioned the king rail and the Florida
gallinule.

Fishes of southeastern Minnesota;
mainly occurring in the Mississippi
River and its principal tributaries:
Spoonbill {Polyodon spathulata) , shovel
nosed sturgeon {Scaphirhynchus plato-
rynchus), gar pike {Lepiosteus osseus),
great cat fish {Ameiurus lacustris),
common buffalo fish {Ictichus cypri-
nella), carp sucker {Carpioides carpio),
eel {Anguilla chrysypa), hickory shad
{Dorosonia cepedianum) . Many other
species also abound in this area but
they range much farther northward and
westward.

Of the large classes of animals the
Reptilia show the smallest representa-
tion in the Minnesota fauna. A few

species like the garter-snake {Thamno-
phis s. sir talis and T. radix), the snap-
ping turtle {Chelydra serpentina), and
the painted turtle {Chrysemys marginata
bellii) range pretty well over the entire
state. The southeastern and southern
parts have in addition the timber rattler
{Crotalus horridus), bull-snake {Pituo-
pJiis sayi), blue racer {Coluber c. constric-
tor), water-snake {Natrix s. sipedon),
hog-nose {Heterodon contoririx), black-
snake {Elaphe o. obsoleta), fox-snake
{E. vidpina), red-bellied snake {Storeria
occipitomaculata) and possibly a few
other species. Records on the occur-
rence and the distribution of reptiles
of the state are largely wanting.

3. Oak grove and {4) poplar savanna.
The latter is poorlj^ developed except
in the two extreme northwestern coun-
ties, hence the two are treated together.
(See map, unshaded portion.) With
the exception of narrow strips of timber
along the streams or on the north slopes
of protected bluffs or in the ravines
leading down into the main river valleys
all of western and southwestern Min-
nesota is typical prairie and steppe or
dry grassland.

a. Where timber occurred it was made
up of the following species of trees:
American elm, slippery elm, bur oak,
Cottonwood {Populus deltoides), hack-
berry, ironwood, box elder {Acer ne-
gundo), silver maple {Acer sacchariuum) ,
basswood, green ash and willow {Salix
amygdaloides) . Occurring with the trees
or more often along the borders of
thickets were found the following
shrubs: wild plum {Primus americana),
choke cherry, black haw, downy arrow-
wood, burning bush {Evonymus atropur-
pureus), red osier dogwood, June berry
{Amelanchier oblongi folia) , smooth rose
{Rosa blanda), shining willow {Salix
lucida), heart-leaved willow, l)uffalo
berry {Shepherdia argentea) and wolf-
berry {Symphoricarpos occidentalis) .

Most of these trees and shrubs are
typically eastern and are an important
constituent of the deciduous forest
formation already described. They suc-
ceeded in penetrating the prairie region

274

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

only aloiiff the principal water courses
where sufficient moisture was present
the year around for them to maintain a
foothold.

The characteristic grassland vegeta-
tion of this savanna region may best be
considered under a few sub-headings
as follows:

(a) High Rolling Grassland Flora:
The principal species of this association
were: slender wheat grass {Agropyron
tenerum), awned wheat grass (.4. cani-
num), western wheat grass (A. Smithii),
rye grass {Elijmus canadensis), crested
hair grass {Koeleria crislala), porcupine
grass {Stipa spaitea), forked beard grass
(Andropogon furcatus), brown beard-
grass (A. scoparius), Indian grass
{Sorghaslrum nutans), purple love-grass
[Eragrosiis pectinacea), Pursh's love-
grass {Eragrostis Purshii), switch grass
{Panicum virgatum), hairy mesquite
grass {Bouteloua hirsula), grama grass
{B. oligostacliya), tall grama grass {B.
curtipendula), buffalo grass (Buchloe
dactijloides), sedges {Carex pennsylvanica
C. festucacea), blue-eyed grass (Sisyrin-
chium campestre), yellow star grass
{Hypoxis hirsula), Pasque flower {Anem-
one patens var. Wolfgangiana), Anem-
one {Anemone cylindrica), prairie
larkspur {Delphinium Penardi), prairie
crowfoot {Ranunculus rhomboideus),
prairie rose {Rosa arkansana), tall
cinquefoil {Potentilla arguta), alum root
{Heuchera hispida), ground plum {Astra-
galus caryocarpus), milk vetch {Astra-
galus canadensis) , prairie apple {Psoralea
escunlenta), prairie clover {Petalostemum
purpureum, P. candidum, P. villosum),
lead plant {Amorpha canescens), tick-
trefoil {Desmodium canadense), prairie
violet {Viola pedalifida) , birdsfoot violet
{Viola pedata) , flowering spurge {Euphor-
bia corollata), Phlox {Phlox pilosa),
ground cherry {Physalis longijolia),
puccoon {Lithospermum canescens),
lady's tobacco {Antennaria plantagini-
folia), ox-eye {Heliopsis scabra), sun-
flower {Helianthus scaberrimus), blazing
star {Liatris scariosa), golden-rods {Soli-
dago missouriensis, S. nemoralis, S.

rigida, S. canadensis), Asters {Aster
multijlorus, A. commutalus, A. azureus).

(b) The prairie meadow: In these
situations occurred a limited number of
species, mostly grasses, demanding a
moister habitat than that of the high
rolling prairie. The characteristic
plants were: holy grass {Hierochloe
odorata), Scribner's panicum {Panicum
Scribnerianum) , red top {Agrostis alba),
Canada blue grass {Poa compressa),
fowl meadow grass {Poa iriflora), tall
marsh grass {Spartina cynosuroides)
and wild onion {Allium canadense).

(c) Wet meadow and marsh flora:
In the wet meadows, marshes and
sloughs flourished sedges, rushes, and
bulrushes, together with a considerable
number of other hydrophytic species
and shallow water forms of which the
principal ones were: arrowhead {Sagit-
taria latifolia), cat-tail {Typha lati-
folia), bur-reed {Sparganium eurycar-
pum), reed {Phragmites communis),
sedges {Carex vulpinoidea, C. gravida,
C. cephaloidea), bulrushes {Scirpus
fluviatilis, S. polyphullus, S. americanus,
etc.), spike-rush {Eleocharis pahistris,
E. acicularis), yellow water crowfoot
{Ranunculus del phi nif alius), white water
crowfoot {R. aquatilis), water persicaria
{Polygonum amphibium), 3'ellow water
cress {Radicula palustris), swamp milk-
weed {Asclepias incarnata) , water hem-
lock {Cicuta maculata), water parsnip
{Sium cicutae folium), tufted loosestrife
{Lysimachia thrysiflora), mare's tail
{Hippurus vulgaris), begger-ticks
{Bidens frondosa), and stick-tight
{Bidens cernua).

(d) Fauna of the Savannas: Forest
animals frequenting small groves, open
bpaces, and stream skirting forest: elk,
mule deer {Odocoilus hemion.us) (extreme
western part only, now wanting), rac-
coon, chipmunk, skunk, red fox.

Forest edge (thicket) species.

Franklin ground squirrel {Citellus
franklinii), jumping-mouse {Zapus hud-
sonius), rose-breasted grosbeak, yellow
warbler, indigo bunting, yellow-billed
cuckoo, house wren, mourning dove,

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

275

song sparrow, migrant shrike, catbird,
goldfinch, and many insects.
Mesophytic grasshind species.
Prairie chicken, prairie jumping-
mouse (Zapus hudsonius campcslris),
badger (occasionally).

4. Grassland or Steppe. For a short
distance east of the western border,
especially in the S.W. over what is
known as the Cotean des prairies and
to a lesser extent on dry slopes and
along the bluffs of the river valleys
the flora assumed a more typical western
aspect since it was in these habitats
that many of representatives of the
great plains flora found congenial sur-
roundings. Here flourished beard-
tongues [Penisiemon grandiflorus, P.
albidus, P. gracilis), puccoons {Lithos-
permum canescens, L. Gmelini, L.
augustifolium) , purple avens {Geurn
triflorum), several milk vetches {Astraga-
his adsurgens, A. lotiflorus, A. mis-
souriensis, A. flexuosus), loco weed
{Oxytropis Lamhertii), evening prim-
roses {Oenthera serrulata, Oe. pallida,
Oe. rhombipetala) , yellow flax {linum
rigidum, L. sulcatum), blazing stars
(Liatris scariosa, L. cylindracaea, L.
punctata), cone flowers {Lepachys pin-
nata, L. columnaris, Brauneria pur-
purea), numerous wormwoods {Artemisia
longijolia, A. dracunculoides, A. frigida),
golden aster {Chrysopsis villosa) and
several others.

The pronghorn antelope {Antilocapra
americana) was a characteristic form;
vast herds of Bison {Bison bison) ex-
ceeded in size the eastward extension;
ground-squirrel {Citcllus richardsonii) ,
pocket-gopher {Geomys bnrsarius),
badger, white-tailed jackrabbit {Lcpus
townsendii campanius). Even the griz-
zly bear is reported to have extended as
far east as the Red River in the region
of the Pembina Hills. Other species
which were common throughout the
greater extent of this area were : prairie
red fox {Vulpes regalis), coyote {Canis
latrans), badger, pocket-gopher, white-
tailed jackrabbit {Lepus townsendii
companius) .

The avian fauna of the prairie region

in tlie early daj's was even more imiMcs-
sive than the mammalian. The in-
numerable lakes, ponds, sloughs, and
marshes offered ideal feeding and nest-
ing grounds to a large numljer of water
birds. No less than 25 species of ducks
are known to have occurred and 17 of
these used to breed in the state. Most
of these occurred in greatest abundance
in the {)rairic region. Four species of
geese, the snow goose, the blue goose,
the white-fronted goose and the Canada
goose, used to be very common and the
whistling and trumijeter swans alighted
on the lakes and streams in great num-
bers during their migrations.

Among the bird species more strictly
confined to the grassland region of
Minnesota should be mentioned the
western grebe, eared grebe, Swainsons
hawk, burrowing owl, Arkansas king-
bird, Brewers blackbird, chestnut-col-
lared longspur, McCown's longspur,
Baird's sparrow, lark bunting and
Spragues pipit, while the following had
a somewhat more extended range:
Forster's tern, Franklin's gull, black-
crowned night heron, Krider's Hawk,
prairie chicken and prairie sharp-tailed
grouse.

For notes on MoUusca see under
Wisconsin.

II. PRESENT BIOTIC COXUITIOXS

xMost of the original prairie area of
Minnesota has been converted into
farm lands and only such portions as
are either too low and swampy or too
alkaline or in other ways unsuited for
growing crops have remained undis-
turbed. Of the original prairie vegeta-
tion there arc only renmants to be found
along old highways, along the railroad
rights-of-way, and on tracts of untillable
soil. Fortunately several of the smaller
state parks are located in this part of the
state and help to preserve original
conditions.

The fauna inhabiting the prairie part
of the state has suffered the greatest
destruction, many noteworthy species
having completely disappeared long ago.
Of the l)irds which once were common

276

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

over the area but now are rare or absent
Roberts (2) cites the following species:
whooping crane, marbled godwit, west-
ern willet, upland, black-bellied, and
golden plover, prairie chicken and
prairie sharp-tailed grouse.

In the forested portion of Minnesota
the disturbance of natural conditions
incident to settlement has been much
less severe. This is due partly to the
rough nature of the topography or to
other causes which retard or wholly pre-
vent agricultural development. Prob-
ably half the area originally covered
by deciduous forest is still woodland.
In the coniferous region, although most
of the primitive forest has either been
cut or burned, a comparatively small
per cent of the land has been transformed
into farms. Over large tracts natural
reforestation is going on and wherever
it has been possible to prevent forest
fires promising forests are well under
way. It is fortunate for the fauna of
Minnesota that so large a portion of the
northern part of the state is unsuited,
both physiographically and climatically,
to agricultural development for it will
insure, with proper and adequate pro-
tection and sufficient sanctuaries, the
perpetuation of most of the wild species
native to the region. Most of the natural
preserves are located in the forested area
of the state, but even where no definite
tracts are set aside the wild species are
far better able to maintain a foothold
than in the open country. In the
rugged, wooded counties of the southeast
corner the coyotes are apparently nearly
as numerous as when the country was
first settled.

in. POLLUTION

Pollution of waters in Minnesota is a
factor of importance only along the main
rivers since the principal cities of the
state are located on these streams. The
Mississippi River below Minneapolis and
St. Paul is heavily polluted with sewage,
which undoubtedly affects the biota for
many miles below. Several towns of
considerable size are situated on the
upper Mississippi but the effects of

pollution are not serious at Minneapolis,
as shown by the fact that the city ob-
tains its water supply from this stream.
Minnesota lakes are in general remark-
ably free from sewage pollution but
occasionally some of the smaller ones
late in the season become heavily
infested with certain forms especially
of the Cyanophyceae (l).

NATURAL PBESERVES AND STATE PARKS
OF MINNESOTA

1. Preserves within the coniferous forest
area

* Superior National Forest]. (B2.)
A large, irregular tract of approximately
1,268,538 acres in St. Louis, Lake, and
Cook Counties and an almost equally
extensive area on the Canadian side of
the International Boundary.

Rough glacial topography with ex-
tensive out-croppings of underlying
igneus rocks of various kinds. Lakes
exceedingly numerous; many of them
of large size and with many rocky and
forested islands; shore frequently pre-
cipitous, rising in sheer ledges 100 ft.
or more from the water's edge. Rivers
and streams numerous, in some places
sluggish, in others turbulent, with long
rapids; beautiful waterfalls.

Eastern coniferous forest consisting
mainly of white and Norway pines, black
and white spruce, white cedar, balsam,
and tamarack. The principal deciduous
trees are: white birch, aspen, balsam
poplar, elm, ash, willows, hard and red
maples, mountain ash, and occasional
oaks. These species occur mostly scat-
tered throughout the coniferous forest
except on burnt-over tracts where nearly
pure stands of birch or poplar have
developed. On account of the rocky
nature of the substratum the lichen and
moss flora is profusely developed.

Fauna abundant and varied. There
are perhaps more moose in the Lake
Superior forest than in any other area of
equal size on the North American con-
tinent. Caribou occurs. Other species
which are common are Virginia deer,
coyote, timber wolf, black bear, beaver.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

277

red fox, mink, marten, lynx, porcupine,
and snowshoe hare, ruffed grouse,
spruce grouse, and many species of water
fowl are abundant. Many species of
fish, including muskallonge, lake trout,
pike and brook trout.

The rough nature of the country and
the scarcity of roads and trails make the
region difficult of access. These factors
together with the uninterrupted protec-
tion provided by law make this a game
sanctuary of unusual character and im-
portance.

Streams clear, alternately rapid and
sluggish. Lakes clear, with rocky shores
and bottoms, some of great depth.
1300-2100 ft., rugged.

Elyf. 10 mi. east from Ely; Duluth
and Iron Range R. R. Accessible only
by trail or canoe.**

St. Louis, Lake and Cook Counties,
Minnesota.— O. O. R.

*Burntside State Forest]. (B2.) An
area comprising 20,000 acres of rocky
glacial topography, situated near Burnt-
side Lake, St. Louis County. The
country is wild and of great natural
beauty. Within this State Forest are
43 connected lakes, with numerous
streams and swamps. jMostly eastern
coniferous forest, embracing white,
Norway, and jack pines, together with
white cedar, black and white spruce,
tamarack, and balsam fir. There are
scattered patches of deciduous forest
made up largely of birch, black ash,
poplar, basswood, and balsam poplar.
Blueberries are exceedingly abundant.
Some portions of the forest are burnt,
but there are beautiful stands of Norway
pine.

The fauna is varied and very abun-
dant, embracing such species as Virginia
deer, moose, timber wolf, beaver, red
fox, porcupine, coj'ote, mink, marten,
beaver, and snowshoe hare. Aquatic
birds are very common.

Streams clear, sluggish; lakes clear,
rocky shores and bottoms. 1300-1400
ft., rugged.

(a) Ely|. 10 mi. S. W.; Duluth and
Iron Range R. R. 3 mi. North of (W)
Robinson, St. Louis County.**— C. O. R.

*Scenic State Park\. (B3.) A re-
cently acquired area comprising 1920
acres, situated in Itasca County. It is
situated north of the west end of the
Iron Range in a region of glacial topog-
raphy abounding in lakes and streams;
clayey and sandy moraines alternating
with till plains.

Northeastern coniferous forest con-
sisting of Norwaj^, white, and jack
pines, the first named species being the
most abundant, frequently occurring
in pure stands; other conifers are tama-
rack, white cedar or arbor vitae and
black spruce, confined to the swamps;
white spruce and balsam fir; scattered
tracts of deciduous forest, mostly along
streams in which the principal species
are birch, elm, black and green ash,
aspen, balsam poplar, basswood, and
willows; in some places sugar maple
occurs; representatives of the heath
family are common, including Labrador
tea, blueberries, cranberries, leather-
leaf, wintergreen, swamp laurel, and
others.

The park is situated in a thinly settled
part of the state and the fauna is rich,
numbering such species as Virginia
deer, black bear, coyote, beaver, mink,
porcupine, marten, red squirrel, snow-
shoe hare, and skunk.

Many kinds of aquatic birds inhabit
the lakes and streams and ruffed grouse
is plentiful in the forest throughout.

Streams clear, moderate. Lakes clear
and cool. 1300-1400 ft. rolling.

Grand Rapids + 25 mi. N. E. Great
Northern R. R. 4| mi.

East of Bigfork, Minneapolis and
Rainy River R. R.— C. O. R.

*Jay Cooke State Parkt (B3.) An
area of approximately 3200 acres of
extremely rugged territory along the
St. Louis River, where it drops to the
level of Lake Superior. In this area the
river descends in rushing rapids and
water falls over 300 ft., cutting through
the folded and broken strata of slate
rock. The park lies within the north-
ern coniferous area, but owing to the
extremely rugged and precipitous nature
of the river valley, the tree growth is of

278

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

a scattered and interrupted nature.
White and Norway pines occur on the
rocky ledges, together with such decidu-
ous species as green ash, mountain ash,
choke cherry, pin cherry, poplars,
alders, and willows. Vacciniums,
ledum, bearberry, and other heaths are
abundant over the rocky substratum.

The fauna includes Virginia deer,
mink, marten, timber wolf, snowshoe
hare, and red squirrel.

Streams swift to torrential, clear,
800-1200 ft. precipitous.

(a) Duluth + 10 mi. south. N. P.
Great Northern and Soo Line R. R.
5 mi. east from (w) Thompson.

Oarleton County, Minn.— C. O. R.

*Minnesota National Forest'\. (B2.)
A large tract of 322,560 acres embracing
the Chippewa, Cass Lake and Winne-
bagoshish Indian Reservations. It is
situated in northern Cass and southern
Itasca counties and extends from Cass
Lake on the west, south to Leech Lake
and eastward to beyond Winnebagoshish
Lake; glacial topography, consisting of
undulating till and modified drift and
extensive outwash plains. Northern
coniferous forest made up largely of
white, Norway, and jack pines, tama-
rack, and spruce; scattered areas of
deciduous forest in which birch, poplar,
elm, ash, red oak, balsam, poplar, and
sugar maple predominate. There are
large cut-over areas, but also extensive
tracts of original forest. The largest
and finest stands of Norway pine still
to be found in the state occur in this
forest. Second-growth timber on cut-
over areas made up principally of birch,
poplar, jack pine, norway pine, hazel,
l)in cherry, and scrub oaks. Muskegs
and spruce-tamarack swamps numerous
and of great extent. Over 507o of the
tamarack killed by the ravages of the
saw fly; the dead trees for the greater
part still standing. Marshes, streams,
lakes, and ponds numerous.

Fauna varied and abundant, including
Virginia deer, black bear, beaver,
timber wolf, coyote, fox, mink, marten,
skunk, porcupine, snowshoe hare, and

squirrels, together with a great variety
of water fowl and fish.

Lakes young, clear; streams clear,
moderate. 1300-1400 ft.; rolling.

Cass Lake + 12 mi. E. Great North-
ern R. R. Around Schley; Camping
outfit necessary. Cass and Itasca
Counties.— C. O. R.

*Itasca State Park]. (H8.) This
state park embraces approximately
30,000 acres, at the headwaters of the
Mississippi River. It is a region of
rough, glacial topography, made up of
terminal moraines of several lobes
of the late Wisconsin drift, gravelly
outwash plains; low, swampy areas,
and numerous lakes and ponds. The
park lies within the northern coniferous
area of Minnesota but there are con-
siderable patches of deciduous forest
as well as a considerable admixture of
birch, aspen, basswood, elm, and maple
in many places throughout the conifer-
ous forest. The principal hardwood
trees are white birch, white elm, green
and black ash, bur oak, red and sugar
maple.

The climax forest on the clayey
moraines, in some places not touched
by the lumberman, is made up almost
wholly of Norway and white pine. On
the gravelly outwash plains, it consists
almost exclusively of jack pine, with
either a few scattered trees, or occasional
small patches of Norway pine. The
climax forest of the swamps is mostly a
mixture of tamarack and black spruce.
The balsam fir occurs abundantly and
in various situations. Often it is found
in the mixed evergreen, deciduous
forest, on clayey moraines; at times it
grows with ash and elm in low or swampy
areas, or it may form almost solid
patches of second growth on cut-over
areas.

Considerable areas of the park were
cut over thirty years ago and these are
now found in various stages of reforesta-
tion. On the gravelly and sandy out-
wash plains occur dense stands of j'oung
jack pine; on the more gravelly moraines,
jack pine and Norway pine; while on the

NATURAL AREA.S AND REGIOXS

279

typical clay moraines, the birch,
aspen, and balsam fir are the chief
constituents of the new forest. Young
trees of Norway and white pine are
scattered throughout this formation,
but are not abundant, nor have they
over-topped the other trees. Springs
and streams are common throughout
the park and there is considerable
variation both in the temperature and
the chemical nature of the waters they
contain. Some of the lakes are fed
largely from springs and their waters
are very rich in mineral content.

The fauna of the Park is abundant
and varied. Streams pure and clear.
1500-1750 ft., rolling.

(a) Park Rapids + 30 mi. north.
Great Northern R. R. i mi. south of
Itasca P. O. Douglas Lodge, in Park
Clearwater County. — G. O. R.

*Pillshury State Forest\. A tract of
land comprising 1000 acres situated
near the west shores of Gull Lake in
Cass County, Glacial topography con-
sisting of rolling, high moraines, alter-
nating with more or less level tracts and
swampy areas; mostly clayey and
gravelly soil. Originally covered for
the most part by eastern coniferous
forests in which Norway, white and jack
pines predominated; swamps mostly
tamarack and spruce. Second growth
consists mostly of poplar, birch, scrub
oak, willows, hazel and dogwood. Re-
forestation with the three above men-
tioned species of pine is being carried
out by the State Forest Service.

The fauna embraces Virginia deer,
black bear, coyote, fox, muskrat, mink,
woodchuck, snowshoe hare, squirrel,
porcupine, skunk, and numerous species
of small rodents; aquatic birds nu-
merous.

1200-1400 ft., rolling.

(a) Brainerd +12 mi. N. W. N. P.
and Soo Line R. R. 6-8 mi. S. W. from
(a) Hubert. Cass County, Minn.— C.
O. R.

*Spirit Island Federal Game Reserve.
(A4.) A small rocky island situated
in Lake jNIille Lacs, near its southern
end. It is about one acre in extent and

is made up entirely of large, granite and
gneiss boulders, without any filling of
gravel and sand. It rises about 15 ft.
above the lake level and is the nesting
place of a colony of common terns, called
locally "gulls," and a considerable
number of purple martens. Various
species of waterfowl, inhabiting the
lake frequent the place but apparently
not for nesting purposes.

1300 ft.

(a) Waukon 4 mi. West. Soo Line
R. R. 5 mi. north of Cove, (c) ]\Iille
Lacs County, Minnesota. — C. O. R.

2. Preserves of the deciduous forest and
prairie areas

*Inler-state Slate Park]. (B4.)
About 720 acres on both sides of the St.
Croix River at the Dalles. The region
is of great interest geologically since
it represents an extensive outcrop of
Keweenawan rock. The river has cut
through this barrier and rushes between
vertical ledges of rock, towering a
hundred feet and more over the level
of the stream. On the west side of the
river, there is an extensive area of pot
holes, ranging in size from a few inches
in diameter and depth to large cisterns
up to 30 ft. in diameter and 50 or more
ft. deep.

Forest formation composed of two
species of pine with many elements of
the northern coniferous forest, and
various species of oak, elm, ash, birch,
and maple together with a few other
deciduous trees like butternut, bass-
wood, aspen, cherry, and willows. Vege-
tation on the exposed trap rock is of
xero])hytic nature and is largely com-
posed of lichens, mosses, a few pteri-
dophytes and of typical xerophytic
Angiosperms like Opuntia and Sedum.

Along the heavily forested hillside
on the Wisconsin side are numerous
springs and marshy places where skunk
cabbage, calla lily, water hemlock,
saxifrage and chrysosplenium together
with other hydroi)liytes and mcsophytes
abound.

Because of the proximity of the park
to the villages of Taylors Falls and St.

280

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Croix Falls, the fauna is of necessity
limited.

Streams swift, clear. Springs nu-
merous, cold.

700-950 ft., precipitous.

St. Paul and Minneapolis 55 mi. N.
E. N. P. and Soo Line R. R.

Outskirts of (W) Taylors Falls village.

J mi. south from (W) St. Croix
Falls, Chicago County, Minnesota. Polk
County, Wisconsin. — C. O. R.

*Ft. Snelling Military Reservation].
(B4.) Approximately 1000 acres at the
confluence of the Mississippi and Min-
nesota Rivers. Glacial topography. A
large part of this area is made up of a
sandy, slightly undulating outwash
plain. On the higher portions of this
plain is found a typical prairie vegeta-
tion while in the lower places occur
copses of oak, aspen, cherry, hazel,
plum, and dogwood, alternating with
moist meadows, willow thickets, and a
few shallow ponds. On the northeast
the Reservation is bounded by the
Mississippi River gorge which is ex-
cavated to a depth of about 100 ft.,
and is of comparatively recent origin.
The narrow flood-plains support a mixed
forest of elm, soft maple, cottonwood,
ash, and hackberry. The slopes, where
not too precipitous, and the upland
immediately back are covered by a
mixed deciduous forest of oak, elm,
sugar maple, and basswood. This forest
is gradually invading the prairie and in
this invasion the bur oak and northern
pin oak, together with hazel form the
skirmish line. Along the edge of the
gorge are numerous springs. On the
south and southeast, the Reservation is
bounded by the ancient Minnesota
River gorge. The slopes are rounded
and except where cut by ravines, are
mostly covered with a prairie vegetation.
The ravines are mostly wooded and in
some of these are clear, cool, fast flowing
streams.

The flood plains of the Minnesota
River are extensive and are covered with
wide stretches of Scirpus americanus,
Phragmites, wild rice, and other tall

grasses and sedges. Many species of
birds nest on these bottom lands.

The fauna of the mixed forest and the
upland portions of the Reservation con-
sists mostly of the red and the gray
squirrel, the striped ground-squirrel, the
cottontail rabbit, woodchuck, quail,
ruffed grouse, and various species of
summer visiting birds.

The reservation is under Federal
control but the proximity to the two
large cities of Minneapolis and St.
Paul makes it difficult to prevent poach-
ing, and the extensive picking of flowers.
Many species of spring flowers are
becoming rare on the Reservation.

Mississippi River moderate, usually
clear, but polluted with Minneapolis
sewage; Minnesota River usually slug-
gish, but given to frequent flooding in
early summer; muddy.

Rivers and flood plains 700 ft. —
Upland. 800-850 ft.

(a) Minneapolisf (7 mi. south).

(a) St. PaulJ (7 mi. southwest).

Snelling-Minnehaha Electric R. R.

through (w) Reservation.

Hennepin County. — C. 0. R.

*Fort Ridgeleij State Park. (C3.)

This park embraces 160 acres and is

located in the Minnesota River valley

near the northwest corner of Nicollet

County. It marks the battlefield of

the first engagement of the Indian

uprising of 1862. Here are located the

stone buildings which were the agency

post and most important structures of

frontier days: nearby are the sites of

the early trading points, the Indian

stone church, Birch Coulee battlefield,

Brown's Castle, and several monuments.

Glacial topography flat till plain

above, bordered on the southwest by

river valley 175 ft. deep; coolees with

swift streams descending from the

uplands; bluffs with terraces and rock

outcrops below; river bottoms and flood

plains.

Deciduous climax forest in the river
valley of which the principal species
are white and slippery elm, basswood,
silver and sugar maple, box-elder.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

281

butternut, bitternut, hickory, hack-
berry, black cherry, ironwood, cotton-
wood, and willows. In the coolees
occur wild plum, sumach, hazel, dog-
wood, bur and scarlet oaks.

Streams clear, rapid; river mostly
sluggish and muddy; springs cold.

800 to 1000 ft.

Sleepy Eyel 10 mi. north.

Chicago and Northwestern R. R.
at Ft. Ridgeley.

Nicollet County.— C. 0. R.

* Alexander Ramaey State Park. (C3.)
About 100 acres at the junction of
Ramsey Creek with the Redwood River
on the south side of the Minnesota
River valley in Redwood County.
The park includes \ mi. of river gorge
below the falls together with the tribu-
tary gorge of Ramsey Creek. There
are precipitous granite cliffs on both
sides of the streams and on these the
red cedar is very common.

In the bottoms of the gorges there is
a dense deciduous forest made up
principally of white and slippery elms,
box elder, basswood, ironwood, Ken-
tucky coffee tree, hackberrj^, and sugar
maple.

Streams clear, rapid. 820 to 1000 ft.
(a) Redwood Falls, 1 mi. north.
Chicago and Northwestern R. R.
About 1 mi. southwest from North
Redwood. Redwood County, Minn.—
C. 0. R.

*Horace Austin State Park. (B3.)
A tract of fifty acres adjoining the city
of Austin. Situated in the valley of the
Cedar River and embracing many
heavily wooded islands. Glacial till
with exposures of Cretaceous clays in
which Angiospermous and Gymnosper-
mous fossils occur. Underneath the Cre-
taceous are exposures of Devonian
shales and sandstones.

Deciduous forest in the river valley,
made up principally of elm, basswood,
bur and scarlet oak, ash, poplar, Ijlack
cherry, crab apple, soft maple, sugar
maple and red cedar.

Historical records show that in 1840,
the fauna embraced, Virginia deer,
elk, black bear, and bison, but these

have long since disappeared and at
present it consists principally of squir-
rels, cottontail rabbit, woodchuck,
ground squirrel, and other small rodents.
Streams somewhat polluted, mod-
erate; 1150-1225 ft.

(w) Austin^. Chicago, Milwaukee,
and St. Paul R. R.
Mower County.— C. 0. R.
*Minneoj)a Stale Park. (B3.) A
tract of land originally comprising 60
acres, but recently increased to 114
acres; located at the confluence of
Minneopa Creek with the Minnesota
River. The name is contracted from
Sioux words — Minne-hinhc-nopa — which
mean water falling twice, or two water-
falls, according to Upham (4). Rolling
upland, precipitous river bluffs, gorges,
and flat river bottoms.

The park is situated at the south end
of the "Big Woods," which ex-tended
northward over 100 mi, from this point.
Borders of the upland prairie with heavy
deciduous forest in the creek and river
valleys consisting of white elm, bass-
wood, ironwood, bur oak, slippery elm,
black ash, box elder, sugar maple and
white ash.

The fauna is somewhat varied, em-
bracing coyote, red fo.x, raccoon (all
three rare), muskrat, gray and red and
fox squirrels, cottontail rabbit, wood-
chuck, skunk, and several species of
ground-squirrel.
800 to 900 ft.

(a) Mankato +, 4 mi. W. North-
western R. R.

Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul
R. R. at (w) Minneopa.
Blue Earth County, Minn.— C. 0. R.
*]Vhilewater State Park^. (B4.)
This park is located in the western part
of Winona County between the towns of
St. Charles and Elba and when com-
pleted will embrace 25G0 acres. It
lies in the valley of the Whitewater
River, near the border of the driftless
area, and is therefore of great interest
both geologically and biologically. Ex-
tremely rugged topography; upland
areas covered with loess; deeply eroded
river valley with steep, heavily wooded

282

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

slopes, and alluvial bottom lands. In
many places there are extensive ex-
posures of paleozoic rocks.

The deciduous climax forest consists of
white, red, and bur oaks, shell bark hick-
ory, bitternut hickory, aspen, coarse-
toothed poplar, and black cherry. The
fauna is varied for a country which has
been settled for so many years, including
coyote, raccoon, red fox, bobcat, red and
gray and fox squirrels, flying-squirrel,
mink, skunk, woodchuck, cottontail
rabbit, weasel, and ground-squirrel.

Streams clear, swift; springs numer-
ous and some of great volume. 850-
1100 ft.

St. Charles + 10 mi. north. Chicago
and Northwestern R. R.

2 mi. southwest from Elba. Winona
County.— C. O. R.

* Sibley Slate Parkt (B4.) One of
the recent state acquisitions, embraces
about 400 acres located north of Lake
Andrew within the Monongalia Game
Refuge of Kandioyhi County. Glacial
topography, embracing terminal mo-
raines, moderatel}^ to very rolling and
hilly, with lakes, ponds and streams,
making this park one of the most beauti-
ful and picturesque places in the state.
Situated near the western border of the
"Big Woods" of Minnesota with virgin
timber clothing the rugged moraines;
climax forest made up principally of
white elm, slippery elm, sugar maple,
basswood, bur oak and red oak.

The fauna includes, although in some
cases rare, such species as red and gray
squirrels, raccoon, skunk, woodchuck,
cottontail rabbit, white-tailed jack-
rabbit, red fox, and coyote.

Lakes and streams clear, moderate:
1500-1700 ft.

Wilmar + 12 mi. N. E. Gt. Northern
R. R. about 5 mi. west from New Lon-
don, Gt. Northern R. R. Kandiovhi
County.— C. O. R.

In addition to the larger parks and
preserves described in the foregoing
pages, there are several smaller ones
ranging in size from 2 to 50 acres scat-
tered throughout the state wherein
natural conditions are safeguarded in

the same degree as in the case of those of
more pretentious area. They should
properly be included in the list, but it
is hardly necessary to accord them as full
descriptions.

*Sleepy Eye Slale Park. (C3.) Sur-
rounding Sleepy Eye Lake, estimated 50
acres in extent; glacial topography
mixed deciduous forest. Located at
Sleepy Eye, Ch. & N. Wn. R. R.
Brown County, Minnesota.

Toqua Lakes State Park. Approxi-
mately 23 acres in area; level ground
moraine; in prairie region of state;
deciduous forest along lake shore.
Graceville, Gt. Northern, Ch. Mil.
& St. Paul. R. R. Bigstone County.

*Travers De Sioux. (Do.) About
2.5 acres. Minnesota River Valley;
glacial topography; deciduous forest.
St. Peter. Ch. & N. W. R. R. Nicol-
let County.

*Camp Release State Park. (D5.)
A monument site, commemorating the
release of white prisoners from captivity
among the Sioux Indians in 1862. Bor-
dering the Minnesota River valley on the
south. About 1 mi. S. W. from Monte-
vidio. Chi. Mil. & St. Paul. R. R.
Lac Qui Parle County.

3. Areas already proposed or under

consideration for State Parks or

Preserves

pMille Lacs State Park. Mille Lacs
County. Mature hardwood forest; coni-
ferous forest; one of the finest regions
of the state.

pCamden Hills State Park. Hilly
country; springs; origin of Redwood
River; mixed deciduous forest. Lynd,
Lincoln, County.

pLake Benton Park. North shore of
Lake Benton; in prairie region; mixed
deciduous forest along lake shore. Lake
Benton, Lincoln County.

pLake Sarah Park. In region of ter-
minal moraines, hilly to rolling prairie
region; mixed deciduous forest along
streams and lake shores. Slay ton, Mur-
ray County.

pWorlhington State Park. On the edge
of terminal moraines, level to rolling;
lakes and streams; deciduous forest
limited to lake shores and along streams.
Worthington, Nobles County.

pPipestone State Park. Marking the
locality of the famous "Pipestone quarry

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

283

where the ancient arrow maker made his
arrowheads of sandstone." Extensive
outcropping of red quartzite; waterfalls;
small lakes. Pipestone, Pipestone
County.

Wild Life and Game Refuges. In
addition to the State Parks, Minnesota
has set aside thousands of acres in vari-
ous parts of the state as Wild Life and
Game Refuges. These differ from the
State Parks in that they embrace land
which for the most part is privately
owned and is to some extent under
cultivation.

Natural conditions are therefore not
preserved to tlie same degree as in the
State Parks especially so far as vegeta-
tion is concerned.

Four of these refuges, however, are
absolute wild-life sanctuaries because all
wild life within their boundaries is
completely protected by law at all times.
These refuges are indicated on the
accompanying map as cross-shaded areas
enclosed by lieavy black outlines.

Their location and extent are as
follows :

*Ramseij County Wild-Life Refuge.
(G7.) 5000 acres, glacial topography,
terminal moraines of Wisconsin drift,
embracing groves of mixed hardwood
forest, tamarack swamps, meadows,
lakes, ponds, and streams. Located in
N.W. Ramsey County. 10 mi. north of
St. Paul.

*Sl. Croi.v River Wild-Life Refuge.
(G7.) Embraces 3000 acres of river
valley and river gorge, splendid mixed
hardwood forest with scattered white
pines, numerous cold springs and
streams. One of the richest regions of
the state for wild flowers as well as
Pteridophytes and Bryophytes. N.E.
Washington County. 5 mi. north of
Stillwater.

*Martin County Wild-Life Refuge.
(G7. ) Embraces 760 acres of undulating
or rolling glacial till, numerous lakes
and streams; deciduous hardwood forest
mostly along streams and lakes. S.E.
Martin Countv, near Fairmont.

*Morrison County Wild-Life Refuge.
No. 2. (G7.) Embraces 1060 acres.
Glacial topography. Moderately to
considerably rolling, low and swampy
areas alternating with moraines. Mixed
hardwood forest, near the border of con-
tinuous coniferous forest. S.W. Mor-
rison County. About 10 mi. S.W. of
Little Falls.

The remaining Refuges of the state
afford uninterrupted protection for all
game animals as there are no open sea-
sons within their limits.

The unprotected mammals and out-
lawed birds, however, may be hunted

and killed at any time and this permits
of more or less shooting and disturbance.
Within this type of refuge, therefore,
there is not the complete freedom from
annoyance which obtains in the other
refuges and State Parks.

Because of the fact that these refuges
are comi)aratively numerous and of
each of considerable area they are of
great imjjortance to the wild life of the
state. <)n the accompanying map they
are indicated by parallel-line shading
within heavy black outlines.

Areas which should be added to the
various classes of State Preserves on
account of their l)iologic and geologic
interest.

Minnesota River Valley, near Savage.
An area of about 300 acres, embracing
heavily wooded north-facing blutTs,
with ravines and clear streams; wet
peat}^ meadows with Cypripedium candi-
dum, Cypripedium hirsutum, Cypripe-
dium parviflorum and Sarracenia pur-
purea in great profusion.

Minneapolis 10 mi. south, i-l mi-
from Savage. Omaha R. R. and Elec-
tric Southern R. R. Dakota County.

Purgatory Swamp. Covering an es-
timated area of 200 acres. Typical
tamarack swamp with a few ridges
covered with hardwood forest; contains
many elements of the coniferous forest
more particularly the northern swamps.

Minneapolis 15 mi. west, h mi.
north of Clear Springs Station on Minne-
tonka Electric R. R.

*Crystal Lake. Approximately 40
acres. Glacial topography. Swamps,
lakes and streams; deciduous forest;
mostly elm, oak, maple and basswood,
with a rich herbaceous flora.

Minneapolis 5 mi. north. One mile
from Robbinsdale. M])ls. & Robbins-
dale Electric R. R. Hennepin County.

Moore Lake. An estimated area of
400 acres including a shallow, grassy,
lake al)Out i mi. long. Shifting sand
dunes along west shore, in some places
moving into the lake; typical tlune
vegetation. Many species of birds nest-
ing in the reeds of the lake.

About 3 mi. north of Minneapolis.

Cannon River valley. An area of
approximately 600 acres of river valley
at the junction of Belle Creek with the
Cannon River. Heavily forested north
slope, forested river and creek bottoms;
great profusion of spring flowers in
early May, and a great many species of
song l)irds.

Redwing 12 mi. northwest. One to
two mi. southeast of Welch. Ch. & Gt.
Xor. R. R. Goohue County.

Hemlock Crave. An area of 280 acres
in southern St. Louis County; Rough

284

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

glacial topography. Northeastern conif-
erous forest in which the dominant
species is the hemlock (Tsuga canaden-
sis). This is an isolatetl grove, marking
the northwest limited of the species and
situated about 60 mi. northwest of the
hemlock forests of Wisconsin.

Floodwood 8 mi. southeast. Gt. Nor.
R. R. 2 mi. northeast of Paupores Sta-
tion.

Gwinn's Bluff. One of the most
picturesque bluffs of S.E. Winona
County rising nearly 500 ft. over the
Mississippi River, flowing along its N.E.
base, and situated within the driftless
area. The lower slopes of the bluff are
covered with a dense hardwood forest;
along a stream at the north end of the
bluff occurs the witch-hazel, and this
spot marks the northwestern limit of the
species; nearby is an isolated outpost of
Claytonia Chamissoi which occurs typi-
cally in the Rocky Mts. and Alaska. The
summit of the bluff is composed of
dolomite and in the crevices and on
upper ledges of this formation occurs a
patch of white cedar or arbor vitae which
must be regarded as a relic since the
nearest station in Minnesota is situated
fully 160 mi. farther north.

Winona 18 mi. S.E. Chi. Milwaukee, &
St. Paul R. R.

About 2 mi. below (a) Richmond.
Winona County.

Jack Pine Grove. About 40 acres,
situated on a sandy north-facing hillside
in the Root River Valley, about 3 mi.
west of Rushford.

An isolated grove of typical jackpine
situated on the border of the Driftless
Area, containing in addition to the pine
many elements of the northern jack pine
forest. Obviously a relic.

Rushford, Chi. Mill. & St. Paul R. R.
Fillmore County.

Heron Lake. A shallow inland lake
in the prairie region of S.W. Minnesota.
About 12 mi. long, very shallow in the
northern portion, and filled with tall
grasses, rushes, sedges, cat-tails and
other aquatic plants. Shores with mixed
deciduous forest, marshy places with
willows. One of the famous nesting
places for aquatic birds in Minnesota.
Among the species which are still com-
mon and nesting among the reeds and
grasses in early summer are : The Ameri-
can and least bittern, red-winged and
yellow-headed blackbird, coot, mallard,
pintail, redhead, Florida gallinule, pied-
billed grebe, Franklin's gull, Wilson's
phalarope, Sora rail, Virginia rail,
blue-winged teal, black tern, Forster's
tern, swamp sparrow, and prairie marsh
wren. Heron Lake, Chi. St. Paul, Minn.
& Omaha R. R.

Jackson County.

Heil Hollow. A place of great geologic
interest embracing an area of about 400
acres of precipitous river bluffs along the
west side of the Mississippi River, near
the southeast corner of the state. Lower
slopes heavily clothed with a mixed
hardwood forest; upper slopes with
perpendicular dolomite ledges in the
crevices of which grow red cedar and
white pine. In a recently eroded ravine
are exposed successively almost down
to the river level the Cambrian strata of
shale, various sandstones, and mag-
nesium limestone.

About 2 mi. N. of Reno. Chi., Mil-
waukee, and St. Paul R. R. Houston
County.

Winnishiek Bottoms. An area of bot-
tom lands extending along the Missis-
sippi River, a distance of over 300 mi.
from Wabasha, Minn., to Rock Island,
111. Izaak Walton League Monthly, Vol.
1, No. 2, pp. 1, 25, 29, August, 1923.
Vol. 1, No. 11, pp. 1, 600-601, 623, July,
1923. See Illinois Account.— P. L.
Ricker.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Nelson, N. P. B. Observations on

Some Algae Which Cause "Water
Bloom." Minn. Bot. Studies, 3:
56. 1903.

2. Roberts, T. S. Review of the

Ornithology of Minnesota. Re-
search Publications of the Uni-
versity of Minnesota?: No. 2. 1919.

3. Upham, Warren. Catalogue of the

Flora of Minnesota. Geological and
Natural History Survey of Minne-
sota, Part 4 of Annual Report.
1883.

4. Upham, Warren. Minnesota Geo-

graphic Names. Minn. Hist. Sac.
Coll. 17: 1920.

5. Winchell, N. H. Geological and Na-

tural History Survey of Minnesota.
1-6: 1875-1901.

6. Legislative Manual of Minnesota.

1921.

16. WISCONSIN

By a. S. Pearse
i. general features and original

BIOTA

Wisconsin is essentially a plain,
though there are highlands in the north
and west. All except the southwestern
quarter of the state is covered with
glacial deposits, which rest upon Pre-
cambrian, Cambrian, and Silurian

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

285

rocks. There are many beautiful lakes
throughout the glaciated areas. The
greater part of the state was formerly
covered by coniferous forests; portions
of the southern half by oak and maple,
interspersed with swamps and prairies.
The mean annual temperatures now vary
from 39° in the north to over 47° in the
south, the average being 43°. The
mean annual precipitation is about 36
in. ranging from 28 to 44 in. in various
parts of the state.

In days gone by the beaver, Virginia
deer, timber wolf, wolverine, red squir-
rel, porcupine, black bear, ruffed grouse,
barred owl, and fox snake were common
in the northern coniferous forests.
Further south, the hardwoods were
populated by Virginia deer, gray and fox
squirrels, chipmunk, cottontail rabbit,
red fox, etc. The sloughs along the
Mississippi and Fox Rivers and the
swamps along lakes and rivers through-
out the state were resorts for water fowl,
mink, and muskrat. In the sandy areas
as far north as the middle of the state
lizards ran about among cactus and other
xerophytic plants. On the prairies in
the southwest were herds of bison, with
prairie chickens and ground-squirrels.
In northern waters the muskellonge and
lake trout were more or less characteris-
tic fishes. The mud-puppy (Nectiirus
maculosus) and painted turtle {Chrys-
emys marginata bellii) ranged through-
out the state. For further information
on animals see accounts of Minnesota,
Illinois, and Michigan.

The northern coniferous forests have
been largely cut and burned over, but
retain many of their original character-
istics and in some places are primeval.
159,000 acres of this land, which is
chiefly in Oneida and Vilas Counties,
is under state supervision as forest
reserves. Here Virginia deer, and in
some places even beaver, are quite
common. Away from settlements the
porcupine and black bear are found.
Ruffed grouse are protected and in
many localities are common. In the
south the hardwood forests have gener-
ally been replaced by farms and dairies.

The cottontail rabbit, ground-squirrel,
and quail remain fairly common. The
opossum is rare in the southeastern
corner of the state, and the wood turtle
occurs in sandy areas in the west. The
cardinal is rather uncommon on the
southern border, except on the ]\Iissis-
sippi bottoms, where it occurs in con-
siderable numbers.

The lakes in the south have been more
or less "fished out," though carp,
buffalo, and other fishes are usually
abundant. The Northern lakes con-
tinue to furnish many game fishes, such
as pickerel, bass, and sunfish. Certain
of the deeper inland lakes and the Great
Lakes contain ciscoes. The rock stur-
geon is very rare but the little hackle-
back continues to flourish in the Missis-
sippi and certain of its tributaries.

Mollusca

It has been observed that ecologically
the fresh water moUuscan fauna is
divisible into groups which contain
characteristic species or varieties.
Thus, the lakes have one assemblage
of species; the large rivers, as the
Mississippi, another; the medium sized
rivers, as the Wisconsin and St. Croix,
another; the very small rivers, as the
Fox and Red Cedar in Wisconsin,
another, while the small swales and pools
have still another. In most cases,
species inhabiting several of these
diverse habitats differ varietally and
the general character of a stream may be
predicted by the form of a species which
has been collected from it. This appears
to be a law of ecology which has been
observed in several places, as in Ohio,
Kentucky, Wisconsin, Michigan, Illi-
nois, and Indiana. It is probably wide-
spread, and when other localities are
carefully studied it may perhaps be
found to apply universall}'. The Mol-
lusca are admirably adapted to reflect
the character of the environment, but
little attempt has been made in most
states to study the moUusk fauna from
this standpoint. Most of the published
lists are distinctly systematic. A full
discussion of this subject will be found

286

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

in Baker's iMonoRraph of the Mollusca
of Wisconsin, now in preparation. —

F. C. Baker.

II. NATURAL AREAS

*PaUison Park. (A3.) An area of
GGO acres, containing a falls in the Black
River, IGo ft. high. Covered with a
mixed forest of hardwoods and pine.
Most of the area was cut over years ago,
l)ut has grown up in a fair way at the
present time. Soil clay-loam. Located
12 mi. south of the city of Superior,
Douglas County, C. M. & St. P. R. R.

* Brule Park and Forest Lands. (B3.)
Area 4221 acres, all cut over about 25
years ago, but has since grown up to
poplar, mixed hardwoods and some
pine. Sandy land. Portions of these
lands adjoin the river, others lay back
but along the valley. Located along
the Brule river valley, in the vicinity
of the village of Brule, Douglas County.
N. P. R. R.

*Vilas and Oneida Counties. (A3.)
State Land Area. (C2.) 200,000 to
300,000 acres in the lake region of these
counties. Larger portion cut over.
Some virgin timber, mixed hardwoods,
hemlock and pine. Many lakes stocked
with regulation game fish and streams
containing trout. Land varies from
lean sands to fertile loams. Country
level to rolling. Population sparse.
Lands most accessible from the village
of Woodruff in Oneida County. C. &N.
W. R. R.

*Coniferous Forest on Lake Muska-
longe. (A4.) 27 acres of original white
pine on lake shore, with sandy shore,
lake, many birds. Preserved by C.

G. Pearse, Milwaukee. Located in Vilas
Co., 1(520 ft. Sayner, 6 mi. east. C. M.
& ST. P.

*Nelson-Dewey Park. (B2.) At the
junction of the Wisconsin and Missis-
sippi rivers. An area of 1651 acres bluff
land covered with mixed hardwoods,
oak, walnut, soft maple, etc. Portions
of this area have been farmed, balance
partially cut over. Located 4 mi.
north of Wyalusing, in Grant County.
C. B. & Q. R. R.

*Inlcrslate Park. (B2.) 580 acres
along the St. Croix river. Large fish
hatchery being established at this point.
Rough, rocky land, with mixed forest of
hardwoods and white pine. Small lake
formed by back water from the river on
this area contains carp in some quanti-
ties, also a limited supply of game fish.
Large springs rise on portions of this
park. These supply the trout hatchery
with exceptionally fine water. Area
has been partially cut over in years gone
by. Located one-half mile from the
village of St. Croix Falls in Polk County.
C. B. & Q. R. R.

*Bird islands. (A3.) Islands of un-
known area. Nesting site of gulls and
mergansers. Strawberry, Hat and Jack
Islands. Located 40 mi. north of
Sturgeon Bay, Wis. Lake boats.

*Peninsular Park. (A3.) 3190 acres
of mixed farm and forest land. On the
Green Bay shore. Bluffs rise 250 ft.
above the bay. Forest type of mixed
hardwood, hemlock and pine. Many of
the old farm areas have been planted to
coniferous trees. Located near the
village of Fish Creek, Door County.
Stage from Sturgeon Bay, or lake boats.

*Neil Coniferous Forest. (A3.) 6
acres coniferous forest with ravines,
hills, swamps and springs. Located in
Neil County; Neil, Wis., 9 mi.

*Idleivild Refuge. (B4.) Area of ap-
proximately 1200 acres in the bottoms
of the Mississippi river. Covered with
bottom land type of timber, soft maple,
ash, river birch, etc. Near Fountain
City, Buffalo County. C.B.&Q. R. R.

*Perrot Park. An area of 910 acres
along the Mississippi bluff land, practi-
cally all cut over. Predominating spe-
cies— oak. Presented to the state by
John A. Latsch of Winona, Minnesota.
Location adjoins village of Trempealeau
in Trempealeau County. C. & N. W.
R. R.

*Fox River Wild Rice Fields. (A3.)
70 sq. mi. deciduous forest, deciduous
savanna, some evergreen, birch, marsh,
bogs, with hill, bluff, shore, sand, and
rocky and glacial topography, swamp,
pond, lake, river, spring. Winnebago

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

287

County, on Lake Beaut des Morts,
VVinnecone, Poygan and the Fox and
Wolf Rivers, including Rush Lake, Lake
Winnebago, Lake Beaut des Morts, 65
sq. mi. of water and marsh of which 20 is
estimated to be marsh. Rush Lake is a
shallow lake 07 sq. mi. in area. Lake
Beaut des INIorts 3 sq. mi. Lake Winne-
bago 12 by 30 mi. Few places offer as
good opportunities in study of aquatic
marsh and bog life in this vicinity. The
marsh will probably always remain
about the same unless drained. Located
in Winnebago County, Oshkosh, Wis.,
8-20 mi. C. M. & ST. P. R. R.— C. B.
Terrell.

*Sheboijgan Preserve. (B4.) GOOO
acres deciduous and coniferous forest,
glacial topography swamps, deer pres-
ent. Boreal fauna, a cedar swamp far
south. Should be preserved by the
state. Located near Sheboygan, Wis.,
1 mi., C. & N. W. R. R., C. M. & ST.
P. R. R.

*Milwaukee Tamarack Sivamp. (A4.)
10 acres, owned by the Wild Life Pro-
tective Society. Located in Milwaukee
County, 600 ft.; Milwaukee, 3 mi.

*Swamp on Green Lake. (B2.) 80
acres sand area, swamp, marsh, pond,
river, waterbirds and muskrats. Pre-
served by Norton Bros., Green Lake,
Wis. On shore of Green Lake, 815 ft.;
Green Lake, 6 mi. north, C. & N. W.

*Devils Lake Park. (B3.) An area
of 1113 acres rough rocky land. Devils
Lake U mi. long, ^ mi. wide, maximum
depth 50 feet. Contains pike, bass,
pickerel, suckers, etc. Land well
wooded, oak predominating, with white
pine in the rockier areas. Located 3
mi. south of Baraboo, Sauk County.
C. & N. W. R. R.

*Devils Lake Forest. (B3.) \ sq.
mi. deciduous forest, sand area, talus
slope, loose deposit, hills, blufTs, shores,
sandy and rocky glacial topography,
lake and spring. Located near Devils
Lake, Sauk County. Baraboo, Wis.,
4 mi. Eliot Blackwelder.

*Okauchee Count!/ Lake. (B2.) 50
acres hill, shore, glacial topography;
swamp, lake, river, spring. Beautiful

lake with swampy shores on one side,
good hills on the other. Well wooded
and entirely natural. Abundant with
life, both plant and animal. Should
be made a state game farm. Locate<i in
Waukesha County, 1 mi. south of Okau-
chee. Wis., C. M. & ST. P. R. R.— .1. R.
Cahn.

*Bark River. (C3.) 8 acres level
plain with shore, marsh and river.
Gift to the state. Located near Bark
River. Waukesha County. 850 ft.
Delafield, i mi. east. C. M. & ST. P.

*Pabst Forest Preserve. (F6.) 1000
acres broadleaved and evergreen woods,
hill, shore, glacial topography. Par-
ticularly good swamp, lakes, Genesee
river. Owned by Mr. Gus Pabst, who
is using it as a fancy game preserve.
Well kept. No fishing, no hunting.
Swamp and lake areas very important
and unimproved. Located in Waukesha
County, 850 ft. Oconomowoc 6 mi. —
A. R. Cahn.

*Pahst Sivatnp Preserve. (B2.) 30
acres sand area with some gravel.
Level plain, shore, sandy and glacial
topography, swamp, pond, lake. Mud
Lake and Aunt Polly's Washtub, about
10 ft. deep, with neither inlet nor outlet.
Good for botanical studies. Abundant
micro-fauna; ideal bird breeding ground.
Good ])lace for state game park. Now
owned by Mr. Fred Pabst, and is pro-
tected. Located in Waukesha County,
Oconomowoc, Wis., 2 mi. north. C. M,
& ST. P. R. R.

III. REFERENCES

Judav, C.

1914. The inland lakes of Wisconsin.
The hydrography and mor-
])hometrv of the lakes. Wi«^.
(Icol. & "Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull,
27: XV- 137.

Martin, L.

1916. The physical geography of Wis-
consin. Wis. Geol. & Nat.
Hist. Surv., Bull. 36: xxii-549.

Wisconsin Conservation Conuuission
issues iiamphlets tlescribing
the state parks.

288

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

17. ONTARIO
By C. D. Howe and J. R. Dymond>

I, GENERAL CONDITIONS

The greater portion of the province
is very thinly inhabited. More than
one half its area has no permanent
population and has been only roughly
explored. Over 80% of the popula-
tion is confined to an area of 30,000
sq. mi., which may be found south of a
line drawn from the southern end of
Georgian Bay on Lake Huron to the
city of Ottawa.

Topography and climate

The greater portion of the Province
drains into Hudson BaJ^ Although
extensive agricultural areas are being
developed in the northern region, most
of the agricultural and populated portion
at present belongs to the St. Lawrence
drainage basin. The agricultural areas
are for the most part underlain by
limestones and shales, which have been
largely covered with glacial drift.
There are, also, sedimentary rocks in a
band from 25 to 100 mi. wide around
James Bay. The remaining portion of
the province consists chiefly of crystal-
line rocks in much of the area so near the
surface, that it will probably remain for
all time as forested land. The phys-
iography of the vast forested area is
that of a partially dissected peneplain.
It has a general elevation of 1,000 to
1,500 ft. with a relief which is usually
less than 300 ft.

It extends through 15° of latitude in a
north-south direction and through 21°
of longitude in an eastr-west direction,
it displays considerable variation in
climate. The precipitation is equally
distributed as to seasons and ranges
from 20 to 40 in. while the growing
season varies from 150 days in the
Niagara Peninsula to 60 days in the
Hudson Bay region.

J I am indebted to Wr. J. H. Fleming for advice
and assistance in the preparation of the faunal
•ccounts.

II. ORIGINAL BIOTA

1 . Deciduous and mixed forest

The character of the forest varies
with the climate. The district lying
between Lake Huron and Lake Erie
has the hardwood flora of the Ohio
valley, and the northern part of the
province has a coniferous forest flora.

a. Plants. The basis of the southern
forest, which has now almost entirely
made way for agriculture, was maple
{Acer saccharum), oak, elm, chestnut
{Castanea dentata) and hickory, with
tulip (Liriodendron tulipifera), black
walnut (Juglans nigra), hackberry {Cel-
tis occidentalis) , sassafras (Sassafras
variifolium) , as secondary species. This
area is represented in practically virgin
condition by Rondeau Park.

A line drawn from the most western
point of Lake Ontario to the southern
most point of Lake Huron marks the
northern boundary of the southern
hardwood forest. Outliers of this type,
however, may be found as far north as
Toronto on Lake Ontario and as Gode-
rich on Lake Huron. Northward and
eastward of these points to the line
mentioned in the first paragraph, the
forest is chiefly represented by farm
woodlots and at the present time they
consist of hardwoods, mostly maple,
elm, beech, basswood (Tilia americana),
hop horn-beam {Ostrya virginiana),
with northern white cedar (Thuja
occidentalis) swamps in the depressions.

Along the southern border of the
crystalline rock, sugar maple comprises
about 50% and beech 25% of the hard-
wood forest; basswood 10%, j^ellow
birch (Betula lutea) 6%, hemlock (Tsuga
canadensis) 3%, white ash (Fraxinus
americana), balsam fir (Abies balsamea),
American elm (Ulmus americana) each
about 1%. As one goes northward,
the beech and basswood drop out, and
then the maple, yellow birch making up
the deficiency until it becomes dominant.
The hardwood forest occupies the deeper
glacial drift soils, which for the most
part are very stony loams, and it usually
0103 the low]_ ridges.

Fig. 10. Map of the Province of Ontario Showing the Location of Forest

AND Game Reserves

.^

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

289

In the southern portion of Ontario,
exclusive of the Niagara peninsula,
the pure hardwood forest probably-
occupied about one quarter of the origi-
nal forested area. A pine forest, con-
sisting of white pine (Pinus slrobus)
and red pine (Pinus resinosa), mostly
the former, was the most widely dis-
tributed type. It occupied two situa-
tions: one, the extensive outcrops of
sandy soils deposited in glacial lakes
that at one time or other occupied much
of the region, and the other, the granitic
ridges of thin soil. This pine forest
originally occupied about 60% of the
area and it has now been largely replaced
by the poplar-birch associations follow-
ing forest fires. It is probable that
on not more than one-fifth of the area
thus occupied is the pine reproducing
itself in potentially commercial quanti-
ties, so that it will be a very long time
before the pine forest will be re-estab-
lished. The Eastern Forest Reserve
represents to perfection the conditions
on the repeatedly burned areas of this
type.

The remaining 15% of the original
forested area of southern Ontario, as
defined above, was represented by
various mixed hardwood coniferous
associations, of which there were at
least four well marked kinds. One was
due to the increasing occurrence of
hemlock, and the other to the intrusion
of white pine in the hardwood stands.
The former was particularly noticeable
in the Georgian Bay district and the
latter is still noticeable in the present
northern and western distributional
areas of white pine. In the northern
portion of the area designated as south-
ern Ontario there was some admixture
of balsam fir and spruce (P. canadensis
and P. mariana) among the hardwoods,
but probabh' never as extensive as the
hemlock and pine mixtures. The fourth
mixed association is the ordinary black
ash-white cedar-balsam fir swamp.

The three types described above,
namely, the pure hardwood, the pine,
and the mixed forest can all be found in
Algonquin Park, where the mixed type

occupies about 55% of the area; the
hardwood forest, in which yellow birch
is dominant and of fine quality and the
sugar maple subordinate and of poor
quality, 20%; the poplar-birch associa-
tion, representing the old pineries, 20%.
Beautiful illustrations of pure hardwood
stands and mixed stands in practically
virgin condition are to be found within
easj' reach of Headquarters (Algonquin
Park Station) on the Canadian National
Railwa3^ The railway from Parry
Sound to Ottawa cuts through the
southwestern portion of the Park and
the railway (also Canadian National)
from North Bay to Ottawa traverses
the northern and eastern portions.
The former passes through the less
undisturbed forests of the Park, while
the latter route displays more of the
present condition of the old pineries.

Forest conditions essentially as de-
scribed above are to be found extending
westward along Lake Huron to the
Sault in a strip about 50 mi. back from
the shore. They appear again west of
Lake Superior in a strip of about the
same distance north of the international
boundary line.

h. Animals (J. R. D.). The larger
animals of the southern faunal region
as described above have long been
exterminated and there remain only the
smaller forms such as muskrat (Ondatra
z. zibcihica), woodchuck (Marmoia ?«o-
nax rufescens), raccoon (Procyon I.
lotor), skunk (Mephitis mephitis group),
mink (Mustela vison group), weasel
{Mustela n. noveboracensis), red squirrel
(Sciurus hudsonicus group), gray squir-
rel (Sciurus carolinensis group) and
chipmunk (Tainias striatus group). As
Fleming- has pointed out the cottontail
rabbit (Sylvilagus floridanus mearnsii)
was probably not indigenous to Ontario,
but since its appearance here more than
fifty^ years ago, has spread over the whole
southwestern peninsula of the province.
The European hare (Lepus europaeus)
introduced in 1912' has also become

2 Otlau-a Naturalist, vol. XXII, pp. ISS-l."!!!, 1908.
' Canadian Field-Naturalist, vol. XXXVI, pp.
142-143. 1922.

290

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

distributed over much the same territory
as the cottontail rabbit although it has
not yet spread quite as far north or east
as that species. The Virginia deer
{Odocoilcus virginianus horealis) for-
merly occupied this whole area but has
long been exterminated except where
given sanctuary protection as in
Rondeau Park and in a few isolated
areas unsuitable for agriculture. The
elk (Ccrvus canadensis) inhabited the
extreme southwestern part of this area
originally, although it is perhaps one
hundred and fifty years since this deer
occurred wild in Ontario. The bob-cat
{Lynx r. ruftis) is now nearly, if not
quite extinct in the province; it formerly
occurred in the more southern parts
of this area. Some typical birds of the
region are bob-white, mourning dove,
yellow- and black-billed cuckoos, bobo-
link, meadow-lark, Baltimore oriole,
towhee, catbird and wood thrush.
The extreme southwestern portion of the
province, especially a strip along Lake
Erie is often considered as belonging
to the Carolinian Zone of Merriam.
Rondeau Park has been set aside to
preserve the original forest which still
stands there. Of the birds we have in
this small area a few species of distinctly
southern aspect, including the j^ellow-
breasted chat, mockingbird, Carolina
wren, cardinal, red-bellied woodpecker,
orchard oriole and barn owl. The wild
turkey was an original inhabitant of
this zone.

S. Coniferous forest

The vast area north of the Great Lakes
and of a line extending along the French
River, through Lake Nipissing west to
the Ottawa River, is usually called
northern Ontario, and it represents for
the most part the present commercial
forest area of the province.

a. Plants. North of the French
River-Lake Nipissing line to the height
of land the forest becomes more pre-
vailingly coniferous, with spruce and
balsam fir growing in importance. To be
sure, there are scattered patches of
beech, maple and yellow birch in pure

stand or in mixture on the northern
slopes of hills or in protected valleys
nearly or quite to the James Bay-St.
Lawrence water parting, but north of
these points the trees are of inferior or
stunted growth. White and red pine
are found in commercial stands to the
height of land, especially to the west-
ward. Such stands at their northern
limit and varying in age from 150 to 250
years can be seen in the Timagami
Forest Reserve within a short distance
from the Timagami railway station.
While there are frequent jack pine
stands in the northern portion of south-
ern Ontario, the outcrops of gravelly
sand plains are more extensive in north-
ern Ontario and consequently such
stands form a large portion of the forest.

The prevailing broad-leaved species
in northern Ontario are poplar (P.
tremuloides and P. balsamifera) and
paper birch. Their distribution has
been greatly extended through the
agency of forest fires, but these species
are undoubtedly subordinate but con-
stant components of the climax forest.
Paper birch apparently outnumbers
the poplar until the height of land is
reached. They occur on the heavier
and better drained soils.

It is probable that the greater portion
of the area now under review, that is
from the French River-Lake Nipissing
line to the height of land, was originally
occupied by mixed associations, chieflj'
spruce, balsam fir, white pine and paper
birch, with the conifers predominating.
One is impressed with the numerical
abundance of balsam fir in the under-
story, but it enters only sparsely into the
dominant crown cover.

The southern portion of the James
Bay drainage area is deeply covered with
stratified and unstratified glacial de-
posits, the greater portion of which is
silt loam and clay, so it is popularly
designated as the Clay Belt. It
stretches in Ontario from the Quebec
boundary westward to near Lake Nipi-
gon. In the eastern portion, it begins
with the water parting, but at its west-
ern limit the southern border is about

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

291

50 mi. from the height of land. The
Clay Belt covers an area of nearly
25,000 sq. mi. — one half the size of the
State of New York.

A recent survey of approximately
three million acres in the Clay Belt in
those portions of the Abitibi-Mattagami
drainage basins lying north of the
National Transcontinental Railway in-
dicates that approximately (iO per cent
of the land area is covered with a black
spruce forest about equally divided
between muskegs and poorly drained
upland soils. The remaining 40 per
cent is again approximately equally
distributed between the mi.xed associa-
tions and burned areas. Since the
latter are on the best drained areas, it
may be assumed that the.y originally
were of the mixed association character.
Another point of evidence in this direc-
tion is that the older burns show conifer-
ous reproduction beneath the poplar
stands. The mixed associations are
composed of white spruce, balsam fir,
black spruce, balsam poplar, aspen and
paper birch. Usually the conifers form
over half the stand.

The National Transcontinental Rail-
way passes through the central portion
of the Clay Belt throughout its entire
length, traveling east from Winnipeg, it
is first encountered near Paska station,
about 475 mi. east of that city.

Little is known about the forest con-
ditions in the northwestern portion of
the Province in districts not traversed
by railways. It seems evident, how-
ever, that the proportion of jack pine
increases as one goes westward, and,
also, that the mixed associations are of
more frequent occurrence.

It may be said in this connection that
as our knowledge of northern Ontario
increases, some revision will be necessary
in the conception of the pure coniferous
forest as the climax type. The forest
of this character is apparently found
only in the swamps and on the poorly
drained areas, and such areas do not
dominate the topography until the
James Bay coastal plain is reached.

b. Animals {J. R. £>.). This conifer-

ous forest of the north is the home of
the moose. North and west of Lake
Huron and Lake Superior the moose is
still common but south of the French
River it is rare except in sanctuaries
and even these is much less common than
farther north. The woodland cariljou
which until comparatively recently
wintered as far south as the north shore
of Lake Superior has now largely aban-
doned this area except in the extreme
north. The white-tailed deer has been
steadily extending his range until to-
day he is found far beyond the National
Transcontinental Railway, llis centre
of abundance, however, is much farther
south. In this part of Ontario we still
have the black bear {Ursus americanus),
timber wolf {Canis lijcaon), Canada
lynx {Lynx canadensis), fisher {Maries
pennanti), marten {Maries americana),
porcupine {Erethizon dorsatum), beaver
{Castor canadensis), otter {Lutra cana-
densis), snowshoe. hare {Lepus america-
nus), muskrat {Ondatra zibet hica), mink
weasel {Mustela vison group) , woodchuck
{Marmota monax canadensis), red squir-
rel {Sciurus hudsonicus), eastern chip-
munk {Tamias striatus lijsteri), and in
the western part of the area the west-
ern chipmunk {Eutamias 77iinimus
group). The larger animals of this
list are naturallj' commoner in the more
inaccessible and more thinly settled
districts of the north. The wolverine
{Gulo luscus) was never abundant even
in northern Ontario and is now to be
found only in the extreme north.
Among the characteristic birds of this
area may be mentioned the white-
throated sparrow, olive backed thrush,
northern pileated woodpecker, spruce
grouse, and Canada jay.

III. NATUR.\L AREAS

*Point Pelee. (04.) Federal Bird
Sanctuary, in which duck shooting
only, is allowed for a short season.
Size, about 7 by 4 mi. The basal 2 liy 4
mi. drained and cropped. Remainder
mostly marsh near the base, a narrow
strip of sand at each side for 3 mi.

292

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

varj'ing to i mi. at the widest on the
west side; the final narrow 2 mi. all
sand. All of the dry area, except a
small cultivated area is covered with
forest, in which are many original
trees; in Auvorg Forest is maple, walnut,
oak (many species), ash, elm, and
conifers, red cedar and white pine.
Along the east sand strip are many
willows, but most of that area is swept
by wind and water, and is bare.

Cottontail rabbit and red squirrel
common; Chipmunk gone; several mice,
shrews, and moles (Scalopiis) occur,
which are very rare elsewhere in
Ontario.

Leamington Ont., 4 mi. N. W. of base
of Point. L. E. & D. R. Ry., and Electric
line from Windsor.— IF. E. Saunders.

*Algonquin Park. (A2.) Located in
east-central portion of Ontario. Low
rounded hills and ridges, a dissected
peneplain; lakes, rivers, peat bogs and
marshes. About 1,700,000 acres; transi-
tion, mixed forest type, yellow birch,
sugar maple, paper birch, red spruce,
balsam fir, white pine and red pine;
all stages of succession after fire.
Beaver, Virginia deer, moose, otter,
mink, marten, fisher, muskrat. Fish
and game preserve; bird sanctuary.
Pembroke, Ontario. 106 mi. east.
Grand Trunk Ry. Official headquarters
and hotel, Algonquin Park, Ontario.—
C. D. H.

*Quetico Park. (Al.) Located in
western Ontario, a continuation in
Canada of the Superior National Forest
in Minnesota. Low hills and ridges,
abundant lakes, ponds and peat bogs.
About 1,000,000 acres. Northern conif-
erous forest; pine, spruce, balsam fir.
All stages of succession after fire. Bea-
ver, Virginia deer, moose. Fish and
game preserve; bird sanctuary. Wind-
igo Station on the Canadian Northern
Ry. 12 mi.— C. D. H.

*Rondeau Park. (B3.) Located in
southern Ontario, Kent Co., on Lake
Erie. Sand dunes, swamps and marshes.
About 5000 acres. A remnant of virgin
forest, southern hardwood type. Game
preserve and bird sanctuary. Ridge-

town, Lake Erie and Detroit River Ry.
12 mi.— C. D. H.

*Ni]ngon Forest Reserve. (Al.)
The Nipigon Forest Reserve comprises
7297 sq. mi. of northern coniferous
forest surrounding lake Nipigon, 80 mi.
north of Lake Superior. Located on
Laurentian plateau. Lake Nipigon
(1769 sq. mi. including the islands;
852 ft. above sea level) occupies a
central depression. Many smaller lakes
between the rounded rocky elevations
are characteristic of Laurentian country;
numerous rivers, usually swift, often
with rapids and falls in their courses
enter the lake; virgin forest of spruce,
balsam fir, poplar, birch with occasional
areas of jack pine and tamarack; moose,
Virginia deer, caribou (occasionally in
winter), black bear, wolverine, fisher,
marten, beaver; whitefish, ciscoes (lake
herrings), lake trout, speckled trout,
pike perch, pike, and sturgeon; the
wood frog (Rana cantabrigensis), mink
frog (Rana septentrionalis) .

Canadian National Railwaj^ to village
of Orient Baj^, Ont., where accom-
modation, including canoes, guides
and equipment may be had. — /. R. D.

*Rondeau Park. (B3.) An area of
8 sq. mi. lying between Rondeau Har-
bour and Lake Erie contains finest
piece of the original deciduous forest of
southei'n Ontario including magnificent
specimens of species now rare elsewhere
such as black walnut, butternut, and
sycamore.

Walk from Ridgetown on Michigan
Central and Pere Marquette railways.

*Nopiming Game Sanctuary. (C3(b).)
A small wild-life sanctuary near the
town of Arnprior, Ontario. Comprises
about 2000 acres of land, situated on
south shore of Ottawa River between
Madawaska and Mississippi rivers, its
southern boundary being the Grand
Trunk Railway right-of-way. About one-
third is cleared farm land, remainder bush
and swamp, bush second-growth mixed
hardwoods and softwoods. Two small
streams run through swampy "beaver
meadows." Ruffed grouse, ducks, beaver.

Walk from Arnprior.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

293

Miner Game Preserve. (C4.) Con-
sists of farm of Mr. Jack Miner, Kings-
ville, Essex County, Ontario, 20a acres
and a surrounding protective zone of
approximately 2000 acres. Visited each
spring by about 4500 Canada geese
during migration, also about 500 pond
and river ducks, and several hundred
whistling swans. Cleared farm land
containing two large artificial ponds.
For study and photography of geese and
dqcks should be visited between April
10 and 25. Windsor, Essex and Lake
Shore Electric Railway from Windsor,
Ont.

Pearsemarsh Bird Sanctuary. (C4.)
The farm of Miss Edith L. Marsh, situ-
ated on Georgian Bay in Grey County,
Ontario. Consists oi about 300 acres
of upland with orchard, good arable
farmland and rough pasture, also some
areas of swamp and bush (birch, north-
ern white ceclar, hemlock, etc.). Bird
and other wild life has been protected
for many years.

*Timagami Forest Reserve. (AL)
An area of about 6000 sq. mi. to the
west of lake Temiskaming and the upper
Montreal River in the Province of
Ontario. The most important single
feature is lake Timagami in the south-
ern part of the area. The lake (965 ft.
above sea level) is about 30 mi. long
from north to south and slightly less
from east to west. The whole area is
full of smaller lakes from 12 mi. in length
down. The timber is red and white pine,
spruce and balsam fir, with considerable
patches of poplar; tamarack is re-
establishing itself in places. Moose,
black bear, wolf, Virginia deer, beaver
are common; lake trout, speckled trout,
black bass, pike-perch and pike abound.
The reserve is most easily entered by
the lake since Timagami Station on the
Temiskaming and Northern Ontario
Railway (from Toronto) is at the head
of the northeastern arm of the lake.
There is a Hudson Bay Co. post on Bear
Island in the centre of lake Timagami,
as well as a small hotel and several
large permanent summer camps. Two
vessels run daily during the summer
from Timagami to the Post and the
camps. Supplies are obtainable either
at Timagami or the Post. Gowganda,

a moribund mining centre lies in the
northern half of the reserve.

*Sibleij Reserve. (A4.) An area of 70
sq. mi. on the point of Thunder Cape,
Lake Superior. Preserved principally
to keep the promontory of Thunder
Cape covered with timber, typical
Laurentian plateau forest. (See Nipi-
gon Reserves.)

*St. Lawrence Islands Park. (03.)
Consists of 13 islands and one mainland
reservation, 140 acres in all, among the
Thousand Islands of the St. Lawrence
river, equipped for use of summer
campers and visitors as places for out-
door recreation; more like town parks
than natural areas.

*Broder Park. (C3.) 20 acres, an
island in the St. Lawrence river opposite
Morrisburg, near above park; well
wooded. Grand Trunk Railway from
Montreal or Toronto to Morrisburg.

IV. BIBLIOGR.VPHY

C. D. Howe. Life Zones. The Natural
History of the 'J'oronto Region, Ont.,
Canada, the Canadian Institute,
Toronto, 1913.

P. A. Taverner. Faunas of Canada in
the Canada Yearbook, 1915, has also
been drawn upon especially in con-
nection with bird lists.

18. THE PROVINCE OF QUEBEC

By Geo. D. Fuller and Brother

Marie-Victorin

i. general conditions
/. Topography

The province of Quebec comprises an
area of approximately 700,000 sq. mi.
extending from the Gulf of St. Lawrence
to Hudson Bay and James Bay. It lies
between 45° and 62° 40' N and 57° and
79° 30' W. Of its entire area 16,000 sq.
mi. are water comprising the surface of
numerous small lakes which form a
network through the northern part of
the province.

Tlie main physiographic divisions of
the province are the St. Lawrence plain
in the southwest, the Appalachian
highlands in the southeast, whose hills

294

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

reach the magnitude of low mountains in
the extreme east and west, and the
Laurentian highlands covering the
greater part of the vast region north
of the St. Lawrence River. These rise
abruptly a short distance north of this
stream, reach an altitude of about 1000
ft. at the height of land and slope gradu-
ally to the north where they include
vast lowlands about James and Hudson
Bays. Much of this northern region is
quite unexplored and nowhere has it
more than a sparse population.

The St. Lawrence plain is underlain
with limestones, possesses deep rich
soils of clay and clay loam, modified in
places by glacial drift, and is the most
fertile part of the province where settle-
ment began with the coming of the
earliest French colonists. It skirts the
north shore of the St. Lawrence and
Ottawa rivers as a narrow strip of plain
bordering the uplifted edge of the
Laurentian peneplain between the cities
of Quebec and Ottawa. South of the
St. Lawrence it comprises all of the
province lying west of a line running
from the city of Quebec to Lake Oham-
plain and marking the limits of the
Appalachian highlands. It ranges from
100 ft. above the sea along the river to
400 ft. along the edge of the Appala-
chians. It presents to the eye a level
surface interrupted by the Monteregian
Hills, a double line of eight isolated
peaks. These are composed of igneous
rocks and stretch at intervals of 10 to
20 mi. from Mount Royal at Montreal to
Shefford Mountain some 50 mi. to the
east, varying in their elevation above
the plain from 650 ft. for Mt. Royal to
1300 ft. for Yamaska, Shefford and
Brome. The rugged slopes of these
hills preserve the remnants of the
deciduous forests which originally cov-
ered the plain.

The Appalachian range enters the
province from Vermont and New Hamp-
shire at a point just east of Lake Cham-
plain and extends to the Gaspe Peninsula
varying much in altitude. The eastern
portion is known as the Notre Dame
Mountains which reach a maximum

altitude of 2800 ft. in Mt. Orford while
under the name of Shickshock Mountains
the peaks attain a height of 4000 ft. in
Gaspe. Within this region the topog-
raphy varies from plains with gently
rolling hills of low elevation to rugged
mountains. Only the tops of the higher
mountains have escaped glaciation and
the soils are mostly morainic varying
much in texture and fertility. Less
than one-fourth of this region is suited to
agriculture in any form but it includes
approximately 20,000,000 acres of forest.
The Laurentian highlands begin a
short distance north of the St. Lawrence
River and extend northward a distance
of at least 500 mi. It seems doubtful
whether the northern part of the Labra-
dor peninsula, now a part of the province
of Quebec, should be regarded as a
portion of this physiographic unit.
The surface characteristics of this
northern region so far as they are known
seem to be similar to those of the Lauren-
tian highlands and together the two
occupy 90% of the area of the province.
On the whole it is a region of low relief
and immature drainage. Granite and
other crystalline rocks present surfaces
planed and swept bare of soil by the ice
sheets and remain as a vast expanse of
low rounded hills that reach a maximum
elevation of about 2000 ft. along the
height of land some 300 mi. north of the
St. Lawrence River. These rocks are
well seen along the great cleft occupied
by the Saguenay River where granitic
cliffs rise perpendicularly from the
water's edge to the level of the surround-
ing upland from 1000 to 1800 ft. above.
The immaturity of the drainage is shown
in the chains of innumerable lakes and
in the great expanses of swamp and
muskeg. As James and Hudson Bay
are approached the elevation gradually
decreases and great areas of muskeg and
tundra occur at levels little above that
of the waters of the bays. The only
soils suited to agriculture are in the
narrower valleys and their limited area
together with the rigorous climate
makes the region as a whole destined to
remain permanently forested in so far

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

295

as forest fires and the woodman's axe
will permit.

The Canadian National Railways runs
northwestward from the city of Quebec
and passes over the height of land at
Monet, 308 mi. from Quebec, at an
altitude of 1454 ft. It affords an excel-
lent opportunity of studying a section
of the highlands.

2. Climate

The rainfall ranges from 25 to 45 in.
throughout the portion of the province
for which records are available. The
distinctly continental characteristics of
the western portion give way to those
that are largely oceanic along the Gulf
of St. Lawrence. In the south the
temperatures range from a summer
maximum of 95°F. to a winter minimum
of — 30°F., with a growing season of 120
days. There are all gradations between
this and a growing season of 60 days in
the north.

S. Vegetation

The forests of the St. Lawrence plain
were similar to those of eastern Ontario
{q.v.). They were of the mixed hard-
wood type in which maple {Acer sac-
charum) and beech {Fagus grandifolia)
with a mixture of hemlock (Tauga
canadensis) and j-ellow birch {Betula
Ivtea) dominated the climax areas.
In the western portion of the area red
and burr oak {Quercus rubra and Q.
ynacrocarpa) and hickory {Canja cordi-
formis) formed a portion of the stand
and some modified remnants of such
forests are to be seen on the Island of
Montreal. As in eastern Ontario white
and red pine {Pinus strobus and P.
resinosa) were found on the sandy areas
mixed with the hardwoods.

At present farm crops have replaced
the forests except on the rugged slopes
of the Monteregian Hills and on the low
swampy lands too wet for cultivation
and too low to be readily drained. In
many of these areas grey birch {Betula
populifolia) as a pioneer is forming
second-growth forests on areas origi-
nally occupied by arbor vitae {Thuja

occidenlalis) and ashes (Fraxinus avieri-
cana and /''. nigra). Farm wood lot.s of
modified hardwoods are fairly abundant
and include "sugar bushes" or groves of
sugar maples used for the production of
maple sugar. This industry reaches its
greatest development in the adjacent
Appalachian region.

The Eastern Townships, as the east-
ern i)ortion of the Appalachian high-
lands is commonly designated, were
settled early in the nineteenth century
by English speaking people from United
States and Great Britain. They origi-
nally i)()ssessed a forest similar to that
of the St. Lawrence plain except for a
smaller portion of pine and oak and an
increasing amount of spruce as the Maine
boundary was neared. Hardwood
stands occupied all the better soils.
These consisted of maples {Acer sac-
char uin, A . saccharinuni and A. rubrum),
basswood {Tilia americana), ashes (Frax-
inus americana and F. nigra), birches
{Betula lutea and B. papj/rifera) and
beech together with hemlock and,
upon swampy areas, arbor vitae and
tamarack. Much of the area has been
cleared for farming and almost all the
coniferous timber has been cut but con-
siderable areas of hardwood remain,
more particularly the stands of maple
which give the large yields of maple
sugar harvested from the region between
the counties of Brome and l^eauce.

East of a line drawn southward from
the city of Quebec the hemlock largely
disappears and spruces {Picea canaden-
sis and P. rubra) together with balsam
fir {Abies balsamea) become increasingly
abundant, forming immediately west
and north of the Maine boundary 60'"o
of the forest stands. Nearer to the St.
Lawrence River arbor vitae becomes
increasingly abundant occupying much
of the flat low-lying areas in the counties
from Kamouraska to Gasix'. The hard-
woods, however, persist in decreasing
abundance to Gaspo. The flat tops
and higher mountains in Gasp6 give
considerable areas of subalpine and
alpine forest, scrul) and fell-field. This
is still untouched and largely unvisited.

296

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

It is estimated that 70% of the Appa-
lachian area must eventually remain in
forest or waste land. Over 5000 sq. mi.
of this area are included in the Quebec
Forest Reserves.

The region north of the St. Lawrence
River may conveniently be divided
into two main forest regions, the north-
ern and the Laurentian. The former
comprises the Hudson Bay and Labrador
basins and the latter the St. Lawrence
basin. Most of the province north of
the 55th parallel is essentially treeless
tundra and fell-field while in a zone some
100 mi. broad about Hudson and James
Bays the forests are largely limited to
the better drained lands along the rivers,
The northern forests are estimated at
some 250,000 sq. mi. in area of w^hich
perhaps one-sixth has some m.erchant-
able timber in the form of fuel and pulp
wood. Here coniferous and deciduous
types mingle. Black spruce (Picea
mariana) and tamarack are the principal
conifers with jack pine (Pinus divari-
cata) on some of the poorer sandy but
better drained soils. Aspen and white
birch form stands of deciduous forest
of the low stature or mingle with the
conifers. Through much of the area
the tamarack was almost exterminated
in 1885 and 1900 by attacks of the larch
saw-fly. Since those years of destruc-
tion some recovery has been made.

As the highlands are reached the
trees increase in size and arbor vitae
and white spruce and balsam popular
(Populus balsamifera) become more
abundant.

These forests are all upon public lands
and little has been cut but extensive
and destructive fires have occurred.
The Laurentian forests are the best
and the most valuable in the province
not less than 160,000 sq. mi. of which are
within the Quebec Forests Reervses.
Much of this area, however, has been
leased to the lumber companies and has
been cut over. Destructive and ex-
tensive fires have also occurred but it is
estimated that 75% of this area is
capable of yielding merchantable timber.

This forest is composed principally
of white and black spruce mixed with
balsam fir. With these trees are mingled
in varying degrees of abundance the
aspen and balsam popular (Populus
iremuloides and P. balsamifera) and the
white birch (Betula pa-pyrifera) . Here
too are large bogs or muskegs with few
small trees. The southern portion of
this area has the best forests of the
province, the spruces being mixed with
white and red pine and arbor vitae and
as the St. Lawrence River is approached
by a mixture of such hardwoods as
yellow birch, ash and maple.

The Quebec Forest Reserves are
largely within this Laurentian region.
They comprise 168,000 sq. mi. of which
110,000 are in the Saugenay and Labra-
dor Reserve. Other large units are
the Ottawa Reserve wdth 27,000 sq. mi.
in the basin of the Ottawa River con-
taining much of the remaining white
pine and the St. Maurice Reserve,
21,000 sq. mi., with some of the best
spruce and mixed forests.

4. Mammals of the Gaspe Peninsula,

Quebec {Extracted from article by

George G. Goodwin)

The Gaspe Peninsula is in the extreme
eastern part of Quebec, south of the
St. Lawrence, and is bounded by the
bay of Chaleur on the south. It has an
area of about 11,000 sq. mi. and lies
entirely within the Canadian zone.
The peninsula is covered largely with
primeval forest and is almost roadless,
except along the shores. No roads pass
from north to south on account of the
chain of Shickshock Mountains, which
are far too rugged to be crossed. There
is a fringe of settlements along the north
coast which depend for livelihood mainly
on fishing in the summer and lumbering
in the winter. Most of the inhabitants
cultivate a few fields and do a little
farming, using oxen and old-time farm
implements. Only the coast region, for
a maximum depth of 10 mi., has opened
up to settlement.

The north shore is particularly strik-

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

297

ing on account of the greater number of
huge bowlders scattered about. The
bowlders are probably derived from the
north shore of the St. Lawrence and
transported hither by ice. These bowl-
ders were not found at altitudes much
above sea level.

The following species were recorded
in 1923: star-nosed mole {Condylura
cristata), the rocky condition of the
land in the mountains was not suitable
for this mole, which seems to prefer
soft soil and marshy ground; masked
shrew (Sorex per sonatas personatus),
were well distributed throughout the
forested area; smoky shrew (Sorex
fumeus umbrosus) ; Gaspe gray shrew
(Sorex gaspensis) ; water shrew (Neosorex
palustris acadicus) appear to be uncom-
mon in this region and very local; of
the small series taken, all were trapped
on the same stream within \ mi. of each
other; Hoy's shrew (Microsorex hoyi);
short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda
brevicauda) ; little brown bat (Myotis
lucifugus lucifugus); black bear (Ursus
americanus americanus); red fox (Vulpes
sp.); raccoon (Procyon lolor lolor);
pine marten (Martes americana ameri-
cana), sparingly distributed through
the timbered mountain region; fisher
(Martes pennanti pennanti) ; short tailed
weasel (Mustela cicognanii cicognanii) ;
mink (Mustela vison vison); Canada
skunk (Mephitis mephitis); Canada
otter (Lutra canadensis canadensis);
Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis canaden-
sis); dusky white-footed mouse (Pero-
myscus maniculatus abielorum) ; red-
backed vole (Evotomys gappcri gapperi) ;
meadow vole (Microtus pennsylv aniens
fontigenus); was fairly numerous in the
fields and swampy places near the river
at Ste. Anne, but was rare in the forest.
Two were taken in traps set on a small
mountain stream in the dark forest at
the foot of Mount Albert. On the bare
summit of the mountain, 3G60 ft. in
elevation, runways were abundant in the
wet and mossy grassland which sur-
rounded the small lakes; rock vole
(Microtus chrotorrhinus chrotorrhinus) ;

muskrat (Ondatra zibethica zibelhica).
The Hudson Bay jumping mouse (Zupus
hudsonius hudsonius) was found to be
fairly common and specimens were taken
in the open grass country and in the
clearings along the coast. The wood-
land jumping-mouse (Napaeozapus in-
signis insignis) was only taken in the
forested country and most of the speci-
mens were caught in traps set in tall
dead grass along the banks of small
mountain streams. Canada porcupine
(Erethizon dorsatum dorsatum) ; Canada
woodchuck (Marmota monax canadensis)
were commonest in the open country
along the coast. One woodchuck was
seen in the forest near the foot of Mount
Albert; striped chipmunk (Tamias
striatus lysteri), not taken in the cold
mountain regions or in the damp spruce
forests; red squirrel (Sciurus hudsonicus
gymnicus) ; northern flying-squirrel
(Glaucomys sabrinus sabrinus); Canada
beaver (Castor canadensis canadensis);
snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus struth-
opus); northern white-tailed deer
(Odocoileus virginianus borealis); there
are a few moose (Alces americana ameri-
cana) on the head-waters of the Ste.
Anne River, traces of which were seen
in the swampy places at the foot of
Mount Albert; woodland caribou (Rangi-
fer caribou caribou). For animals of
w-estern Quebec see Ontario account.

II. GUIDE TO AREAS AVAILABLE FOR
STUDY

1. *Laurentide National Park. (AL)
An area of 3271 sq. mi., located in the
Counties of Montmorency and Charle-
voix and distant 40 mi. from Quebec
City. It contains many lakes and
streams and is largely covered with
coniferous and mixed coniferous and
deciduous forests. It is intended to
demonstrate intelligent forestry as well
a a well preserved forests. It ofTers
the flora of a typical glaciated Lauren-
tian area and within it some important
tree species such as Quercus rubra and
Acer aaccharum reach their northern
limits. The streams teem with lish.

298

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

It abounds in large game such as deer,
moose, caril)ou and American elk. It
may be reached from Quebec by the
Canadian National Ry. — Bro. M.-V.

2. *Gaspt Park (Provincial). (Al.)
This consists of an area of approxi-
mately 2500 sq. nii. and comprsies the
greater part of the elevated area of
the Gasp(5 Peninsula. The vegetation
ranges from the mixed conifer-deciduous
forest through various types of scrub
to alpine fell-field.

The chief features of the Gaspe
Peninsula which at once attract the
botanist are the high, calcareous cliffs of
the coast which begin on the north in
eastern Matane County and extend
with only slight interruption along the
south side of the St. Lawrence to Perce.
These cliffs with their talus slopes and
high crests often reach a height of 1500
to ISOO ft. and are bleak and wind-swept
and essentially without direct sunshine,
consequently they harbor a large num-
ber of alpine and Arctic species.

The next striking feature is the
Shickshock Mountain range, a system
of rather complex minor ranges, most
of which are quite unexplored and
unmapped. These extend from western
Matane County through the north-
central and northern portions of (he
Peninsula to the Madeleine River;
beyond this point the mountains become
less conspicuous and gradually merge
into the foot hills and sea-cliffs. The
striking feature about the mountains is
the fact that their upper levels were
quite unglaciated, with the result that
there we find a very large proportion of
the plants indentical with or related to
species otherwise known only in the
Cordilleran or Pacific slope regions of
North America.

The third feature is the rivers, which
beginning with the Little Cascapedia
on the south, and the Ste. Anne des
Monts on the north and extending east-
ward to the tip of the Peninsula, share
with the Shickshock Mtr. the distinctly
Cordilleran flora which is otherwise
unknown in eastern America. To a

large extent this flora has been derived
from the Shickshock Mts., but certain
species like Dryas Drummondii char-
acterize the river gravels, but are un-
known in the high alpine areas. The
region may be reached by Can. Nat.
Ry. from Quebec to Matane on the west
or Perce on the east. During the sum-
mer there are boats from Quebec every
two weeks. Guides are necessary. § —
G. D. F.

3. St. Mmirice Valley. (AL) St.
Maurice Valley, an area of 16,000 sq. mi.
within the Forest Reserve mixed decidu-
ous and evergreen forests with some
swamps and many lakes. The fauna in-
cludes moose, deer, bear, hares, grouse,
squirrels, beaver, muskrat, foxes and
wolves. Altitude approximately 1500
ft. From Montreal or Quebec take the
Canadian National Railway to Latuque.
There is a hotel at Latuque; a guide is
usually needed§. The area must be
reached by canoe from the railroad
station. — Nevin M. Fenneman, Elwood
Wilson.

4. *Great Bird Rocks Group. (Al.) 7
acres and some small rocks located near
Magdalene Islands in the Gulf of St.
Lawrence. There is very little vegeta-
tion. The rocky shores present a marine
fauna. Water birds are plentiful. A
camping outfit would be needed, also
permission from the Canadian National
Parks, Department of Interior, and from
the Department of Marine. The area
has to be reached by special boat trans-
portation from Perce or other towns
on the main land. — J. B. H., L. H.

5. Anticosti Island. (Al.) An island
over 100 mi. long in the Gulf of St. Law-
rence held as private property and as a
game reserve. It is practically un-
inhabited. On it is a northern bog
(Hochmoor formation) on limestone
overlain with clay. It abounds in
northern forms. It is accessible by
steamer from Quebec. — Bro. M.-V.

6. Sixteen Island Lake. (Al.) This is
a typical Laurentian lake surrounded by
forest. It is 60 mi. from Montreal and
is accessible by the Can. Nat. Rv. —
Bro. M.-V.

7. *Bonaventure Island. (A2.) A
small island covered with eastern conif-
erous forest with cliffs, rocky shores,
etc. The cliffs are Canadian Govern-
ment bird preserves.

Located in the Gulf of St. Lawrence in
Gaspe County, 3 mi. from Perce where
a hotel is located, or 12 mi. northeast of
Cape Cove, Quebec. It may be reached

NATURAL AREAS AND RKGIONS

299

over the Canadian National or the
Quebec Oriental.—/. B. II., L. II.

8. *Perce Rock. (A4.) Area of 2
acres in the Gulf of St. Lawrence with
only scant vegetation, with rocks and
cliffs and sea-coastal fauna. The near-
est railroad station is Cupe Cove, Que-
bec, reached by the Canadian National
and the Quebec Oriental Railroads.
Hotel is at Perce, 9 mi. distant by bus. —
/. B. H., L. H.

9. Caughnawaga Indian Reservaiinn.
(C4.) This contains an area untouched
by cultivation, but grazed, and showing
a typical development of the genus
Crataegus. A variety of wind-beaten
forms are to be seen and many endemic
varieties. It is 10 mi. from Montreal
bordering the Lachine Rai)ids. It is
accessible from Montreal by rail and
from Lachine by ferry. — Bro. M.-V.

10. St. Lawrence Island. (A4.) A
small island of bovdder clay, flooded in
the spring. It shows tj'pical hydro-
phytic argillaceous vegetation with
interesting zonation. The vegetation
is subject to injury from the mechanical
action of ice. It is about 3 mi. from
Montreal and is accessible by row-boat
from Longueuil. — Bro. M.-V.

11. Pine barren forest. (C4.) This
is a stand of Pinus divaricata on sand
dunes with Comptonia sweet fern,
Cyperus Houghtonii, Panicuvi Xanllio-
physum and other unusual forms. This
IS a rare feature in the north.

This is accessible from the monastery
of La Trappe, near the village of Oka,
which is reached by boat from Lachine.
—Bro. M.-V.

12. Peat hog. (A4.) This bog in
Chambly County, near St. Hubert, is.
of the hochmoor type and is two mi. in
length. It was worked for peat in the
seventies and several stages in peat
formation can be observed. It is dis-
tant 7 mi. from Montreal and is easily
reached by the Grand Trunk Ry. — Bro.
M.-V.

13. Magdalen Islands. ((-4.) These
contain several sq. mi. of sand dunes
located at the eastern extremity of
Grande-Entree. The region is unglaci-
ated and has untouched associations of
dune and aquatic vegetation. There
are many endemic forms. — Bro. M.-\ .

BIBLIOGKAl'UV

Bent. Life histories of .\merican Birds,

Vol. 2, p. 37.
Clarke. Seventh Annual Rei)ort of the

Conservation Com. of Canada, 1915,

p. lOS.
Clarke. The Heart of Gaspe.

Toverner. Cormorants in Relation to
Salmon, Bull, of the (•col. Surv.

Toverner. Caiuidian Field Naturalist,
vol. x.^xii, p. 21, no. 2.

Townsend. Canadian Held Naturalist,
vol. xxxiv, noa. 4 and o.

19. NEW BRUNSWICK

By B. E. Cl.\hidge

i. general features

Topography

For the most part, the surface of New
Bnuiswick is a gently undulating upland
with average elevations which vary in
different sections from several hundred
to approximately a thousand feet. The
main characteristic of the topography
is the even slope of the hills to the
complete network of drainage liner.
Relative elevations, on the average,
are not great with the exception that in
the north and northwest, dividing the
Tobique, Restigouche and Nepisguit
watersheds, are numerous ranges of high
hills with altitudes which in the majority
of cases :ire from 1200 to 2000 ft. These
ranges include some higher individual
l)eaks separated by narrow gorge-like
valleys in many situations. Bald Moun-
tain or Sagamook rises here to a height
of 2(500 ft. which is the maximum for the
province. Along the Gulf of St. Law-
rence Coast— the Bay of Chaleur and
Miramichi Bay,— the land is compara-
tively low; the coast of the Bay of Fundy
is rocky and bold. The east coast for
nearly 20 mi. inland is somewhat flat
with numerous marshes.

Geology

The uplands of New Brunswick form
a part of the northern zone of the older
Appalachians with similar rock forma-
tions to those ft)und in many parts of
northeastern United States. In the
northwestern part of the Province the
Silurian rocks, slates, and shales arc
prevalent, while to the south and west
of this tract the Pre-caml)rian rock
series predominate and include large
scattered granite masses. A narrow
area in the northeast which grows wiilcr

300

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

to the southward is underlain by Car-
boniferous sandstone, shale, dolomite,
etc. This region extends from the Bay
of Chaleur along the east coast well
into Nova Scotia. The Cambrian and
Silurian formations are distinctive of
the region which borders the Bay of
Fundy.

Physiography and soils

In a rough manner the province may
be divided into four physiographic
units which may be termed the North-
ern Pateau, the Central Highlands, the
Eastern Plain, and the Southern High-
lands. The region known as the North-
ern Plateau and the watershed of the
Restigouche river and its branches
coincide almost exactly. The Central
Highlands include the watersheds of
the Tobique and Nepisguit rivers
together with a short stretch of the
watershed of the St. John above the
fork of this river with the Tobique.
The east coast from the mouth of the
Nepigsuit to Nova Scotia and the
greater portion of the large central area
drained by the Miramichi River make
up a unit which in some situations is
flat and in others is low and rolling.
For the want of a better name this may
be known as the Eastern Plain. Along
the Bay of Fundy the land again becomes
relatively high and hilly for about 40
mi. inland and forms the Southern
Highlands.

The great continental ice sheets left
in a marked manner their imprint both
upon the topography and the soils of
this region. The glacial accumulations
were laid down in no regular way; as a
result the soils show a diversified com-
position and due to this, different
properties. By far the greater propor-
tion of the soil ia of glacial origin. With
such soils, however, are often inter-
mingled rather large included areas of
local sands, residual clays, and clayey
loams.

Flora

Despite the fact that the province
lies at the northern edge of the transition

belt between the deciduous and co-
niferous types of tree vegetation, there
is a comparatively great diversity of
species. The predominant trees of the
vast forests are black spruce {Picea
mariana), red spruce (Picea rubra),
white spruce (Picea canadensis), balsam
fir (Abies balsamea), white pine (Pinus
strobus), beech (Fagus grandijolia),
sugar maple (Acer saccharum), yellow
birch (Betula lutea), and paper birch
(Betula papyrifera). The climax type
of tree growth in the region is a mixed
forest of spruce, fir, beech, maple, and
birch. The bryophytes, on the whole,
are well represented as are also many
of the herbaceous flowering plants.
Thus far little has been done in regard
to the study of the botany of the region,
so that the extent and range of the plant
species is not completely known. This
fact, together with the exceptional
opportunity for study in the vast ever-
green and hardwood forests, marshes,
barrens, tundra formations, and muskegs
should be an inducement for much more
work in the future. In a very few
localities — not all of which have been
definitely located — are patches of virgin
timber containing some good examples
of old growth spruce, fir, beech, maple,
and birch.

Fauna

The term "the Sportsman's Paradise"
has long been applied to New Brunswick.
It was not far in the past that the numer-
ous species of game and fur-bearing
animals ranged practically the entire
province. Yet, to give an example,
there are more moose (Alces americanus)
here to the square mile than in any other
part of the continent of North America,
in spite of years of constant attack by
large numbers of visiting and native
hunters who have greatly reduced the
numbers of these magnificent animals.
Other mammals still continue to be
somewhat plentiful although the wood-
land caribou (Rangifer caribou) which
were formerly found in large herds on
some of the northern barrens have
almost disappeared. Great numbers

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

301

were shot and the remainder except for
a few small scattered herds have emi-
grated to Quebec. The black bear
{Ursus americanus) is of frequent occur-
rence; numbers are trapped each year.
Throughout the entire region the Vir-
ginia deer {Odocoileus virginianus borea-
lis) is plentiful and forms a good portion
of the food supply of manj^ of the back-
woods families. Among the smaller
animals, the beaver {Castor canadensis
group), red fox {Vulpes fulva), marten
{Maries americana), fisher {Maries pen-
nanti), otter {Lutra canadensis), weasel
{Muslela cicognanii) , Canada lynx {Lynx
canadensis), and bobcat {Lynx, rnfus)
are still more or less abundant in certain
parts of the province. Birds are those
of eastern coniferous forest.

Fish

New Brunswick can reasonably be
proud of her rivers with the different
species of fish that they support. Prac-
tically all of these bodies of water
contain game fish in large numbers
while the Bay of Fundy and other
bordering salt water bodies furnish a
large supply of food fish for domestic
consumption. The principal fish of the
fresh water streams and rivers are the
speckled trout and the salmon; the
lakes contain trout, som.e bass, and
numerous smaller species. The sea
fisheries are located on the north shore,
the Bay of Fundy, and on the islands
at the mouth of the latter body of water.
Haddock, herring, cod. smelt, shad, and
mackerel comprise a few of the many
kinds taken from the sea and the tide-
water portions of the larger rivers.
The lobster industry is also a consider-
able one.

II. PRE.SENT BIOTIC CONDITIO.N'S

The comparative isolation of New
Brunswick, together with a lack of
density of population has done much to
prevent the complete destruction of
many areas and the extinction of a
num.erous and diverse animal life.
Thus far the necessity for the preserva-
tion of areas in order to conserve the

vegetation and animal life has not
been given the attention that it at no
far distant date will demand. Attempts
along this line are hamiwred to a certain
extent by local opinion which feels that
reservations will hinder progress and
development in the locality.

The lack of specific information makes
it difficult to give an exact statement
as to the presence of all of the remaining
natural forest areas. Some natural or
virgin stands of deciduous tree species
are to be found in small areas scattered
over a good part of the province. There
are according to the infonnation already
gathered in the progress of the New
Brunswick Forest Survej^ some isolated
patches of virgin coniferous forest in
inaccessible parts of the north. Ob-
viously it is of importance that wherever
possible these areas should be set aside
in their present condition.

The animal life has fared well con-
sidering the vigorous hunting and trap-
ping to which it has been subjected. An
occurrence that should be viewed with
regret is the practical disappearance of
the caribou from the north central
barrens. They will never return except
as a few well-protected herds. Further-
more, the number of fisher, beaver, and
marten have in the past few years been
noticeably less and further steps in more
conservative and workable trapping
laws are needed. In spite of the above
there are few regions in the East which
have an animal life so numerous and well
represented as this province.

Naturally enough those areas which
offer the best opportunity for the study
of either the fiora or the fauna lie in the
most unsettled and wildest districts
which are located in the north and
central regions. They are for the most
part accessible only by tote road or by
canoe; any naturalist who is going in for
the first time will do well to engage the
services of a competent guide. Of
course there are areas of untouched
marsh and barren in nuxny localities.
These are likely to remain so, and con-
sequently they do not need immediate
attention as regards reservation.

302

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Under a condition of sparse settle-
ment, few manufactories, and complete
drainage, pollution is a negligible quan-
tity. Thus far no important records of
pollution can be found for the province.

III. NATURAL AUEAS

; . Northern Mixed Forest in Northum-
berland County (A2)

This tract contains approximately
100 sq. mi. of virgin forest lying between
the watersheds of the Lower Branch of
the Nepisguit river and the Northwest
Branch of the Miramichi River.

The growth is almost the typical
climax forest type of the region with a
large percentage of balsam fir, maple,
white or paper birch, and yellow birch.
Occurring as scattered individuals are a
few large spruce.

The topography of this tract is rough
and for this reason has never been
logged. The growth is the result of a
fire which occurred in 1825.

Virginia deer, moose, red fox, black
bear, and marten inhabit this area in
rather large numbers. The Lower South
Branch of the Nepisguit contains some
good trout, but the country is rather
rough. The elevation ranges from 900
to 1500 ft.

As might naturally be e.xpected the
tract is somewhat inaccessible and the
greater part of the journey to it must be
made by tote road (h) and (c). Fred-
ericton to Plaster Rock (poor hotel
accommodations) by the Canadian Pa-
cific R. R., 120 mi. ; by wagon to Nictau,
20 mi.; tote road from Nictau to Nepis-
guit Lakes, 15 mi.; to Freeze Lake on
the Lower South Branch, 10 mi. Travel-
lers should be outfitted for camping out
from Nictau to the destination.

It is possible to go by canoe up the
Tobique to Nictau Lake and from this
lake to the Nepisguit Lakes with a
portage of about 3 mi.

2. The Bathursl Forest Experimental
Plot (C3)

An area of 500 acres has been laid out
for a period of 25 years as an experi-

mental plot for the study of the different
kinds of cuttings, planting, thinnings,
etc., commonly followed in forestry
work. This contiguous tract, the larg-
est sample plot in Canada, is located
near Bathurst Mines in Gloucester
County. The growth consists of a
cutover coniferous forest type of spruce
and fir with a few scattered hardwoods.
The various kinds of e.xperimental
work being conducted here is of interest
mainly to foresters, but in time should
be of general interest from the intensive-
ness and the rcope of the undertaking.
Occasionally Virginia deer, red fox,
and perhaps beaver may be found on
this area. Elevation 300-400 ft.

The best route for visitors to follow
is from Fredericton to Bathurst; branch
line with speeder only from Bathurst to
Bathurst Mines and the Grand Falls of
the Nepisguit, 14 mi. Accommodations
may possibly be secured from families
residing in the vicinity of the non-
operating Bathurst Mines, or from
workers at the power station at the
Grand Falls. The plot is approximately
one mi. northwest of the village.

20. PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND

Committee Notes

"The original forests of Prince Edward.
Island conform essentially to those of
Nova Scotia and New Branswick, as
regards species, but their distribution
is different. The trees indigenous to the
ilsand are the following:

Acer saccharvm
Acer rubum
Acer pennsylvanicum
Primus serotina
Prunus pennsylvanica
Fraxinus nigra
Fraxinus americana
Ulmus americana
Betula papyrifera
Betula populijolia
Betula lutea
Fagus americana
Quercus rubra
Populus tremuloides

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

303

Populiis bnlsamifera
Pinus strobus
Pinus resinosa
Picea alba
Picea nigra
Picea rubra
Abies balsamea
Tsugn canadensis
Larix americana
Thuja occidenialis

"Sugar maples and beeches, which
grow on the ridges and more elevated
parts of the mainland of Nova Scotia and
New Brunswick are found throughout
Prince Edward Island on the general
level only a few feet above the sae.
Finer specimens of Abies balsainea,
Picea alba, P. nigra, P. rubra are found
here than on the mainland, while the
presence of Thuja occidenialis in isolated
patches at the north end of the island
is remarkable".' — From Harshberger,
Phytogeography of North America, p. 361.

21. NOVA SCOTIA
By A. H. Mackay

I. GENERAL CONDITIONS

The Atlantic Provinces of Canada
are three — the peninsula of Nova
Scotia running out into the Atlantic
Ocean, Prince Edward Island, lying to
the rear in the Gulf of St. Lawrence,
and New Brunswick, through which
Nova Scotia has land connection with
the State of Maine to the south and the
Province of Quebec to the west. Nova
Scotia has an area of 21,068 sq. mi. with
1000 mi. of sea coast. The population
is 533,000.

Nova Scotia extends northeast and
southwest about 370 mi. with a breadth
of from GO to 100 ini.— the northeastern
quarter consisting of the island of Cape
Breton. It is the crest of a submerged
elevation lying sub-parallel to the
Atlantic American coast, and is con-
nected with the land system of the con-
tinent (New Brunrwick) by an isthmus
near its center about 20 mi. wide. The

1 Macoun, John. "The forests of Canada;' Pro-
ceedims and Transactions Royal Society of Canada,
XII (1894): 7-8, 8ect. IV.— JS. L. B.

nuiinland area is deeply cleft bj' the
Mines Basin and Cobctjuid Bay; and the
Island of Cape Breton is almost divided
into two by an inland salt water sea,
known as Bras d'()r Lakes. The high
lands of the island are in the northwest
part where the elevated axis rises to a
plateau about 1200 ft. in height widi
higher peaks towards Cape North.

North of Minas Basin the Cobequid
range runs due east and west in the
mainland, and south of the Basin on each
side of the Cornwallis and Annapolis
Valleys, and St. Mary's Bay run the
interrupted Triassic North Mountains,
and the older South Mountains in the
axis of the peninsula. The Atlantic
slope has been deeply eroded by glacial
action, exposing Lower Cambrian. Fur-
ther back the Silurian, Devonian and
Carboniferous strata remain, with some
Triassic in the northwest along the
Bay of Fundy which at one time com-
municated with the Gulf of St. Lawrence
where the Triassic is highly developed
in Prince Edward Island. The Atlan-
tic slope has been heavily scored by
glacial action. Lakes and streams
a])ound, although there can be no great
rivers when no watershed is 100 mi.
from the sea; the majority averaging
50 mi.

II. ORIGINAL BIOTA

The vegetation of southern low lands
of Nova Scotia is deciduous forest
climax and that of the northern and
higher areas is largely coniferous.

The fauna was originally very similar
to that of New Brunswick and Eastern
Quebec (pages 299 and 293).

III. PRESENT BIOTA

The forests have been too carelessly
exploited hitherto; and this condition
is now giving rise to serious thoughts of
forest conservation, and the jiresorva-
tion of game and of territory exhibiting
the natural conditions of the country
without modification by man.

Of the 13,000.000 acres of land no more
than 100,000 remain luigranted by the
Government; and the ungrantod ter-
ritory is iirobably all practically barren

304

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

land at present. Reservations to be
made for public natural parks and game
preserves may now have to be repur-
chased from private owners by the
Provincial Government.

IV. NATURAL AREAS

A central location in the southwest of
the province including the region where
the counties of Annapolis, Digby, Yar-
mouth, Shelburne and Queens meet —
territory still in a more or less natural
condition on the watershed of a country
not well adapted to agriculture, and
abounding in lakes and small streams.

The lake region of Queens County
nearby, where similar conditions prevail
with more water area.

A central region at the confluence of
the counties of Annapolis, Kings and
Luenburg, not very far removed to the
northeast.

Near the center of the province, a
similar area at the confluence of the
counties of Colchester, Pictou, Anti-
gonish and Halifax.

Cape Breton Island, northern portions
of Inverness and Victoria counties (B2),
an area 30 mi. broad by about 70 long,
with its high glacier planed plateau,
1000 to 1200 ft. above the sea, showing
the greatest range of ecological condi-
tions from the base to the summits, of
any other portion of the province, is
also being suggested. The most of the
region is unsuited to agriculture, and is
now the best natural reservation of large
game in the Province. It has many
square miles of deciduous and conifer-
ous forest, alpine meadows, sand areas,
flood plains, talus slope, gravel slides,
bogs, waterfalls, mountains, ravines,
hills, bluffs, shores, sandy and rocky;
glacial striations, swamps, marshes,
ponds, lakes and rivers. It is splendidly
described in 218 pages with illustrations,
by Dr. Geo. E. Nichols in Volume 22,
pages 249-467 of the Transactions of the
Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sci-
ences, June, 1918.

*Wild Geese and Water Foivl Reserva-
tion. The Nova Scotia "Forest and
Game Act, 1921," creates probably the

only thing approaching a "territorial
reservation" for water fowl which
appear to go no furthers outh for winter-
ing purposes. The territory includes
three deep neighboring indentation
(bays) on the Atlantic coast — one in
Queens County, one between Queens
and Shelburne County and the other
wholly in Shelburne County.

Lepreau Hochmoor. Fine example of
hochmoor. Lepreau, N. B. Shore Line
Ry. — F. W. Ganong.

Sable Island in the Atlantic. About
150 mi. from Halifax, Nova Scotia, is
now a sand dune island about 20 mi.
long and less than one mi. broad, con-
taining a brackish pond in which a fresh
water sponge has been found. The
island has a light-house and lifesaving
station. Attempts have been made to
grow trees and grasses, etc., to bind
the sand which rises in some places to
nearly 100 ft. in height. But the island
has diminished very considerably within
historic times. A very complete his-
torical and ecological description is
given of this most interesting island
by Harold St. John in the Proceedings
of the Boston Society of Natural History,
Vol. 36, No. 1, pp. 1-103, Plates, 1, 2.
(Cont. Gray. Herb., Harvard Uni-
versitj^. New Series, No. LXII.)

Guysboro Heath. Heath of unknown
area. Will probably remain for the
next hundred years. In Guysboro and
part of Antigonish Counties. — C. J.
Connolly,

Minas Basin Salt Marsh. Area of
salt marsh in Minas Basin, between the
mouths of the Gaspereau and Corn-
wallis Rivers, including sand areas,
flood plain, lakes, rivers, and marshes.
Located in warm area, at the southern
end of Annapolis Valley, with waters
of the basin to the northwest, and
mountains to the southeast. Very high
tides of the basin render it an attractive
area for plant study. Located in Kings
Countv, 7| mi. from Wolfville, N. S.—
H. G. Perry.

The Ellenwood and Agards Lake
Region. Deciduous and eastern forest,
sand areas, flood plains, swamps,
marshes, ponds, rivers, springs. Lo-
cated in Yarmouth County, which has a
flora in many ways more typical of
Massachusetts than that of the northern
part of the United States. Lakes are
suitable natural preserves for both
plants and animals. Located in Yar-
mouth County, 12 mi. from Yarmouth,
N. S.—H. G. Perry.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

305

22. MAINE
By a. O. Gross and A. H. Norton

I. GENERAL ACCOUNT (a. H. N.)

1. Introduction

Maine is the most northeastern state
of the Union, situated approximately
half way from the equator to the north
pole. The mean annual temperature is
about 42°; the mean winter temperature
about 19° and the mean for summer
about 62°F. The mean annual pre-
cipitation is in the vicinity of 42 in.
The coast of Maine from Kittery Point
on the southwest to West Quoddy Head
on the east is about 230 mi. when meas-
ured in a straight line, but bj'- reason
of the many and deep indentations,
and the very numerous islands it has
been determined that 1319 mi. of ocean
bathe its shores.

2. The sea

The tides of the coast have a most
important bearing on the life of its
shores and the adjacent waters.

Their range (rise and fall), increases
from west to east from mean tide of
8.7 ft. and spring tide of 9.9 ft. at Kittery
to 18.2 ft. (mean) and 20.7 ft. (spring)
at Eastport.

The tides also have a dominating
influence on the coastal currents, which
flow according to the general trend of the
bays or channel ways landward on the
flood, and seaward on the ebb. Beyond
the coastal currents, an offshore current
from the Bay of Fundy flows to the west-
ward certainly as far west as the region
off Penobscot Bay.

The constant circulation of coastal
and oifshore waters thus maintained is
highly faA^orable to an abundance and
great variety of marine and its depend-
ent terrestrial life, bringing into the
bays hordes of free swimming organisms ;
in winter it prevents in a large measure
the outer parts at least from becoming
icebound.

With the exception of certain tidal
portions of the Kennebec and Penobscot

Rivers, the muddy shores just below low
water mark bear an abundance of eel-
grass (Zostcra marina), which is of
great importance as a refuge and a home
for many marine animals, and as food
for many water birds. The rocky shores
from the half tide mark down to mod-
erate depths bear an abundance and
variety of algae contributing further
to the security and sustenance of
animals.

Among those animals which through
their edible qualities and plentitude
are known to contribute in an important
degree to the sustenance of fishes,
birds and mammals may be mentioned,
several Asteroides (of least importance),
Ophiurians of several species, sea
urchins, one species, but great in num-
bers, and several Holothurians, many
species and great numbers of Annulates
("clam worms"), the great class of
Crustaceans, ranging from the minute
Copepods to the commerciallj' important
lobster, a group rich in species and with
a surpassing wealth of individuals,
ranging the waters from their surface
to the bottom in all depths. MoUusks
occur in great varietj^ and number.

Among the marine fishes, which num-
ber about a hundred species, several
are of great importance through their
abundance and excellent qualities; cod,
haddock, hake, and pollack are the chief
of the larger; mackerel, herring, and
menhaden among the smaller sea fishes,
with eels, shad, alewives, smelts, and
flounders along shore or running into
the rivers. Though these are of chief
importance directly to man, many other
species contribute materially to the
needs of the great family of the ocean.

With this vast variety and inexhaust-
ible supply of food, and the comparative
freedom from ice, the coast of Maine is a
major winter resort for hordes of the
hardier species of seafowl, forced south-
ward from the icebound regions of the
North.

Murres, razor-bills, dovekies, andkitti-
wakes find conditions they desire among
the currents and eddies off the coast or
about the mouths of the bays.

306

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Eider ducks, in vast beds, a few
harlequins, black guillemots, scoters in
small numbers, with the ubiquitous
old-squaw, find suitable winter resorts
about the outermost islands and ledges
where they come to feed by day, at
night seeking security on the open
ocean, where the wildest storms fail
to daunt them.

In the waters of the harbors and inner
bays, wherever open water is to be found,
grebes of two species, loons, cormorants,
whistlers, buffleheads, and red-breasted
mergansers find feeding grounds suited
to their needs. Along the shore of the
inner waters, and sheltered pools of the
outer islands black ducks winter in vast
numbers.

Some of the outermost ledges and
islands harbor large bands of purple
sandpipers throughout the cold months.

Everywhere from the inner harbors
to the outermost ledges, the garrulous
old-squaw congregates in numbers, rang-
ing from a few pairs to several or many
hundreds.

Herring gulls are to be found in open
water, while the great black-backed
gull is common about the outer waters
and shores.

Though today the great gatherings
of eider ducks and other species of
waterfowl which are to be met with at
certain of the outermost ledges or shoals
fringing the very outposts of the bays,
seem large, they are but a vestige of the
hordes which formerly were forced by
numbers to feed throughout the outer
bays.

Several species of whales follow the
schools of schizopods and gregarious
surface fishes well into the bays; these
are now greatly reduced in numbers.
Two or three species of porpoises or
dolphins are common, and formerly the
harbor seal [Phoca vitulina) abounded
all along the coast from the mouth
of .the Saco River to Little Machias
Harbor, giving their name freely to the
nomenclature of the coast, in Sea Rocks,
Seal Ledges, Seal Islands, Seal Coves
and Seal Harbors. Today these ani-
mals are reduced to a few colonies. It

has been indicated that the coast of
Maine also affords summer homes to a
considerable variety of sea birds, some
of them in numerous large colonies.

3. The shores and islands

The coast between Kittery Point
and Cape Elizabeth, about 40 mi. in
length, is chiefly low with sand dunes
and beaches. These beaches often form
barriers behind which creeks bordered
with large salt marshes are sheltered.
This part of the coast is but little broken
by rocky points or islands. Eastward
from Cape Elizabeth but two of these
sand dune-beach salt marsh areas of
noteworthy size are to be found. These
are the Popham — Small Point beach,
trending southwestward from the mouth
of the Kennebec River, and the Mile —
Little River beach trending in the same
general direction from the western
entrance to Sheepscot Bay.

Resuming the coast line at Cape
Elizabeth, where the sandy beaches
disappear except as noted, the shores
become rocky and are indented by a
continuous series of bays, the latter
well studded with rock-bound islands.
Proceeding eastward the ruggedness
increases slightly, to become pronounced
as the entrance to Penebscot Bay is
approached from the west. Here the
cliffs of the historic Georges Islands and
Monhegan are of suflScient height and
wildness to afford nesting places for
northern ravens. Entering the baj'^ from
the west, and proceeding about half way
to its head, the Camden Hills or "Moun-
tains" rise from a narrow platform close
by the sea. The maximum height is
reached by Mount Megunticook in an
elevation of 1380 ft. ; 25 mi. to the south-
ward the isolated group of the Matinicus
Islands, lying slightly beyond the
confines of the Bay are to be seen as low
outposts of the land. About 25 mi.
across the Bay to the eastward, Bluehill
Movmtain, another seaside elevation,
reaches a height of 940 ft.; about 35
mi. from Megunticook, to the eastward
is Mount Desert Island with its group
of hills or mountains which reach their

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

307

greatest height in Green Mountain,
(now Cadillac Mountain), which has an
elevation of 1532 ft.

Eastward the coast line has now
become especially jagged, with numer-
ous long narrow bays and hosts of
islands with bold shores, often with
high sea cliffs on the southern and
eastern sides.

Seguin Island off the mouth of the
Kennebec River, was formerly well
covered with spruce and fir, but for a
long time has been nearly destitute of
trees, through destruction by the spruce-
bud worm. The Georges islands and
Monhegan about 20 mi. eastward from
Seguin (already mentioned), are rather
large, very rugged, and well clothed
with a spruce forest. Though the for-
ests of the Georges islands are probably
second growth, they are now old and
present very natural conditions. These
islands and their small satellites afford
breeding grounds for herons, gulls, terns,
petrels, black guillemots, ravens and
ospreys.

The Matinicus group of eight islands
form the outermost group of the state,
being about 15 mi. from the nearest
point of the mainland. Two of these
are still clothed with goodly sized for-
ests, chiefly of spruce, while another
has recently lost a similar forest growth,
probably through the ravages of the
spruce bud worm (Tortrix). These
outer islands, when once denuded of
the last vestiges of the descendants of
their primitive forests, seldom or never
are reforested owing to the grazing of
sheep, and the strong winds which sweep
them at all seasons of the year. In this
group are to be found such northern
plants as Polygonum allocarpum, sea-
beach sandwort (Arenaria peploides),
roseroot (Sedum roseum), crow-berry
(Empetrum nigrum), broom crow-berry
(Corema Conradii) and sea lungwort
(Mertensia maritima). Their principal
birds are black guillemots, gulls, terns,
petrels, and formerly a few puffins and
eider ducks. Mount Desert Island is
the largest island of the state. It is
remarkable for its collection of moun-

tains or great hills, its lakes and deep
vales, its great fjord e.xtending 3 mi.
inland between the mountains. It con-
tains the Lafayette National Park.

Great Wass Island, Roques Island and
Cross Island, to the eastward, with a
few small satellites tenninates the
series of islands ranging along the
southern border of the state. Some
of these Islands are destitute of trees,
part having been treeless from the
beginning of our histor>-, while others
have become so through the work of
man or destructive insects within recent
times. Though composed chiefly of
rocks they are usually covered with
glacial gravel and often with beds of
dry peat as much as 3 ft. deep.

These treeless islands are the natural
breeding places of terns, which occupy
them, sharing these places with spotted
sandpipers and savannah sparrows. By
far the greater number are well clothed
with red and white spruce {Picea rubra
and P. canadensis), with balsam fir
(Abies balsamea). By this means a
belt of decidedly coniferous forest life
is carried southwestward to Cape
Elizabeth. Following this insular
spruce belt to that cape, such birds as
olive-sided flycatchers, red crossbills,
juncos, white-throated sparrows, mj^rtle
and magnolia warblers, with golden
crowned kinglets are to be found
breeding.

On the other hand a narrow belt of
deciduous forest species follows the
shores of the mainland eastward to the
Kennebec River, with red pine {Pimis
resinosa), red cedar (Juniperus vir-
giniana), che.stnut {Cnstanea dentata),
red and white oak {Qxiercus rubra and
Q. alba), white hickory {Carya alba),
and black or sour gum (Nyssa sylvatica)
as characteristic or frequent species,
with such birds as whippoorwills, field
sparrows, towhees, indigo birds, brown
thrashers and catbirds. Arms of this
belt are carried well up the river valleys.

4. The interior

Starting again at Kittery Point and
proceeding northward to the foothills

308

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

of the White Mountains which appear
at Acton and Shapleigh, about 35 mi.
inland, and eastward to the shore of
Sebago Lake, upwards of 45 mi. from
Kittery, is a sand plain area broken by-
valleys, small lakes, cool bogs and with
an occasional elevation of noteworthy
altitude. Mount Agamenticus (673 ft.)
is the most striking example of the latter.

This area is in contrast with much of
the rest of the state through the pre-
ponderance of deciduous forest. Most
striking are the large areas of oaks of
several species, and pitch pine (Pinus
rigida), which here attains superior
development. Here also, southern
white cedar {Chamaecyparis thyoides)
occurs in considerable quantities, and
red cedar is frequent.

Besides the red and white oaks,
which are of wider distribution in the
state, there are in this area scarlet oak
{Querents coccinea), black oak (Q. velu-
tina), and bear or black scrub oak (Q.
ilicifolia) in greater or less abundance.
The scrub oak occupies large tracts on
the plains. Chestnut oak {Q. prinus)
is also found in a single locality. Sassa-
fras, black or sour gum, poison sumach
{Rhus vernix), and smooth winterberry
{Ilex laevigata) are of frequent occurrence.

An interesting feature of this transi-
tion extension is the frequency of cool
bogs, occasionally bringing together
such a combination as sphagnum,
spruce, creeping snowberry {Chiogenes
hispidula), growing with southern white
cedar and smooth winterberry.

Starting at the western boundary of
the state, to the northward of the sand
plains a spur of the Appalachian high-
lands appear as foothills rising to a
height of 1000 ft. at Acton and Shap-
leigh, about 35 mi. northerly from Kit-
tery Point. These elevations increase
in height and in numbers to the north-
ward, the range trending in a general
northeasterly direction, and culminate
in the Grafton Mountains, a group just
south of the Rangley Lakes. Speckled
Mountain or Mount Matalluck, chief of
the group is said to be the second moun-
tain of the state in height.

Its summit is flat with a good depth
of soil and a growth of straight spruces
about 30 ft. tall. Below this crown on
the steep sides is an alpine belt, devoid
of trees except a few mats of scattered
spruce and fir sprawling over rocks,
and various alpine Plants. Matalluck
throws out an arm at the southwest
known as Mahoosic Mountain, between
these is a deep notch through which
Mahoosic Brook flows, for nearly a mile
buried, often 30 ft. beneath gigantic
boulders which have fallen from the
mountainsides above. Its icy waters are
contributed to the Androscoggin through
the medium of two other streams. Ice
is said to be found in the bottom of this
notch throughout the summer.

The sides of Matalluck are very steep,
and on the east is another notch, Grafton
Notch, through which passes the turn
pike to the foot of the Rangley Lakes,
between Matalluck and Saddleback,
the latter but slightly less in height
than its brother.

To the northeastward the mountains
become scattered, appearing at various
places as more or less isolated peaks.
Some of these have alpine summits
thrust above the spruce forests. Among
the best known are:

A group clustered about Moosehead
Lake including Squaw Mountain, and
Mount Kineo, two of the conspicuous
highlands of the region.

About 110 mi. northeast of the Grafton
Mountains, Mount Ktaadn rises to an
elevation of 5273 ft. It is the highest
mountain of the state, and when viewed
from a distance seems to stand alone in
a vast wilderness, but when approached
it is found to be flanked by a worthy
assemblage of lesser elevations or foot-
hills. It is well to the eastward of the
Appalachian highlands of western
Maine, rising from a relatively low
plateau embraced between the West and
East branches of the Penobscot River.

Its summit is about 9 mi. long, with a

vast alpine plateau or "Tableland."

Ktaadn, together with about 90,000

acres of the surrounding region, has been

established as a State Game Preserve.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

300

The lakes and ponds of Maine are very
numerous. According to Kendall {Proc.
Portland Soc. N. H.) "there are about
2000 lakes from 100 acres to 120 sq. mi.
in area," ranging from Moosehead Lake,
the largest, with a length of about 35
mi. and an area of 117.4 sq. mi. to ponds
of very small size. A map of the state
shows the numerous lakes scattered
closely and apparently in hopeless
confusion. They fall, however, into
perfect systems, or basins, which take
their names from the river by which
they ultimatelv reach the ocean.

The principal lake of the Presumpscot
River Basin is Sebago, the second lake
of the state in size. It has an area of
44.80 sq. mi., an elevation of 262 ft. and
depth of 316 ft.; hence its bottom ss in
part below the level of the sea. Its
waters are remarkal:)ly pure and are used
as the water supply of the city of Port-
land and several other towns. It is
controlled in a large part by the Portland
Water District, whose trustees take
every precaution to preserve its purity
and natural conditions. It receives
the waters of several other lakes, one
of which, Long Lake or Long Pond has a
length of about 10 mi. and is largely
environed with lofty hills.

The Androscoggin system finds its
principal waters in the Rdngeley chain
of Lakes, resting close to the western
border of the state and near the crown of
the Appalachian spur. Mooseluckmag-
untic Lake is the largest of this chain.
A charr formerly abounded in the
Rangeley lakes, but through excessive
netting at the spawning season and the
introduction of landlocked salmon it
has been exterminated in these waters.

The Kennebec System has its extreme
headwaters along the northern flank
of the Appalachian spur.

After leaving Moosehead lake the
Kennebec River passes for a distance of
about 25 mi. over a rocky bed with
numerous cataracts, falling nearly 450
ft. It reaches tide water at Augusta,
and 22 mi. below that place enters
Merrymeeting Bay. This Bay with its
great body of tidal fresh water affords

conditions for an abundant and unique
flora, and an exceptional feeding ground
for waterfowl.

The Penel)Scot River Basin has its
Source to the northward of the Appa-
lachian spur, the headwaters of its
West Branch being very near the north-
western boundary of the state. It is
fed by a host of lakes.

The St. John Basin lies to the north-
ward of the Penobscot baisn, draining
all of the remainder of northern Maine
through its several arms, including the
Woolastock or main St. John and the
AUegash.

The lakes of this region are very
numerous and many are of considerable
size, as Chamberlain (area 17.48 sq. mi.,
elevation 946 ft.), originally an Allegash
or St. John Lake, but now through the
agency of the Telos Canal considered as
belonging to the Penobscot system;
Eagle, Churchill, Long and Chemquassa-
bamticook of the Allegash, with Portage
and the Eagle chain of the Fish
River.

With its great assemblage of lakes,
their shallow lagoons, swamps, and
streamlets, some swift, others sluggish,
reaching into every valley and to every
hillside, the state is adapted to those
plants and animals requiring a cool
moist atmosphere; hence Maine is pre-
eminentlj' a state of evergreen forests,
which are composed of black red and
white spruce, balsam fir, and arbor
vitac in the lower levels, and pine and
hemlock on its minor hills. The denser
forests of arbor vitae and spruce are
highly favorable to the growth of Bry-
ophytes (mosses and liverworts), which
carpet the ground and enshroud every
fallen tree trunk and stump. Pine and
hemlock are less favorable to these
humble plants and beneath their less
dense shade relatively few of the
smaller plants of any description are
found.

In these moist evergreen forests wood
warblers find the conditions best suited
to their needs and are represented by
numerous sjiecies, together with many
of the smaller 10-priniaricd Passeres,

310

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Canada jays, spruce grouse, owls and
woodpeckers of several species. The
lakes and lagoons are highly favorable
for summer homes for bitterns several
species of ducks, grebes and loons.

Among the mammals of these ever-
green forests and waters are the Moose
(Alces americanus) , formerly abundant,
but now reduced below the danger line
of abundance. Canada lynx (Lynx
canadensis), fisher {Martes pennanti),
marten {Martes americana), mink {Mus-
ela vison), porcupine (Erethizon dorsa-
tum), beaver {Castor canadensis), red
squirrel {Sci^irus hudsonicus gymnicus),
and snowshoe hare {Lepus americanus
virginianus), Martens and fishers have
become very rare; beaver, though once
threatened with extermination, are
again increasing through perpetual pro-
tection and their great success in
reproduction.

Caribou {Rangifer caribou) in some
numbers were formerly found from
the Appalachian Spur throughout the
Penobscot Basin to tide water at Bangor,
and east of the Penobscot to the coast.
These animals have all been eliminated
from the state.

Deer {Odocoileus virginianus borealis),
black bear {Ursus americanus), bobcat
{Lynx rufus), weasel {Mustela cicogna-
nii), wolf {Cams lycaon), red fox {Vulpes
fulva, raccoon {Procyon lotor), muskrat
{Ondatra zibethica), formerly abundant,
ranged the entire state. The wolf
has long since been exterminated, while
the other species hold the greater part
of their range in more or less reduced
numbers.

The inland waters of the state for-
merly abounded in fish, especially such
choice game fish as salmon, togue, and
brook trout. Salmon and trout are of
very general distribution but the togue
is more restricted. Through the prac-
tice of experimenting in the introduction
of every popular fish that has been
available for many years, natural fish-
ing conditions are to be found only in
the more distant lakes and in the streams
far from civilization.

II. NATURAL AREAS (a. O. G.)

1. Shores and islands

*Lafayette National Park {Mt. Desert
Island). (B2.) Mt. Desert Island is
the largest island on the coast of Maine.
It is about 15 mi. long by 12 mi. wide.
A range of granite mountains, 1532 ft.
at the highest point, runs through the
southern part of the island. The slopes
have for the most part been swept bare
by the ice, the predominant soil being a
brown, stony, glacial till.

The Lafayette National Park includes
approximately 6000 acres, covering most
of the mountain summits which form the
backbone of the island, most of the
gaps, and extending north and south
part way down the ridges. Much of the
island outside of the park is still in its
natural condition and likely to remain
so for a considerable length of time.
Within the park there are representa-
tives of all the associations of vegeta-
tion found on the island. Much of the
park has been burned at one time or
another but there are still bodies of
virgin forest, notably spruce, white pine,
northern hardwoods, and pitch pine
(1, 2, 3, and 5 below).

The flora of the Lafayette National
Park is of northern relationship, but
southern species are well represented.
Five principal forest associations can be
distinguished. (1) Spruce: red spruce,
white spruce, with small amounts of
balsam fir and scattering paper birch
{Betula papyrifera) ; (2) white pine : some
nearly pure stands, but mostly in mix-
ture with red spruce, balsam fir, arbor
vitae {Thuja occidentalis), red pine,
red oak, paper birch, grey birch {Betula
populifolia) and aspen {Populus tremu-
loides and P. grandidentata) ; (3) spruce
and northern hardwoods: red spruce,
beech {Fagus grandifolia) , yellow birch
{Betula lutea) and sugar maple {Acer
saccharum) ; (4) white cedar or arbor
vitae swamp; (5) pitch pine in pure
stands with stratal societies of huckle-
berry {Gaylussacia baccata) and bear-
berry {Arctostaphylos uva-ursi), similar

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

311

to the New Jersey pine barrens; in
some places under the pitch pine Corema
Conradii and Hudsonia ericoides. There
are also bogs with black spruce, Labra-
dor tea {Ledum groendlandicum),
leatherleaf {Chamaedaphne calyculata)
and other typical bog plants; and salt
marshes. Along parts of the shore are
beds of crowberry. The scrub oak
grows abundantly on a single mountain,
Robinson, on the west side of Somes
Sound, and is unknown elsewhere on the
island.

The Weir Mitchell station of the
Harpswell Laboratory is open for
workers on any problem and allows
perfect liberty to carry on whatever
piece of research one may wish.

Bar Harbor, on the Maine Central
Railroad (ferry), and Eastern Steamship
Company, is 1| mi., (w) (a), from the
nearest point of the park. Hotels are
open from June 1 to October 30; board
and lodging is procurable during the
remaining months. Seal Harbor, on
Eastern Steamship line and connected
with Bar Harbor by motor stage during
the summer, is two mi. from the nearest
part of the park; it has summer accom-
modations. Northeast Harbor, Eastern
Steamship line, is 1^ mi. from the park.
Southwest Harbor west of Somes
Sound, is two mi. from the western part
of the park. The park and rest of the
island are easily accessible by a well
marked system of trails. Information
can be obtained from the park head-
quarters at Bar Harbor, and good maps
are procurable. — Barrington Moore.

*Hancock County Forest (Mt. Desert
Island). (B3.) 10 acres of deciduous-
coniferous forest with mountain, ravine,
shore, rocky and glacial situations.
Located in Hancock County, 5 mi.
southwest of Bar Harbor. Maine Cen-
tral Railroad (ferry) to Bar Harbor,
road and trail to Sieur de Mont' Na-
tional Monument.—/. M. Briscoe.

Shore and Island Bird Reservations.
The following 19 reservations have been
listed and described by A. H. Norton of
the Portland Society of Natural History,
Portland, Maine.

1. *Old Man Is^lnnd. (A2.) In the
town of Cutler, Washington County,
Al)out 10 acres. An outside island,
with rocky precipitous shores, except
on the south or seaward side, rising to a
height of about 40 ft. It is covered with
stunted white spruce and balsam fir
and beneath these is a dense mat of
brambles. A washed out trap dike
separates the island, forming a chasm
about 5 ft. wide, which is bridged by
fallen trees. During the spring tides
the water flows through the chasm,
making for a short period two islands.
It is the breeding ground of herring gulls,
eider ducks, black-crowned night herons,
and probably ravens. Leased and pro-
tected by the National Association of
Audubon Societies as a breeding place
for birds. 12 mi. southeast of Machias,
which is reached by the Maine Central
Railroad.

2. *Brothers Islands. (C3.) Two
islands connected (except at high tide).
About 50 acres; turf -covered masses
of granite with sea cliffs on the south side
about 60 ft. high; fine examples of glacial
action are shown on the bar which
connects these islands. Sheep are pas-
tured, but herring gulls and Leach's
petrels breed, and the island is guarded
by the National Association of Audubon
Societies. It is located in the entrance
to Machias Bay, and is 11 mi. south
(by boat) from Machias.

3. * Pulpit Rock. (A2.) A two-
parted pinnacle of rock, 20 ft. above high
water mark. Herring gulls and black
guillemots breed and cormorants roost.
Guarded as above. One mi. west of
Brothers Islands.

4. *Cone Island. (C3.) A low,
rather marshy island of about 40 acres,
close to Nash Island Light, and pastured
by sheep. It supports a large colony of
herring gulls, and is guarded like the
above-named islands. About 11 mi.
south of Addison, Washington County.

5. *Petit Manan Point. (.B3.) Main-
tained as a private game preserve; ilcor,
foxes, hares ami wild fowl. Steuben,
Washington County, 15 mi. from Cherry-
field, Hancock County.

312

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

6. *LUtle Duck Island. (B2.) An
island of about 30 acres, partly covered
with spruce and fir. Well out at sea,
with rockj^ shores and a difficult landing.
Large numbers of herring gulls, black-
crowned night herons, black guillemots
and Leach's petrels breed here. The
island is owned by B. W. Arnold, of
Albany, New York, who has dedicated
it to the use of the birds. It is guarded
by the Audubon Society. 18 mi. south
of Bar Harbor.

7. *Great Duck Island. (C3.) Two
mi. long, with a U. S. Light House at
its southern end; sheep are pastured.
Covered with turf and spruce forest;
very large colonies of herring gulls and
Leach's petrels and some black guil-
lemots breed here. Guarded by the
National Association of Audubon Socie-
ties. Located 1 mi. south of Little
Duck Island.

8. *Matinicus Islands. (C3.) A
group of 8 islands about 20 mi. southeast
of Rockland, Knox County. Matinicus
is the center of the group, and seat of a
prosperous fishing hamlet. (See general
account.)

9. *Nomans Land. (C3.) A turf-cov-
ered, granite island of about 30 acres,
pastured by sheep. It is the home of a
large colony of herring gulls, and is
guarded by the National Association of
Audubon Societies. Located one mi.
northeast of JNIatinicus.

10. *Ten Pound Island. (C3.) Con-
tains 15 acres of turf -covered granite;
pastured by sheep. There is a large
colony of herring gulls, guarded as above
described. Located one-half mi. south
of Matinicus.

11. *Matinicus Rock. (A2.) Amass
of granite with practically no soil,
about 35 acres in extent, and 60 ft.
above high water mark; during the
heaviest southeast gales it is occa-
sionally completely washed by gigantic
waves. It is owned by the U. S. Light
House Board, and occupied as a light
and fog signal station. Occupied by
thousands of Arctic terns and a few
black guillemots and puffins. Guarded
like the above mentioned islands.
Located five mi. south of Matinicus.

12. *Metinic. (G7.) Two mi. long,
containing 2 farms with fields, pastures
and a tract of spruce timber. On the
south end is a colony of common and
Arctic terns. Located 15 mi. south of
Rockland.

18. *Mettinic Green Island. (C3.)
Contains 20 acres of grassland. Occu-
pied by a very large colony of herring
gulls and a few black guillemots. Lo-
cated one-half mi. south of Metinic.

(Both the south end of Metinic and
Metinic Green Island are owned by
Woodbury Snow of Rockland, who acts
as warden for the National Association
of Audubon Societies in protecting the
birds that breed on these places.)

14. * Eastern and Western Egg Rocks.
(A2.) Two small islands, consisting of
masses of turf-covered granite, each
about 5 acres in area; uninhabited.
Colonies of black guillemots, herring
gulls, laughing gulls, common and
Arctic terns breed here. Guarded by
the National Association of Audubon
Societies. Located about 15 mi.
southeast of Damariscotta, in Lincoln
County.

15. *Back Cove. (C3.) An arm of
the sea, on the north side of the city of
Portland, Cumberland County. It is
nearly circular, and about a mile across.
The water is very shallow and at low
tide large areas of clam fiats and mussel
beds are e.xposed. The margins of the
cove are filled with thatch, and the
shallow water contains much eelgrass.
It is the resort of thousands of water-
fowl from early September to early May.

16. *Breakioater and Ram Island
Farms. (G7.) A privately ow^ned area,
operated as two farms, with farm lands
and woodlands. On Cape Elizabeth,
about 8 mi. south of Portland.

17. *Prout'sNeck. (G7.) About 100
acres of sea beach, rocky, wooded head-
land and fresh water pond. Scar-
borough, Cumberland County.

18. *Stratton and Bluff Islands. (B2.)
Two islands about 50 acres in area,
without trees. Large colonies of com-
mon terns and a few roseate and Arctic
terns breed here. Guarded by the
National Association of Audubon Socie-

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

313

ties. One mi. south of Prout's Neck.
19. *Hogback and Birch Islands.
(B2.) Two small islands in Moosehead
Lake, with a small growth of trees,
chiefly pine; uninhabited by man.
Occupied by colonies of herring gulls
and numbers of ducks. Guarded as
above.

Scarborough Salt Marshes. (B2.)
About 600 acres of typical salt marsh.
Vegetation chiefly thatch (Sparlina
glabra), black grass {J uncus gerardi)
and various sedges. In the upper por-
tions of the Nonesuch Marsh there are
areas of wild rice {Zizania aquaiica) and
other important plant communities.
Bitterns, green herons, red-winged
blackbirds, sharp-tailed sparrows and
probably many other birds breed. It
is a rendevous for thousands of ducks
in the spring and autumn, and during
the open season is frequented by hunt-
ers. A part or all of this marsh should
be preserved as a reservation, as it is the
largest and most typical salt marsh
located on the Maine coast. Located
along the Scarborough and Nonesuch
rivers about 10 mi. south of Portland.
It is traversed by the Maine Central
Railroad, the nearest station being
Scarborough. — .4. 0. Gross.

The Knoz Arboretum. (H8.) 60 acres
in a semi-natural state, consisting of
acres of open fields and 55 acres of forest,
containing about 700 varieties of trees,
shrubs and other plants, including many
rare species, which are being continually
added. Wild life, especially birds, pro-
tected. Bounded by unpolluted rivers,
their lower portions tidal, the St. George
on the south and west and the Oyster on
the east. The soils are sand and sandy
loam on the higher land, clay along the
rivers. Owned by the Knox Academy
of Arts and Sciences, Thomaston; t^yo
mi. west of that place by electric rail-
waj\ — /. A. Tohnan.

Owl's Head. (C3.) Tip of Owl s
Head peninsula, about 1700 acres owned
by the national government, the point
being occupied by a light house. The
shores are mostly ledges, and the inland
area is mostly wooded with spruce in a
semi-natural condition, although there
are some fields and open ground. The
area offers great possibilities as a bird
and mammal sanctuary. Located one
mi. from Owl's Head Postofiice (4 mi. (a)
from Rockland).—/. A. Tolman.

2. The interior

Speckled Mountain Region. (B3.)
About 100 sq. mi. of the dissected and

glaciated upland lying in an elbow of the
Androscoggin River, south of the Range-
ley Lakes. The country rock is com-
posed of crystalline schists injected
with granites. The topography of the
valleys is modified by dei)osits of glacial
gravels. Mountain streams and two
ponds occur in the region. Speckled
^Mountain is about 4300 ft. high, and the
lowest altitude of the region is approxi-
mately 700 ft. The forests are mixed
deciduous and coniferous, representing
wild conditions. Where cut a second-
growth is appearing. Small mammals
are mostly characteristic of the conif-
erous forest. The region lies about
10 mi. northwest (a)** of Bethel, Maine,
which is on the Grand Trunk Railroad,
and where supplies may be obtained. —
M anion Copeland and P. W. Meserve.
Mount Ktaadn. (B2.) Mount Ktaadn
Game Preserve and proposed state park.
About 90,000 acres located in the heart
of the northeastern coniferous forest.
Mount Ktaadn (5273 ft.) rises abruptly
from the lowlands. (See general ac-
count.) Located about 20 mi. west of
Staceyville. which is reached by the
Bangor and Aroostook Railroad. Trail
to the mountain from Staceyville by
way of Ktaadn Lake and Chimney
Pond.

III. LITERATURE

Many authors.

lS90-date. Entomological Papers from
the Maine Agric. Exp. Sta.
Churchill, J. R.

1901. A Botanical Excursion to Mt.
Katahdin. Rhodora, 3, 147-
165.
Dutcher, B. H.
1903. Mammals of Mt. Katahdin,
Maine. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash.,
XVI, 03-71.
Fernald, M. L.

1892. The Portland Catalogue of
Maine Plants. Proc. Port.
Soc. N. H., II, 41-72 and suppl.
Hamlin, C. E.
1881. Observations upon the Physical
Geography and Geology of
Mount Ktaadn and the Adja-
cent District. Bull. Mus.
Cotnp. Zool., VII, 189-223.
Harvey, L. H.

1903. An Ecological Excursion to Mt.
Ktaadn. Rhodora, b,A\-o'2.
X Study of the Physiographic
Ecology of Mount Ktaadn,
Maine.' Univ. of Me. SludieK,
5.
Hill, A. F.
1919. Vascular Flora of the Penobscot
Bay Region. Proc. Port. Soc.
N. H., Ill, 199-304.

314

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

^1897 'a List of the Birds of Maine.

Univ. of Me. Bui. 3.
Rand, E. L., and Rcdfield, J- H

189-1 Flora of Mount Desert, Maine.
Smith, E. S. C, and Avery, M. H

1922 A Bibliography for Mount

Ktaadn. Appalachia, XV.

334-340.
Revised and extended,
1924. Appalachia XVIII, 59, 70.
Tarr, R. S.

1900. Glaciation of Mount Ktaadn

Maine. Bui. Geol. Soc. Am.,

11, 433-448.

B. States, Chiefly Deciduous Forest

Nearly all these states here included
contain some coniferous forest either
on the high mountains, or in their
northern reaches; or mixed coniferous
and deciduous forest on rock outcrops
and shallow soil, or on low lands where
hemlock and white pine are sometimes
found. The states north of the Ohio
River include small areas of prairie in
the form of local patches in dried up
marshes, on west sloping river bluffs
and similar situations.

1. NEW HAMPSHIRE

By K. W. Woodward and C. F. Jackson
i. general conditions
1. Physiographic regions

New Hampshire is diflScult to describe
briefly in its physical aspect. Perhaps
the most striking single feature is the
White Mountain region, but even this
is not isolated. It is merely the culmi-
nation of a series of elevated ridges.
There are high points on all sides of it.

While the Connecticut River is the
largest and longest stream in the state
its valley is a comparatively narrow one.
The Merrimac River has a wider water-
shed even though it is only about half
as long. In addition to these two
principal streams, portions of the basins
of the Androscoggin, Saco, and Salmon
Falls Rivers are included in the eastern
portion of the state although all three
streams receive most of their waters
from Maine.

This diversity of conditions gives
throughout the comparatively limited
area of the state a great variety of topog-
raphy; No one of the 10 counties
is exclusively valley, mountain or hill
country. Each has all three kinds.

S. Plan and Animal communities

a. Plant communities. While there
are in each county level valley floors
susceptible of easy tillage the general
character of the state is hilly. Two-
thirds of the land surface is either too
steep or too rocky to be cultivated
cheaply. Hence the dominant plant
communities are forest types. In the
valleys and the comparatively low
southeastern section white pine is the
most valuable tree species and probably
the most abundant numerically. Above
the white pine region, on the hills and
lower mountain slopes this species
(Pinus strobus) gives way to the north-
ern hardwood zone in which beech,
birch (two or three species) and sugar
maple are the characteristic species.
The higher mountains are covered with
stands of spruce (Picea rubra) and
balsam fir {Abies halsamea). Timber
line occurs at about 4500 ft. above sea-
level.

The distribution of these three main
forest types is as follows:

White pine, sea-level to 1000 ft.;
northern hardwoods 1000 to 2500 ft.;
red spruce 2500 to 4500 ft.; treeless 4500
ft. to top.

b. Animal communities. Except for
the animals peculiar to the alpine
summits there is very little difference
in the fauna. For the most part the
vertebrates found in one part of the
state occur in every other part so far
as man's activities permit. Inverte-
brates are naturally more localized.

II. PRESENT BIOTIC CONDITIONS

There is little difference between the
present flora and fauna of this area and
that of pre-colonial New Hampshire.
The invertebrates are characteristic of

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

315

a northern hardwood or white pine and
spruce forest.

In the mountain streams there occur
commonly spirogyra and blue green
algae associations together with the
fresh water sponge {Heteromeyemia ryd-
eri), cadis fly larvae (Hydropsyche sp.),
and in the shelter of stones and eddies
numerous species of Neuroptera. Of
the terrestrial invertebrates, the chief
groups, as in all localities, consist of
insects and spiders. Of the former the
only distinctive species is the White
Mountain butterfly {Oeneis semidea),
which seldom ventures below tree line
at 4500 ft.

The area is not especially prolific in
vertebrate species. The dominant fish
of this region and in fact the only species
in many sections is the brook trout
(Salvelinus fontinalis) . Along the mar-
gin of the streams and ponds are found
large colonies of the bullfrog {Rana
cutesbeiana), pickerel frog {Rana palus-
tris), and occasionally spotted salaman-
ders {Amhy stoma maculatuin).

In the drier localities toads {Bujo
americanus and {Bufo fowleri)) and
wood frog {Rana sylvatica), occur in
varying abundance.

Reptiles are very scarce. The com-
mon garter snake {Thamnophis sirlalis
sirtalis), black snake {Coluber constrictor
constrictor), and the red bellied snake
{Storeria occipito-maculata) being the
most common. Wood tortoises {Clem-
mys insculpta) are occasionally met with
but other species of turtles, snakes and
lizards are seldom found.

Birds form the usual grouping of a
transitional forest area. In the mixed
white pine and hardwood forests are to
be found associations of ruffed grouse
{Bonasa umbellus), chickadee {Parus
atricapillus) , junco {Junco hyemulis),
with numerous species of thrushes,
warblers, and sparrows during the spring
and summer. As one ascends the ridges
and enters into the red spruce forest at
2500 to 4500 ft., bird life is much less
abundant being represented by scattered
groups of Canadian spruce grouse
{Dendragapus canadensis), white-

crowned sparrow {Zonolrichia leuco-
phrys), yellow warbler {Dendroica aesl-
iva), and various species of sparrows
and finches.

During the winter months the red
spruce region is almost devoid of bird
life except the spruce grouse, chickadee
and junco, even the latter being rather
irregular in their occurrence.

The early colonial history of New
Hampshire mammals was one of almost
complete externiination. With the set-
tling of the country and the clearing of
vast forest areas, the cougar {Felis
couguar). Lynx {Lynx canadensis), bob-
cat {Lynx rufus), black bear {Ursus
americanus), woodland caribou {Rangifer
caribou), and the moose (/I Zees ameri-
canus), were killed off or driven farther
north into Maine and New Brunswick.
Few records are available concerning
the smaller species although the Virginia
deer {Odocoileus virginianus borealis),
and gray squirrel {Sciurus carolinensis
leucolis), seem to have followed the
settlement of the country rather than to
have suffered as a result of such changes.
Later, due to the stress of economic
conditions, farms and upland pastures
were abandoned, the country being
rapidly conquered by a second gro.vth
which furnished excellent protection for
a great variety of mammals. Virginia
deer, snowshoe hare {Lepus americanus
virginianus), and gray squirrel, owing
to the depleted predatory animals,
became more numerous than ever before
in the history of the state.

At the present time predatory animals
are returning to their former abundance.
The raccoon {Procyon lotor), red fox
{Vulpes fulva), bob-cat and Canada
Ij-nx are more numerous today than
since colonial times While the Ijlack
bear, mink {Muslela vison), pine marten
{Maries atJiericanus), and fisher {Maries
pennantii), are increasing at a much
slower rate.

Undouljtcdly as the second growth
gradually approaches the climax of its
development there will be found through
the red spruce and white pine forests
all species which formerly occurred here

316

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

with the exception of the timber wolf
(Canis lycoon), moose, and caribou.

Changes since settlement

At present man's clearing and lumber-
ing operations only show in a minor
degree. Thej- have changed, somewhat,
the composition of the forest types and
reduced temporarily the number of
larger vertebrates. All large streams
of the state are more or less polluted by
sewage and waste from factories.

III. PRESERVED AREAS

Plains and foothill regions

1. Old growth white pine and hemlock,
50 acres belonging to New Hampshire
College, Durham, Strafford County.
50 to 80 ft. above sea-level. Red squir-
rels, ruffed grouse and deer are common.
Five minutes walk from B. & M. Rail-
road Station at Durham.

2. Old growth white pine, Sutton,
Merrimac County. Area, 5 acres. Too
small to have a characteristic fauna.
500 ft. above sea level. Bradford B.
& M. Railway, 5 mi. north. Adminis-
tered by town and Society for the Pro-
tection of N. H. Forests.

3. Old growth white pine, Conway,
Carroll County. The 10 acres owned by
S. P. N. H. F. is merely a part of a 100-
acre tract. 800 ft. above sea level.
Red squirrels, partridge and deer com-
mon. 10 minutes walk (east) from
North Conway station on B. &. M.
Railway.

Northern hardwood and spruce regions

1. White Mountain National Forest.
See account in National Forests of the
Eastern District.

2. *The Crawford Notch State Forest.
6000 acres. Is an integral part of the
White Mountain National Forest (B4)
and handled in the same way although
under different management. The
Black Mountain State Forest, Benton,
Grafton County, is also merely a portion
of the White Mountain area.

3. *Mount Monadnock State Forest.
(B4,) 1000 acres on the summit of Mt.

Monadnock, Jaffrey, Cheshire County.
3000 to 5000 ft. above sea level. All
of it has been logged over but dense
second growth forests of spruce and
hardwoods exist. The old fauna has
largely returned. East Jaffrey, 5 mi.
west, B. & M. Railway.

4. *Mt. Kearsarge. (B4.) State Forest,
on the 800 acres in Warner Merrimac
County, is of the same general char-
acter. 3000 to 4000 ft. above sea level.
Potter Place, 10 mi. north, B. & M.
Railway.

5. *Mt. Cardigan State Forest. (B4.)
700 acres on Orange and Alexander,
Grafton County, have been cut and
burnt over for the most part. 3000 ft.
above sea level. Grafton, 7 mi. S.W.,
B. &. M. Railway.

6. *Mt. Sunapee State P or est. (B4.)
656 acres in Newbury, Merrimac County.
Is similar in character to the State
Forests on Monadnock and Kearsarge.
3000 to 4000 ft. above sea level. Mt.
Sunapee, 5 mi. north, B. & M. Railway.

7. The Rhododendron Reservation. 300
acres, in Fitzwilliam, Cheshire County,
controlled by the Appalachian Moun-
tain Club is an area of cutover mixed
northern hardwoods and conifers mainly
notable for possessing much rhododen-
dron. 500 to 1000 ft. above sea level.
Fitzwilliam on the B. &. M. Railway is
5 mi. south

2. VERMONT

By Geo. P. Burns

The State of Vermont consists of a
series of mountain ranges and valleys
running north and south. Only a few
of the mountain tops are above the
timber-line. The lower mountains and
all the mountain slopes were originally
covered with a dense forest growth made
vip chiefly of spruce, fir, white pine,
maple, ash, birch, elm, cedar and beech.

In the early forests lived the black
bear, raccoon, weasel, mink, otter,
timber wolf, red fox, lynx and beaver
in great abundance; while elk, moose
and Virginia deer were commonly seen.
Among the birds were the bald and

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

317

golden eagle, several varieties of hawks
and owls, meadow lark, crow, blue jay,
and vireo. A complete statement of
early conditions in Vermont is to be
found in Thompson's Vermont, 1853.
As Vermont was one of the first ter-
ritories settled, the pioneers at an early
date occupied the lower slopes of the
mountains and then pushed up the
mountain slopes clearing farms on the
more gentle slopes and later on the
steeper slopes and "alpine meadows."
As drainage was improved they also
moved down to the lower lands along
the rivers.

Due to this occupation by man only
the higher mountain tops escaped the
work of the ax and these are the only
places left in Vermont which are today
preserved in their "natural conditions."
However the changing commercial con-
ditions have made the cultivation of
many of the hill farms unprofitable.
Many have been abandoned for the more
fertile lands in the valleys or those of
western states.

Vermont, then, represents a state
which is gradually going back to natural
conditions in her mountainous regions.
The abandoned upland farms are being
reforested partly by natural reproduc-
tion and partly by artificial planting.
An old cellar hole and a decrepit orchard
are not uncommon sights in spruce or
hardwood forests which now occupy
thousands of acres of the state.

The forest areas of the state are being
purchased by four classes of owners:
by the lumber companies for purely
commercial purposes; by the cities as a
protection for water supplies; by the
outing clubs and by the State. Added
to these are the University of Vermont
which owns the top of Mt. Mansfield,
the highest mountain in the state, which
has been little disturbed in either flora
or fauna and Middlebury College which
owns the Battell Forest, a large tract
of land, part of which is a commercial
forest and the remainder is to be pre-
served in its natural conditions.

There are 12 or 13 State forests. Some
of this land is not suitable for tree

growth for commercial purposes. The
state forests contain hundreds of beauti-
ful lakes of all sizes to which many
tourist come every summer for their
vacations. The state policy encourages
this movement but attempts to so guard
the permits that our native flora and
fauna are adequately protected. The
state legislature passed a law protecting
many of our rare plants. This was
necessary because a number of nurser>'
men were coming to the state and taking
rare plants in large numbers. If un-
protected many of the tourists would
not hesitate to take the last specimen
of a rare plant.

Where soil and topography are suit-
able the State is planting softwoods for
commercial purposes.

The problem of Vermont, then, seems
to be one of a return to natural con-
ditions rather than the preservation of
such conditions. There seems to be a
growing sentiment in the state in favor
of the movement to repair the damage
which unintentionally has resulted from
the conditions existing in the past.
The younger states should profit by this
example and wherever possible preserve
their natural conditions.

The principal areas in Vermont which,
in all probability, will be kept in their
natural conditions, or allowed to return
to their natural conditions are the
State Forests, the forests recently
purchased by cities to protect their
water supplies, the game preserves and
the lands owmed by the Universities of
the State.

NATURAL AREAS

Stale Forests

The principal State Forests are as
follows:

*Downer State Forest. A tract of 800
acres located in the Green Mountains
in a natural spruce area. Sharon,
Vermont. Walk or drive 5 mi. north
to forest. Accommodations for an in-
definite stay in a very comfortalile
farm house located in the center of the
forest.

318

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

*L. R. Jones State Forest. Plain-
field, via Vermont Central, drive or
(w) 12 mi. A suitable cabin for camp-
ing out.

*Hapgood State Forest. 900 acres,
Manchester via Rutland R. R., stage
12 mi. into the mountains. No
accommodations.

*Crouching Lion State Forest. 1200
acres. Burlington via Rutland R. R.,
or Central Vermont R. R., stage 20 mi.,
walk 5 mi. into mountains, forest lodge
for camping.

*Mansfield State Forest. (C3.) 5000
acres. Deciduous forest and coniferous
mountain forest. Burlington via Rut-
land R. R., or Central Vermont R. R.,
bus 18 mi., walk 7 mi. to top of Mans-
field. Hotel accommodations during the
summer season.

* Putnam State Forest. 1100 acres.
Montpelier via the Vermont Central
R. R., bus to Worcester, walk 5 mi. to
forest. No accommodations.

* Proctor-Piper State Forest. 400 acres.
Cavendish via the Vermont Central
R. R., walk 3 mi. to forest. Ample
accommodations at small hotel at base
of mountain.

*Wesi Rutland Stale Forest. 3500
acres. West Rutland via Rutland R.
R. or Delaware and Hudson R. R.,
drive 9 mi. No accommodations.

*West River Valley State Forest.
Townshend via Central Vermont R. R.,
walk 6 mi. to forest. No accommoda-
tions on the mountain but excellent
farm boarding near the base. A forest
in the center of a vast spruce region.

*George Aitken State Forest. 850
acres. Woodstock via Woodstock R. R.,
drive 12 mi. to Mendon, walk 4 mi. to
forest. No accommodations.

University forests

*Middlebury College Tract. (C3.)
The Battell Forests. 30,000 acres. De-
ciduous, eastern coniferous and moun-
tain forests; ravines, rocky and glacial
situations. Middlebury via Rutland
R. R., bus 13 mi. to center of tract.
Excellent hotel [Breadloaf Inn] accom-
modations during the summer season.

*University of Vermont Tract. The
top of Mount Mansfield bordering the
Mansfield State Forest. Burlington via
Rutland R. R. and Central Vermont
or Waterbury via Central Vermont R.
R., trolley to Stowe thence walk or
drive 12 mi. to top of the mountain.
Hotel accommodations during the
season.

State Game Preserve

Mouth of Lamoille River on Lake
Champlain. Landing place for wild
duck and geese. Grand Isle via Rut-
land R. R., bus 5 mi. No accommoda-
tions.

City Forests

The largest near Rutland. Rutland
via Rutland R. R., walk or bus, 8
mi. to forest. All houses and other
buildings have been removed and camp-
ing is not encouraged.

The Green Mountain Trail

This trail has been built by the Gree^i
Mountain Club and runs almost the
entire length of the Green Mountains.
It begins at the Massachusetts line and
is completed as far as Johnson. It
passes through many of the State
Forests and the University of Vermont
and Middlebury College tracts. Camps,
hotels and many farm boarding houses
are located at convenient places. A
camp outfit is necessary but it is not
necessary to carry a heavy load of
supplies as they can be purchased at
intervals along the line. "The Long
Trail follows dashing trout brooks,
goes around lovely blue lakelets in the
mountain areas, traverses wooded ridges
with frequent outlooks and goes over
the tops of 30 mountain peaks."

3. MASSACHUSETTS

By Anna M. Starr

i. physiography

The State of Massachusetts presents
a perfect illustrative section across the
Appalachian Mountain system in an
area where it culminates in variety and

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

319

complexity, about midway between
Newfoundland . and Alabama. The
rocks now at the surface, show by their
structure, that they can have attained
their present condition only under the
weight of a great mass of superincum-
bent material, and as the surface shows
steeply dipping and truncated layers,
it is evident that erosion cut the mass
down towards sea level and almost
reached it, for the region was worn down
to a peneplain, with elevations surviv-
ing, called "monadnocks" from the
name of the mountain just over the
border in New Hampshire. The chief
monadnocks are Mount Wachusett, the
Watatics, Mount Grace, Brvish Moun-
tain, and Asnebumskit Hill.

This plain was then raised as a whole,
without folding, but by broad warping
and tilting; so that in the northwestern
part of the state it stood aljout 2000 ft.
above the sea. As a result of this uplift
the streams cut deep trenches. In the
soft sandstone of the Connecticut
Valley and the soluble limestones of the
Housatonic Valley these trenches were
widened into broad valleys, the begin-
nings of new transient peneplains.

Thus erosion has marked out the
broad topographic divisions of the
State, which are also the broad geologic
divisions. These divisions are:

1. The Cambrian and Ordovician
limestone valley of the Housatonic, in
which steep schist ridges rise from
Greylock to Canaan Mountain.

2. The broad Archean-Silurian upland
of eastern Berkshire County, running
through Hoosac Mountain and the
"hill towns"— Peru, Washington, and
Becket.

3. The Devonian-Triassic valley of
the Connecticut in which there are
sharp trap ranges, illustrated by the
Mount Tom and Mount Holyoke Ranges.

4. The central upland, or Worcester
County plateau, made up of alternate
broad bands of Carboniferous granite
and narrower bands of folded schists.

5. The bordering slope that descends
gradually eastward and southeastward
from the irregular escarpment bounding

the central upland. The rocks of this
division, which is alumt equal in area
to the first four combined, present a
greater diversity in kind and structure
than those of any other division. The
whole complex has been several times
folded and faulted and lias been deeply
eroded, so that in parts of the area rocks
of presumed Archean age are exposed.
6. 'J'he Coastal Plain, which includes
the Cape Cod peninsula and the islands
south of the mainland.

Soil cover

Massachusetts is almost wholly cov-
ered by Quaternary glacial drift, forming
the only mineral soil. In a few places
only are there accumulations of pre-
glacial soil. The rocks are too hard and
the period since the ice-age too short for
the addition of much soil from weather-
ing in post-glacial times.

During the Pleistocene Period the
country was covered with ice and accu-
mulated rock material, perhaps a
mile thick. When the ice melted the
material was left as a thin veneer; thin
because the rock origin was hard. The
layer was thicker in valley's.

The ice cut deep flutings in the hard
Holyoke diabase, formed drumlins first
in the Connecticut Valley, a second
zone about 8 mi. wide that extends
north and south across the State, part-
ing on Wachusett, a third zone through
Groton and Marlboro, and a fourth
zone along the coast, and formed bowl-
der trains that can be followed from
many ledges of rock. Well-defined
terminal moraines mark the places
where the ice remained stationarj- for
some time.

INIany broad sand areas, some of them
underlain by laminated clays, mark the
sites of lakes, which were fed by the
glacial waters and wholly or partly
danmied back by the ice.

On the elevation of the land and the
recession of the waters, the streams
began to cut into the Pleistocene de-
posits, producing steep scarps and liroad
alluvial terraces. These terraces were
not forested and were therefore sought

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NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

out by the first settlers. They are still
the chief agricultural regions of the
State. The loam formed by deposition
at high water periods is 8 ft. thick in
many places and forms one of the most
fertile soils in Massachusetts.

Waters

Practically all of the streams are
unpolluted in the upper parts of their
courses. Lower down, most are con-
taminated by factories. In the moun-
tains they are beautifully clear and
generally pure, so that they are used
freely for drinking by campers. Besides
there are innumerable springs, so that
one is seldom far from good water.

II. BIOTA

Livingston and Shreve place Massa-
chusetts in the deciduous-forest area
of the United States, with the exception
of a narrow zone on the west, a projec-
tion from the north into the state just
west of the middle, and the northeastern
corner, where they find extensions of
the northeastern evergreen deciduous
transition forest.

The deciduous forest is the usual
climax formation of the region, whose
dominant trees are species of beech,
maple, hemlock, chestnut, oak, ash,
basswood, and birch. The notable
shrubs are mountain laurel, witch
hazel, dogwood and viburnum. The
undergrowth is rich in spring herbs,
such as red trillium {Trillium erectum),
twisted stalk (Streptopus roseus), bell-
worts {Uvularia and Oakesia), and
bishop's cap (Mitella diphylla); in small
sclerophylls belonging to the Ericaceae,
as trailing arbutus {Epigxa repens),
wintergreen {GauUheria procunibens) ,
prince's pine (Chimaphila umbellata
and C. maculata), and shin-leaf {Pyrola
spp); and in ferns and lycopodiums.

The mountains and bogs have many
northern forms, and the coastal regions
southern ones. The balsam-fir {Abies
balsamea) and red spruce (Picea rubra)
are examples of northern forms found
only on the mountains, while southern
forms are the American holly, which

grows on the Elizabeth Islands, the
tulip-tree, noted in a few places only,
and the flowering dogwood, common
everywhere. Merriam mentions the
same fact with reference to animals,
stating that "the Southern mole and
cottontail-rabbit meet the Northern
Star-nosed and Brewer's moles and
varying hare; and the Southern bob-
white, Baltimore oriole, blue bird, cat
bird, chewink, thrasher and wood thrush
live in or near the haunts of the bobolink,
solitary vireo and the hermit and Wil-
son's thrushes."

Few virgin forests are left, but shel-
tered ravines may closely resemble the
original forest. Regions that had
worked up to the climax have generally
been cut over many times or burned at
intervals, so that associations that have
returned to pioneer conditions are
common, illustrated by acres of poplars
and gray birches. On cut-over, south-
facing slopes usually the oak-hickory
association is in evidence, while trap
cliffs and sand hills display a white
pine stage.

The fauna of Massachusetts originally
included a good many Mammalia now
lacking, though the number still remain-
ing is always surprising to a visitor
from states more recently settled, but
more intensively cultivated. When Em-
mons^ wrote his report in 1840, the moose
{Alces americana), the cougar {Felis
couguar), and the beaver {Castor cana-
densis), had already disappeared. The
gray fox {Urocyon cinereoargenteus) ,
the Canada lynx {Lynx canadensis),
the black squirrel {Sciurus carolinensis
leucotis), and probably the wolf {Cams
lysaon) were rare. The black bear
{Ursus americanus), formerly abundant
on the Hoosic Mountains, was still
found, several specimens being taken
every year, but it is now extinct. The
fisher {Martes pennanti), marten {Mar-
tes americana) , weasel {Mustela novebora-
censis), have all been eliminated.

The mammals listed by Emmons that

> Emmons, Ebenezer. A Report on the Quad-
rupeds of Massachusetts, published by order of the
Legislature, by the Commissioners on the Zoological
and Botanical Survey of the State. 1840.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

321

are included in the Fauna of New Eng-
land by Glover M. Allen- as now present
are the star-nosed mole (Condylura
cristata), raccoon {Procyon lotor), red
fox {Vulpes fulva) , bob-cat {Ltjnx ruftts) ,
mink. (Mustela vison mink), otter {Lutra
canadensis), skunk {Mephitis nigra),
muskrat (Ondatra zibethica), cottontail
rabbit (Sylvilagus transitionalis), snow-
shoe hare [Le-pus americnnus), wood-
chuck {Marmota monax preblorum) , gray
squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis leucotis),
red squirrel {S. hudsonicus), chipmunk
{Tamias striatus lysteri), flying-squirrel
{Glaucomys sahrinus macrotis), deer
mouse {Peromyscus leucopus novebora-
censis), porcupine [Erelhizon dorsatum),
deer {Odocoileus virginianus borealis),
short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicaiida),
hairy-tailed mole (Parascalops breweri),
besides the forms inhabiting the coastal
waters. The deer are protected except
during a short open season, and are
numerous enough to be of interest to
hunters, and to be a cause of worry to
farmers and orchardmen.

Wild turkeys were fonnerly common
over the entire state, the last record
being Mt. Tom, winter of 1850-1851.
Heath hen was common, now found only
on Martha's Veneyard. Wild pigeons
were also common. — C. W. Johnson.

III. PRESERVED AREAS

There are 7 State Parks in Massa-
chusetts, where they are called Reserva-
tions. The land was bought by the
State and is maintained by the counties
under the direction of special commis-
sioners appointed by the Governor. In
addition Massachusetts has 16 State
Forests, including the "Province
Lands," controlled by the Department
of Conservation, Division of Forestry,
Metropolitan Parks owned by the State,
two Demonstration Forests for the study
of forestry, fish and game farms. Three
Reservations are held by the Appala-
chian Mountain Club. (6 or 7 small
areas held by the Trustees of Public
Reservations.)

» Allen, Glover-M. "Fauna of New EnKland,"
Occasional Papers of the Boston Society of Natural
History. VII. 1904.

The areas described begin with the
western boundary of the State and pass
eastward.

*Mt. Everet State Reservation. (B2.)
815 acres of mountain-forest in the town
of Mt. Washington, in the southern
part of Berkshire County. Northeast-
ern evergreen-deciduous-transition for-
est. There is a good road from the town
to Lake Undine, and a road practically
completed from the lake to the top.
Waters unpolluted. Good boarding
houses at the foot of the mountain.
About 2800 ft., the second highest
mountain in the State.

From Great Barrington, G mi.; N. Y.,
N. H. & H. R. R.—H. C. Joynor, Gl.
Barrington.

*Mt. Greylock State Reservation. (A3
in spots.) Comprising 8600 acres in the
northern part of Berkshire County,
including mountains, ravines, bluffs,
gravel slides, rocky and glacial situa-
tions; for the most part wooded, with
many varieties of trees both deciduous
and conifer showing succession from
pioneer conditions on rocky upland to
mature forest. Fauna includes small
animals and deer. Automobiles can go
to the top. Good trails make walking
easy. Greylock Summit House fur-
nishes meals and limited accommoda-
tions. Camping is permitted and places
are assigned by the superintendent.
Mr. Rockwell of Pittsfield will furnish
information concerning the park. Ele-
vation 800 to 3600 ft. Sharp.

From Williamstown 3^ mi., North
Adams 7 mi., both on the Nickle Plate
R. R.

*October Mountain State Forest.
(B2.) 11,000 acres of mountains and
plateaus, in the town of Washington,
mostly cut over and once cultivated;
now abandoned; to be reforested.
About one-third consists of woodland,
60-70 years old, reverting to natural
conditions. Restocked by the former
owners with moose and deer. Average
elevation 1900 ft., highest 2300 ft.

From Pittsfield, 8 mi. south. Partly
from a newspaper article by Allen
Chamberlain.

322

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

* Arthur Warlon Swann State Forest.
(C3 (b).) 986 acres in Monterey and
Great Barrington; two-thirds forested;
joins Bear Moiintain Forest on the
south. Elevation 1200-2100 ft.

Great Barrington near the base of
the mountain.

*Bear Mountain State Forest. (B2.)
5174 acres in Great Barrington and
Monterey; eastern mountain-forest of
hardwoods and conifers. Elevation
1200-2000 ft.

From Great Barrington about 3 mi.
east. — State Division of Forestry.

*Savoy Mountain State Forest. (H8
in part.) 3999 acres in Savoy; half
covered with a natural growth of hard-
woods and spruce of fair size. The
rest has been cut over and is being
reforested. Elevation 1900-2500 ft.

From North Adams, 6 mi. south, B.
and A. R. R. — State Division of Forestry.

*Mohawk Trail State Forest. (A3 or
B3.) 3260 acres, along the Mohawk
Trail in Charlemont, Florida, Hawley
and Savoy; covered with hardwoods and
hemlock in original condition on very
steep slopes, too steep and rocky to have
been cut over. Succession on rocky
upland. Elevation 600-2000 ft. Pre-
cipitous.

From Greenfield 16 mi. west (a) to
Charlemont which is on the Trail. Or
North Adams, at west end of the Trail.
Nickle Plate R. R. — State Division of
Forestry.

*Deer Hill State Reservation. (B4.)
259 acres in Cummington; of unde-
veloped timber, mainly hardwoods and
spruce; not used by the public. Ad-
ministered by Mr. Clarence E. Hodg-
kins, Northampton. Elevation 900 ft.

From Northampton 23 mi. N. W. (a).

*Tolland State Forest. 2925 acres in
two tracts in Tolland and Granville.
Second growth, chiefly of hardwoods
and pine. Hubbard River and Otis
Reservoir unpolluted. Elevation 600-
1600 ft.

From Westfield, B. and A. R. R. 17
mi. (a).— State Division of Forestry.

*Colerain or Christian Hill State
Forest. (D4.) 796 acres in Heath and

Colerain. Second growth, chiefly of
pine and spruce, once pasture-land.
Elevation 1640-1740 ft.

From Greenfield on Nickle Plate R.
R. 10 mi. N. W. (a). — State Division of
Forestry.

*Conway State Forest. (H8.) 666
acres, in Conway. Second growth of
hardwoods and conifers, partly planted.
Elevation 800-1380 ft.

From Northampton, about 12 mi.
(a) N. W.

*Mt. Tom State Reservation. (B3.)
1679 acres in Easthampton and Holyoke.
A trap rock formation covered with a
forest of hardwoods, pine, hemlock and
some spruce, which has been cut in the
past on the gentle slopes, but preserves
some natural conditions, especially in
ravines and on cliffs. Small animals and
occasionally deer are seen. There are
15 mi. of improved roads and 40 to 50
mi. of paths. Springs abound. There
are twenty or more beautifully cleared
spots for camps. A road to Goat's
Peak gives a wonderfully fine view of
the Connecticut Valley, ranging from
Hartford to Greenfield. The Chairman
of the Mt. Tom Reservation at North-
ampton will furnish information about
the park. Elevation 1200 ft. Precipitous.

From Holyoke about 4 mi. by trolley
or automobile. Mt. Tom House at the
top can be reached by cable cars; it
furnishes refreshment and amusement,
but not lodging. — R. T. Fisher and
Division of Forestry.

*Mt. Sugarloaf State Reservation.
(B4.) 89 acres in Deerfield, overlooking
the Connecticut Valley; a red sandstone
formation (Sugarloaf Arkose), covered
with forest. There is a mountain house
at the summit, 600 ft. above the river,
reached by a path, or by a wagon road
up the gentle slope on the north side.
Information can be obtained from Mr.
Eugene Blake, Chairman of the Franklin
County Commissioners at Greenfield,
200-700 ft. Precipitous.

Northampton, 6 mi. north, B. and M.
R. R. to South Deerfield; then 1 mi. east.

*Mt. Toby State Demonstration For-
est. (C2.) In Sunderland; a conglom-

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

323

erate formation, of 756 acres, held by
the Massachusetts Agricultural College
to afford illustrations of timber-growing.
The policy of the present administration
is to keep about 50 acres of the Roaring
Brook ravine untouched, so that it will
revert to virgin-forest conditions.
About 200 acres of the rocky slopes are
too steep to have been cut over and show
the natural state. There are springs,
brooks, picturesque waterfalls, and one
pond of 2 to 3 acres in size. Waters
unpolluted. Small animals and deer
present. 400-1200 ft. Sharp.

From Northampton 8-9 mi. north (a).

From Holyoke 20 mi. north (a) or
trolley. — L. R. Grose.

*Wendell State Forest. (G7.) 2221
acres in Wendell and Montague. Mostly
cut-over land reverting to natural form.
Deciduous forest. 1100 ft.

Reached from Greenfield.

*Erving State Forest. (G7.) 1595
acres in Erving, Northfield and Warwick.
Second growth of conifers and hard-
woods.

Reached from Northfield.

*Mt. Grace State Forest. (A2.) 100-4
acres in Warwick. For the most part
forested with a natural growth of pine
and hardwoods. Noted for beautiful
scenery. Greatest elevation 1600 ft.
Rolling.

From Athol 4 mi. N. W. Accommo-
dation can be had at Mt. Grace Inn or at
Mrs. Ladd's. — Division of Forestry.

*Harvard Forest. Three separate
tracts in Petersham; 2000 acres of east-
ern deciduous and conifer forest, with
ravines, hills, rocky and glacial situa-
tions, swamps and ponds; including 4
or 5 acres of original forest, and about 40
acres of original sphagnum bog with
ericaceous plants and black spruce.
Deer present. Used for experiment and
demonstration in forestrj'.

From Athol 9 mi. south.— 72. T. Fisher.

*Otter River State Forest. 1721 acres
in Winchendon, Royalston and Temple-
ton; recently cut over, being replanted
to white, red and scotch pine. A few
swamps present. 500-900 ft.

From Athol 12 mi. east. Fitchburg

R. R. — L. R. Grose and Division of
Forestry.

*Wachusetl Mountain Slate Reserva-
tion. (B2, A in spots.) 1500 acres in
Princeton and Westminster; covered with
eastern deciduous- and mountain-conifer
forest, undisturbed on small areas of
ledge; includes mountain, bluff, rocky
and glacial situations. There is a good
macadam road to the top of the moun-
tain, and plenty of dirt roads around the
mountain, built as fire lines. There is a
small hotel on the summit, where meals
can be obtained; open from the first of
June to the middle of October. Mr.
John T. Burnett, Chairman of the
Reservation, Princeton, Mass., will
furnish information. 2000 ft. Sharp.

From Worcester, 8 mi. north. — R. 2\
Fisher and Division of Forestry.

^Purgatory Chasm State Reservation.
(D5.) In Sutton, of SO acres, of which
60 are fairly well wooded, the rest cut
over. The chasm itself is nearly a
quarter of a mile long, lies between
great ledges, and averages 40 ft. in
width, and between 40 and 80 ft. in
depth. Large trees grow in and about
the chasm, some growing in between
ledges or boulders at the top or on the
sides of the cliffs. By careful climbing
one can go through the chasm its entire
length. Good example of rock ravine.

From Worcester 4 or 5 mi.

A. E. Seagrave, Secretary of the
Purgatory Chasm State Reservation,
Uxbridge, Mass. and Division of
Forestry.

*Harold Parker State Forest (G7.)
In Andover, North Andover, and North
Reading, comprising 1223 acres, gener-
ally covered with second-growth hard-
woods. Barberry abundant. 100-200
ft. Rolling.

From Lowell or Lawrence a few
miles— Division of Forestry.

*Miles Standish State Forest. (B2.)
In Carver and PlvTuouth, of 7464 acres
of flat aiid slightly rolling ground,
covered with scrub growth of oak and
pitch pine. There are no marshes, but
twelve beautiful, clear ponds of varying
size, in their natural condition, ap-

324

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

parently fed by underground springs,
with shores and bottoms of white sand.
Camping permitted. 200-300 ft.

From Plymouth about 3 mi. — Division
of Forestry.

*Sandwich Stale Forest. (G7.) In
Bourne and Sandwich, of 073 acres of
very sandy land, for the most part
burned over and grown up to scrub oak
and pitch pine. 100-200 ft. Slightly
rolling.

From Boston 56 mi. south, N. Y.,
N. H. and H. R. R.

*Marlha's Vineyard State Reservation.
In Edgartown, 601 acres of scrub growth,
controlled by the Department of Con-
servation. The heath hen is endemic.

*Province Lands. In Provincetown,
at the tip of Cape Cod. 3900 acres of
eastern conifer forest, sandy shore,
swamps, and sand dunes. The Massa-
chusetts Forestry Association is doing a
good deal of planting on the dunes as an
experiment in reclamation of unprofit-
able land, but many acres will probably
remain for a long time in a natural
condition.

Small Public Reservations

These reservations are gifts, held in
trust by a corporation, named Trustees
of Public Reservations, whose purpose
it is to acquire and maintain for the
public, beautiful and historical places
within the Commonwealth. All are
heavily wooded with the exception of
Governor Hutchinson's Field.

Monument Mountain Reservation. 260
acres in Great Barrington.

Pine Knoll, 6 acres in Sheffield.

Petticoat Hill, 50 acres in Williams-
burg.

Rocky Narrows, 21 acres in Sherborn.

Mount Ann Park, 50 acres in
Gloucester.

Virginia Wood, 139 acres in Stone-
ham. Systematic work in forestry car-
ried on by the Metropolitan Park
Commission. Now part of Middlesex
County Reservation.

Governor Hutchinson's Field. 10 acres
in Milton. Some work in forestry car-
ried on.

Reservations of the Appalachian Mountain
Club

The Club owns 16 parcels of land, 3 of
them in Massachusetts, managed by a

board of Trustees of Real Estate. They
are held in trust for the public.

Parsons Reservation. (C3,) 40 acres
on Mt. Grace in Warwick; upon an
eminence locally known as Bennett's
Knob. The view includes Wachusett,
Greylock, and other mountains in
Massachusetts; the Monadnocks just
over the line in New Hampshire; the
Green Mountains in Vermont; and the
Adirondacks in New York. The reser-
vation is largely wooded, with a mixed
growth of good quality and middle age.
1490 ft. Sharp.

From Athol about 13 mi. N.W.—H. N.
Shepard, Chairman.

Carlisle Pines Reservation. (F6.) 20
acres in the town of Carlisle. This
reservation is notable for its 100 great
white pines, 2^ to 3| ft. in diameter and
100 to 120 ft. tall, as large and as fine as
New England can produce. The hard-
wood trees have been cut to give promi-
nence to the big pines, and to render pos-
sible the growth of others, and especially
to deprive the, gypsy moth of food.
Elevation 200 ft.

From Boston about 20 mi, N. W. —
H. N. Shepard.

Gilson Hill Reservation. In Billerica,
includes about 9 acres upon the summit
of the hill, and about 15 acres in the con-
necting wood-roads. It is one of the
best view-points in Middlesex County,
commanding Wachusett, the Monad-
nocks, Joe English Hill, and a broad
sweep eastward to the sea. At the foot
of the hill is a spring, near which an
early settler, Gilson, built his home.

From Boston about 25 mi. N. W. — H.
N. Shepard.

Moose Hill Sanctuary, Sharon, Mass.
19 mi. from Boston, on the N. Y. N. H. &
H. Railroad. Located mi. west of
Sharon station. A tract of 235 acres for
bird and flower protection and super-
vised jointly by the Massachusetts
Audubon Society and the Society for the
Protection of native New England
plants. (Bibliography: S. P. N. E. P.
Leaflet 32: 1920.)

Areas proposed {Massachusetts)

1. 3 acres sand area with bogs, sandy,
rocky shore, and dunes. Located in
Essex County, 5 mi. from Ipswich,
Mass. Preserved privately by R. T.
Crane. — Laetitia H. Snow.

2. Plum Island. A narrow island,
about 8 mi. long, lying parallel to the
coast, near Ipswich, Mass. — R. T.
Fisher.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

325

S. Elizabeth Islands. South of Buz-
zards Bay.

(a) Naushon. Primeval forest. Over-
grazed by deer and sheep, so not a fit
home for ground-nesting birds. Owned
by the Forbes family.

(6) Wepecket Islands and Little Pine
Island, recommended as a bird sanctu-
ary, as they are the mating ground of at
least two species of terns. Owned by the
Forbes family.

(c) Penikese Island, o^vned by the
state, and formerly used for a leper
colony: now likely to be sold; a breeding
ground of common and roseate terns.

(d) Gull Islands; a breeding ground
of common and roseate terns.— JS". H.
Forbush.

4. Martha's Vineyard. (a) The
south side of Martha's Vineyard should
be protected as a breeding place for least
terns. It is one of the few localities in
which these birds remain in the east;
and with its ponds, beaches, etc., offers
exactly the conditions these birds need.
The least tern in the northeast is very
near extinction. The land around the
ponds is now owned largely by gunners
who have gunning stands at the ponds.

(6) The Squibnocket region at the
west end of the Vineyard should be
protected as a bird reservation, because
of the number and variety of birds that
breed there.

(c) One of the ponds at east end of the
Vineyard should be made a reservation.
—E. H. Forbush.

5. Muskeget Island. A small island
lying northwest of Nantucket and a
part of Nantucket Oountj^, controlled
by the town of Nantucket, which em-
ploys a warden. It would make a
splendid reservation for sea-birds. It
was formerly a great breeding place for
gulls and terns. The laughing-gulls are
apparently encroaching on the breeding
grounds of the terns, and are increasing
while the terns are decreasing. — E. II.
Forbush.

6. Cape Cod. (a) Monomoy Island,
the southeast extension of Cape Cod,
south of Chatham, would make an excel-
lent reservation for sea-birds. There

are three species of terns tliat breed in
this region. The best place for the
reservation would be the south end, if
something could be done to protect the
birds from cats, skunks, and foxes which
readily travel the whole length of the
point of land, no longer an island.

Q)) North Beach near Chatham,
formerly the habitat of terns, now almost
eliminated by cats and skunks.

(c) South Beach near Chatham, where
three species of terns form a colony of
SOOO-10,000.

{d) An island in the harbor of Nausett
Beach, where terns breed.

(e) Long Point on the bay side of Cape
Cod, together with some of the woods
farther back from the shore, where the
night herons breed in numbers.

(/) A peninsula at Truro.

ig) An island at Hyannis.

(h) A large section of land at Sandy
Neck, Barnstable, recommended for
reservations for the study of bird-life.
—R. T. Fisher and E. H. Forbush.

7. A rock ravine, called Orient
Springs (Do) in Pelham, about 3 mi.
east of Amherst. Two branches of a
clear brook have cut a gorge in the hills,
forming picturesque cliffs, where many
liverworts, mosses and ferns grow.
Some steep slopes and uplands have a
good stand of white pine and hemlock.
It is owned by the street railway com-
pany and is used as a picnic ground.
It is within reach of Mt. Holyoke, .\m-
herst, and Massachusetts Agricultural
Colleges. Succession in a rock ravine. —
Anna M. Starr.

8. A white pine grove at Boxford,
owned by Prof. George II. Palmer of
Harvard. The pink lady-slipper grows
here in unusual abundance. It is about
25 mi. north of Boston, within reach of
Bradford Academy, Welleslcy College
and Harvard University. — Helen W.
Farrell, Bradford Academij.

9. Congamond Bog. (B4.) On tlie
borderland between Massachusetts and
Connecticut. It is a splendid example
of natural bog vegetation, interesting
to both ecologists and systematists, and
should be preserved for study. It is

326

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

within reach (a) of Yale University and
the Connecticut Valley Colleges. — Anna
M. Starr.

10. An island in the Connecticut
River near Holyoke (B4), covered with
cottonwoods, willows, silver maple and
other flood plain vegetation, might well
be preserved for the study of the de-
velopment of an island. It is of recent
formation and has never been cut. —
Anna M. Starr,

4. CONNECTICUT

By George E. Nichols

For an area comparatively small in
size (5000 sq. mi.) the State of Connec-
ticut presents a remarkable diversity of
natural and semi-natural conditions.
Physiographically the state comprises
three north-south provinces: an eastern
and a western highland and a central
lowland. In the highlands the topog-
raphy is rugged, the land being greatly
dissected by stream erosion, and on
nearly every hand the surface deposits of
glacial material are interspersed with
outcrops of bare rock, mostly granites,
gneisses, and schists. In the central
lowland, except for the trap ridges which
form a prominent feature, the surface
contours are more gentle and the under-
lying sandstones and shales for the most
part are covered over by a mantle of
glacial debris, sometimes to a depth of
200 ft. In certain parts of western
Connecticut, limestone and dolomite
are the prevailing rocks, but elsewhere
calcareous rocks are practically absent.
On the south Connecticut is bounded
by Long Island Sound. In proceeding
from the Sound northward the general
level of the land surface gradually rises,
and in the northwestern part of the State
hills more than 2000 ft. in elevation are
encountered. Both the maximum and
the average elevations in the Eastern
Highland are lower than in the western,
while the general surface level of the
Lowland in northern Connecticut is
scarcely 200 ft. above sea level. There
are upwards of 1000 lakes and ponds in
the state, while permanent springs are

everywhere abundant. Of the several
rivers only one, the Connecticut, is to
any extent navigable.

The type of vegetation favored by
climate here is a mesophytic forest,
and in former days the greater part of the
state was heavily wooded. For the most
part the forest comprised a mixture of
deciduous and evergreen trees. Con-
spicuous among the deciduous species
were the chestnut {Castanea dentata),
various oaks and hickories, tulip (Liriod-
endron tulipifera), sugar maple {Acer
saccharum), and beech (Fagus grandi-
folia) ; among the evergreens the hem-
lock {Tsuga canadensis) and white pine
(Pinus strobus), and, at the higher eleva-
tions northwestward, the red spruce
(Picea rubra). The nature of the
original vegetation, as of that today,
however, varied greatly with differences
in physiography, and forests of the sort
just described were best developed on
the better, well-drained soils. In ad-
dition to these, there were forests of
pitch pine {Pinus rigida) on the sand
plains, forests of red maple {Acer
rubrwn), elm {Ulmus americana),
and black ash {Fraxinus nigra) or
of southern white cedar {Chamaecyp-
aris thyoides) in the swamps, forests
of Cottonwood {Populus deltoides),
elm, silver maple {Acer saccharinum)
and the like along the streams; and
there were many areas that were not
forested at all. Lakes and ponds, as
today, were occupied by communities of
herbaceous aquatic plants, and salt
marshes and sandy beaches by communi-
ties made up largely of grass.

Practically all the original forest
growth in Connecticut has been wiped
out by the inroads of civilization, and
at the present time only a few small
and for the most part inferior patches of
near-primeval growth remain. Even
today, however, nearly 50% of the area
of the state is occupied by woodland of
one sort or another, a remarkable condi-
tion for a section of the country so long
settled and having so large a population.
This apparent incongruity of conditions
is to be explained by two facts, namely,

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

327

that most of the land is poorly adapted
to agriculture and that the bulk of the
population centers in and about the
towns and cities. The Central Lowland,
being more generally suited to agricul-
ture, has been more thoroughly cleared
of its natural vegetation than the High-
lands and it is in these latter regions,
particularl}' northward, that the wildest
parts of the state today are situated.
The second-growth forests of toda}'
probably differ from the original forests,
so far as their composition is concerned,
chiefly in the greater abundance of oaks,
hickories and other trees which are
capable of sprout reproduction, and in
the lesser abundance of white pine and
hemlock, which have suffered most
heavily from the influence of lumbering
and fire. Twent}'--five years ago chest-
nut ranked as the premier forest tree
of the state, comprising nearly 60% of
the standing timber, but this tree has
now nearly vanished, due to the ravages
of the chestnut blight. Another out-
standing feature of the woody vegetation
today is the groves of cedar (Juniperus
virginiana) and gray birch (Betula
populifolia) which have preempted aban-
doned farmlands on every hand.

The flora of the state is rich and
varied, comprising some 2000 species of
ferns and flowering plants, in addition
to which there is a wealth of mosses,
algae and other lower forms. The
fauna is correspondingly varied, the
larger mammals of the present day in-
cluding the Virginia deer {Odocoileus
virginianus horealis), red fox {Vtilpes
fulva), raccoon {Procyon lotor), porcu-
pine {Erethizon dorsatum), skunk {Meph-
itis nigra), cottontail rabbit {Sijlvilagus
transilionalis), woodchuck {Mannola
monax prehlorum), muskrat {Ondatra
zibethica), mink {Mustela vison mink),
otter {L'utra canadensis), and probably
the bobcat {Lynx rufus). The timber
wolf {Canis lycaon), black bear {Ursus
americanus), and beaver {Castor cana-
densis), formerly native, have long since
been exterminated along with certain
of the birds, notably the wild turkey.
Loth flora and fauna have Ijecn aug-

mented by the introduction of many
non-native species. Thus, fully 25% of
the flowering plants now growing wild in
the state have been introduced, while
the English sparrow and the European
starling are among the common birds.

From various of the remarks above it
is quite obvious that the preservation of
natural conditions, so far as this means
the preservation of the original forests,
is no longer possible, save in the case of
a few small patches. The last great
opportunity of this sort was lost in 1912,
when the sole surviving large stand of
indisputably primeval timber, situated
in the town of Colebrook, was cut down.
The best that can be done now, aside
from rescuing the few scattered vestiges
of original forest that still remain, is to
preserve areas of good second-growth
woodland. So far as other types of
plant community are concerned, it is
still possible to set aside areas in which
the primitive conditions may be per-
petuated for future generations, and
indeed many of these communities seem
in little danger of extinction.

The setting aside of natural areas in
the form of parks has long since been
undertaken by various of the cities and
towns of the State. West Rock Park,
New Haven, for example, includes some
200 acres of trap ridge, mostly in natural
woodland and probably destined to be
preserved with but little change. Hub-
bard Park, Meriden, is another notable
example of a city park of this same sort.
Various areas have also been set aside by
individuals, and notably by the White
Memorial Foundation of Litchfield. By
far the most promising development
in this direction, however, has been
undertaken by the State Park Commis-
sion which, beginning in 1913, has
established 28 State Parks, ranging in
size from one to more than 1703 acres.
These parks are designed fundamentally
for purposes of public recreation, and
for the preserv^ation of places of
natural beauty or historic association.
An outline is given below of various
features of vegetation included in the
State Parks, so far as these seem to be

328

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

of interest in the present connection.'
Following this outline is an annotated
list of certain areas in the state which,
in the opinion of the writer, are
especially worthy of preservation as
examples of natural forest vegetation.

NATURAL AREAS

a. Areas already included in Public
Preserves, and where it is probable
that natural conditions will be ivholly
or largely retained

1. *Kent Northern Hardwood Forest.
(03.) In Macedonia Brook State Park.
Park about 1700 acres in area, partly
good second-growth northern hard-
woods. Oertain selected areas of wood-
land should be preserved in natural
condition. 600-1400 ft., rugged.

Kentt, about 4 mi. northwest, N. Y.
N. H. & H. R. -R.—G. E. N.

2. *Kent Falls Ravine Forest. (03.)
In Kent Falls State Park. Several
acres of dense old hemlock and char-
acteristic ravine vegetation. About 500
ft., rugged.

North Kent, 2 mi. northeast; N. Y.
N. H. & H. R. R.— (7. E. N.

S. *Millington Gorge Hemlock Forest.
(03.) In Devil's Hop Yard State Park.
A remarkably fine stand of old hemlock
and hardwoods, several acres in extent.
Rocky cascade. About 200 ft., rugged.

Millington, about 1| mi. southeast;
(Oolchestert, 8 mi. south, N. Y. N. H. &
B..R.n.)— G.E.N.

4. *West Rock Forest-Complex. (03.)
In New Haven Oity Park System. A
trap ridge, 205 acres under Park super-
vision, largely in natural conditions:
second-growth hardwood forest types;
all successional intergradations between
rock-face and inferior maple-beech-
hemlock climax; cliff and talus vegeta-
tion; fair example of wooded rock ravine.
Representative series of natural vegeta-
tion-types, if left "unimproved." 20-
400 ft., rolling to precipitous.

P^rV^u organization of this fine system of State
Farks IS due very largely to the efforts of the field
secretary of the State Park Commission, Mr Albert
taken whose reports these notes are largely

New HavenJ, 3 mi. northwest, N. Y.
N. H. & H. R. R. and trolley.— (?. E. N.

5. *Hanging Hills Forest-Complex.
(03.) In Meriden Oity Park Sj^stem.
Several hundred acres essentially simi-
lar in physiography and vegetation to
West Rock area. 200-600 ft.

Meriden t, about two mi. north; N. Y.
N. H. & H. R. R. and trolley.— G. E. N.

6. *Pomfret Ravine Forest. (03.) In
Mashomoquet Brook State Park. A
deep gorge, about 12 acres, containing
a good stand of old hemlock. 500 ft.

Putmanf, about 5J mi. west; N. Y.
N. H. & H. R. R.—G. E. N.

7. *Pomfret Hardwood Forest. (03.)
In Sap Tree Run State Park. Several
acres of excellent forest, mixed hard-
woods especially sugar maple. 500 ft.,
sharp to rolling.

PutmanI, 1 tni. west, N. Y. N. H. &
H. R. R.—G. E. N.

8. *North Haven Pine Barrens. (03.)
Adjoining and partly included in Whar-
ton Brook State Park. About 12 acres,
young but typical pitch pine barren.
50 ft., flat, sandy.

WallingfordI, about 3 mi. south;
N. Y. N. H. & H. R. R. and trolley.—
G. E. N.

9. *Hammonasset Littoral Association-
Complex. (03.) In Hammonasset
State Park. About 550 acres, includ-
ing good sea beach, low dunes, salt and
brackish marshes with characteristic
vegetation. Sea level; flat.

OlintonJ, 3 mi. west or MadisonJ,
3 mi. east. N. Y. N. H. & H. R. R.—
G. E. N.

10. *Westporl Littoral Association-
Complex. (03.) In Sherwood Island
State Park. About 50 acres, including
beach, low dune, and salt marsh with
characteristic vegetation. Sea level;
fiat.

Greens Farms, 1 mi. south, N. Y. N. H.
& H. R. R. and trolley.— (?. E. N.

11. *Quinebaug White Pine Forest.
(03.) In Quinebaug Pines State Park.
Several acres of fine old white pine, with
excellent reproduction of all ages.

Putmant, H mi. south; N. Y. N. H.
& H. R. R.—G. E. N.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

329

b. Areas privately owned

11. Cornwall Pincsj. (03.) 10 acres,
magnificent stand of near-virgin white
pine, with hemlock and hardwoods.
Calhoun estate; likely to be preserved.

Cornwall (Cornwall Bridget, 4 mi.
northeast; N. Y. N. H. & H. R. R.).—
G. E. N.

12. Banlam Lake Forest-Complex^.
(C4.) Several hundred acres of land,
included in much larger holdings of the
White Memorial Foundation of Litch-
field. A wide range of conditions is
represented, including excellent second-
growth forest of pine, hemlock, and
hardwoods; deciduous swamp forests;
and transition from lake to swamp-
forest. 900-1100 ft., flat to rolling.
Likely to be preserved.

LitchfiekU, 2-3 mi. south; N. Y. N. H.
&. H. R. R.—G. E. N.

13. Simshury Pines]. (C3.) 25 acres
or more, mixed forest of white pine,
hardwoods, and hemlock, fine second-
growth to near-virgin; sandy upland,
with some swamp. 200-300 ft.; rolling.

Simsburyt; N. Y. N. H. & H. R. R.—
G. E. N.

14. Uncasville Hardwood Forest].
(C3.) About 10 acres, fine near-virgin
forest of hardwood and hemlock, with
typical undergrowth. 100-250 ft.; roll-
ing to sharp.

Uncasville; New London]:; 7 mi. north;
N. Y. N. H. & H. R. R. and trolley.—
G. E. N.

15. Sage's Ravine Forest]. (C4.)
Wild mountain ravine, perhaps 100
acres, with typical ravine vegetation
and essentially virgin forest of hemlock
and hardwoods. 800-1200 ft., at stream
level, with precipitious slopes.

Salisburyt; 5 mi. north; Central
N. E. R. R.—G. E. N.

16. Hop Brook Ravine Forest. (D4.)
25 acres, partly a rocky gorge with near-
virgin growth of hemlock. Whittemore
estate; likely to be preserved. 500 ft.,
rugged.

NaugatuckJ, Union City, about one
mi. northwest; N. Y. N. H. & H. R. R.
and trolley.— (?. E. N.

17. Windsor Flood Plain Forest].
(B2.) Island, about 15 acres, situated in
Connecticut River at mouth of Farming-
ton; of comparatively recent alluvial
origin. Fine forest of (mainly) cotton-
wood, essentially virgin, together with
various stages of succession. 60 ft.;
level.

Windsorl, one mi. southeast; N. Y.
N. H. & H. R. R. and trolley.— G. E. N.

18. Middlelown Flood Plain Forest.
(B2.) Island in Connecticut River,
perhaps 10 acres, forested with cotton-
wood, silver maple, and willow.

Middletownt, \ mi. north; N. Y. N. H.
& H. R. R.—G. E. N.

19. Bingham Pond Bog and Spruce
Forest]. (B2.) About 25 acres on Mt.
Riga. Shallow pond with fine marginal
cassandra-spruce-tamarack bog; adjoin-
ing forest of large red spruce contains
many boreal plants. 1900 ft. ; level.

Salisbury J, 5 mi. northwest, or Lake-
villet, 5 mi. north; Central N. E. R. R.
-G. E. N.

20. Canaan Mountain Spruce Swamp].
(C3.) About 5 acres mixed swamp
forest, predominantly red spruce with
mountain ash and other boreal asso-
ciates, near-virgin. 1500 ft.

Norfolkt, 3| mi. east; Central N. E. R.
R.—G. E. N.

21. Ayer Hill Cedar Swamp. (03.)
400 acres flat swampy land, mainly
Chamaecyparis thyoides, some apparently
primeval, with undergrowth of Rhodo-
dendron maximum. Partly private;
partly Indian reservation. 120 ft.

NorwichJ, 7 mi. southeast; N. Y. N. II.
& H. R. R. and trolley.— (?. E. N.

22. Mansfield Cedar Sivamp]. (03.)
20 acres of near-virgin Chamaecyparis,
Tsuga, and Nyssa sylvatica; swamp
surrounded by sandy second-growth
pine land. 500 ft.; fairly level.

South Willington, 3 mi. southeast;
N. Y. N. H. & li. R. R.—G. E. N.

23. Darien Sweet Gum Swamp] . (03.)
5 acres, sandy swamp, wcU-wooded with
large gum {Liquidambar slyracijlua),
practically northern limit, swamp oaks
iQuercus bicolor, Q. palustris) and red
maple. 25 ft.; flat.

330

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Darien, J-'mi. west (South Norwalkt, 4
mi. west) ; N. Y. N. H. & H. R. R. and
trolley— (?. E. N.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Nichols, George E. "The vegetation of
Connecticut." Torreya, 13: 89-12;
199-215 (1913); 14: 167-194 (1914);
Bull Torr. Bot. Club, 42: 169-217
(1915); 43: 235-264 (1916); 47: 89-117
(1920); 47: 511-548(1920).

Connecticut State Park and Forrest
Commission guide to Connecticut
state parks and forests. Hartford
(1924).

5. RHODE ISLAND

By Marion D. Weston

The state is small and its original
biota very similar to that of Connecticut
and Massachusetts. It was thought
unnecessary to provide a general account
as has been done for the other states. — •
V. E. S.

Preserved areas in natural or semi-
natural condition in Rhode Island are
managed in one of the following ways:
the Providence City Park Commission,
the Metropolitan Park Commission, the
Providence City Water Works Depart-
ment, the Public Parks Association, the
Rhode Island Historical Society or the
Secretary of State.

Of the 52 parks and playgrounds owned
by the city of Providence only four are in
a sufficiently natural condition to be of
interest in this survey.

With few exceptions the parks con-
trolled by the Metropolitan Park Com-
mission are included in this report.

The City Water Works Department
has the management of far more land
than all the other agencies combined.
Since this land will probably remain in
its natural condition the protection or
wild life, both plant and animal, may in
the end be more complete here than in
any of the other areas.

The preserved areas which owe their
existence to historical associations are
managed by the Rhode Island Historical
Society or by the Secretary of State.
From the ecological point of view the

Great Swamp Battlefield is the most in-
teresting area in the state.

sources of material

Much of the material in this report
has been taken directly from the Provi-
dence Magazine, August, 1916.

Other statistics were obtained from the
office of the Metropolitan Park Com-
mission the report of the Auditor of the
City of Providence for the year 1921 and
the Soil Survey of Rhode Island, Wash-
ington. Many individuals interested in
certain areas have given much in-
formation.

natural areas

*Lincoln Woods. (C3.) About 458
acres of rocky woodland; glaciated
ledges and glacial boulders, making the
land too rocky for cultivation; mixture
of hard woods; north shore of Olney
Pond (artificial). Vegetation in natural
condition throughout the park. Special
map. Miami stony loam. 200-280 ft.
Met. Park Com.

Providence, 5 mi. north, Woonsocket
Electric; Quinsnicket Station.

*Te7i Mile River Reservation. (B3.)
about 104 acres of wooded stream bank
and meadows; stream sluggish, winding,
not polluted. Conditions natural. War-
wick stony loam. 40-60 ft. Met. Park
Com.

Pawtucket, 31 mi. west. Slater Park
Electric.

*Seekonk River Reservation. (B3.)
About 19 acres of "bluff bordering
river," which is really an estuary. Nor-
folk coarse sand. 20-40 ft. Met. Park,
Com.

Pawtucket, one mi. south, Ingraham's
Corner Electric.

* Barrington Parkway. (C3.) About
116 acres; "chain of picturesque tracts"
2j miles ong, "overlooking Providence
Harbor." Norfolk coarse sand, War-
wick sandy loam and Miami stony loam.
20-100 ft. Met. Park Com.

Providence, Ih nai. east; East Provi-
dence Electric.

*Haines Memorial Park. (C3.)
About 104 acres running back from east

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

331

shore of Bullock's Cove; wooded shore;
scattered red cedars. Warwick sandy
loam. 20 ft. flat. Met. Park Com.

Providence, Qh mi. southeast, Provi-
dence, Warren and Bristol R. R. Cres-
cent Park, I5 mi. east.

*Davis Park. (H8.) About 40 acres;
old estate; conditions semi-natural;
plateau with deep ravines, wide flood-
plain with meandering brook (inter-
mittent). Oak stand on steep slope.
Warwick sandy loam and Norfolk coarse
sand.) 20-GOffc. Pro v. City Park Com.
Providence, one mi. west, Chalkstone
Ave. Electric.

*Blackstone Park. (B3.) About 7
acres along west shore of Seekonk
River (estuary); wooded bluff; mixed
stand of hardwood, undergrowth of
Mountain Laurel. Estuarj^ badly pol-
luted. Norfolk coarse sand. 40-60 ft.
Prov. City Park Com.

Providence, two mi. east. Swan Point
electric.

■ *Roger Williams Park. (H8.) About
431 acres; chain of lakes (partly arti-
ficial) ; scattered oak stands, many in-
troduced trees; chart of trees published
by Museum. Certain sections remain
in entirely natural condition. Norfolk
coarse sand, a little Warwick sandy
loam. 40-00 ft. rolling. City Park Com.
Providence, 3| mi. south, Broad St.
Electric.

*Mashapaug Pond. (C3.) About 55
acres; east shore steep; mixed hard
wood stand. Norfolk coarse sand.
20-40 ft. Met. Park Com.

Providence, 2k mi. south, Reservoir
Ave. Electric.

*Edgewood Bench. (B4.) About 19
acres on the west shore of Narragansett
Bay; bathing beach. Norfolk coarse
sand, Warwick sandy loam. 40 ft.
City of Cranston. Met. Park Com.

Providence, 3i mi. south, Washington
Park via Eddy St. Electric.

*Shellhouse Cove Reservation. (B4.)
About 39§ acres on west shore of Narra-
gansett Bay; Norfolk coarse sand. Met.
Park Cora.

Providence, 4^ mi. south, Pawtuxet

Electric,

*Pawtuxcl River Area. (C4.) About
75 acres of flood plain; river meandering.
Warwick sandy loam. Met. Park Cora.
City of Cranston.

Providence, 4.J mi. south, Pawtuxet
Electric.

*Narragansett Parkway. (B4.) About
33 acres west shore of Narragansett
Bay; sandy shore; portion of Rock Is-
land composed of ledge; (Outwash plain
and ice escarpment facing Narrangansett
Bay). 40 ft. Norfolk coarse sand. Met.
Park Com. Town of Warwick.

Providence, 5j mi. south, Pawtuxet
Electric. One mi. south from Pawtuxet.
*N eutaconkanul Hill Park. (C3.)
About 69 acres; glaciated hill, steep
southern face, gradual northern slope;
mixed hard wood stands. Miami stony
loam. 260 ft. Prov. City Park Com.

Providence, 3^ mi. west, Plainfield St.
Electric.

* Round Rocks. (A4.) 4 acres;
"enormous glacial boulders;" scrub
oak. Gloucester stony loam. 360 ft.
Town of Johnston. Pub. Park Associa-
tion.

Providence, 8 mi. west, Thornton and
Hughesdale Electric. U mi. west from
Hughesdale.

*Meshanticut Park and Parkwaxj.
(B2.) About 28 acres; small lake;
wooded shore. Alton stony loam. GO-SO
ft. City of Cranston. Met. Park Com.
Providence, 51 mi. southwe.st, Meshan-
ticut Park Electric.

*Scituale Reservoir. (B3.) About
10,000 acres will be preserved about the
new Scituate Reservoir; this land e.x-
tends from Barden Reservoir along the
valley of the Ponaganset River to the
point where it unites with the Moswan-
sicut River to form the Pa\vtuxet River
and down the Pawtuxet to the town of
Kent; on the north the area extends
north of North Scituate to Moswansicut
Pond. Gloucester stony loam, .Mton
stony loam; 300-500 ft. Prov. Water
Works Dept.

Providence, 8 J- mi. southwest, North
Scituate Electric.

*Great Swamp Fighl BaKlcJicld. (A4.)
About 4 acres ; typical cedar swamp vege-

332

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

tation; many bog plants not usually
found north of New Jersey. "Scene of
Indian Fislit, King Phillips War,"
marked by monument.

Wickford Junction, 11 mi. southwest,
N. Y. N. H. & H. R. R. Two mi. north
from Kenyon. R. I. Historical Society.

* Fort Neck. (B4.) 19 acres along
northeast shore of Charlestown Pond;
boggy areas along pond; scattered red
cedars ; shrubs along brooks ; flat. Alton
stony loam, Warwick sandy loam. 20
ft. Controlled by Secretary of State.

Westerly, 11 mi. east, N. Y. N. H. &
H. R. R. 6 mi. south from Wood River
Junction.

6. NEW YORK

By William L. Bray

i, general conditions — the physio-
graphic units or complexes and
their association types

In this connection one should have in
mind a picture of the orographic fea-
tures of the State: highlands, such as the
Adirondacks, Catskills, Shawnugunks,
Hudson Highlands, Allegheny plateau,
and their dissections; river valleys and
their tributary erosion channels, gorges,
etc.; lake basin lands, sand plains, wet
lands of sea coast, and inland bog and
swampland. It is quite essential for
one considering the physiography of
New York State and its attendant
natural life conditions to take account
of conditions created by glacial agency —
notably deeply cut channels (Finger
Lakes), the extensive wearing down of
highlands and filling of lowlands, piling
up of morainic debris, drumlins, etc.,
and the consequent blocking of drainage
channels or creation of water-filled
basins, thus resulting in a myriad of
lakes.

It will be recognized that physio-
graphic features exercise a determining
influence upon the character of the
native vegetation and its associated
animal life.

Conditions of rainfall and humidity
in this state are such that the natural

expression of plant life is in the form
of a final, relatively stable, high forest,
but local conditions of physiography
modify this theoretical condition so
that, regarded as a whole, the State
presents a mosaic of vegetation aspects —
filling lakes, marsh land, wet meadows,
swamp forest, bogs, pine heaths, spruce
slopes, virgin forest, etc., with their
associated animal life. It further adds
to the interest in and appreciation of our
wild life conditions to observe that,
because of the effects which the vegeta-
tion especially exerts upon the land and
of the natural cause of erosion and filling
and leveling these various mosaic pat-
terns of vegetation are not static —
permanent — but tend to follow a course
of evolution toward the final climax or
stable type of plant society — the high
forest. For ' this reason, it becomes
desirable in suggesting areas for reserva-
tion to have in mind those which may be
subjects of study through a course of
years to determine phenomena and
causes of this evolution of natural
plant and animal communities.

Original vegetation, a complex of
forest types predominating: Some open
prairies wdth groves (Erie County) ;
marsh lands (coast of Long Island,
Montezuma marshes); swamp forest,
bogs (Ontario basin and especially in
the Adirondacks), sand plains with pure
stands of white pine (Albany-Schenec-
tady Plattsburg, Black River pine plains
near Carthage); mountain summit vege-
tation above timber line (related to
Arctic-Alpine).

Climax forest cover heavy and of
large growth embracing the following
zonal types: (1) Sweet gum {Liquidam-
bar styraciflua) , oaks, hickories, chestnut
[Castanea dentala), and tiilip tree {Lirio-
dendron tulipifera) , of the lower Hudson
and adjacent Long Island and Staten
Island with occasional yellow pine
(Pinus echinata); (Carolinian); (2)
Oak, hickory, chestnut, tulip tree of
middle Hudson, Delaware, and Sus-
quehanna drainage, and the Ontario
basin (Carolinian related) ; (3) Suga
maple {Acer saccharum), beech {Fagu

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

333

grandifoUa) , yellow birch (Betula lutea),
white pine (Pinus strobus), hemlock
(Tsuga canadensis), type of the Alle-
gheny Plateau (Allegheny Transition);
(4) Species of 3 plus red sprvce (Picea
rubra) and some upland balsam (Ahies
balsamea) of the Adirondacks from 1000
to 2500 ft. (Canadian Transition); (5)
Red spruce, balsam, paper birch {Betula
papyrifera), mountain ash (Pyriis ameri-
cana) of Adirondacks 2500 to 2500 ft.
(Canadian). Generally much modified
by human ageacj^, but in Adirondacks,
approximately as original. In general
the present secondary forests tend to
repeat original types. The mammalian
fauna included bison (Bison bison), at
least as far east as the salt licks at
Syracuse, moose (Aloes americana) "over
the entire state," but "extinct since the
early sixties," caribou (Rangifer caribou)
probably in the Adirondacks, elk (Cervus
canadensis) "throughout the state, ex-
tinct since early part of the nineteenth
century," Virginia deer (Odocoileus
virginianus) still abundant, northeastern
cougar (Felis couguar), bob-cat (Lynx
rufus), Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis),
timber wolf (Canis lycaon), black bear
(Ursus americanus), wolverine (Gulo
luscus), marten (Maries americana),
fisher (Martes pennanti), and southern
representatives, such as the opossum
(Didelphis virginiana) and southern
flying squirrel (Glaucomys volans).

II. NATURAL AREAS

1. Areas of biological interest

New York State has a large number of
parks, reserves, and memorial tracts of
varying character, among which the
following are subject to treatment as
preserved natural areas.

1. The Adirondack Park. (A2.) The
central portion of the Adirondack Moun-
tain region embracing 3,313,564, acres
of which 49% is State land. A diversi-
fied and geologically very old mountain
region of much worn, rounded sumuiils
with extreme elevation of 5344 ft. (Mt.
Marcy) and in general from 1500 to
2000 ft. Pronounced glacial effects seen

in modification of ancient drainage
(filling of streamways and creation of
large numbers of glacial lakes, e.g.,
the Fulton Chain). The Adirondack
Park, being one of the great recreation
grounds of America and within easy
reach of at least one-fifth of its popula-
tion, is annually penetrated to the
remotest points by tourists, campers,
hunters, and anglers. Hence, very
little, if any, of it may be said to be
wholly unmodified. Nevertheless, the
state lands within it and some of the
privately owned and club lands have
been preserved in approximately natural
condition.

The vegetation complex embraces:
Approximately natural areas of (I)
upland forest (a) of sugar maple, beech,
yellow birch, white pine, hemlock, and
red spruce (Canadian Transition zone),
(b), of red spruce, white spruce, balsam,
paper birch and mountain ash (Canadian
zone) ; (2) mountain summits with dwarf
red spruce, white spruce, balsam fir and
paper birch (Canadian zone species)
and numerous alpine plants, as Diapen-
sia lapponica, Lapland rose bay (Rodo-
dendron lapponicum), crowberry (Em-
petrum nigrum), bearberry willow (Salix
Uva-ursi) (Arctic-Alpine zone) ; (3) bogs
with sphagnum-sedge, heath-shrub, and
bog forest cover of black spruce (Picea
mariana), tamarack (Larix laricina)
and arbor vitae (Thuja occidentalis) .

References:

Bray, Wm. L. Development of the
Vegetation of New York. State
Tenical Publ. 3: N. Y. State Coll.
Forestry, 1915.

Miller, Gerritt S., Jr. N. Y. Mam-
mals, Bull. N. Y. State Mus.,
vol. 6, No. 29: 1899.

Eaton, E. H. Birds of New York,
2 vols., Univ. State of New York,
Albany.

Streams are generally free from pol-
lution, and the game fish of these and the
lakes are maintained by stocking from
state hatcheries (e.g.. Old Forge, Sara-
nac Inn station).

334

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

References:

Bray, Wm. L. Op. cit.

Harshberger, J. W. The Plant For-
mations of the Adirondacks. Tor-
rey, 5:187-194, 1907.

Numerous State Conservation Com-
mission and State Museum Publica-
tions.

2. *The Catshill Park. (A2.) This
reservation embraces 576, 120 acres
occupj'ing the central portion of the
Catskill Mountains. Of this tract the
State owns 116,364 acres. This is the
main section of the Catskill uplift,
having elevations around 1000 to 4204
ft. (Slide Mountain). It is a region of
rounded contours and broad valleys,
of no glacial lakes, and with rapidly
flowing unpolluted streams.

Original biota at elevations 2000 to
3500 ft., similar to beech, sugar maple,
hemlock type (Canadian Transition)
of Adirondacks 1000 to 2500 ft. Plant
cover much modified in age and conifer
content by human agency. Large pred-
atory and game animals, except bear
and deer exterminated.

On the Hudson River side, the oak
(including chestnut oak), hickory, chest-
nut, tulip tree forest of the Hudson
Valley (Carolinian) extends up the
southeasterly facing valleys (coves)
nearly to the heart of the highlands.
From 1000 to about 3000 ft., sugar
maple, beech, yellow birch, white pine,
and hemlock (Allegheny Transition)
forest predominates, while above 3000
ft. the addition of red spruce, balsam
fir and similar numerous northerly forest
floor species indicate its relation with
the Canadian Transition zone of the
lower Adirondacks. Commercial soft
woods have been largely cut out, so that
the mountain slopes and summits are
covered with secondary hardwood for-
est, reproductions of spruce, balsam
fir and dwarf white birch, or burns with
fire weed, blueberry, popple, and fire
cherry. The valley's are in farms and
pastures. There are many acres of
approximately typical climax forest with
its characteristic forest floor species.

Deer not uncommon, black bear rare,
foxes, skunks, squirrels (red and gray),
and raccoons common. Abundant bird
fauna, including species of spruce-
balsam fir (Canadian) zone. Smaller
streams not much polluted, stocked with
trout. Traversed by State highways.
Go from Arkville, D. and H. R. R., to
Phonecia, 21 mi. and Tannersville, 35
mi.; by D. and H. from Kingston to
Phonecia, 27 mi.; by Catskill Mountain
and Incline Railway from Catskill-
on-the-Hudson to Haines Falls, 20 mi.
Hotels numerous; favorable camping
sites throughout the region.

In charge of the State Conservation
Commission, Albany, N. Y.

References :

Harshberger, J. W. Plant Formations
of the Catskills. Plant World,
8: 276-281, 1905.

Mearns, E. A., Notes on the Mammals
of the Catskill Mts., etc., Proc.
U. S. Nat. Mus. 21:341-360, 1898.

Pettis, C. R., Catskill Highways.
Recreation Circular No. 4. State
Conservation Commission Publi-
cation.

3. *Palisades Interstate Park. (D3.)
Secondary (sprout) forest, lakes, and
marsh; about 36,000 acres of the Hudson
Highlands, including the Palisades of
the Hudson, lying on the west bank of
the Hudson between Ft. Lee, New Jersey
and Fort Montgomery, New York.
Mountain-like upland with numerous
peaks from 1200 to 1400 ft. elevation,
series of upland lakes, broad valleys,
and fresh streams.

Original forest cover of oaks (includ-
ing chestnut oak), hickories, chestnut
(very abundant originally, now greatly
depleted by chestnut blight), tulip tree,
and at lower levels occasional sweet gum
(lower Transition to Carolinian zone).
Present forest vegetation much modified
but retafning original types by sprout
reproduction. Mountain laurel {Kalmia
laiifolia) on the slopes. Great laurel
{Rhododendron maximum) about interior
lake at 1000 ft. elevation. Deer occa-

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

335

sional; opossum, red fox, and common
smaller mammals. Summer bird fauna
abundant and varied, including ruffed
grouse, yellow-breasted chat, whippoor-
will, black duck, bald eagle. Cooper's
hawk, turkey vulture, cardinal and
Maryland yellow-throat (predominantly
Carolinian); 108 species listed by Silli-
man during two seasons.

Elevation from Hudson tide water to
1314 ft. (Bear Mountain.) Reached by
West Shore and O. & W. R. R.'s from
Englewood, New Jersey, to lona Island
near Bear Mountain, 40 mi.; by boat
from New York City to Bear Mountain
landing, 45 mi., by the Erie R. R. to
Tuxedo, 40 mi., from New York City.

Special facilities for camping, main-
tenance, and transportation provided bj^
the Palisades Interstate Park Conunis-
sion, address 90 Wall St., New York City.

References:

Publications of the Palisades Inter-
state Park Commission. Bull. 10,
N. Y. S. Coll. Forestry and Rec-
reational Studies in Palisades In-
terstate Park, 1920.

Silloway, P. M. Guide to Summer
Birds: Bull. No. 11, N. Y. S. Coll.
Forestry, 1920.

4. "Allegheny Slate Park. (D3.)
Modified Allegheny Plateau forest;
about 6500 acres in southern New York
(Cattaraugus County) adjacent to Alle-
gheny River and embracing finest type
of deeply eroded Allegheny Plateau
highlands.

Original forest cover of sugar maple,
beech, yellow birch, and notable occur-
rence of best white pine, hemlock, and
cucumber tree {Magnolia acuminata),
oaks, hickories, and tulip tree at lower
elevations. Original mammalian fauna
embraced large game animals (deer
and probably moose and wapiti) (Miller,
New York Mammals); bear, panther,
wild cat, lynx, and many smaller
mammals.

Forest cover much modified, depleted
upland type, and mostly hardwood
species but with areas of natural climax

forest conditions (except for depletion
of pine and hemlock); black bear and
deer still occur, the former scarce.
Birds characteristic of southern New
York uplands abundant; ruffed grouse,
native; pheasants introduced and hunted
under close restrictions. Small streams
and brooks of the uj)lands unpolluted.

Elevation about 1400 to 2376 ft.

Reached from Salamanca via Penna.
R. R. to Tunesassa, 15 mi. Special
camping facilities provided by the
Allegheny Park Commission, local mem-
ber, Hon. Albert Faucher, Salamanca,
N. Y.

Publications of informational charac-
ter by the Commission.

5. *Letchworth Park. (D3.) Modi-
fied stream, gorge and bluff vegetation.
About 1000 acres both sides of Genesee
River at Portage Gorge, near Portage,
New York. Typical mixed forest (Tran-
sition) of oaks, maple, beech, white
pine, and hemlock: north facing crest
of gorge with paper birch here out of
its usual range. More level areas much
modified by park improvements. No
large mammals; smaller mammalian and
bird fauna characteristic of Allegheny
Plateau region of New York, moderately
polluted stream, but not to extent of
eliminating game fish, elevation, 850 ft.
(below falls) to 1400 ft. ; deeply cut gorge.

From Rochester 50 mi. southwest to
Portage via Penna. R. R., hotel (Letch-
worth Inn). — Park Commissioner, Letch-
worth Park, N. Y.

6. * Enfield Falls Reservation. (D4.)
Deep gorge habitat of Cayuga Lake
Basin; 387 acres of gorge and bluffs with
waterfalls, five miles southwest of
Ithaca, New York. Remnant of appro.x-
imately natural conditions favorable
for field study and employed for this
purpose by naturalists at Cornell Uni-
versity, 6 mi. Elevation 450 to 1000 f t.—
Professor James G. Needham, Ithaca,
N. Y.

7. *Clark Reservation. (D4.) Hart's
tongue fern {Scolopendrium vulgare)
habitat. About 100 acres adjacent to
and including Green Lake (a glacial
cataract plunge basin); modified forest

336

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

cover of the maple-beech-birch type
(Allegheny Transition) with well pre-
served forest floor vegetation, especially
rich in ferns. Features of outstanding
interest, a series of glacial drainage
channels and pot-holes of cooler summer
temperature with colonies of hart's
tongue fern. One of the main areas for
study by staff and students of natural
history departments at Syracuse
University.

Go from Syracuse 6 mi. southeast via
D. L. &. W. R. R., or Syracuse Suburban
electric to Jamesville and walk one mile.
Walk from University campus 4 mi.
Elevation 550 to 800 it.— William L.
Bray, Syracuse Univ., Syracuse, N. Y.

Reference:
Hunter, Mabel R. The Present Status
of Scolopendrium in New York
State. Amer. Jour. Bot., 9: 28-36.
1922.

8. "McLean Bogs. (A4.) Bog plant
associations related to peat and marl
deposits. 100 acres occupying glacial
moraine area located about 15 mi. north-
east of Ithaca and one mi. east of the
village of McLean, a good example of the
Central New York type of bogs occupy-
ing shallow glacial basins in a limestone
region; small mammal and bird fauna
characteristic of Allegheny Plateau
region; used as a biological field station
by Cornell University, a member of
whose biological faculty is by special
provision made custodian of the pre-
serve. Elevation, 1000 ft.

Go 15 mi. northeast of Ithaca via
Lehigh Valley R. R. to McLean, walk
one mi. east — Prof. James G. Needham,
Cornell University, c^istodian.

Reference :
Needham, James G. McLean Bog.
Science Monthly, 12: 246-252, 1920.

9. Spring Lake Marl Ponds. (A4.)
Peat Bogs, and Swamps. An area of
several hundred acres, comprising a
series of small lakes or ponds surrounded
by numerous bogs, swamps, and prairies.

Ontario Basin topography, 20 mi. north
of Cayuga Lake. Good botanical col-
lecting ground, especially rich in orchids
(25 species listed). Typical Central
New York bogs and swamps associated
with marl deposits. Elevation 400 ft.
Walk of about 8 mi. from Savannah
or Port Byron on the N. Y. Central and
Rochester-Syracuse electric. — Profs. K.
M. Wiegand and A. M. Wright, Cornell
University, Ithaca, N. Y.

Reference :
Metcalf, F. P., and Griscom, L. Rho-
dora, 19:28-37 and 48-55, 1917.

10 West Junius Bogs and Marl Ponds.
(A4.) 100 to 300 acres lying 6 mi. north
of Geneva. "Affords excellent examples
of marl springs, marl moor and marl
ponds as contrasted with peat bogs and
ponds." Flora very rich containing
many rare plants. Elevation, 400 ft. —
Prof. K. M. Wiegand, Cornell University.

References:
Rowlee, W. W., Relation of Marl
Ponds and Peat Bogs. Mem. Brook-
lyn Bot. Garden, 1: 410-414, f. 1-3,
1918.

11. Bergen Swamp. (A4.) 100 to 200
acres of typical bog and swamp vegeta-
tion, 20 mi. southwest of Rochester
between the West Shore R. R. and Black
Creek; "one of a succession of swamps
which occupy a depression extending
from the Genesee River to the Niagara
River: 100 acres of open bog and
swamp — a marl bed covered with grass-
like plants, chiefly sedges, with patches
of sphagnum and a few dwarf cedars
(Thuja) and tamaracks. The surround-
ing belt of land is covered with a dense
jungle of cedar (Thuja) and tamarack;
one of the choicest locations for field
excursions from the University of Roch-
ester and by the naturalists of the
Rochester Academy of Science." Eleva-
tion 550 to 600 ft.

Go from Rochester via West Shore R.
R. 20 mi. southwest to Byron on the
New York Central to Bergen. — Prof.
W. D. Merrill, Univ. of Rochester.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

337

Reference :

Beckvvith, Florence, and Macauley,
Mary E. Plants of Monroe Count}',
New York. Proc. Rochester Acad.
Sci., 3:1896. Extracted and repaged
pp. 1-150. Subsequent supple-
ments by Baxter, etc.

See also State Botanists' Report, 1918.

12. Montezuma Marshes. (A4.) Cat-
tail marsh. Several thousand acres of
low marsh land lying along the west side
of Cayuga Lake Outlet, immediately
northwest of the village of Cayuga, a
unique and widely known region of cat-
tail marsh merging on slightly higher
land into marsh meadow and swamp
forest. Marl, muck and peat deposits
indicating tj'pical hydrarch sequence of
vegetation. Small marsh mammals
(e.g., muskrat), marsh birds, feeding
ground for migrating ducks. Elevation
375 ft.

Reached by N. Y. Central (Auburn
Branch) Syracuse to Cayuga, 37 mi.,
by Lehigh Valley, Ithaca to Cayuga 40
mi., and by R. S. & E. Electric to Monte-
zuma.— Prof. E. H. Eaton, Hobart Col-
lege, Geneva, N'. Y.

13. The Hempstead Plains. (A4.) A
flat treeless area of about 50 sq. mi.
in the central part of Nassau Co., rapidly
encroached upon by truck farming,
suburban extension, etc., so that by
1907 only 10 sq. mi. remained in a natural
state. From 1907 to 1918 further en-
croachments had reduced the area by
at least one-tenth. (Harper). Several
hundred acres should still be available
for reservation. Typical prairie similar
in aspect to parts of the Great Plains.
Some portions resembling pine heath
with pitch pine, gray birch, black jack
oak, black huckleberry, sweet fern and
scrub oak. Characteristic prairie spe-
cies are broom beard grass, forked beard
grass, Indian grass, cat-gut {Cracca
Virginiana), savory-leaved aster, wild
indigo, star grass, etc. The area is
traversed by streams with adjacent wet
lands with marsh grass {Dulichium
arundinaceum) , cinnamon fern, sensitive

fern, royal fern, marsh shield fern, white
beaked rush, etc.

Elevation 40 to GO ft.

Go by Long Island R. R. to Garden
City 20 mi. from Pennsylvania Station,
New York City.— Dr. R. M. Harper,
College Point, N. Y.

References:

Harper, R. M. V^egetation of the

Hempstead Plains, Mem. Torr. Hot.

Club, 17:262-286, 1918; also Bull.

Amer. Geogr. Soc, 43:351-360, 1911.

14. Albany-Schenectady Sand Plains.
(A4.) Pine heath vegetation. Selected
areas of several hundred acres, availaljle
for preservation. Originall}' white pine
forest. Present vegetation a secondary
succession of pitch pine, gray birch,
heath shrubs, sweet fern, scrub oak,
broom grass, etc. Typical sand barren
or pine heath associations. Original
animal biota radically modified and
depleted. Area rapidly encroached
upon by cultivation and suburban ex-
tension. Elevation 250 to 300 ft.

Reached by New York Central from
Albany to Earner, 8 mi. or by Interurban
electric line. — Homer D. House, State
Botanist, Albany, N. Y.

References:
Bray, W. L. Development of the
Vegetation of New York State.
Bull. N. Y. State College of Forestry,
Tech. Pub., No. 3, 1915.

15. Plattsburg Sand Plain. (A4.) Sim-
ilar in topography, structure and
vegetation to the preceding. Original
plant cover white pine forest. Much
modified and subject to complete elimi-
nation as a natural biotic area by exten-
sion of cultivation and military usage.
(w) two or 3 mi. from Plattsburg. Ele-
vation 250 ft.

Reference :

Bray, Wm. L. Op. cit.

16. Sodus Bay Yellow Lotus Colony.
(A4.) Lake Ontario. A well preserved

338

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

almost pure stand of native species
{Nelumho lutea) at nearly the northerly
limit of its range. The only consider-
able colony of this species in New York
State, so far as known. In State-owned
waters and subject to reservation and
protection by the Conservation Com-
mission.

Reached by Northern Central R. R.
from Newark on N. Y. Central R. R. to
Sodus Point, about 18 mi. — Dr. Homer
D. House, State Botanist, Albany, N. Y.,
Mr. Alfred C. Weed, Field Museum,
Chicago, III.

References :
17th Report of State Botanist, 1918.
(Photograph).

Numerous State parks, monuments,
and protected water shed areas of minor
consequence as natural areas not listed
here. Many other larger or smaller
areas either within State parks (Red
Horse Chain of Lakes, Mt. Marcy,
Grasse River Bog, Bean Pond Bog in
the Adirondacks) or not specifically set
aside (Gardiners Island and Jones'
Beach, L. I.) might well be included in
the suggested natural areas for New
York State.

2. Other reserved areas by Stephen Mather

*Mohansic Lake Reservation consists
of 1100 acres in the town of Yorktown,
Westchester County.

*Watkins Glen is a reservation of 103
acres in the village of Watkins and the
town of Dix, at the head of Seneca Lake,
containing a picturesque rock-walled
glen about 3 mi. long with many water-
falls and cascades.

*Chittenango Falls is one of the
picturesque waterfall and gorge features
of Central New York. Gorge and hill-
side vegetation. Rare hart's tongue
fern. The spot is easily reached by a
good State highway from Cazenovia to
Chittenango.

*The John Boyd Thatcher Park com-
prises 350 acres, lying on the crest of the
Helderberg escarpment in the towns of
Guilderland and New Scotland, in

Albany county, cliffs, forest, small
streams and a beautiful lake. Go D.
& H. R. R. from Albany about 20 mi.
to Meadow dale.

Jones' Beach, Long Island, New York.
Character: Ocean beach, sand dunes,
salt marshes and tidal flats and creeks.
Reservation should include as much as
possible of the beach (which has dunes
on the land side) and also areas of the
salt marsh and the adjacent tidal flats.
The area is especially adapted for pre-
serving the fauna and flora of such
localities and as a reservation for shore
birds.

On south shore of Long Island, acces-
sible by motor boat from adjacent points
on main island, especially Freeport, L. I.

Gardiner' s Island, Long Island N. Y.
Island in Peconic Bay, over 3 mi. in
greatest length; Main island; fine
woods, chiefly of oaks; breeding colony
of fish hawks; colonies of terns, and
skimmers breed on the detached islands.

Reached by motor boat from Green-
port and Sag Harbor. — John T. Nichols.

Carman's River, Long Island, N. Y.
Character: Harwood forest bordering a
fresh-water running into Great South
Bay near Brookhaven; forest of oak,
pepperidge, etc.; ducks and other water
fowl. River for a couple of miles begin-
ning a little south of Yaphank, and in-
cluding the adjacent w^oods, but would
not have to be wide. Reached by long
Island R. R. to Yaphank Station. —
George P. Engelhardt.

7. PENNSYLVANIA

By John W. Harshberger

i. general conditions and original

BIOTA

Topographically the state of Penn-
sylvania is divided into five regions:
(1) south eastern coastal plain, a narrow
area; (2) the Piedmont or scattered
hills bounded on the west and northwest
by the Kittatinny or North Mountain;
(3) a middle region of symmetrical
mountains; (4) a western table land; and
(5) a northwestern table land. The

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

339

coastal plain consists of low lands along
the Delaware and Schujdkill rivers.
Sweet gum and willow oak are character-
istic trees and the muskrat is common.
The Piedmont, the central mountain
mass and the Alleghany plateau were
originall}- and are covered with decidu-
ous forest of black, white and red oak,
chestnut, tulip tree, ashes, hickories and
black walnut. Dogwood, honcj'suckle,
spice Inish and laurel are important
undergrowth shrubs, while bloodroot,
mayapple, Indian turnip, hepatica, arbu-
tus [Epigaea repens) are abundant
herbaceous plants of the forest floor.

The valleys of the several large rivers
possess characteristic plants. Hemlock
is common in some parts on the lower
ground, while the high mountain tops
have groves of table mountain pine.
The celebrated Eear Meadows of the
mountain district support the pitcher-
plant, orchids, etc.

The northern plateau is continuous
with the Catskill mountain plateau,
reaching in the Pocono region, an eleva-
tion of 2200 ft. (Rhododendron cana-
dense), creeping snowberry (Chiogenes
hispidula) plants which are characteris-
tic of the mountains farther north occur.
Originally the fauna included the elk,
Virginia deer, black bear, cougar, timber
wolf, beaver, opossum, porcupine, rac-
coon, gray squirrel, woodchuck, red
fox, gray fox (Urocyon cinereoar-
genteus), and skunk (Mephitis nigra).
The birds included the wild turkey,
turkey vulture, whippoorwill, wood
and hermit thrushes, song sparrow, and
red-headed woodpecker. Occasionally
marine whales and porpoises have come
up the Delaware River to the shores of
the state.

II. PRESENT CONDITION OF THE BIOTA

The original forests have been almost
entirely removed and much that is now
nearly natural is really second growth.
The wapiti is extinct and the number of
other game animals greatly reduced.
All the larger streams are polluted.
Those which drain the coal regions have
suffered from acid mine seepage. So

much fine coal has been introduced into
the Susquehanna that it is dredged in
some places for fuel purposes.

III. NATUUAL AREAS

Pocono PUtleau Region. (C4.) Here
are located celebrated mountain resort.s,
many of them at 2000 ft. above sea level
comprising forest, lakes and mountain
streams and R. R.

Deciduous Forest near Broadhead Creek
Valley. (CI.) 20 sq. mi. of a wild
tangle of deciduous forest on mountain
and in valley; much laurel.

Reading Municipal Forest and Tree
Nursery. (HS.) Canadensis, Monroe Co.,
Pa. It has been preserved by the city
of Reading 1,000,000 coniferous and
broad-leaf trees planted.

Antietam Lake, Berks County. Two
mi. east of Reading, Pa., endangered by
grazing. — J. \V. H.

Nockamixon Rocks, or Delaware Pali-
sades. The sheer clifTs of red shale, 300
ft. high, facing the Delaware River, are
covered with an interesting forest of
such trees as sugar maple, cherry birch,
linden (Tilia ameri'cana), slippery elm,
and such shrubs as Hydrangea arbores-
cens, nine-bark, bladder nut, red-berried
elder and others. Mosses and ferns
abound and on a steep slope near the top
the local Sedum roseum.

Kintnersville and Upper Black Eddy,
Fa.— J. \V. H.

Playidcky Oak. (Do.) This historic
tree which marks one of the points of the
Penn purchase.

One mi. north of Wrightstown, Bucks
Countv, Pa.—./. IT. H.

Rock Hill Marsh. (C3.) This marsh
which is noted for the growth of the buck
bean (Menyanthes trifoliata) out of its
range should be perserved by the pur-
chase of 2 acres of marsh. Rock Hill,
Bucks Co., Pa.— J. W. H.

Tohickon Creek Forest. (D5.) Along
Tohickon Creek which has in some places
precipitous banks covered with decidu-
ous and hemlock forest.

Bucks Co., 5 mi. south of Doylestown,

Pa / W H

Rock Hill,' Bucks Co., Pa. (C3.)
There should be preserved 10 acres of
rockv hill slope as a means of preserving
the climbing fumitory [Adlumiafungosa)
and other rare plants.
Rock Hill Station, Bucks County, Pa.

-./. 11'. //.

*]Vissahickon Creek Forc.-it. {Do.,
Part of Fairmount Park of Philadelphia.
Along Wi.ssahickon Creek are found
mixed dcciiluous hemlock forests inter-
spersed with open country which was

340

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

once farmland. Adequate roads and
walks have been provided.

Wissahickon Valley 6 mi. north of
Philadelphia.—/. W. H.

Delaware River Tidal Marsh. (B2.)
The tidal marshes of the Delaware river
are worthy of preservation because fre-
quented by birds and because of their
botanical interest. There are the feed-
ing grounds of the shad and other food
fishes.

Eddington, Pa., Bucks Co., Pa.—
J. W. H.

Painter Arboretum. (H8.) This ar-
boretum was founded by Jacob and Min-
shall Painter about 80 years ago; it
comprises about 100 acres. Here they
planted many rare trees, now grown to
maturity. The rare trees included cedar
of Lebanon (Cedrus Libani). Gordonia
pubescens, redwood {Sequoia semper-
virens), big tree (Sequoia giganlea),
varnish tree (Koelreuteria paniculata),
and bald cypress (Taxodium distichum)
with well-developed knees.

Delaware County, one mi. west of
Lima.—/. W. H.

Pink Hill. (CD.) Along Dismal Run
is a serpentine outcrop on w^hich grown
black jack oak (Quercus marilandica) ,
postoak [Q. stellata), Phlox subulata,
Cerastium o'longijolium, etc. This hill
slope of 10 acres should be preserved.
Wee Harshberger, John W.: "The
Flora of the Serpentine Barrens of S. E.
Penna.," Science, new ser. XVIII: 339-
343, September 11, 1903; Pennell, F. W.:
"Flora of the Conowingo Barrens of S.
E. Penna.,' Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.
Phila..mO: 541-584; 1912: 520-539.

One mi. north of Lima, Delaware
County.—/. W..H.

Crum Creek Deciduous Forest. (C3.)
8000 acres or more of the valley and val-
ley slopes of Crum Creek. The water of
this creek furnishes the drinking water of
nearby towns as supplied by the Spring-
field Water Co. There is some of the
finest forest in eastern Pennsylvania
with hemlock groves prominent. The
herbaceous flora is also rich in such forms
as blue cohosh {Caulophyllum thalic-
troides), wild ginger (Asarurn canadense),
green violet (Hybanthus concolor), etc.
The principal area which should be
preserved by the state lies 2 miles east of
Media, Delaware County, Pa., 20 to 30
minutes by trolley from Phila. See
Harshberger, John W.: "A Phytogeo-
graphic Sketch of Extreme Southeastern
Penna.," Bull. Torr Bot. Club, 31: 125-
159, March, 1904.

Delaware County, Pa., between
Swarthmore and West Chester Turn-
pike.—/. W. H.

Forest and River Shore on Lower Sus-

quehanna. (C3.) See Porter, Thos. C:
"The Flora of the Lower Susquehanna,"
Bull. Torr. Club, 25: 485-494, Septem-
ber, 1898.

York Furnace in the Counties of Lan-
caster and York. Reached from Colum-
bia and Safe Harbor. — /. W. H.

Deciduous Forest. (C3.) Located in
a narrow defile or gorge of the South
Valley Hills Philadelphia and Norris-
town. Here Gulph Creek breaks its way
by water gap through hills composed of
Octoraro Schist. See Harshberger, John
W.: "Slope Exposure and the Distribu-
tion of Plants in Eastern Penna." Bull.
Geog. Soc. Phila., XVII: 43-61, Apr., 1919.
Gulph, Pa. Between Philadelphia and
Norristown P. & W. Electric.—/. W. H.
Mixed Forest on Slate hills. (C3.)
Here under oaks and other trees grown
the rare box-huckleberry {Gaylusaccia
brachycera), known to grow in only in a
relatively few other localities in the
world. See Coville F. V. : "The Threat-
ened Extinction of the Box Huckleberry,
Gaylusaccia brachycera," Science, new
ser. L: 30-34, July 11, 1919.

South of New Bloomfield, Perry Co.,
Pa.—/. W.H.

Coniferous and Deciduous Forest.
(B3.) Located on a mountain plateau
2000 feet in elevation; lake plants,
deciduous and coniferous forest. Ea-
glesmere is a noted resort.
Eaglesmere. — /. W. H.
Black Forest. (C2.) There are 3000
sq. mi. of coniferous (hemlock) and
hardwood forest covering a hilly
country.

In several counties (Cameron, Clinton,
Elk, Lycoming, McKean, Potter, Tioga
and Warren) near Renova, Pa. — /. W. H.
Center County Barrens. (C3.) Here
are 10 acres of coniferous and mountain
forest with sandy pine barrens without
a counterpart anywhere in the western
Pennsylvania or western New York.

7 or 8 mi. southwest of State College in
Center County.— /._ W. H.

Clarion River deciduous and coniferous
forest. (H8.) Along the Clarion River.
Here 2000 acres have been planted to
100,000 white pine trees. There is some
primeval forest of oak, chestnut, maple,
ash and white pine.
Foxburg, Clarion Co., Pa.
Cook Tract. (B3.) About 7600 acres
of which 4000 are covered with forest
primeval. The ground rises 300 to 500
ft. above the river and is covered with
fine white pine, hemlock and cherry.
The purchase of the tract has been
advocated by the Pennsylvania Forestry
Association and the Wild Life League.

Clarion, Forest and Jefferson County
Cooksburg. — /. W. H.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

341

Tamarack Sphagnum Bog in Pyma-
tuning Swamp. (C3.) There are about
100 acres that should he preserved at
once, for each year sees more of the
Tamarack cut off. Here grow pitcher
plant _ (Sarracenia purpurea), Lonicera
altissima and many more plants de-
scribed by Dachnowski, Alfred, in Peal
Deposits of Ohio, 1912: 33. It should be
purchased by State Dept. of Forestry.

About two mi. west of Hartstown. —
0. E. Jennings.

*Presque Isle Sand Dunes and Decidu-
ous Forest. (B2.) A tract of unknown
area is located on Lake Erie. Here is a
series of successions on sand in inland
lake regions. Part of the island has been
turned over to the City of Erie for a
water park and still more recently some
of it for a state fish hatchery. For the
latter purpose, the large inland ponds
are being dredged out and connected by
artificial canals. The park should be
preserved in its natural state by the
nation, as it is under control of the War
Department, Erie, Pa.^J. W. H.

Sheffield (Warren Count]]) Areas.
South Sheffield Wood. (C3.) Contains a
few scattered large white pines, the larg-
est apparently about 140 ft. high or
more, and 4 ft. or more in diameter.
The wood was largely hemlock with red
oaks, maples, some red birch, cherry and
tulip trees, quite similar in size and
character to that described below.
Located south of Sheffield. — Willard G.
Van Name.

North Sheffield Wood. (C3.) Large
tract of old woods on hills N. and N. E.
of town south of 4 mi. creek. Tract
begins practically in sight of W. part of
town. Very dense stand of hemlock in
some places. Usual height of hardwood
trees in this tract 80 to 85 ft., some hem-
locks 100 ft. or a little over, but majority
90 to 95 ft. Almost no pines. Few
trees of large diameter.

Sheffield, Warren Co. — Willard G. Van
Name.

8. WEST VIRGINIA
By W. E. Rl-msey

i. general conditions

The mere mention of the name West
Virginia brings to mind a state irregular
in outline, uneven in surface, and of
great natural resources. At least 85%
of its area consists of hills and moun-
tains. The only broad valleys are those
of the Ohio, the Kanawha, the Potomac,
and the Shenandoah rivers. The eleva-

tion ranges from 260 to 48G0 ft. A
clearer idea of the general surface
features of the state can be conveyed by
dividing it into three parts, namely,
the Ohio Valley Section, the Mountain
Region, and the Potomac Area. The
first division includes about half of the
State, sloping westward from the Alle-
gheny Mountains to the Ohio River and
constituting the northeastern continua-
tion of the tableland of the Cumberland
Mountains. In all places this plateau is
dissected by narrow valleys so that it is
recognizable as such only in a general
view from high elevations. This area
varies in altitude from 500 ft. at the
mouth of the Big Sandy River, to 1500
ft. on the hill tops nearest the moun-
tains. The Allegheny Region may be
said to begin at the 1500-ft. elevation
near the eastern border of Monongalia
County at the north and lies east of a
line drawn from this place in a south-
westerly direction to the eastern e.x-
tremity of Kentucky. This is but an
arbitrary- division for the hilly area of
the Ohio Valley Section and the Moun-
tain Region pass almost imperceptibly
into each other. In the eastward rise
from the 1500-ft. level there are thou-
sands of mountain tops arranged irre-
gularly and deeply cleft, followed by
long undulating ridge after ridge to the
crest of the Alleghenies — the highest
point of which is Spruce Mountain in
Pendleton County, 4SC0 ft. high. From
this summit the portion of the mountain
region to the east is of greater unifor-
mity. The ranges extend in a north-
eastern and southwestern direction with
much regularity and each successive
eastward ridge is less elevated than the
preceding one. The 1500-ft. level, which
may be taken as the eastern edge of this
area, is reached in Grant County. The
remainder of the State constitutes the
Potomac section which is commonly
known as the Eastern Panhandle. Its
elevation runs from 200 ft., at the east-
ern border, near Harpers Ferry, to the
1500 ft. level mentioned above.

While there arc no natural lakes in
West Virginia its many rivers, nunier-

342

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

ous ever-flowing smaller streams, and
thousands of never-failing springe place
it among the best watered states. The
entire drainage of the State, except a
small area in the eastern part of Monroe
County, is through two river systems —
the Ohio and the Potomac. Thirty-
three of the 3S principal rivers in West
Virginia have their sources within the
borders of the State and many of these
rise near each other in the Allegheny
Mountains. There are many rapids,
cascades, and waterfalls in practically
all these streams until they reach the
lower levels in the Ohio or Potomac
regions.

II. PRESENT AND ORIGINAL BIOTA

Among the original timber trees that
are rapidly being removed from the
forests of West Virginia are the white
pine, red spruce, and tulip or yellow
polar, all of which were at one time
abundant in certain sections of the State.
The white pine was formerly common in
parts of Greenbrier, Mercer, Pendleton,
Pocahontas, Raleigh, and Tucker coun-
ties; and sparsely distributed in all
the counties east of the Allegheny Moun-
tains. West of the mountains it is
found in Doddridge, Gilmer, Jackson,
Monongalia, Preston, Ritchie, Taylor,
Wetzel, and Wirt Counties. White pine
is at present too scarce in the State to
attract the attention of lumbermen.
The red spruce is confined to the high
elevations of the Allegheny Mountains
and plateaus where it once formed the
greater part of vast forests. Now only
comparatively small areas of virgin
spruce timber remain owing to lumber-
ing and the forest fires that follow in its
wake. The tulip tree is rapidly being
converted into lumber as well as the
virgin stands of white pine and spruce.
At one time the tulip was abundant
throughout the western and central
portions of the State below the spruce
belt, but rare in the eastern section.
Some of the other trees and plants are
discussed in the account of natural areas
given elsewhere in this article.

When the sound of the settler's ax

began to ring in the forests of what is
now West Virginia many big game and
carnivorous animals roamed through
this region, but with the advent of civi-
lization practically all of these have
disappeared from the confines of the
State. History records that large herds
of bison were found in the Ohio and the
Great Kanawha valleys. While going
down the Ohio River by boat in 1765
Colonel Crogan saw a vast herd of these
animals crossing the river at the point
where the village of Letart, Mason
County, now stands. The last bison
killed in the State, as far as known, was
at Valley Head, Randolph County, in
1825. The elk is another of the big game
animals that formerly thrived in the
higher mountain regions. There is an
account of 3 elk having been killed in
the Canaan Valley (Tucker County)
about 1843 and the last record of these
animals was in 1845 when a herd of seven
was observed near Durbin, Pocahontas
County. In an effort to re-establish
the elk in the wilds of the Allegheny
mountains of West Virginia, the Alle-
gheny and Cheat Mountain Clubs in-
troduced 65 of these animals into Poca-
hontas County — 15 from Iowa in 1912
and 50 from the Yellowstone National
Park in 1913. These elk were placed in
a fenced area of 100 acres composed of
forest and pasture lands. Subsequently
about half of the animals escaped and
formed a wild herd which later divided
into two groups, one of which is still
in the wilds of Pocohontas County while
the other one has moved north into
Pendleton County. It is not definitely
known to what extent these two wild
herds have increased or diminished since
their escape from the inclosure. The
future of these animals depends upon
the continuation of condition^ suited to
their habits and needs, and upon their
protection through the enforcement of
our game laws. The beaver at one time
constructed dams and built homes in
West Virginia, but until a few months
ago it was supposed to have been ex-
terminated here by civilization and
trappers as none of its work had been

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

343

reported for many years. During the
autumn of 1922 a report became current
that beavers were building a dam on
North Fork River in Hampshire County.
A. B. Brooks, Chief Game Protector,
inspected this locality about February
8, and judges from the amount of cutting
that there must be a colony- of good
size. In one place there were 15 willows
gnawed down, all of their branches and
parts of their trunks cut up and hauled
off. The trees were from 8 to IG in. in
diameter, and all had been cut during
the past three or four months. Where
this colony of beavers came from is yet
unknown. The porcupine, too, was
undoubtedly more or less common in the
higher mountain areas, but it has not
been seen in this range for many years.
The last record of the animal in the
State was the presence of its tracks in
the snow observed by C. L. Brooks in
Morgan County in 1913. > The panther
or cougar is extinct notwithstanding an
occasional report to the contrary. The
Canadian lynx no doubt lived in the
AUeghenies of the State for it is known
to have inhabited these mountains in
the southern part of Pennsylvania.
Along with the other wild life men-
tioned the gray or timber wolf is now
ex-tinct in West Virginia. What is con-
sidered as the last one of this species
here was killed in Randolph County by
Stofer Hamrick in January, 1900. The
marten a former inhabitant of the State
has disappeared and the otter has not
been seen for many years. The simple
mention of the passenger pigeon reminds
one of the past.

Owdng to the many streams that rise
within its borders West Virginia has
been rightly named the "Birthplace of
Rivers." These numerous streams of
crystal, sparkling water heading among
the mountain peaks and ridges wending
their way through the highland forests
amid unsurpassed scenic beauty as
cascades, rapids, rifHes, and mirror-
like pools make a fisherman's paradise.

1 Since this article was wiitten a porcupine was
seen in Preston County by a hunter, Cliarles Cox,
during November, 1923.

Here the native speckled trout is yet
plentiful and a week's vacation in these
places where civilization has not pene-
trated, where the hoot-owl calls the
watches of the night and the vcery sings
by day one forgets the cares of business
and professional life and in the arms of
nature the flush and vigor of youth is
renewed. While fish is becoming less
abundant in the lower reaches of the
streams the restocking of some of the
waters of the State, which has been
going on for some time, will tend to keep
up the supply. In addition to the wild
life alreadj' mentioned the smaller game
animals are yet present but greatly
reduced in numbers. The black bear,
Virginia deer, and wild turkey are also
found in limited numbers in the moun-
tain section. Ruffed grouse is yet
plentiful in certain areas of the State.

III. POLLUTIO.\

Although the headwater streams still
retain their pure sparkling waters practi-
cally all of them in their lower reaches
have become polluted by coal mines,
tanneries, pulp and paper mills, chemical
plants, and sewage from cities and towns
located along their banks. Perhaps the
least polluted river in West Virginia is
the Great Cacapon, which has its source
in the southern extremity of Hardy
County and flows in a northeasterly
direction through Hardy, Hampshire,
and Morgan Counties, emptying into
the Potomac near Great Cacapon village.
Up to the present time very little has
been done to check the pollution of the
streams in the State other than by
prohibiting the dumping of sawdust into
the water. May the activities of the
few people of this generation who are
striving for the preservation of natural
conditions in the different states and
provinces of America bring about the
establishment and maintenance of many
such desirable and important sanc-
tuaries. Speed the day when man shall
be disenthralled from his enslaving
selfishness and think more about the
future of his race and nation; then the

344

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

vvanton destruction of plant and animal
life will cease and the denuded moun-
tains shall again l)e clothed with their
forest verdure where wild life always
abounds and the crystal-like streams flow
regularly in their onward rush to the sea.

IV. NATURAL AREAS

*Monongahela National Forest and
Shenandoah National Forest (Va. and
W. Va.). See account in "National
Forests of the Eastern District."

*Spruce Mountain. The highest
mountain in West Virginia is located in
the western part of Pendleton County
within the Monongahela Area of the
National Forest and is known as
Spruce Mountain (or Spruce Knob).
It consists of a flat-topped mountain
18 mi. long the crest of which varies in
width from one-fourth to one-half mile.
The ridge contains scattered growths
of the original red spruce, and several
species of deciduous trees. Black
huckleberry, red raspberry, dwarf cor-
nel, Hooker's orchis and other plants
are found along the slopes. Aside from
the animals common in other parts of
the State there are found representa-
tives of the coniferous forest fauna
among which are bob-cat {Lynx rufus),
snowshoe hare, smoky shrew, star-
nosed mole, red-backed vole, and Cana-
dian deer-mouse. Among the birds not
commonly found elsewhere in the
State are the red-breasted nut-hatch,
Canadian warbler, veery and olive-
backed thrush. 4860 ft.; level.

Cumberland, Md., 14 mi. east, B. & O.
to Green Spring, 50 mi. south on branch
line to Petersburg, 25 mi. south (a),
dirt road to Franklin, 20 mi. west (a),
dirt road to Circleville, at base of moun-
tain.— A. B. Brooks.

Gauley River Virgin Forest.^ An area
of virgin forest of about 50,000 acres is
the largest tract of undisturbed timber
land in West Virginia at this time (1922),
and is located principally in Pocahontas
County at the headwaters of the Gauley,

' Available after the region has been cut over.

the Williams, and the Elk Rivers. Prac-
tically one-half of this wooded region,
a rough mountainous country, is covered
with mountain coniferous forest, chiefly
red spruce and hemlock, and the balance
deciduous forest; such as yellow and
sweet birch, sugar maple, tulip tree and
various species of oak. This virgin
forest tract is being rapidly reduced in
size by lumbering operations, but it
will take about 20 years at the present
rate of logging to complete the cutting.
As with other high elevations in the
State many plants of a more northern
range are found here. Among the
animals are Virginia deer, black bear,
bob-cat, red and gray fox, raccoon, red
and gray squirrels, and many other
smaller mammals. Many birds belong-
ing to the coniferous forest fauna nest
in the mountains of this region. 2000
to 4800 ft.; level.

Clarksburg, 70 mi. south, B. & O. R.
R. to Holly Junction, 30 mi. east, W.
Va. & M. R. R. to Webster Springs; 25
mi. east by wagon road up Elk River or
south 5 mi. across mountain to the
Gauley River and east 25 mi. up this
stream. — A. B. Brooks.

Kate's Mountain. Kate's Mountain
lies just south of White Sulphur Springs,
Greenbrier County. It has an area of
about 40 sq. mi. and is in the form of a
mountain ridge with abrupt margins on
the east, west and north. Deciduous
forest covers it in the main, with small
tracts of mountain coniferous forest on
the higher elevations such as are found
in the Appalachian region. Owing to
lumbering operations and forest fires
much of this territory is not in its origi-
nal natural condition. This area is of
special interest to the botanist on ac-
count of a species of clover (Trifolium
Virginicum) , that grows on the mountain
side. This rare and indigenous plover
has not been recorded elsewhere in the
United States. It is a small inconspicu-
ous plant occurring only in restricted
areas and therefore hard to find. An-
other interesting plant. Clematis ovata,
closely associated with this clover has
here its northern limit. Owing to the
overlapping of plants of a more northern
and southern habitat on and about
Kate's M!ountain the place has added
value to the naturalist. 3000 ft.; level.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

345

White Sulphur Springs, or Dry Fork
Village, C. &. O. R. R., at north end of
mountain. — C. L. Brooks.

Ice Mountain. Ice Mountain on the
North Fork of Cacapon River, IlaTnp-
shire County, is an area of about 100
acres, extending from the east bank of
the river to the top of the mountain.
Here the mountain slope is covered with
a loose talus of sandstone boulders,
within which an inunense quantity of
ice is formed each winter. Over a small
portion of this tract, at the foot of the
mountain, ice persists throughout the
summer, affecting the vegetation.
While the elevation is only 1000 ft. the
plants are such as are found in other
parts only at altitudes of 4000 ft. or
over, e.g., twin flower (Linnaea borealis),
dwarf cornel (Cornus canadensis) and
oak fern {Phegopteris dryopteris). The
line of demarkation between the plants of
adjacent territory and those of the ice
area is distinctly visible, making a
study easy.

The forest is composed chiefly of red
cedar, hemlock, oak, birch, chestnut,
and maple. In the forest are red and
gray fox, raccoon, opossum, red and
gray squirrels, chipmunk. Virginia deer
and black bear. The bird life is charac-
terized by the wild turkey, ruffed
grouse, turkey vulture, and a large num-
ber of song birds. 1000 ft. ; level.

Ciimherland, Md. 14 mi. east, B. & O.
R. R. to Green Spring, 40 mi. south,
branch line to Moorefield, W. Va. 30
mi. northeast (a) ; or Winchester, Va. 30
mi. west fa) improved and dirt roads to
Capon Bridge, W. Va.; 10 mi. west (a)
and (w). — A. B. Brooks.

Cranbemj Glades. (Available.) The
southwestern portion of Pocahontas
County is a high mountainous region
originally covered with mountain conif-
erous forests and deciduous forests
where game of many kinds was plentiful.
A large portion of this tract has now
been greatly changed by fire and lumber-
ing. These forest areas are of great
importance for stabilization of stream
flow.

Near the head of the Cranberry River,
on the southwestern border of the ter-
ritory mentioned, are the Cranl)crry
Glades. This swampy area consists of
one glade containing from 300 to 400
acres. This tract and its environs are
teeming with a variety of plant and
animal life. Among the former are
ground hemlock {Taxus canadensis),
northern rattlesnake plantain {Epipachs
rcpens var. ophioides), rose pogonia
(Pogonia ophioglossoides), horned blad-
derwort {Ulricalaria cornuta), sphagum

moss (Sphagnum girgensnhnii) and cran-
berry {Vacciniinn macrocarpon and V.
o.rycoccos) . Such animals as the masked
shrew (Sorex personalus), the smoky
shrew (,Sorcx fumerus), the red-backed
mouse iEvolomys gapjicri), and the
yellow-checked meadow mouse (Microtns
chrolorrhinus) are found in and about the
glade. In the forest are \'irRinia deer,
black bear b(il)-cat (Lynx rufu.'i), red
and grav fox. raccoon, grav squirrel, and
redsciuirrcl. Tliebird life during nesting
time is marvelous. Such species as the
alder flycatcher, olive sided flycatcher,
swamp sparrow are among tho.se that
nest in the trees and shrul)s and the
grasses and sedges of this glade, while
the cairn's warl)ler, mourning warl)lcr,
mountain solitary vireo, olive backed
thrush, and other species have their
habitat in the surrounding forest.
Glade 3100 ft. Level with surrounding
mountains arising from 1000 to 1500 ft.
above it.

Grafton, 59 mi. southeast, B. &. O.
and W. M. R. R. to Elkins, 95 mi. south,
W. M. and C. & O. R. R. to Seebert,;
or Ronceverte, 40 mi. northeast, C. &
O. R. R. to Seebert, W. Va., 14 mi. west
to the Glades** — 9 miles (a) or wagon,
remaining 5 mi. (h) or (w). — A. B.
Brooks.

Cranesville Szvaynp. (Available.)
This is an area of about 500 acres
near Cranesville, Preston County, on
the West Virginia-Maryland border.
Plants and animals that belong to the
• northern flora and fauna are fotuid here,
and the place is frequentlj' visited by
naturalists.

Originally this tract was covered \a ith
mountain coniferous forest consisting
of red spruce, white pine, hemlock, and
tamarack. At present these trees are
to be found only here and there. The
deciduous forest growth contains such
trees as chestnut, mountain ash {Pj/ru.'<
aniericana). oak, hard maple, and aspen.
In and about the swamp are found
gold thread (Coplis tri folia), dwarf
cornel {Cornus candcnsis), purple
fringed orchis tllabcnaria fimbriala),
and two species of Cranberry (Vacciniiini
macrocarpon and T'. ox1JCOccos^. Among
the animals are the snowshoe hare,
cottontail rabbit, gray sfiuirrel, red
squirrel, raccoon, and red and grav fox.
The northern water thrush, veory, Cana-
dian warbler, Nashville warbler, and
great blue heron are among the birds
found in this locality. 2500 ft.; level.

Terra Alta, 10 mi. north (a) over dirt
road to Cranesville, i mi. southeast. —
ir. E. Rum-^cy.

French Creek. A tract of about 1000

34G

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

acres lying within the basin of French
Creek on Little Bush Run in Upshur
County is a privately owned preserve.
This area is in a farming community,
hilly, with excellent water and good
grazing land. The plants and animals
of this locality are typical of the hilly
region which lies between the ridges of
the AUeghenies and the Ohio River.
This territory has perhaps contributed
more to the flora and fauna of the State
than has any other area of equal size.
The orchid family, for example, is well
represented in this locality. The fol-
lowing species occur here only, or are
very rare in the state: crane fly orchis
(Tipularia unifolia), green adder's
mouth (Microstylis unifolia), nodding
pogonia {Pogonia trianthophora), whorled
pogonia {Pogonia vcrticillata), fringeless
purple orchis ( Halenaria peramoena) .

Besides these rare orchids the follow-
ing are also found in this neighborhood:
small green wood orchis (Habenaria
clavellata), ragged orchis (H. lacera),
smaller purple fronged orchis {H. psy-
codes), moccasin flower (Cypripedium
acaule), yellow lady's slipper (C.parvi-
Uorum), showy orchis {Orchis spec-
tabilis), slender ladies' tresses {Spir-
(inthes gracilis\ nodding ladies' tresses {S.
cernua), rattlesnake plantain {Epipactis
pubescens), twayblade {Liparis lilii-
folia), coral root {Corallorhiza odonto-
rhiza), and putty-root {Aplectrum spica-
tum). Among the rare plants of other
families that occur along Little Bush
Run are adder's tongue fern {Ophio-
glossum vulgatum), leek {Allium tricoc-
cum) and fox grape {Vitis labrusca).
Of the many butterflies found here
Vanessa j-album and Tachyris ilaire
have no other West Virginia record and
the latter is recorded as occurring in
"Florida and throughout tropical
America." 1500 to 1700 ft. ; level.

Clarksburg, 40 mi. south to Buck-
hannon, or Grafton, 47 mi. south to
Buckhannon, 10 mi. south (a) to French
Creek village, W. Va., within the area. —
A. B. Brooks.

Tibb's run. An area of about 250
acres near the head waters of Tibb's
Run in Monongalia County is a game and
fish preserve. This tract is owned by
the West Virginia Utilities Co. By
means of a dam on this property a lake-
like body of water of about iS acres,
surrounded by wooded slopes and ridges,
has been formed. The woodland is of
second-growth deciduous forest inter-
spersed with hemlock and pitch pine.
Adjoining this tract is an additional area
of about 250 acres posted as a game pre-
serve. 1250 ft. ; level.

Morgantown, W. Va., 6 mi. east (a)
over improved and dirt roads. — W. E.
Rumsey.

Jackson's Mill Refuge. This preserve
is located in Lewis County on the West
Fork River and consists of about 2000
acres. A part of this tract is owned by
by the State. The area is made up of
bottom land and hills more than half of
which is cleared and used for agricul-
tural purposes. The wood lots scat-
tered over the tract are made up of
second-growth deciduous forest. The
quail, cottontail rabbit and gray squir-
rel are common. Bird life is abundant.
1000 to 1300 ft.; level. Clarksburg,
W. Va., 16 mi. south by trolley. — A. B.
Brooks.

Beech Run Game Refuge. A rough
mountainous tract of 2000 acreas on the
left fork of the Buckhannon River in
Randolph County has been set aside as
a State game preserve. The property
is privately owned and has been cut over
but it has good second-growth timber.
The forest now consists of hardwood
with a sprinkling of hemlock and spruce.
Among the animals found with the area
are black bear, Virginia deer, red and
gray fox, raccoon, gray squirrel, wild
turkey, and ruffed grouse. 1000 to 2500
ft.; level.

Clarksburg, 40 mi. south to Buck-
hannon, B. & O. : 30 mi. south to Alexan-
der, 10 mi. northeast by lumber road to
mouth of Beech Creek, 2 mi. (w). — A. B.
Brooks.

Petersburg Game Refuge. Located in
Grant County, near Petersburg on the
South Branch of the Potomac River.
It is a privately owned area of 2000 acres
composed of rough ridges and ravines
covered by a deciduous forest with a
scattering of scrub pine. Much of the
territory has been cut over. Such game
as wild turkey, ruffed grouse, quail, and
gray squirrel are found. 1000 to 2S00
ft. ; level.

Cumberland, Md., 14 mi. east B. & O.
to Green Spring, 50 mi. south on branch
road to Petersburg, W. Va., 2 mi. south
(w). — A. B. Brooks.

Lakin State Refuge. A privately
owned tract of 4000 acres in Preston
County under the supervision of the
State Game and Fish Commission.
The wooded areas consist of a scrubby
deciduous growth. 2500 to 2S00 ft.;
rolling.

Terra Alta, W. Va. Preserve reaches
to the town limits on the northeast. —
A. B. Brooks.

Paint Creek Game Refuge. An area of
about 10,000 acres in Kanawha, Fayette,
and Raleigh counties, between Cabin

NATURAL AllEAS AND REGIONS

347

Creek and Paint Creek, tributaries of
the Great Kanawha River, is a privately
owned game preserve. Tlie surface of
this tract is rough with high ridges
and narrow vallej's covered with decid-
uous forest. SOO to 3000 ft. ; level.

Charleston, \V. Va., 15 mi. southeast to
Cabin Creek Junction, C. & O., 20 mi.
south on branch line to Republic, within
the area. — A. B. Brooks.

Caves of West Virginia. (Available.)
There are many caves in West Virginia,
the most important of which are near
the Cheat and the Greenbrier rivers.
They are all of limestone formation and
are privatelj' owned. In some of them
there are exceptionally good specimens of
stalactites and stalagmites available for
study. Great numbers of the little
brown bat {Myoiis lucifugus) pass the
winter in some of the caves and some are
inhabited by the wood rat, {Neoloma
pennsylvanica). Three of the largest
and most accessible caves are described
here for the benefit of those interested
in natural subterranean chambers.

Rapp Cave is near Frankford, Green-
brier County, to the 2200 ft. level. Its
surface opening is only about 3 ft. high,
but v/ithin a few yards one finds large,
rough rooms. It has not been e.xplored
to any great extent, but is known to con-
tain excellent stalactites and stalagmites.

Organ Cave is near Ronceverte, Green-
brier County at the 2000 ft. level. The
natural opening is sufficiently high to
permit one to enter ec.sily into the long
one-roomed cavern which is about three-
quarters of a mile in extent. Not much
water seeps through the roof of this cave
but a considerable stream flows through
it. This is the only West Virginia cave
lighted with electricity.

Cornwell Cave is near Masontown,
Preston County, along the Cheat River
at the 900 ft. level. To enter this cave
one is compelled to crawl a distance of
45 ft. as the passage-way is less than 3 ft.
high. Beyond this low hall-way the
cavern opens into a succession of large
rooms, through one of which a small
stream flows. This cave extends into
the mountain for a distance of about one-
half mile. 900 to 2200 ft. ; level.

Ronceverte, 5 mi. north. Branch C. &
O. R. R. to Lewisburg, 10 mi. north (a)
over dirt road to Frankford, W. Va.; one
mi. northwest to Rapp cave. Ronce-
verte, 4 mi. southeast (a) over dirt roads
to Organ cave. Terra Alta, 12 mi. south-
west, B. & O. R. R. to M. & K. Junction,
35 mi. northwest, to Masontown, W. Va ;
or Morgantown, 14 mi., liranch B. & O.
southeast to Masontown, o mi. east (a)
over dirt roads and half mile (w) to Corn-
well cave.— A. /. Dadisman.

9. TENNESSEE
By R. S. Maddox

I. PUYSIOGKArmC FEATURES

(1) The Unaka Mountains and the
Great Smoky Mountains (a portion of
the Appalachian system), rise to an
elevation of about GOOO ft., and along
the summits of the main ridge runs the
boundary line between North Carolina
and Tennessee; the portions lying be-
tween Mt. Guyot and Clingmans Dome
including both these and Le Conte are
compelling in rugged grandeur. (2)
The East Tennessee Valley is a broad
fertile valley lying between the foot of
the Unakas on the East and the Cumber-
lands on the west; it is drained by the
Tennessee River which flows in a south-
westerly direction until it reaches north-
ern Alabama, turning there in a more
westerly direction to the northern part
of that state finally turning northward
between the West Tennessee Plateau
and the Highland Rim Section of Ten-
nessee. (3) The Cumberland Plateau
is a broad elevation on with average
elevation of 2000 ft. This plateau
might be termed the big coal bearing
section of the state.' (4) The High-
land Rim receives its name from its
being a fairly broad belt surrounding
the depression in the middle of the
state known as the Great Central
Basin. (5) The Great Central Basin or
blue-grass section of Tennessee is a
fertile limestone area with limestone
strata lying very close to the surface and
frequently outcropping. (G) The Pla-
teau of western Tennessee lies between
the Mississippi and Tennessee rivers
with an elevation ranging from about
120 to 500 ft. The Cumberland River
drains a portion of the Cumberland
Plateau, a portion of the Highland Rim
and a portion of the Great Central Basin,
flowing in a general southwesterly direc-
tion until directly after leaving Nash-
ville, thence turning northwesterly into
the Ohio River.

1 Vol. C, No. 3, Resources of Tennessee, State
Geological Survey.

34S

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

The original vegetation constituted
practically a vast wilderness of hard-
wood forests. There occur, however,
some of the coniferous species as follows:
bald cypress in the swamp lands and
along the sluggish streams of the West
Tennessee Plateau; short-leaf pine on
the southern part of this plateau: in
the Highland Rim, scrub pine (P. Vir-
giniana) and short leaf pine; in the
Cumberland Plateau white pine, short-
leaf pine, scrub pine and hemlock; in
the Unaka Range white pine (at its foot),
shortleaf pine, hemlock, red spruce,
Fraser fir and pitch pine; in the East
Tennessee Valley scrub pine, short leaf
pine and white pine; in the Great
Central Basin, red cedar {Juniperus
virginiana). Red cedar was found
originally in almost all sections of the
state, but was most abundant in the
Great Central Basin.

In the hardwood forests of the West
Tennessee Plateau, the principal species
were red oak, black oak, post oak, white
oak, scarlet oak, hickory, sweet gum,
tupelo gum, black gum, sycamore and
yellow poplar. On the Highland Rim,
the chief trees were red oak, black oak,
blackjack oak, post oak, red maple,
chestnut, poplar, hickory and white oak.
In the Great Central Basin, yellow
poplar, black oak, burr oak, red oak,
walnut, hickory, white oak, sugar maple,
hackberry, elm, American elm, and bass
wood were the chief trees; in the Cum-
berland Plateau were chestnut, yellow
poplar, white oak, black oak, red oak,
scarlet oak, walnut, bass wood, buckeye.
In the East Tennessee Valley were found
chestnut, yellow poplar, white oak, black
oak, walnut, hickory. In the Unaka
Range, chestnut, black cherry, cucumber
tree, white oak, black oak, yellow poplar,
sugar maple, l^lack birch and beech were
found. Mountain laurel and rhododen-
dron abound in some localities of the
Highland Rim, Cumberlands and Una-
kas. The forests which are replacing
the original are in type the same as the
original.

The original mammals included the
blaok bear {Ursus emericanus), Virginia

deer (Odocoileus virginianus), cougar,
grey fox, red fox, opossum, bob-cat,
raccoon, gray squirrel, fox squirrel,
flying-squirrel, muskrat, beaver, mink,
and otter.

The cougar, originally in the Unakas,
is now extinct. The birds of the state
are said to number about 275 species. ^
Among these are included the golden
eagle and the bald eagle. It is claimed
that there are not more than four pairs
of the bald eagle now in the state and
possibly one pair of golden eagle. The
bald eagle has its home in the woodlands
at Reelfoot Lake; here also the golden
eagle is an occasional visitor. The
golden eagle is said to nest and rear its
young in the Unaka Range, in Monroe
County, Tennessee. The wild turkey
and pheasant which once abounded in
all sections of the state, have become
very rare.

The streams abounded in fish consist-
ing largely, of yellow cat, channel or blue
cat, buffalo, eastern brook trout, black
bass, sucker, red horse and perch.

II. NATURAL AREAS

*Reelfoot Lake, State Game Preserve.
(B3.) This body of water is very ir-
regular in the contour of its banks and
is about 15 mi. long and probably 5 mi.
wide in its widest place. It was formed
by an earthquake in 1812. The lake
abounds in black bass, perch and crappie.
Reelfoot Lake can be reached by auto-
mobile from Union City, situated on
both the N. C. & St. L. Ry. and the
Mobile and Ohio Ry. The distance from
Union City to the lake is about 20 mi.
The lake may be reached also from
stations along the Illinois Central be-
tween Dyersburg and Rieves or from
stations along the C. M. & C. Ry. which
passes on the west side of the Lake.
(Nelson, Wilbur A.: "Reelfoot — an
Earthquake Lake in Tennessee." Nat.
Geog. Mag., 45: 95-114, January, 1924.)

There are no state parks. The state
however, owns a total of about
30,000 acres of land exclusive of Reel-

2 Preliminary list of birds in Tenn., by A. F.
Ganier (Nashville, Tenn.).

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

349

foot Lake on which state institutions
are maintained. On one of these tracts
(the Brushy Mountain in Morgan
County) the state coal mines are situ-
ated; on another tract (The Herbert
Domain, mostly in Bledsoe County)
is situated a branch of the State Train-
ing and Agricultural School for boys
(Colored Department). The State Pen-
itentiary and other state institutions
are maintained on the lesser tracts.

Portions of two National Forests, the
Cherokee and the Unaka, are located in
the eastern part of Tennessee. (See
National Forests of the Eastern
District.)

Along the channels of the Hatchie
River and the prongs of the Obion
River in West Tennessee there are still
standing a number of virgin cypress
trees.

So far as ultimate state forests are
concerned the two tracts, Herbert
Domain and Brushy Mountain, would
form two excellent nuclei. The Brushy
Mountain tract in particular, has many
of the biggest and oldest poplars and
chestnuts yet remaining in the state.

Near Chattanooga, Tennessee, is the
Chicamauga Park. Chattanooga is the
logical terminus from which to reach this
park.

10. KENTUCKY

By a. R. Middleton, W. R. Jillson,

Frank T. McFarland and W. A.

Anderson, Jr.

i. general account

1. Climate

Kentucky extends 400 mi. in an east-
west direction, from the Cumberland
Mountains of its eastern border, to the
lowlands of the Mississippi River at the
west. Some differences in temperature
and rainfall are evident in different parts
of the state. The mean annual tempera-
ture is 56°, slightly lower in the east,
higher in the west. The mean summer
temperature of the western section, 75°
to 80°, is 5° higher than that of the east-
ern plateau section. The temperature
range is about 140°, from -28° to over
100°. Rainfall is heaviest in the Cumber-

land River basin (45 to 51 in.) and light-
est in the Licking River basin (37 to 48
in.). Tliis is fairly evenly distriljuted
throughout the year; March and July
are months of heaviest precipitation;
September and October are the driest
months. The Bluograss Region is more
subject to droughts than the other parts
of the state; here a minimum rainfall of
26.5 inches is recorded.

2. Topography and biola {F. T. M. and
W. A. A., Jr.)

Kentucky may be divided into five
well defined physiographic areas.

1. That portion of the state lying east
of a line beginning at Portsmouth, Ohio,
and extending southwestwardly to about
Monticello, Ky., is very mountainous.
It is a part of the maturely dissected
Allegheny and Cumberland Plateaus.
The vegetation on the more mesophytic
slopes, is a characteristic beech-maple-
chestnut-hemlock formation (Fag us
grandifolia, Acer saccharum, Castanea
dentata, Tsuga canadensis). Among the
predominant trees of this mountainous
section are: beech, sugar maple, chest-
nut, hemlock, tulip tree (Liriodendron
lulipijera), bigleaf magnolia [_Magnolia
macrophylla), cucumber tree {Magnolia
acuminata), umbrella tree {Magnolia
tripetala), is very mesophytic areas; red
oak {Quercus rubra), chestnut oak
{Quercus prinus), Spanish oak {IJ.
falcata), white oak {Q. alba), shingle oak
{Q. imbricaria), walnut {Juglans nigra)
and sourwood {Oxydendron arboreum)
on slopes and shaly uplands; scrub pine
{Piiius virginiana), pitch pine (Pi«u.s-
rigida) and yellow pine {Pinus cchinala)
on sandstone summits. Some of tlie
shrubs and herbaceous plants are:
Rhododendron muimum, mountain
laurel [Kalniia latifolia), oilnut {Pyru-
laria pubera), several species of blue-
berry {Vacciniuni spp.) and huckleberry
{Gaylussacia spp.), and in the southern
part, muscadine grape (Vitis rolundi-
folia); bird-foot violet {Viola pedata),
Clintonia umbellata, climbing fern
{Lygodium palmalum), wintergreeu

350

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

{Gaultheria procumbens) and trailing
arbutus (Epigaea repens).

In this region are red fox (Vxdpes
fulva), skunk {Mephitis nigra), gray
squirrel, and a great variety of birds,
including both northern and southern
species. Rattlesnakes are numerous.
The larger mammals which formerly
inhabited this area — black bear (Ursus
americanus), cougar {Felis cougnnr),
bob-cat {Lynx rufus), Virginia deer
{Odocoileus virginianus) — are now ex-
tinct with the exception of black bear.
2. The second region which is quite
well defined is one underlain by lime-
stones of the Cincinnatian Series. It is a
region of low relief, rolling to hilly, and
lies about 500 ft. lower than the moun-
tain section to the east. In this is the
so-called Bluegrass Region of Kentucky.
The boundary of this region begins near
Maysville and extends to Stanford in
Boyle County and then circles around to
near Louisville. The fertile Bluegrass
Region was originally entirely forested.
Several forest types could be distin-
guished: (1) bur oak {Quercus macro-
carpa), chinquapin oak {Q. muhlen-
bergii), white oak {Q. alba), shellbark
hickory {Carya ovata), black walnut
{Juglans nigra) ; (2) tulip tree, beech,
white oak, red oak, hickory; (3) white
oak, sweet gum {Liquidambar styraci-
fiua), red maple {Ace rubrum); and (4)
on the best soils, sugar maple, blue
ash {Fraxinus quadrangulata), black
walnut, pignut hickory {Carya glabra),
mulberry {Morus rubra), Kentucky
coffee tree {Gymnocladus dioica).
Chestnut, hemlock and pines, so plenti-
ful in the iViOuntainous section to the
east, are absent here. Little of this
forest now remains. The remnants are
open forests of blue ash, bur oak, chin-
quapin oak, black walnut and sugar
maple. Grasses now carpet the floor
of grazed forests, the most important
being Kentucky blue grass {Poa praten-
sis) and orchard grass {Dactylis glomer-
ata). The little red fox is quite common
in the hillier portions of the region,
especially near Falmouth.
3. A region lying to the west of these

two regions and extending west to the
Tennessee River is underlain by lime-
stones of Mississippian age. In this
area, there is found an open region
specially in the lower portion which is
known as the barrens. This was orig-
inally covered with prairie grasses and
low and stunted trees of black jack oak
{Quercus marilandica), post oak (Q.
stellata), and black oak (Q. velutina).
Since the cessation of prairie fires and of
grazing by bison, a forest of small and
poorly developed trees has grown up,
made up of the following species: black
jack oak, Spanish oak, red ce 'ar {Juni-
perus virginiana), black gum {Nyssa
sylvatica), sweet gum and sugar maple.

4. West of the Tennessee River one
finds a region belonging to the Quater-
nary age, and the country is generally
more or less rolling. The forest of this
region is made up of shingle oak, red
oak, overcup oak {Quercus lyrata), and
scattered beech and sugar maple on the
richer lands. The smaller plants are:
Bidens arisiosa, Helenium tenuifolium,
Hedeoma pulegioides, Solidago spp.,
Aster spp., Vernonia fasciculata, Ver-
nonia missurica, Ambrosia tridentaia,
and Silphium.

5. The alluvial land of the Mississippi
River bottoms constitutes the fifth
distinct area of the state. Here are
typical sloughs, small lakes, a\i.d swamps.
In these the principal trees are sugar
berry {Celtis mississippiensis), water
locust {Gleditsia aquatica), willow oak
{Quercus Phellos), bald cypress {Taxo-
dium distichum) and cottonwood {Popu-
lus deltoides). The chief herbaceous
plants are: American lotus {Nelumbo
lutea), white water lily {Castalia
odorata), spatterdock {Nymphaea ad-
vena) and false loosestrife {Ludvigia
sp.). The wood duck is found to breed
in this region.

S. Present biota {W. R. J.)^

There are no large regions in Kentucky
remaining today in which the fauna and

' Primeval Tracts of Kentucky, by W. R. Jillson.
Reprint from Pan-American Geologist, Vol. XLI,
April, 1924.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

351

flora are in their natural condition.
There are, however, witlely separated
and restricted areas in which natural
conditions nearly obtain. The flora of
these regions simulates the original con-
dition, but the fauna in most instances
is either greatly reduced in number and
species, or reduced and otherwise altered
by additions of new groups. The prin-
cipal areas which approach a natural
condition are:

1. A few swamps and lowlands border-
ing the Mississippi River in the "Pur-
chase Region."

2. A few recently discovered or undis-
covered caves in central, southern, and
eastern Kentucky.

3. The topmost craggy ridges of the
Pine and Cumberland Mountains.

4. A few timber tracts in Harlan,
Perry, Leslie, Knott, Breathitt, Pike,
and Martin Counties. These tracts
are for the most part small.

5. A few dissociated but geologically
contiguous dells, coves, and hollows
along the outcrop of the Potts-
ville Conglomerate (Pennsylvanian) in
eastern Kentucky and on the western
edge of the eastern coal field.

6. A very few hollows in the vicinity
of outcrops of the Cypress sandstone
(Mississippian) in western Kentucky,
notably in Grayson and Breckenridge
Counties.

7. Widely scattered throughout the
State, notably in Elliott, Pulaski, Rock-
castle, Laurel, Edmonson and Clinton
counties, there are restricted areas in
the box canj^ons of entrenched streams
which simulate natural conditions.
These canyons were in the beginning too
small to permit extensive lumbering
and the timber now found in them is
not much different from what it was
originally. The streams in many cases
occupy the entire floors of the canyons,
especially at high water, and do not
allow cultivation. Streams on which
such conditions occur arc the headwaters
of the Little Sandy in Elliott County,
headwaters of the Cumberland River,
headwaters of the Rockcastle River in
Rockcastle County, and streams in

Powell, Wolfe, Lee, Jackson, Laurel,
Pulaski, and Whitley Counties, and on
Nolan River and Deer Creek in Gray-
son and Edmonson Counties and 111
Will Creek in Clinton County. The
greatest change in all of this region, and
in fact in the state generally, has lieen
the removal of the larger native forest
trees and the extinction of certain spe-
cies in the local fauna.

8. Original aquatic biologic conditions
of western Kentucky in the Mississippi
River bottoms, and in some portions of
the western Kentucky coal field adjoin-
ing the Ohio River, simulate original
conditions.

9. The caves still retain their natural
fauna and flora.

-{. Location of unpolluted waters

Unpolluted waters realh' do not occur
in Kentucky due to the fact that the
state is almost entirely inhabited.
However, if the term "unpolluted"
refers to such waters as are in a nearly
natural condition with only mountain
fanns afi'ecting their drainage basins,
the following may be listed:

L Head of the Middle and South
Forks of the Kentucky River.

2. Head of Green River, in Knott
County.

3. Head of Johns Creek in Pike
County.

4. Head of Beaver Creek in Knott
County.

Besides these which are really in a
class by themselves, there are hundreds
of small creeks and branches in Ken-
tucky which are unpolluted by city,
manufacturing or mining drainage. In-
stances of this sort of stream which is
alwaj's short and small, can be found in
almost every county of the state. The
water strictly speaking, however, is
not unpolluted since it is sometimes used
for watering animals.

5. Kentucky caverns. Kentucky is
famous for its cavernous regions which
afl^ord not only the largest of caves,
Mammoth Cave (D5) in Edmonson
County, but also a very large numher of
caves distributed over a wide area of

352

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

central and southern Kentucky. This
is the region where the Mississippian
limestone is exposed or close to the sur-
face. It includes certain areas within
the Bluegrass Region. West of the Blue-
grass Region, Mammoth Cave, Colossal
Cavern and Hidden River or Horse
Cave are the largest and best known.
The fauna of Mammoth Cave includes
twenty-eight species, among which aie
blind fish, salamanders, crayfish,
crickets and beetles. The caves of the
Bluegrass Region are smaller and not
so well known. Several Boone's caves,
in Highbridge limestone, have consider-
able local interest. In the plateau
section of eastern Kentucky, a few
caves occur in the Mississippian lime-
stone. Among these are Oligonung in
Carter County, and the small caves at
Natural Bridge. The best known caves
of this section are on the western margin
and are not real caves but rock shelters
or rock houses hollowed out beneath
resistant conglomerate sandstones of the
basal Pennsylvanian. Such is the
"cave" at Torrent, one of the finest of
these overhangs. A waterfall 160 ft.
in height drops over this during wet
seasons. There are no caves in Ken-
tucky west of the Cumberland River.
6. Natural bridges. Several natural
bridges of different types occur within
the state. The sandstone bridges of the
western margin of the Allegheny Pla-
teau are represented by the one at
Natural Bridge, Powell County, a
picturesque bridge at the plateau
summit.

References:
Gannan, H. 1913. The Woody
Plants of Kentucky. Ky. Agr. Exp.
Sta. of the State University. Bull.
1G9.
Miller, A. M. 1919. The Geology of
Kentucky: a classified compend of
State Reports and other publica-
tions, with critical comment based
on original investigation. (Con-
tains chapters on the "Physical
Regions of Kentucky" and on
"Natural Features and Phenomena

of Geologic and Scenic Interest,"
and extensive bibliography.) Dept.
of Geology and Forestry of Ken-
tucky, Series 5, Bull. 2.
Jillson, W. R. 1924. Kentucky State
Parks. Ky. Geol. Survey, Frank-
fort, Ky. Also Primeval Tracts of
Kentucky, Pan-American Geolo-
gist, Vol. XLI, ap. 1924.

II. NATURAL AREAS (a. R. M.)

Kentucky. At the present Kentucky
has no completed state parks, but
tracts of land for State Park purposes
have been given to the Commonwealth
near Pineville, Harrodsburg, Elkton,
Craborchard Springs and elsewhere.
These are proposed State Parks and
will be considered by the State Legis-
lature in 1926. The Mammoth Cave
(D5), in Edmondson County is being
proposed as a National Park. The
place where Stephen G. Foster wrote the
Old Kentucky Home near Bardstown
and Lincoln's birthplace at Hodgenville
in Larue County are respectively State
and national shrines. The State expects
the next Legislature to make appropria-
tions to establish several parks, the last
General Assembly having created a State
Park Commission of which the State
Geologist is the chairman.

Natural Bridge. (A4.) Area of virgin
forest, mixed deciduous and evergreen;
very beautiful. Limestone on the lower
slopes and cliffs of sandstone on the
upper slopes. Cliffs and flat summits.
Beech-hemlock climax below, chestnut,
white pine higher up on east and north
slopes. Pine on south slopes, pine
barren summits. Small sphagnum
swamps, caves, rockhouses, sandstone
natural bridge, mountain streams, flat
alluvial valley. 760-1180 ft.; dissected
area of the Allegheny Plateau.

Winchester!, 27 mi. southeast, Lexing-
ton and Eastern R. R. ; at Natural
Bridge Station, Powell County, Ky. —
E. Lucy Braun.

*The Lloyd Library Forest Reservation.
(A4.) This consists of two tracts of
about twenty acres each that have never
been touched with the ax. It represents

NATURAL AR1':AS AND REGIONS

353

the natural woods as it existed origin-
ally in the Blue Grass region of Ken-
tucky. The trees are mostly beech,
maple, walnut, oak, tulip and other
trees. Lying on the crest of the ridge
they are not subject to wash and the soil
is the accumulation of the humus of
ages. Trees that blow over or fall
down are not removed and the rotting
logs are characteristic of a primeval
forest.

Crittenden, Grant County, Kentucky
on So. R. R. and Dixie Highway.—
Chas. A. Shull.

*Universily of Kentucky Zoological
Experiment Station. (D4.) Tract cut
over a number of years ago (480 acres).
Now second-growth of a larger number
of the species that were less valuable
at the time the hardwood timber was
cut. Series of ridges with narrow val-
leys, watered by a number of small
springs and branches. The wild life is
being protected so far as possible and
everj^ opportunity afforded for investiga-
tion of the native plants and animals;
also instruction in summer.

Quicksand, Tenn. — Thomas Cooper.

Berea College Forest Reserve and
Adjacent Territory. (A3.) This tract
includes a territory 10 mi. in length
north and south and 6 mi. in width.
East of Berea about 6 mi. and southeast
of Richmond some 16 mi., Madison,
Rockcastle and Jackson Counties.

Woolper Creek Glacial Moraine. (Do.)
(Split Rock.) A deposit of glacial con-
glomerate locally called "Split Rock."
Woolper Creek has cut through this mass
and there are now two sections, the up-
per "Split Rock" and the lower a cliff of
conglomerate 185 ft. high paralleling
the channel of the creek on the south
side. 2

The interesting part of this area lies
on the south side of Woolper Creek be-
tween the Ohio River and the Bellevue
and Petersburg Road. The distance
along the creek is about a mile, the
width varying from one-eighth to one-
half mile.

A meadow of possibly 50 acres is
flanked on both sides by ravines in which

2 See page 216, "(ioology of Kentucky," Prof.
A. JI. Miller, published l>y the Department of
Geology and Forestry, Frankfort, Ky., 1919.

a large number of ferns are found.
Those ravines are steon and the .sicles
are covered witli second-growth timber.
There is a large variety of wild flowers in
the ravines, along the base of the cUITh,
etc.

The best way to reach this locality is
(a) from Cincinnati, crossing the river at
Anderson's Ferry to Constance, tlicn to
Hebron, BuUitsville, Gainesville, Pe-
tersburg, turning south along the Ohio
River a distance of about '.i mi.; crossing
Woolper Creek on iron bridge, a total
distance from Cincinnati of 30 mi.—
Morten Carlisle.

Middle Creek Glacial Moraine. (B3.)
A large area of glacial gravel and con-
glomerate probably higher than "Split
Rock" but not so precipitous.

Part of the area is cultivated, but
numerous wooded ravines have out-
cropping conglomerate with a verj- inter-
esting flora, columbine, ferns, hepatica,
etc. This is a well-watered section,
the conglomerate resting on sedimentary
strata permits the rainfall to percolate
to the strata whence it emerges in numer-
ous springs. Highest parts about 800 ft.
above sea level.

Area about 3 mi. by one mi. in dimen-
sions, but broken up bv occasional
cultivated fields. On Middle Creek,
lioone County, Ky., about 6 mi. west of
Burlington, the county seat. Distance
about 25 mi. from Cincinnati.

Reached (a) from Cincinnati through
Covington, Erlanger, Florence, Burling-
ton, automobile maj'' be driven on a side
dirt road for short distance into this
region. — Morten Carlisle.

The Hillman Land and Iron Company
Reservation. (A3.) This area com-
prises 05,000 acres in Lyon and Trigg
Counties, Ky., nearly all of which is in
virgin timber and which is already set
aside as a game preserve. There are at
least 150 deer and 18 or 20 droves of wild
turke3'S on this preserve.

Lyon and Trigg Counties, Ky. — C. J .
Meredith.

''Tight Holler" Forest. (A3.) A vir-
gin forest occupying a branch of Mill
Creek or Middle Fork of Red River
known as "Tight Holler"; cxtend-s from
head of ravine about 3 mi. down, l^or-
dered by high sanilstone din's which
comiiletely hem in the valley, nuikiiig
entrance to its head impossible except
in one place. Forest of hemlock, tuliji
tree, magnolias (M. macrophylln, M.
tripetala, M. acuminata) ; dense rhoiio-
dendron and mountain laurel thickets.
Rich rock flora of north and south facing
cliffs and dry and wet cliffs. Clear small
periTiMiicnt stream. Fauna said to in-
clude black bear and probably all of the

354

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

animals native to this section. 800-
1300 ft.; abrupt.

Torrentt. (B3.) 3| mi. north, Lex-
inRton and Eastern R. R.; Glencairn,
north to Mill Creek, east to lower end of
"Tight Holler" (w). Or, Torrent, 5 mi.
north, L. & E. R. R.; Campton Jet.;
east, about 15 mi. on narrow gage to
Pine Ridge; the one mile across upland
to faint trail leading into head of "Tight
Holler." Wolfe County, Ky.— ^. L.
Braun.

11. OHIO

By E. Lucy Braun and
Lynds Jones (Birds)

LOCATION AND EXTENT

The area of Ohio is 41,240 sq. mi. It
extends from about 38° 30' N. latitude
at the most southerly bend of the Ohio
River, nearly to 42° N. in the northeast
corner; and from 80° 30' to 84° 45' west
longitude. The Ohio River forms the
entire southern and part of the eastern
boundary; Lake Erie, most of the
northern boundary. These natural
boundaries are to some extent biological
barriers.

CLIMATE

The climate is fairly uniform over the
entire state. As Ohio lies in the path
of most of the cyclonic storm areas
which pass across the country from west
to east, its temperature, precipitation,
sunshine and cloudiness, are largely
affected by the passage of "highs" and
"lows." Slight differences in tempera-
ture in a north-south direction may be
noted. Lake Erie has a decided influ-
ence on the temperature of a narrow
belt near the lake, increasing the length
of the period between the last killing
frost of spring and the first killing frost
of autumn from one to two months.
The mean annual temperature for the
period from 1883 to 1910 is 50.7°F.
The mean temperature for July is about
73°; for January, about 28°. The ex-
treme annual range of temperature for
the state is about 150°.

The average annual precipitation for
the state is about 39 in., fairly evenly
distributed through the year. Extremes

of 20.2 in. in 1856 and 50.33 in 1890 are
recorded. The river counties of the
southeastern part of the state and the
northeast corner have the highest rain-
fall— averaging 40 in. or more; the
western lake counties and the upper
Maumee basin have the lowest — 34 in.
or less.

PHYSICAL FEATURES

Altitude. The altitudinal range in Ohio
is scarcely more than 1100 ft. The
lowest land in the state, in the southwest
corner, is 420 ft.; the highest, in Logan
County near Belief ontaine, is 1540 ft.
The eastern and southeastern part,
and the west central counties, contain
most of the highest land, a considerable
area lying between 1000 and 1500 ft.

Drainage. About five-sevenths of the
state lies in the drainage basin of the
Ohio, the remainder in the St. Lawrence
basin. The divide between the two
drainage basins is well north of the
center of the state, and in its eastern
half approaches close to Lake Erie.
The headwaters of the larger north-
flowing and south-flowing streams are
very close together. Most of the state
is fairly well drained; swamps are
neither extensive nor numerous, and
natural lakes are few. Streams have cut
their valleys in a former plateau, and
valleys are everywhere narrow, and
bottomlands not extensive.

Glaciation. The surface features of
about three-fourths of Ohio have been
modified by glaciation. In addition to
the lacustrine deposits of glacial Lake
Maumee, in the northwest part of the
state, three glacial deposits are ex-
posed— the Late Wisconsin, the Early
Wisconsin, and the lUinoian. The lUi-
noian drift is covered with a deposit of
loess.

Of the unglaciated part of Ohio, all
except a small area in Brown and Adams
Counties along the Ohio River, is in-
cluded in the "hill country."

PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROVINCES

The western half or more of Ohio is
underlain by limestones and shales,

PHY310G'R/\PHIC ProV/NCES :-

CO. -ALLEGHENY PtnTEfl^

htr-lA/T£RjOR Low Plateau

MiRGiN Forest

/ 708-/ 820
BEE(;H-fi/\PLE

White 0/jk

SoumE/\5TERN Co/IPLEX

Chesta/ut

dd- J/LL/^L/i/AfSjj

Sou therN BouAfDHRYor GLftCin t/0/\/

W/\TERSHED

Sn^LL/iREa /NCLUDED 'ff Nof^THEASTERN EvERGREEA/'DeC/DUOUS

Tr f\rjsi~r/ ON Forest (sHH£V£)'^ rem/^inder^JJec/duous EoresT

Fig. 12, Map of Ohio Indicaiing Physiographic Boundaries and

Vegetational Areas

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

355

and covered with a mantle of drift.
Level areas and gentle slopes are the
rule. In the eastern part of the state,
the sandstones and conglomerates of the
Mississippian and Pennsylvanian series
have resisted erosion and given rise to
a more rugged topography. Several
physiographic boundar}' lines cross the
state. The most prominent of these
is the one separating the "hill country"
from the plains to the west.

The "hill country" is a part of the
Allegheny Plateau. It includes a glaci-
ated northern part and an unglaciated
southern part. Adjoining the hill
country, in Adams and Brown counties,
is a small area belonging to the Interior
Low Plateau. The topography is less
bold than that of the Allegheny Plateau
to the east, but more hilly than that
to the northwest.

The remainder of the state belongs to
the Central Loiuland Province. This is
divided into the Lake Section and the
Till Plains. The boundary between
these two is approximately the shore-
line of glacial Lake Naumee, and sepa-
rates the level lake plains from the roll-
ing till plains.

The Lake Section extends along the
shore of Lake Erie as a narrow belt
varying in width from about 10 mi. in
the east to 20 at Sandusky and 50 at the
western boundary of the state. Part of
it is a succession of lake beaches, with
sandy soil; the large area in the west —
the old lake bed— is very flat and poorly
drained.

The Till Plains occupy all of western
Ohio except the northern part. The
area occupied by the Wisconsin drift is
level to rolling; it is crossed by a series
of terminal moraines. The topography
of the Illinoian drift area, except near
the largest streams, is peculiar. The
land is level and poorly drained; the
streams have cut narrow though some-
times deep valleys, but have left exten-
sive undissected areas of drift.

SOILS

Twenty-six soil types are recognized
in Ohio, and classified as residual,

glacial, loess, terrace, and alluvial soils.
Soils of the Aileghenj' Plateau, whether
glacial or residual, are usually sandy;
those of the Till Plains, calcareous,
though poor surface drainage has in
many places resulted in an acid surface
and calcareous subsoil. The Interior
Low Plateau has a residual limestone
soil. The soils of much of the Lake
Section are characteristically black
(Clyde Series), and this color, together
with the poor drainage, has given rise to
the name "Great Black Swamp." Arti-
ficial drainage has converted the Great
Black Swamp of pioneer days into fertile
farm land.

PLANT LIFE

The whole of Ohio lies in the Decidu-
ous Forest Area except a verj' small
part in northeastern Ohio, correlated
with a higher annual precipitation (40
in.) and the shortest growing season
in the state (134 days). Except for the
few small prairie areas of the western
part, the whole state was originally
covered with one of the finest hardwood
forests of the country. Accounts of
pioneer daj-s and early travels (Stage
Coach Journey across Ohio in 1S34)
give us a fair idea of the grandeur and
magnitude of this forest. Most of the
deciduous trees and many of the conifers
of eastern United States occur within
its limits. Over 2000 species of vascular
plants have been recorded from Ohio.
In the western half of the state, only
a small part of the forest remains —
isolated areas, pasture woodlots — from
which to reconstruct the picture. Ohio
is primarily an agricultural state,
and this level and rolling land is pre-
eminently suited to agriculture. The
forests of the hill country have more
largely escaped the ax, and while few
absolutely virgin areas remain, much
of the land is forested and will probably
remain so.

The early surveyors noted the trees
at section corners, and from these
records, Dr. Paul B. Sears has recon-
structed a map showing the virgin forest

356

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

cover of Ohio (see figure 12). Well
defined vegetation regions, correlated
with topographic features and soil
types, are discernible.

On the Allegheny Plateau, are mixed
coniferous and deciduous forests. The
most important deciduous trees are oaks
{Quercus prinus, Q. rubra, Q. coccinea,
Q. alba, Q. velutina), chestnut (Castanea
dcntata), hickories (Carya alba, C. ovaia,
C. glabra), birch {Betula lutea), bass-
wood {Tilia americana), black gum
(Nyssa sylvatica), with sugar maple
(Acer saccharum) and beech {Fagus
grandifolia) only on lower slopes of
ravines; red maple [Acer rubrum) here
is a small tree of the undergrowth.
Among the conifers are scrub, pitch,
and short-leaf pine {Pinus virginiana,
P. rigida, P. echinata), and in the north
white pine (Pinus strobus), red cedar
(Juniperus virginiana), arbor vitae
(Thuja occidentalis), yew (Taxus cana-
densis), and in mesophytic locations,
hemlock (Tsuga canadensis). Ericace-
ous plants are abundant throughout the
hill country, but almost lacking else-
where in the state. The large admixture
of conifers in the forests, and the impor-
tant ericaceous element, will distinguish
the vegetation of the Allegheny Plateau
from that of the remainder of the state.

The Lake Section of the Central
Lowland Province includes the lake
shore, with its strand and dune vegeta-
tion, and coastal marshes; the beach
ridges, very low and inconspicuous, and
clothed with a mesophytic beech-maple
forest; the intervening low and poorly
drained belts, where red maple mingles
with beech in the forest; and the large
level poorly drained areas — the old lake
bed — of northwest Ohio, originally cov-
ered with enormous tracts of swamp
forest (Great Black Swamp) and open
oak forests (oak openings). Evergreens
occur locally in the region.

On the Till Plains, are hardwood
forests of oaks, maples, hickories, wal-
nut, beech, and elm; and occasional
small prairies. The one most charac-
teristic and abundant tree of all this
area is the white oak. By this charac-

teristic and the almost complete absence
of conifers, except red cedar, the vege-
tation of the Till Plains is readily
distinguished from that of the Allegheny
Plateau.

The Interior Low Plateau is not well
marked vegetationally. White oak is
much less abundant than on the Till
Plains; conifers are not prominent, as
on the Allegheny Plateau,

ANIMAL LIFE

In the trackless forest of pioneer days,
many of the larger mammals abounded.
Timber wolves (Canis lycaon) howled
in the forests close to settlements, and
cougars (Felis couguar) roamed at will
about 60 years ago. Bison disappeared
from Ohio about 1800. Other larger
mammals recorded from Ohio are
Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis), bobcat
(Lynx rujus), red and gray fox (Vulpes
fulva and Urocyon cinereoargenteus) ,
fisher or pekan (Maries pennanti), black
bear (Ursus americanus), Virginia deer
(Odocoileus virginianus) , elk (Cervus
canadensis), beaver (Castor canadensis),
and opossum (Didelphis virginiana).
Of these only red fox and opossum
remain. The smaller mammals were
more numerous, and included least
weasel (Musiela allegheniensis), common
weasel (Mustela noveboracensis), mink
(Mustela vison mink), skunk (Mephitis
nigra), raccoon (Procyon lotor), five
species of bats, moles, bob-tailed shrew
(Blarina brevicauda), southern flying-
squirrel (Glaucomys volans), red, grey,
and fox squirrel (Sciurus hudsonicus
loquax, S. carolinensis leucotis, and
S. niger rufiventer), chipmunk (Tamias
striatus), striped ground-squirrel (Citel-
lus tridecemlineatus) , woodchuck (Mar-
mota monax), deer-mouse (Peromyscus
leucopus noveboracensis), meadow vole
(Microtus pennsylvanicus) , muskrat (On-
datra zibethica), porcupine (Erethizon
dorsatum), and cottontail rabbit {Sylvila-
gus floridanus mearnsii). A large pro-
portion of the species originally recorded
still occur. Faunal distribution is not
so much influenced by the natural

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

357

topographic divisions as is vegetation.
Most of the animals range throughout
the state; a few, however, are more
restricted. The woodrat {Neoloma
pennsylvanica) , partial to caves and
common throughout the entire Alle-
gheny region, occurs in Ohio only in the
Allegheny Plateau section; the southern
snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus vir-
ginianus), only in the northeastern
part of the state. The porcupine is
occasionally seen in the extreme north-
eastern part of the state; the badger
(Taxidea taxus) has appeared recently
in the extreme northwestern part. The
prairie mole (Scalopus aquaticus ma-
chrinus), common throughout western
Ohio, is replaced in the northeast part
of the state by the hairj'-tailed mole
{Parascalops breweri). Both occur in
the region about Columbus. The deer-
mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii)
of the sand dune area along Lake Erie
is a slightly different variety from that
found elsewhere throughout the state.
In the small prairies of western Ohio,
the striped ground-squirrel is found;
this is extending its range eastward
in cleared land, and is now found at
Columbus.

Bird life is abundant throughout the
state; about 300 species are found.

Birds (L. /.)

The breeding birds of the swampy
and marshy areas are: Pied-ljilled grebe,
black tern, double-crested cormorant,
mallard (rare), black, blue winged teal,
bittern, least bittern, green heron,
sandhill crane, king rail, Virginia rail,
yellow rail, sora, Florida gallinule, coot,
marsh hawk, red-winged blackbird,
swamp sparrow, short-billed marsh
wren, long billed marsh wren.

Birds breeding along the lake shore
on the sand and islands: Piping plover,
spotted sandpiper, common tern.

Birds breeding on the original prairie
of the northwestern part of the state,
and in other grassy areas: Lesser
scaup duck, upland plover, killdeer,
prairie chicken, prairie horned lark.

bobolink, meadowlark, vesper sparrow,
grasshopper sparrow, I lenslow's sparrow,
lark sparruw, song sparrow, dickcissel.

Bird breeding in brushy tangles, flood
plains, etc.: Bob-white, goldfinch,
white-throated sparrow (rarely), field
sparrow, indigo bunting, migrant shrike,
yellow warbler, prairie warbler, northern
yellow-throat, mockingbird, catbird,
brown thrasher.

Birds breeding in the deciduous woods:
Wood duck, great blue heron, ruffed
grouse, woodcock, wild turkey, passen-
ger pigeon, mourning dove, turkey
vulture, swallow-tailed kite, sharp-
shinned hawk. Cooper hawk, red-tailed
hawk, red-shouldered hawk, broad-
winged hawk, bald eagle, pigeon hawk,
sparrow hawk, osprey, barn owl, long-
eared owl, barred owl, saw-whet owl,
great horned owl, screech owl, yellow-
billed cuckoo, black-billed cuckoo, hairy
woodpecker, downy woodpecker, north-
em pileated woodpecker, red-headed
woodpecker, red-bellied woodpecker,
northern flicker, whippoorwill, night-
hawk, ruby-throated hummingbird,
kingbird, crested flycatcher, phoebe,
wood pewee, Acadian flycatcher, blue
jay, crow, cowbird, orchard oriole,
Baltimore oriole, bronzed grackle, gold-
finch, chipping sparrow, field sparrow.
song sparrow, towhee, cardinal, rose-
breasted grosbeak, scarlet tanager,
summer tanager, cedar waxwing, red-
eyed vireo, warbling vireo, j'ellow-
throated vireo, white-eyed vireo, black
and white warbler, prothonotary
warbler, worm-eating warbler, blue-
winged warbler, golden-winged warbler,
yellow warbler, cerulean warbler, black-
throated green warbler (rarely), oven-
bird, Louisiana water-thrush, Kentucky
warbler, northern j-ellow-throat, yellow-
breasted chat, hooded warbler, redstart,
Carolina wren, Bewick's wren, house
wren, brown creeper, white-breasted
nuthatch, tufted titmouse, chickadee,
Carolina chickadee, blue-gray gnat-
catcher, wood thrush, Wilson's thrush,
robin, bluebird.

Breeding in banks, bird houses,
etc.: Belted kingfisher, purple martin,

358

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

bank swallow, rouKh-winged swallow,
barn swallow, cliff swallow, phoebe.

General

The reptiles are represented by 36
species, only three of which are poison-
ous: The banded rattlesnake {Crotalus
horridus) of hilly or mountainous sec-
tions; the prairie rattlesnake (Sistrurus
catinatus) found in swampy ground and
prairies of western Ohio; and the cop-
per head (Agcistodon mokasen) along
streams, especially in the eastern half
of the state.

Of amphibians, 25 species are recorded,
including toads, tree toads, frogs and
salamanders.

Seventy species of fish are recorded
from the Scioto River and its tributaries
in Franklin County; 37 species from
Portage Lakes (30 of these also from the
Scioto River). Certain of the fishes
are confined to the Ohio drainage system,
others to the Lake Erie drainage system ;
6ome are common to both. There is also
a difference in the fish fauna of the lakes
of the two drainage systems. Some
species of glaciated and non-glaciated
sections of the state are different. H-ion
concentration in streams is also a factor
in fish distribution.

The insect fauna of Ohio is rich in
species and in numbers of individuals.
The range of phytophagous species is in
general, though not always, coincident
with that of the food plant. While there
are no such sharp limits in distribution
as are found in some of the western
states, the different physiographic
regions of the state show general differ-
ences in the insect fauna. In some
instances there are insects characteristic
of and limited to a region. This is
especially true of the Lake shore, to
which some species are sharply limited,
and of the Allegheny Plateau, which has
in general a rich and characteristic insect
fauna. It is noteworthy, that in the
state, many plant-feeding species are
restricted to the Allegheny Plateau,
although the food plant has a much
broader range. Other insects are depend-
ent upon particular habitats found only

in one region; thus the wet sandstone
moss and liverwort covered cliffs of the
Allegheny Plateau are the only known
locality for the rare moth, Epimartyria
auricrinella. Southwestern Ohio shows
a mingling of elements derived from the
east and from the west and southwest;
it lacks many of the species characteristic
of the Allegheny Plateau, but marks the
eastern and northern limit of other
species.

INFLUENCE OF PHYSICAL FACTORS ON
DISTRIBUTION

As Ohio lies at the southern edge of
glacial advance, much of its life, both
animal and plant, has been determined
through post-glacial migrations. Two
great recognized pathways of post-
glacial migration — the Appalachian
Plateau and the Mississippi-Ohio Valley
— enter its borders. The geographic
location, just north of the rather in-
definite boundary between warm tem-
perate and cool temperate (about 40° N.
latitude) ; and at the eastern edge of the
deciduous forest-prairie transition,
brings about a mingling of plants and
animals from the north and south, the
east and west. This mingling is evident
in the relationships of fauna and flora.
The migratory pathway of birds, both
water fowl and song birds, summering
farther north, crosses Ohio, so that the
number of species of birds in spring and
fall is enormously increased by these
transients.

Barriers, such as Lake Erie, the Ohio
River, and the Erie-Ohio divide, have
interfered with migrations, not only in
proportion to the inability of migrants
to cross them, but in other less obvious
instances. The watersheds are barriers
only for some exclusively aquatic ani-
mals. They frequently form sharp
limits for distribution of species of cray-
fish— some of which are limited to
specific streams. The southern mocking
bird, while abundant in northern Ken-
tucky opposite Cincinnati, is rarely seen
north of the Ohio River at this place.
The absence of pronovmced barriers,
either physical or climatic, is partly

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

359

responsible for the somewhat unifomi
flora and fauna of the entire state.

LOCATION OF UNPOLLUTED WATERS

Contributed by Division of Fish
and Game, Ohio Department of Agricul-
ture, A. C. Baxter, Chief.

Lakes. None of the state-owned lakes
are polluted, with the e.xception of Sum-
mit Lake, which is surrounded by the
city of Akron and which is badly pol-
luted. All others are in excellent con-
dition, and as far as the fish faunas
are concerned are practically in their
original condition.

Streams. The headwaters of the Mus-
kingum above Zanesville and most of the
streams of the central and western parts
of the state, beginning with the Scioto
are in good condition and many of the
larger tributaries in this region are free
from any serious pollution. The east-
ern and southeastern sections of the
state, being concerned with coal mining
and manufacture of steel and iron
products, are in bad condition, many
of the streams being barren or nearly so.
The headwaters of the Muskingum
above Zanesville and the region between
the Scioto and the Big Miami are prob-
ably the best in the state as far as
freedom from pollution is concerned.

LITERATURE

The citations given below represent
only a fraction of the works dealing
with the biota of Ohio. They are placed
here either because of their comprehen-
sive nature, or historical value in
reconstructing the picture of Ohio life.

Bownocker, J. A. 1909. A Geological
Map of Ohio. (Scale, 8 mi. tx) 1 in.;
"shows counties, towns, townships and
cities, railroads, traction lines, canals
(including some of those abandoned),
streams, lakes and reservoirs, railroad
or river shipping coal mines, salt works,
Portland cement works, gypsum mines,
oil and gas producing territory, son,c
of the glacial geology, and the areal

geology. . • •") „ ^ ,, „
Brayton, A. W. 1882. Report on the
Mammalia of Ohio. Rept. Geol. Surv.
Ohio, IV, Ft. I: 1-185.

Coffey, George N., Rice, Thomas D.,
and party. 1015. Reconnnissance
Soil SurA'cy of Ohio. U . S. Dept. Agr.
Bur. Soils.

Cope, E. D. 1872. Zoological Sketch of
^hio. , ^ ,

Howe, Henry. 1896. Historical Col-
lections of Ohio. In two volumes.
(Arranged by counties; contains many
notes concerning fertility of soil, for-
ests, and wild animals of pioneer days.
Includes "A Stage Coach Journey
across Ohio in 1834"; II: 193-197.)

Dawson. Birds of Ohio.

Jones, Lynds. 1903. The Birds of
Ohio. Ohio Acad. Science, Sp.
Paper, 6. ,

Jordon, David L. 1882. Report on the
Fishes of Ohio. Rept. Geol. Sur\'. of
Ohio, IV; Ft. 1:735-1002.

Morse, Max. 1904. Batrachians and
Reptiles of Ohio. Ohio Acad. Sci., Sp.
Faper no. 9. ^. , r

Osburn, Raymond C. 1901. Fishes of
Ohio. Ohio Acad. Science, Sp. Faper

no. 4. ^ , <•

Schaffner, John H. 1914. Catalog of
Ohio Vascular Flants. (Includes dis-
tribution) Ohio Biol. Surv., Bull. 2.

Smith, J. Warren. 1912. The Climate of
Ohio. Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta., Bull. 23o.

Smith, W. H. 1882. Report on the
Reptiles and Amphibians of Ohio.
Rept. Geol. Surv. Ohio, IV; Ft. I:
629-734.

Sterki, V. 1907. A preliminary' cata-
logue of the land and fresh-water
moluscs of Ohio. Ohio Acad. Science,
Sp. Faper no. 12.

Wheaton, J. M. 1882. Report on the
Birds of Ohio. Rept. Geol. Surv.
Ohio, IV; Ft. 1:187-628.

CAVES

Caves occur in Ohio in the Silurian
(Niagara limestone), the Devonian
(Columbus limestone), and the Missis-
sippian (Berea sandstone and Black
Hand conglomerate). The caves in the
Berea sandstone and Black Hand con-
glomerate are not solution caverns, but
overhangs or peculiarly weathered crev-
ices and joints in cliffs; they are never
large, but some are very picturesque.

Descriptions of caves

Hocking County Caves The Black
Hand conglomerate readies its hcst
development in the Sugnr Grove region
of Hocking County, and hero fonus high
cliffs "When first quarried this stone lb
very friable, but on exposure it becomes
bard and durable. Thus it often bap-

360

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

pens that the exposed top of a cliff be-
comes much harder than the protected
portion which weathers away more
rapidly, forming an overhang. The
'caves,' as they are popularly called, so
formed are very numerous and some of
them are very extensive, when the
method of their formation is con-
sidered." The following are most im-
portant:

*Ash Cave. A semi-circular cavern
nearly 700 ft. long with an overhang of
about 60 ft., and height of 84 ft.

*Old Man's Cave. Smaller than Ash
Cave; the dryest of the large caves; sand
which covers floor is perfectly air-dry,
very fine and dusty.

Cave in Cantwell Cliffs. "Almost
hemispherical with a narrow ledge half
way up where one finds acoustic proper-
ties that are little short of marvelous.''

*Rock House. The formation of this
cave is due to the crumbling of rock
"back along the moisture-laden joint
planes till the soft interior was exposed
and in turn crumbled along a joint plane
parallel to the face of the cliff until there
has been formed a corridor about 200 ft.
long which runs along behind a series of
six columns, the remains of the original
face of the cliff, which supports the
vaulted roof."

Rock Bridge. A natural bridge similar
in formation to the caves; water passes
through joint above the falls, and goes
underneath the overhanging ledge, leav-
ing the crest of the former falls as a
bridge.

Cedar Falls Cave.

Saltpetre Cave.

Dead Man's Cave.

Reference:

Griggs, Robert F. 1914. A botanical
Survey of the Sugar Grove Region.
Ohio Biol. Surv. Bull. 3.
Howe, Henry. 1896. Historical Col-
lections of Ohio, I: 929.
Map: Laurelville quadrangle.

Elyria Caves. In Crystal Park, in
Elyria. (1) Cave at foot of West
Branch a water-fall undercut in Berea
sandstone; overhang 50-60 ft.; two
chambers with small hole between.
Water coming through roof depositing
iron, and calcite in crust and stalactites.
(2) Elyria Shelter Cave— abandoned
water-fall.

Elyria, Loraine County.— Geo D.
Hubbard.

References:

Howe, Henry. Historical Collections
of Ohio, II: 124.
Map: Oberlin quadrangle.

Bellevue Caves. Many solution cav-
erns in Columbus limestone, perhaps
J mi. in length; scores of sink holes
communicate with small underground
passages. Nearly all surface drainage
of this locality goes down through
the sink holes, and some emerges in
Castalia, Blue Hole, Miller's Pond,
Green Spring, etc.

Bellevue, 2-3 mi. south; Huron
County.— Geo. D. Hubbard.
Map: Bellevue, Siam quadrangles.

Dublin Caves. North of Dublin to-
ward Rathbone there are many sink holes
in Columbus limestone through some of
which one can enter small subterranean
passages. — Ohio Geol. Surv. Bull. I4.

Put-in-Bay Caves. "Near the center
of Put-In-Bay Island is a subterranean
cavern [in White Dolomite, Silurian]
that is quite an object of interest. It is
200 ft. long, 150 ft. wide, and has an
average height of 7 ft. At the farther
end is a lake whose pure, limpid waters
are ice cold and said to be 50 ft. deep in
one place and to extend under the rocks
to regions and depths unknown."

References:
Howe, Henry. 1896. Historical Col-
lections of Ohio, 11:368.
Cottingham, Kenneth. 1919. The
Origin of the Caves at Fut-in-Bay,
Ohio. Ohio Jorir. Sci., 20: 38-42.
Map: Put-in-Bay quadrangle.

Reames Cave. Also called Mount
Tabor Cave. Cave in Columbus lime-
stone; ISOO ft. long; general form that
of a Y, with the entrance at the base of
the letter, and the fork 1100 ft. from it.
Maximum width of galleries 50 ft.;
maximum height 25 ft. Deposits on
walls and roof are of calcium carbonate
and iron oxide. Many stalactites and
stalagmites, varying in size from a few
inches to 4 or 5 ft. long. Surface opening
formed in 1897.

West Libertyt (Big Four and Ohio
Electric), 3.5 mi. S.E.; Champaign
County, Ohio.

Reference :

Hills, Thomas M. 1916. Reames
Cave. Ohio Jour. Sci., 16: 209-215.
Map: Mechanicsburgh quadrangle.

Bainbridge, Rocky Fork, or Paint Creek
Caves. Caves in Niagara limestone;
dome-shaped chambers connected by
narrow slit-like crevices; several inacces-
sible, owing to small apertures. Some
moist, with di'ipping water; deep pools;
stalactites, etc. (See Paint Creek Caves
and Gorge Area.)

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

.T.l

Dry Cave, about 300 ft. long, set with
stalactite and stalagmite formations;
perfectly dry.

Wet Cave, so-called from a spring of
cold water some 600 ft. from its mouth;
a series of chambers.

Dancing Cave, a very large chaiii])or.

Marble Cave, one of the most l)eautif ul
of the group; a number of chambers all
of good size.

Reference:

Howe. 1896. Historical Collections
of Ohio, 1 : 020-922.
Map: Bainbridge quadrangle.

DESCRIPTIONS OF AIUOAS

Descriptions of preserves and proposed
areas are grouped according to physio-
graphic provinces. Within these prov-
inces, the arrangement is geographical
— from north to south and from east to
west. Any group of areas located within
a defined region — as the Sugar Grove
Region and the Cincinnati Region — is
placed under the regional heading;
with this is a brief description of the
region as a whole; the descriptions of
included areas are correspondingly
shortened. Since the topographic map-
ping of Ohio has been completed, the
name of the quadrangle in which the
area lies, is given.

I. Allegheny Plateau Section of the
Appalachian Plateaxis Province

Conneaut Creek Hemlock Forest. (B4.)
A privately owned farm on which is a
magnificent stand of virgin hemlock.
Trees over 100 ft. in height and as much
as 4 ft. in diameter. Banks of Conneaut
Creek, which borders, tract, 50-75 ft.
high. 700 ft.

North Kingsville, 5 mi. east. Ash-
tabula County.

North Conneaut, 2| mi. south (w, a).
— J. S. Houser.

Reference:
Soil Survey of Ashtabula Area. XJ. S.
Dept. Agr., Bur. Soils; in coopera-
tion with Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta.

Map: Conneaut quadrangle.

Little Mountain White Pine Forest.
(F6.) About 40 acres of virgin white

pine timl)cr. Usual Ohio birds and
animals, and in addidoti the pileatcd
nortiiern woodpecker. No streams of
any consecinence. Tine grove on a hill
extending about 200 ft., above surround-
ing country. 1100-1260 ft.

Mentorj, 4 mi. S.E. (w, a); or Wil-
loughby, 8 nii. east. Lake County,
Geauga Co. — J. S. Houser.

Map: Mentor quadrangle.

*Portage Lakes Park. (B2.) State
Park. The Portage Lakes consist of a
chain of lakes and reservoirs extending
southward about 10 mi. from Aknjn.
Twelve larger lakes, and many smaller
ones of the "kettle hole" type. Reser-
voirs completed in 1840. Water area
1600 acres; marsh land 300 acres; em-
bankments and islands 79 acres. Aver-
age depth, 9 ft. Summit Lake badl}'
polluted; other lakes not polluted or
scarcely so. The construction dates
back far enough so that conditions of
natural stability have long ago been
reached in the lakes and reservoirs.
Natural lakes were present in most of
these bodies of water before the level was
raised. A generation ago all of these
bodies of water are said to have been
exceedingly productive of game and
food fishes and though somewhat less
productive at the present time, the)' are
still among the best in the state. Condi-
tions are still fairly natural as may be
shown by the number of species in the
lakes, most of them present in abun-
dance. Forty species of fish are re-
corded, all but two native. The Fish
and Game Division maintains an inland
fish hatchery of 20 acres on the island
at New Reservoir. 1000 ft.

AkronI, south on Ohio Canal; this
part of canal included in deilication of
Portage Lakes for park purposes. Sum-
mit County. — Raymond C. Osburn,
Division of Fish and Game.

Reference:
Osburn, Raymond C. 1921. Report
on Fish Conditions in the Portage
Lakes, near Akron, Ohio. Division

362

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

of Fish and Game, Ohio Dept. Agr.,

Sportsmen's Bull., no. 1.
Maps:
Akron, Massillion quadrangles.
Map "made under the direction of the

Ohio Canal Commission." Dept.

of Public Works.

Bi-own's Lake Bog. (B4.) 75 acres of
deciduous forest, excellent bog, glacial
topography, swamp, marsh, lake. In
danger of drainage and grazing. 990 ft.

Woosterl, 8 mi. S. W., Pa. R. R., 2 mi.
west, Shreve; Wayne County. — P. D.
Siraushaugh.

Map: Loudonville quadrangle.

Spellacy Valley Forest^. (A4.)
About 30-40 acres along the narrow valley
of Mohican River in Holmes, Know, and
Ashland counties. Forest principally of
oak, maple, chestnut, and hemlock.
Fauna includes foxes; raccoons; gray
fox, and red squirrels; ruffed grouse;
several otter reported within last 10
years. Stream 50-100 ft. wide, pools
5-8 ft. in depth. 900-1300 ft.; sharp.

Loudonvillef, 5.2 mi. south, Mans-
field and Dennison branch. Pa. R. R. ;
Spellacy**, Holmes County. — L. B.
Walton.

Map: Loudonville quadrangle.

Brink Haven State Preserve. (C3.)
1140 acres on west bank of Mohican
River one to two mi. north of Brink
Haven; leased by state as a game pre-
serve. Forest of oak, maple, chestnut,
and other species, with fauna of fox, rac-
coon, gray fox, and red squirrel, ruffed
grouse ; introduced Mongolian pheasants ;
turkey probably in 1922.

Brink HavenJ, C. A. & C. R. R. (Pa.
R. R.); one to two mi. north; Knox
County.— L. B. Walton.

Map: Brink Haven quadrangle.

*Kenyon College Forest. (C4.) About
100 acres of woodland in several tracts,
on the lands belonging to Kenyon
College. Portions of mixed oak forest,
containing original forest trees. Peri-
odically burned over up to 1908; repro-
duction since 1908. Second growth from
60 to 75 years old in north section. All
forest is mixed oak with associates of
chestnut, black gum, and several species
of hickory. Flat Iron tract of 10 acres
clear cut in 1912. Second growth

succession of interest. 940-1080 ft.;
rolling.

Gambler J, C. A. & C. railroad. Knox
County. — Edmund Secrest.

Map: Gambler quadrangle.

Black Hand Gorged. (D5.) Isolated
area of scrub and pitch pines; yellow and
cherry birches; hemlock on northerly
exposures of gorge. Succession of mixed
oak-pine forest. Licking River flows
through gorge, swift; precipitous slopes
of sandstone formation. 780-1100 ft.

Newarkf, 6 mi. east Pennsylvania or
B. & O. railroads, and Ohio Electric
Line. B. & O. R. R. and Electric Line
pass through the gorge and stop at local
points within one mi. of gorge. Licking
County, Ohio.— F. W. Dean.

Maps: Newark and Frazeysburg quad-
rangles.

*Mt. Pleasant Park, now knoion as
Rising Park. (C4.) 73 acres; a western
outlier of the Allegheny Plateau. A
pyramidal hill, 200 ft. in height, 1.5 mi.
in circumference, apex 30 by 100 yds.
Partly forested; deciduous forest on
slopes; pine barren summit. City park
of Lancaster; it is the intention of the
city to keep this as a natural park.
900-1090 ft.

Lancaster!, Fairfield County.

Reference:
Howe. 1896. Historical Collections
of Ohio, I: 590-591.

Map: Lancaster quadrangle.

The Sugar Grove Region (7 areas).
"The Sugar Grove region is a narrow
strip of country extending from a few
miles north of the town of Sugar Grove in
Fairfield County, Ohio, in a southerly
direction about twenty miles to the val-
ley of Queer Creek near the southern
boundary of Hocking County, . . ."
The flora of the region is fairly represen-
tative of all of the "hill country" (Alle-
gheny Plateau) of eastern and south-
eastern Ohio. In this region, many of
the plant communities are exceptionally
well developed, for its topography is
more bold and rugged than that of many
other parts of the plateau region. It is
particularly interesting because of the
mingling, in it, of northern and southern
species. It has been a favorite collect-

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

363

ing ground for botanists of Ohio from the
time of SuUivant down.

The only railroad station with in the
region is Sugar Grove, on the Hocking
Valley Railroad. Logan on the east,
and Circleville to the west, are other
stations from which the region may be
approached.

References:

Bigelow, John M. 1841. Florula
Lancastriensis or a catalog of nearlj'
all the flowering and felicoid plants
growing naturally within the limits
of Fairfield County with notes on
such as are medicinal. Proc. Med.
Convent of Ohio at Columbus, May,
1841, pp. 49-79.

Griggs, Robert F. 1913. Observa-
tions on the geographical composi-
tion of the Sugar Grove Flora.
Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, 40: 487-499.

Griggs, Robert F. 1914. On the be-
havior of some species at the edges
of their ranges. Ibid., 41; 25-49.

Griggs, Robert F. 1914. A botanical
survev of the Sugar Grove Region.
Ohio Biol. Survey, Bull. 3.

Maps: Lancaster and Laurelville quad-
rangles.

*Old Man's Care and the Gulf]. (A4.)
Cavern, gorge, waterfalls. Hemlock,
birch, and mixed mesophytic forest
below, pine and oak forests above. 750-
1000 ft.; dissected.

Logant, 12 mi. S.W.; in Section 11,
Benton Tsp., Hocking County.

Circlevillei, 24 mi. S.E. (a). South
Bloomingville; then two mi. east (a,
very poor road).— ^. A''. Transeau.

Caniwell Cliffs. (B4.) One sq. mi. of
deciduous forest, with cliffs and talus
slopes vegetation, ravine. At the west-
ern edge of the Allegheny Plateau.
Danger of timber cutting. 800-1000 ft. ;
dissected.

Lancasterl, 11 mi. south, Hocking
Valley R. R.; Rock Bridge, 5 mi. S. W.;
Hocking Countv, Ohio.— .B. N. Transeau.

Crijstal Springs. (D5.) Two sq. mi.
of deciduous and conifer borderline for-
est, talus slopes, ravines and cliHs.
Danger of cutting. SOO-1000 ft.; dis-
sected.

Lancasterl, 7 mi. south, Hocking \ al-
lev R. R. ; Sugar Grove, one mi. west (w)
"Crystal Springs" (owner, Mr. Baum-
gardner, has cottages to rent); Fairfield
County.— .B. A^. Transeau, Freda Dct-

7TIBTS

Cedar Falls Forestt (B4.) Narrow
canyon-like vallev of ()ueer Creek,
e.xtending from Cedar Falls west about
one mi. to the mouth of the Gull.

Abrupt or overhanging higli clilTs of
massive sandstone with many species of
rock-loving ferns, some lyropods and
many mosses. Some virgin forest with
hemlock, yew, and yellow birch, on the
valley fioor. One of the very few areas
of virgin forest left in this "part of the
state. Stream small, constant; water-
falls numerous. Of special interest in
being located just outside the margin of
the glaciated region and having neither
till noroutwash gravels present. Fauna
includes red fox, raccoon, opossum,
skunk, squirrels and many other smaller
mammals; birds numerous; insect fauna
very abundant. Camp outfit desirable.
740-1010 ft.; abrupt.

Logant, 15 mi. southwest (a) hilly
road, passable in good weather; or

Circlevillet, 24 mi. southeast (a) level
road, to South Bloomingville, then 4 mi.
east (w). Hocking County, Ohio. —
Clara G. Mark.

*Ash Cave Ravine. (B4.) Ravine i mi.
long of a small tributary of East Fork of
Queer Creek. Forested, with large
hemlocks and some other species of
fonncr forest still standing. Otherwise
very similar to Cedar Falls Ravine. A
very good fern locality, especially for the
species of cliffs and those of moist bot-
tom lands. Stream small, intennittent,
with waterfall; 760-1010 ft.

Logani, 18 mi. southwest lai hilly
road, passable in good weather; or

Circlevillei. 28 mi. southeast (a) by
way of South Bloomingville, first 24
mi. level, last 4 mi. rough road but
passable in good weather§. No tent
needed — camp under great rock shelter.
Hocking Countv, Ohio. — Clara G. Mark.

*Kunkle's Holloiu Forest and Cliffsi.
(D5.) Narrow vailey about one mi. long
of a small tributar\- entering Pine Creek
from the north at Pine Grove Church
(see Laurelville topographic map).
Partly second growth forest, partly
original forest. High abrupt or over-
hanging clifis, seamed and pitted and
affording root-hold for various jilants.
Valley canyon-like, shatlcd and moist.
Flora' particularly abundant in mosses,
ferns and other rock-loving forms. The
cliffs afford dens for foxes and numerous
smaller mammals§. Tent not necessary.
760-1100 ft.

Logani, 18 mi. a little west of south-
west (a) very hilly road, passable in good
weather, or

Circlevillei, 20 mi. southeast (a) level
road to Haynes, then 7 mi. east (a) unim-
proved vailev road. Hocking County,
Ohio.— C/ara G. Mark.

Crane Hollow]. (C2.) A broad val-
ley about 3 miles long and 50 to 100 tt.
below general level of adjacent land.

364

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Quite densely forested and with much
of primitive forest conditions. Chffs;
a small waterfall; rock strata similar to
Cantwell Cliff. Many striking stretches
of sheer smooth cliff walls and some nar-
row caves. SOO-1100 ft.; abrupt.

CirclevilleJ, IG mi. S.E. (a) Laurel-
ville. then 11 mi. north and east through
South Perry to Gigisonville; south to
Crane Hollow. Hocking County.—
Herbert Osborn.

*Waterloo State Forest. (B3.) 221
acres. Forest areas not contiguous;
succession interesting; contains a tract
of woodland that has not been recently
disturbed by man or fires. The vegeta-
tion in places is quite luxuriant, es-
pecially the herbaceous flora. The
principal trees of the forest are oaks,
hickory, chestnut, tulip tree, basswood
and gum. Maple and beech occupy the
lower slopes along the narrow ravines.
Sourwood, red maple, sassafras, dog-
wood, and laurel are the principal species
forming the undergrowth. 700-900 ft.;
dissected.

AthensJ, 12 mi. west, B. &. O. R. R.;
li mi. N.E. Mineral, Athens County.—
F. W. Dean.

Maps: Zaleski and Athens quadrangle.

*Stony Creek State Forest. (D3.)
GOOO acres of second growth forest
ranging in age from 25 to 75 years;
most of the original forest was removed
years ago. The young growth is a mixed
hardwood type, the various species of
oaks preponderating. Principal trees
are, in order of abundance: white oak,
black oak, chestnut oak, scarlet oak,
pignut, shellbark and mockernut hick-
ories, tulip poplar, red maple, red elm,
black gum, sassafras and chestnut.
The area has been subjected to severe
ground fires in the past, and many of
the trees carry fire scars. Mammal
life consists of cottontail rabbit, squir-
rels, chipmunk, woodchuck, skunk, and
red fox. 600 to 1000 ft.; dissected.

Chillicothet, 10 mi. south, on Colum-
bus and Portsmouth Pike (a). — Edmund
Secrest.

Map: Waverly quadrangle.

*Mt. Logan State Forest. (D3.)
Named after Logan, the Mingo Indian
chief. This mountain is the scene of the
Great Seal of Ohio. Contains 400 acres,
second growth and original forest,
mostly regrowth of approximately 60
years of age. Principal trees are white,
black, scarlet and chestnut oaks, tulip
poplar, red maple, sugar maple, black
locust and black gum. Trees have been
injured by the recurrence of fires. 700
to 1260 ft.; dissected.

ChillicotheJ, 2 mi. northeast. Base
can be reached (a) over gravel roads. —
Edmund Secrest.

Map: Chillicothe or Camp Sherman
quadrangle.

*Colerain Forest. (D3.) 1200 acres;
a part of the school lands of the state.
Second growth mixed hardwood forest.
Principal trees: white, black, chestnut,
scarlet, and red oaks, tulip poplar,
hickories, black gum, sassafras, red
maple. Forest badly injured by re-
peated burning. 800 to 1100 ft.; dis-
sected; topography varied.

Chillicothet, 10 mi. northeast, on
gravelled roads (a). Colerain Tshp.,
Ross County. — Edmund Secrest.

Map: Chillicothe
quadrangle.

or Camp Sherman

*Moimd City Group. "Ne plus ultra of
Mound Builders achievement." The
group of 26 mounds is enclosed in an em-
bankment which is nearly square in out-
line, with rounded corners. The en-
closed area is 13 acres, and is included in
a park of 57 acres. Land cleared; will
be replanted with trees. Level, except
for mounds. Under control of Ohio
State Archaeological and Historical
Society.

ChillicotheJ, 4 mi. north, within Camp
Sherman. — Wm. C. Mills.

Map: Chillicothe or Camp Sherman
quadrangle.

Headwaters Pigeon Runl. (C3.) Iso-
lated area of Magnolia tripetala, associ-
ated with cherry birch (Betula lenta),
hemlock, beech, sugar maple, and sour-
wood {Uxydendrum arboreum). Mag-
nolia abundant; 4 to 9 in. in diameter.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

305

Surrounding forests of mixed oak,
scrub pine, pitch pine, and shortlcaf
pine. Probably marks the most north-
erly limit of Maijnolia tripelahi in
Ohio. Entire area characterized by
precipitous outcrops of sandstone in
many places extending 100 ft. high
vertically. 600-950 ft. ; hilly.

Jacksont, on B. <t O. and Hocking
V'alley railroads; 7 mi. northwest, near
Limerick, Liberty Township, Jackson
County, Ohio. — F. W. Dean.

Maps: Waverly quadrangle: Jackson
quadrangle.

*Dean State Forest. (D3.) Comprises
1500 acres. Characterized by broken
hills, steep bluffs and sharp ridges.
The entire area has been cut over during
the flourishing ei'a of the charcoal and
iron ore industry in southeastern. Ohio.
The forest now is composed of second
growth stands, consisting principally of
mixed hardwoods. The following spe-
cies are typical of the upper slopes and
ridges: white, black, red, scarlet, chest-
nut, post, and blackjack oaks with scrub,
pitch and shortlcaf pines occurring in
small quantities. On exposures well
protected a more mesophytic forest
occurs consisting of tulip tree, chestnut
and basswood. The principal species
forming the undergrowth are sorrel tree,
dogwood, red maple, black gum, laurel,
and sassafras. The entire area has been
burned over several times prior to the
time it came under the control of the
State, and severely culled during the
period of charcoal production. 600-
1000 ft.; dissected.

Irontonf, 15 mi. north, Iron R. R.;
11 mi. north Steece; Decatur Township,
Lawrence County.— i*'. W. Dean.

Map: Ironton quadrangle.

*Roosevelt Park. (D3.) Tract of
15,000 acres, 5000 acres of which is under
the management of the Board of Con-
trol of the Ohio Experiment Station,
as a state forest, and 10,000 acres are
under the Ohio Director of Agriculture.
The forests of both tracts are under the
management of the State Forester.
The forest is second growth, badly in-

jurcil in past years by fire. The iiroa
contains a large variety of trees, includ-
ing a few conifers. Several small
streams traverse the tract, some of
which maintain their (low the year
round. The topograi)hy is character-
ized by sharp ridges or backbones, rising
in places into prominent peaks. Suc-
cession well illustrated.

Portsmouth t, 10 mi. west, N. & \V. or
B. & O. ; south end of tract is one mi.
north of Buena Vista, on the Ohio
River; north end of tract IJ mi. south
of Henley.

Fortsmouthf, 10 mi. west (a) Cin-
cinnati Pike to Henley; or (a) Buena
Vista Highway to south end. — Edmund
Secresl, State Forester.

Map: Otway quadrangle.

"Fort Ilill" Prehistoric Earthworks,
Forest and Stream Gorge. (B3(b).)
About two sq. mi. of original and second
growth deciduous forest, including deep
ravines and Niagara limestone gorge of
the Baker Fork of Brush Creek. The
upper levels of the hills are of black
slaty shale of the Devonian. Rock cliffs
are covered with mosses, ferns, Hepat-
ica, columbines, etc. Stream moderate;
shallow. The Fort Hill earthwork
covers about 50 acres and the circum-
ference is said to be 1 j mi. 840-1285 ft. ;
sharp to precipitous.

Hillsboro:, on B. & O. R. R.; east
through Marshall and Carmel, and
south to :\Jrs. :\ratthcw's Hotel (R. F. D.
13, Hillsboro) within the area (a); 18
mi.; or

Feeblest, on N. & W. R. R.; north on
Zanesville road 10 mi. to Mrs. .Matthew's
Hotel (a); Highland County, Ohio.—
Morten Carlisle.

Reference:

Howe's Historical Collections of Ohio,
1:922.

Map: Bainbridge quadrangle.

Cedar Falls\. (CM.) Isolated liiiic-
stone gorge along Cedar Run, one mi.
north of Cedar MilLs; species predomi-
nating on nick dilTs: white cedar (Thuja
occidcntali.'i), hemlock, and red cedar,
aliruptly succeeded by a forest of white,
red, and black oaks, hickorj-, tulip,
walnut, basswood. and sugar maple,
occupying the surrounding slopes.

366

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Stream interesting, torrential; flowing
through a rugged countrj\ 550-1200 ft. ;
hilly.

Peebles!, on N. & W. R. R.; 8 mi.
south; Jefferson Township, Adams
County, Oh'io.—F. W. Dean.

Map: Peebles quadrangle.

11. Interior Low Plateau

* Serpent Mound Park. (C3.) 70 acres
on the east bank of Brush Creek near the
edge of the picturesque hill coimtry of
southeastern Ohio. Cliffs of White
Dolomite (Niagara) with characteristic
rock vegetation; hillsides bordering
Brush Creek are wooded (deciduous
forest) ; that part of the park occupied
by the Serpent, the smaller mounds, and
other relics of the prehistoric people,
cleared and park-like. The principal
feature is the Serpent effigy, a huge
mound in the form of a serpent, 1348 ft.
long, with an average width of 20 ft.,
and height of 4 to 5 ft. 680-780 ft.;
rolling to precipitous.

Peebles! (N. k W. R. R.), 7 mi,. N.W.
(a).

HillsboroJ (B. <Sr O. R. R.), 16 mi.
S.E. (a). Drive from Hillsboro "of
surpassing beauty."

Owned by The Ohio State Archaeologi-
cal Society, as trustee of the State.

References:

Cole, W. H. Map and Guide to the
Great Serpent Mound, Adams
County, Ohio. (Gives historical
summary; description of park and
of routes to the park.) Ohio State
Archaeological Society.

Randall, E. O. The Serpent Mound,
Adams County. Published by The
Ohio State Archaeological Society.

Howe, Henry. Historical Collections
of Ohio, I, 233-234 (1896).

Map: Bainbridge quadrangle.

III. Lake Section of the Central Lowland
Province

A. Lake Shore Areas

Mentor Marsh. (B3.) This marsh ex-
tends about 6 mi. along the Lake Erie

shore west of Fairport Harbor, Lake
County. The marsh was formerly the
river bed of Grand River which now
empties into the Lake at Fairport. It is
bordered by forests of chestnut, elm,
oak, basswood, and maple. The marsh
flora includes cat-tails, marsh grasses,
marsh mallows, and pond lilies. The
fauna of the marsh includes muskrat,
mink, otter, fox squin-el, raccoon, and
numerous water birds, especially in the
migrating seasons. 580 ft.

Cleveland!, 20 mi. east W'illoughby
via New York Central or C. P. & E.
Electric; 7 mi. northeast on paved road
to Mentor Park where marsh begins. —
F. N. Shankland.

Map: Mentor quadrangle.

Oak Point. (B4.) Area on Lake Erie
at mouth of Beaver Creek. Contains
drowned stream swampy flats, three
claj'' hills with swampy and marshy con-
ditions between them, the hills covered
with trees, mostly oak; one pond of con-
siderable dimensions formed at time
trolley line was put through. Lake en-
croaching upon shore and swamp rather
more rapidly than elsewhere along the
shore of this region. Presents many
problems for the eoologist. 580 ft.;
level to rolling.

Lorain!, 5 mi. west, Lake Shore Elec-
tric, Oakpoint, Lorain County. — Lynds
Jones.

Map: Vermilion, Oberlin quadrangles

Bay Point. (B3.) A narrow penin-
sula in Lake Erie, with sand dunes,
ponds, ridges, low prairie, filled pond
forest in the process of succession, sandy
shore as well as rocky shore. Next to
Cedar Point, the best illustration of
dunes, ridges and ponds in process of
formation within 60 mi. 580 ft.

Sandusky!, N.W. across bay. Ottawa
County. — Lynds Jones.

Cedar Point. (B3.) A tract of about
70 acres between Beimiller's Cove and
Lake Erie includes the best sand dune
section on the Point. Typical sand dune
and swamp vegetation.

Cedar Point!, Erie County. — /. H.
Schaffner.

Map: Sandusky quadrangle.

Inscription Rock. A large block of
limestone broken off by the glacier from
the rock near by. Probably the best
example of Indian picture writing in
America.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

367

Kelleys Island, south shore, J- mi.
from steamer dock.— ^. L. Moscley.

Reference:
Howe, Henry. 1S9G. Historical Col-
lections of Ohio, 1 : 576, 588.

B. Interior Areas of The Lake Section

Chagrin Valleij Forest. (B3.) About
500 acres along Gully Brook, beginninK
at Chagrin River and running westward
two miles to Deep 'Walley. Deciduous
forest; many rare wild flowers. Valua-
ble for the number and variety of small
birds, such as migrating warblers and
sparrows, and rare resident species
including seven kinds of hawks
and three of owls. 600-780 ft.; rolling
to sharp.

ClevelandJ, 19 mi. east on Euclid
Avenue; Cleveland, Painesville &
Eastern Electric to Stop 35, then § mi.
south.

Willoughby, Lake County, Ohio. —
F. N. Shankland.

Map: Mentor quadrangle.

*Park Area of Cleveland Melropnlilan
Park District. The park district includes
almost all of Cuyahoga County; some
10,000 acres are included in the con-
templated park area, 3600 acres of which
have been acquired to date (April, 1923).
Cleveland is almost surrounded e.xccpt
on the lake front by a natural park area,
which lies 15 to 30 mi. distant from the
center of the city. It consists of the
valley of the Rocky River on the west,
the valleys of Tinker's Creek and Chip-
pewa Creek on the south and southeast,
and of the valley of the Chagrin River
on the east. These streams have cut
valleys varying in depth from 100 to
350 ft. In places the bottom land has
been cleared, but as it is subject to over-
flow it is of little use as agricultural land.
The valley slopes are largely forested.
580 to 1100 ft.; dissected, abrupt. The
following are separate portions of the
park area:

(1) Part of Rocky River Valley.
(B3.) A tract of 1000 acres extending
up the river from Lake Erie for a dis-
tance of 5 mi. This is a gorge-like valley
some 140 ft. deep having steep wooded
slopes.

(2) The Chippewa Creek Region.
(B3 and D5.) A tract of 1400 acres on
the west bank of the Cuyahoga River
some 15 mi. from Lake Erie. This
area is very much dissected and includes
Chippewa Creek gorge; it is largely
forested. The gorge contains large

loose sandstone boulders, some as much
as 30 or 35 ft. long.

(3) Tinker's Creek Region. fB4.)
This tract of 700 acres lies about 15 mi.
southeast of Cleveland. It is rugged
forested region and includes Bedford
Glens, a gorge of Tinker's Creek cut to a
depth of 150 ft.

(4) Whip's Ledge. (D5.) This is an
area of 250 acres covering a forested hill
slope 350 ft. in height and a conglomerate
ledge.

ClevelandJ.— £:. L. Fullmer.

Maps: Cleveland, Berea, Chagrin Falls,
Euclid, Mentor.

*Crystal Park. fD5.) Wooded gorge
of Black River; 26-30 acres. Botani-
cally interesting; some streamside and
swamp vegetation; rock species, etc.
Contains Elyria Caves.

Elyrial, Lorain County.— .1/. M.
Mctcalf.

Map: Oberlin quadrangle.

'*Oberlin Arboretum and adjacent
refuge area. (HS.) About 60 acres.
Open deciduous forest (14 acres); open
fields; small stream. Area to be
planted; planting limited to Ohio trees
and shrul)s.

OberlinI, Lorain County. — M. M.
Melcalf.

Map: Oberlin quadrangle.

*Oberlin Municipal Forest. (HS.)
About 65 acres. Established for the
protection of the potable water supply
of the cit}'. Native beech-maple wood-
land of 20 acres. Of interest from the
aspect of succession. About 10 acres of
natural regeneration following clear
cutting; about 35 acres reforested arti-
ficially with hardwood and coniferous
species. 850 ft.; level.

Oberlinj, 6 mi. west, N. Y. C. R. R.;
I2 mi. Kipton (w). Lorain County. —
Edmund Secresl.

Map: New London, Vermilion (juad-
L rangles.

Sioift's Hollow. (B3, D5.) About
1000 acres; includes an oxbow gorge of
Vermilion River, deep narrow gorges of
side streams. Contains the most exten-
sive cedar, white pine, and hemlock
growths of the whole region. 600-75U ft.
sharp.

OberlinI, 8 mi. N.\\'.

liirminghamj, 3-4 mi. N. N.E.

LorainJ, 5 mi. S.E. Lorain County. —
Lynds Jones.

Map: Vermilion ciuadrangle.

368

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Mesophytic Forest, Breeding Place for
Great Blue Herons. About 30 acres;
deciduous forest; used as nesting place
bjf several hundred great blue herons;
about 600 nests, some of the largest trees
containing about 25 nests.

Fremont t, 8 mi. west-northwest.

ToledoJ, 25 mi. east-southeast; Lake
Shore Electric, to Hessville. Heronry
about one mi. north from Electric line,
and one mi. west of Hessville (a).
Sandusky County, Ohio. — E. L. Moseley.

Maps: Elmore and Fremont quad-
rangles.

IV. The Till Plains of the Central
Lowland Province

* Buckeye Lake and Bog t (B4.) This
lake is state-owned in its entirety and
one of the state parks. It was orig-
inally a small lake lying in a swampy
swale of land, and artificially increased
to its present dimensions in order to
furnish water for feeding the Ohio and
Erie canal. Reservoir commenced in
1828; completed in 1832 ; enlarged in 1836.
State-owned property — 4000 acres of
water and 100 acres of abutting land
and islands. Forty species of fish re-
corded, all but two native.

The part of greatest ecological interest
is Cranberry Marsh, a floating island
cranberry-sphagnum bog in Buckeye
Lake. Topography surrounding the lake
is low hills (morainal) and wide shallow
valleys. The original lake was a glacial
finger lake, a part of Jonathan Creek;
waters sluggish, basin 7 mi. long, average
width § mi.; average depth 6-8 ft.; lake
is post-glacial and quite young. Border-
ing the lake to the north is a hardwood
grove of about 10 acres. In the lake are
numerous islands of which Cranberry
Marsh is the largest and ecologically
the most interesting. It is a cranberry-
sphagnum meadow surrounded and
invaded by a hardwood tree zone, com-
prising in its entirety approximately 45
acres. 900 ft.

Columbust, 30 mi. east, Ohio Electric,
Hebron, Licking County; two mi. south.
Buckeye Lake spur of Ohio Electric,
Buckeye LakeJ. — Freda Detmers, E. N.
Transeau, Division of Fish and Game,
Dept. Agr.

Reference:

Detmers, Frederica. 1912. An Eco-
logical Study of Buckeye Lake.
Proc. Ohio State Acad. Sci., Sp.
Paper no. 19.
Maps:

Thurston and Thornville quadrangles.

Map "made under the direction of the
Ohio Canal Commission", Dept.
Public Works.

* Radnor Heronry. (C3.) A small
area of wooded swamp (the best part of
it probably less than 10 acres) in which
thirty or more pairs of the Great Blue
Heron are nesting. A mixed growth of
large oaks, maples, and poplars, to-
gether with smaller trees. Flora very
rich and varied. Miscellaneous bird
fauna very rich. Swamp very promising
for microscopic fauna and flora, but has
not been examined. Amount of water
and number of mosquitoes make area
undesirable for general park purposes;
interest essentially scientific. 960 ft.;
level.

MarionJ, 17 mi. south, or Delaware^,
8 mi. north, Hocking Valley R. R. or
C. D. & M. Electric; 2^ mi. N.E. (w or a)
Radnor (Meredith) Station, Delaware
County. —Edward L. Rice.

Map: Delaware quadrangle.

*Indian Lake. (B2.) A state park,
formerly known as Lewiston Reservoir.
The larger islands were sold under act
of the Ohio Legislature. Water acreage
6134, and 200 acres of bulk-heads,
islands, and margin ; average depth, 8 ft. ;
not polluted. Thirty-seven species of
fish recorded, all but two native. 1000
ft.; level.

Bellefontainel, 12 mi. N.W. Russels
Point or 14 mi. N.W. to Lakeview, Ohio
Electric or Toledo and Ohio Central
R. R. — Division of Fish and Game, Ohio
Dept. Agr.

Maps:

Alger, Bellefontaine quadrangles.
Map "made under the direction of the
Supt. of Public Works."

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

369

*Lake Loraniie Park. (B2.) Formerly
Loramie Reservoir. A natural lake aug-
mented by retaining dyke; reservoir
completed in 1844. Acreage in water
at weir level is ISOO acres; area of islands
and bulk-head 100 acres. Average depth
6 ft. ; no pollution. Thirty-seven species
of fish recorded, all but two native.
Similar to Buckeye Lake, but no floating
island or cranberry bog. 950 ft.

Minister (Western Ohio Electric) 3 mi.
south, Shelby County.

Versailles, 7.5 mi. E.N.E., C. C. C. &
St. L.; Houston, 8 mi. north; one mi.
N.E. Loramie.

Osgood (B. & 0.), 6 mi. east; one mi.
N.E. Loramie. — Lynds Jones, Division
of Fish mid Game, Dept. Agr.

Maps:

Loramie quadrangle.

Map ''made under the direction of the

Ohio Canal Commission"; Supt.

Public Works.

*Lake St. Mary's. (B2.) A state
park; a great artificial lake, about 16,000
acres, in Auglaize and Mercer counties,
on the watershed; 9 mi. long by 2-4 mi.
wide ; average depth 8 ft. Water acreage
14,248; margins and islands 1500 acres.
Reservoir commenced in 1837; completed
in 1844. Flooded land was about one-
half prairie and one-half forest, mostly
oak. Marshy shores, densely overgrown
with aquatic vegetation. Swamp about
15 mi. long. Most of the water fov»^Is
that pass over Ohio in their migrations
may be found here; eagles, hawks, etc.;
many fish, 37 species recorded, all but
two native. The Division of Fish and
Game maintains an inland hatchery
on the eastern side of the lake. 880 ft.

St. Mary'si, Auglaize County, at east
end of lake.

Celinat, Mercer County, at west end
of lake.— C/mrZes Dury, Division of Fish
and Game, Dept. Agr.

References:
Howe, Henry. 1896. Historical Col-
lections of Ohio, II: 235 (picture
showing condition in 1846) ; 239-240.

Dury, Charles. 1922. Jour. Clin. Soc.
Nat. Hist.
Maps:

Celina, Spencerville, St. Henry quad-
rangles.

Map "made under the direction of the
Ohio Canal Commission''; Dept.
Public Works.

Cedar Swampf. (B3.) A strip of
swamp land several miles long and
averaging \ mi. wide, bordering Cedar
Creek. This little stream has quick-
sand bottom, fiows swiftly, and is cold
enough for trout and water cress to
thrive. White cedar (Arbor V'itae)
grows very thickly in the lowest por-
tions; outljang trees are several species
of ash, oak, and maple. Among the
herbaceous plants are marsh marigold
{Caltha paiiistris), ladies' slippers
{Cypripedium rcginae, C. parvijlorutn),
Queen-of-the-Prairie (Filipendula ru-
bra), wild Iris (/. versicolor), skunk
cabbage [Symplocarpus foetidus),
fringed gentian [Genliana criniia), par-
tridge berry (Mitchella repens), round-
lobed Hepatica (//. triloba). I'ormerly
a large colony of great_blue_herons,had
nests in the tallest trees; most of these
are now gone. Rattlesnakes are still
common. 960 ft.; level.

Urbanai, 4 mi. south on Electric to
"Woodburns"; one mi. west {w, a);
Campaign County. — Florence Murdoch.

Map: St. Paris quadrangle.

*Bryan Forest Park. (B4 and D5.)
500 acres; includes part of the Niagara
limestone gorge of the Little Miami
River, and one of the most scenic areas
of southwestern Ohio. About 200 acres
is open field or pasture. Woodland is
partly virgin, and is composed of a
variety of species, principally chin-
quapin, white, red and black oaks,
white, red and rock elm, honey locust,
red cedar, tulip poplar, sycamore, black
walnut, butternut, sugar and red maple,
and Ailanthus. The area has been
grazed, but not severely, and little
damage has resulted. The cottontail
rabbit, woodchuck, chipmunk, red, gray
and fox sciuirrels, skunk and red fox mav
be found on the tract. 850 to 1000 ft.:
rolling except for gorge.

Yellow Springst, two mi. east .i ,
XeniaJ, 10 mi. N.W. (a) or traction;
Springfieldt, 10 mi. south la) or traction;
good gravel roads. Greene County. —
Edmund Secresl.

Map: Springfield quadrangle.

370

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Paint Creek Caves and Gorge\. (B3.)
Gorge of Rocky Fork of Paint Creek;
walls (Niagara limestone) precipitous,
in some places more than 100 ft. high;
covered with mosses, lichens, and ferns.
Original forest with most of the native
hardwoods; some evergreens — red cedar,
arbor vitae, and hemlock. Stream is
ideal for game fish, having deep pools of
cool water; subject to turbulent drain-
age, but with cavernous protection.

Bainbridge, Ross County (D. T. & I.
R. R.), 5 mi. west (a, w).

HillsboroJ, Highland County (B. &
O.), 13 mi. east on Cincinnati and
Chillicothe Pike (a). — Louis Kuertz.

Reference:
Howe, Henry. 1896. Historical Col-
lections of Ohio, I: 920.

Map: Bainbridge quadrangle.

"Hills and Dales" ' and "Moraine
Park." (C4.) State Game Preserve.
About 5000 acres of river bottoms, steep
ridges of gravel, "kettle hollows," ra-
vines and hillsides. Hilly portions
wooded (deciduous forest); arable land;
cleared 100 years ago. 760-1000 ft.;
rolling.

Daytonf, south on Oakwood car line
or Ohio Electric. — William B. Werthner.

Map: Waynesville quadrangle.

"Triangle Park." (C4.) About 145
acres along the Miami and Stillwater
rivers; about 30 acres in almost virgin
woodland. 780 ft.; rolling.

DaytonI, just north of corporation
line. — William B. Werthner.

Reference:
Soil Survey of Montgomery County.
U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Soils; in
cooperation with Ohio Agr. Exp.
Sta.

Map: Dayton quadrangle.

*Fort Ancient. (B4.) The largest
prehistoric fortification in the Missis-
sippi Valley. The park contains 310
acres of which about 100 acres are within
the walls of the prehistoric fortification.
The distance around the enclosure is
about 3J mi. The steep slopes bordering
Randall and Cowen Runs, and the Little
Miami River, are wooded. Xero-meso-
phytic slope forests on sandv and
gravelly soil of river bluffs; mesophytic
forests on ravine slopes. (Deciduous
forests of type seen in Cincinnati
Region.) 670-920 ft.; rolling to sharp.

XeniaJ, 23 mi. S.W., Pa. R. R.; Ft.
Ancient, Warren County.

LovelandJ (B. k. O. and Pa. R. R.),
18.7 mi. N.E., Pa. R. R.; Ft. Ancient.

MorrowJ 5.2 mi. N.E., Pa. R. R.; Ft.
Ancient.

Owned by the Ohio State Archaeologi-
cal and Historical Society as trustees of
the State.

References:

Tichenor, W. C. 1916. A guide to

Ft. Ancient.
Mills, William C. 1920. Map and

guide to Ft. Ancient.
(Both guides include a bibliography of

Ft. Ancient.)

Map: Morrow quadrangle.

The Cincinnati Region {8 areas). The
"Cincinnati Region," in which eight
of the areas listed are located, includes
a section of southwestern Ohio covered
by the oldest drift exposed in Ohio —
the Illinoian; and a small area covered
by the Earlier Wisconsin, which here,
however, is not so sharply delimited
from the older drift as it is farther east
and northeast. The region includes an
area of deeply dissected territory adja-
cent to the Ohio, the Miami and Little
Miami Rivers. These major valleys
are deeply entrenched, and their valley-
sides high and steep. (Ault Park Forest,
Camp Edgar Friedlander, and Fort
Ancient.) Many of the minor tribu-
taries enter through narrow steep-sided
ravines, whose sometimes intermittent
streams have numerous though low falls.
(Typical streams well exhibited in Mt.
Airy Forest area.) Farther from the
larger streams, the peneplained and
drift covered upland is little dissected;
the land in consequence is poorly
drained. This gives rise to particular
soil types with which the verj' char-
acteristic vegetation is correlated.
(Goshen and Bethel Upland Hydro-
phytic Forest areas.) Intermediate
areas of maturely dissected land, and
areas on the older and dissected (Illino-
ian) terraces, where slopes are gentle, are
clothed with mesophytic forests of the
climax type. (Caldwell Park Forest,
and Five-mile Creek Climax Forest.)
All parts of the Cincinnati Region

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

371

may be convenientlj^ reached from
Cincinnati. None is sufficiently remote
from the effects of civilization to harbor
any of the large mammals (except
possibly a few foxes) ; the smaller mam-
mals and the birds are abundant; fish
of great variety abound in the Little
Miami and its principal tributaries,
which are among the purest streams of
Ohio.

References:

Aiken, W. H. lOlL Catalogue of the
ferns and flowering plants of Cin-
cinnati, Ohio, and vicinity.

Braun, E. Lucy. 1916. The physio-
graphic ecology of the Cincinnati
Region. Ohio Biol. Surv. Bull. 7.

Braun, E. Lucy. 1917. The vegeta-
tion of conglomerate rocks of the
Cincinnati Region. Plant World,
20: 380-392.

Braun, E. Lucy. 1921. Composition
and source of the flora of the Cincin-
nati Region. Ecologtj, 2: 161-180.

Drake, Daniel. 1815. Natural and
statistical view, or picture of Cin-
cinnati and the Miami country,
illustrated by maps.

Goodman, A. L., Allen, E. R. and
Phillips, S. W. 1917. Soil Survey
of Hamilton County, Ohio. U. S.
Dept. Agr., Bur. Soils. In coopera-
tion with Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta.

Fenneman, Nevin M. 1916. Geology
of Cincinnati and vicinity. Geol.
Surv. Ohio, 4th Series, Bull. 19.

Langdon, F. W. 1879. A revised
list of Cincinnati birds. Jour. Clin.
Soc. Nat. Hist., I, no. 4: 167-193.

Maps:

Cincinnati (double) or East Cincin-
nati and West Cincinnati, Hamilton,
Mason, Felicity, Batavia.

Goshen Upland Hydrophytic Forest^.
(1— (B3); 2— (C3).) (1) About 60 acres
of original forest on one of the flattest
areas of the Illinoian drift (Clermont silt
loam type). Intermittent pools. Hy-
dromesophytic deciduous forest; forest
openings; lichens and mosses. One of
the few areas of virgin forest of this type
remaining. Grazed.

(2) About 40 acres of 50 year old
second growth forest, pure stand of pin
oak, following cutting. Rich undiir-
growth of characteristic shrubs and
herbs. No cutting or grazing; un-
touched.

Fauna of both areas similar: grey
squirrels, birds, frogs, tree-toads, snap-
ping turtles, crayfish. 890 ft. ; level.

Cincinnatit 15 mi. N.E., C. M. <t B.
Traction, AlilfordJ; 7 mi. east, C. M. <fc
B., Goshen Station; 100 ft. N.E. (w)
first area; \ mi. west (w) second area;
Clermont County, Ohio. — E. L. Braun.

Map: Batavia quadrangle.

Bethel Upland Hydrophytic Forest and
Meadoirt (C3 and B4.) About 50
acres of original and second growth
hydro-mesoi)hytic forest and meadow.
No undergrowth except mosses in denser
parts; forest openings with rich and
characteristic herbaceous growth.
Clermont silt loam soil; almost covered
by standing water in spring. 910 ft.;
level.

Cincinnatit, 28 mi. S.E., C. G. & P.
Traction, Bethelt; IJ mi. S.E., C. G. &
P., Cordrey's Crossing; | mi. S.W. (w).
Clermont County, Ohio. — E. L. Braun.

Map: Felicity quadrangle.

*Camp Edgar Friedlander Slope and
Flood Plain Forest, and Prairie Open-
ings]. (B4 and A4.) Boy Scout camp
site containing 71 acres, about | forested.
The woods in the Boy Scout grounds
"is to be left as a natural forest. We
will not permit the cutting down of any
of the timber." The title to the ground
is permanent. Climax mesophytic for-
est, xero-mesophytic slope forest, flood
plain forest, and prairie openings.
Shows complete succession from bare
bluff to mature forest. Typical prairie
openings on precipitous river bluffs of
Illinoian till (Cedar Cliffs). Flora in-
cludes bunch grasses and prairie dock,
and several species not known elsewhere
in Ohio. Fauna includes gray squirrel,
chipmunk, cottontail rabbit, wood-
chuck, water liinls and song birds, rich
insect fauna. On Little Alianii River,
one of purest streams in Ohio. 540-700
ft.; rolling, sharp, and precipitous.

Cincinnatit, 20 mi. N.E., Pa. R. R. or
auto; -i mi. east (w, a). Miainiville,
Clermont County. — E. L. Braun.

372

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Map: East Cincinnati quadrangle.

Five-Mile Creek Climax Forest]. (A4
and B4.) About 200 acres of virgin for-
est along upper part of Five-mile creek.
Beech forest on flatter areas at ravine
head; mixed mesophytic climax forest
with characteristic undergrowth on
gentle ravine slopes. Occasional steeper
slopes forested with oaks. 650-800 ft.;
rolling.

Cincinnatil, 7.3 mi. east. C. G. & P.
traction; one mi. S.W. (w) Fruit Hill,
Hamilton County. — E. L. Braun.

Map: East Cincinnati quadrangle.

*Cincinnati Water Works Forest].
(A4 and D5.) About 400 acres; climax
deciduous forest, flood plain, swamp,
springs, small brook (moderate). Fauna
of forest includes gray squirrels, skunks,
ground hogs, rabbits, many birds.
500-600 ft.; rolling, locally sharp.

In Cincinnatit; C. G. & P. traction;
5 mi. north California, Cincinnati, Ohio.
— E. L. Braun.

Map: East Cincinnati quadrangle.

*Ault Park Forest. (C4.) 205 acres,
about half forested; small spring-fed
streams. Has a fairly good beech
forest; undergrowth considerably de-
stroyed through recreation activities
and "park improvements." 540-800 ft.;
rolling.

In Cincinnati. — E. L. Braun,

Map: East Cincinnati quadrangle.

*Caldwell Park Forest. (B3.) 104
acres, about 75 in Avoodland; mesophytic
forest, flood plain forest; clay bluffs.
Stream badly polluted. 520-700 ft.;
rolling to precipitous.

In Cincinnati, Millcreek Valley; § mi.
west Carthage. — E. L. Braun.

Map: Cincinnati quadrangle.

*Mt. Airy Forest. (B4, D3, H8.)
A municipal forest of 1131.43 acres, about
250 acres in woodland; part of this grazed
until 1912. Detached woodland areas
representing mixed mesophytic forest,
slope forests of mesophytic and xero-
mesophytic types; naturally reforesting
areas. Approximately 450 acres have
been reforested artificially with native
hardwoods and with conifers (including
C3^press and larch); about 130 acres is
tillable, and is used for raising hay and

grain; of the remaining 300 acres, part
will be left open and a part reforested.
Streams small and intermittent but
typical of the Cincinnati Region. 500-
900 ft. ; rolling to sharp.

Cincinnatit, 8 mi. northwest; within
city limits. — Edmund Secrest, C. H.
Meeds, E. L. Braun.

Map: West Cincinnati quadrangle.

12. INDIANA

By Will Scott

i. general conditions
1. Topography

The southern two-fifths of Indiana
was slightly afi'ected by glaciation and
the northern three-fifths was covered
with the Wisconsin ice sheet. The
unglaciated portion is divided into
seven phj'siographic regions whose boun-
daries run approximately north and
south. Beginning with the east the
names of these regions and their areas
in sq. mi. are: Dearborn upland, 1925;
Muscatatuck slope, 1875; Scottsburg
lowland, 950; Norman upland, 2075;
Mitchell plain, 1125; Crawford upland,
2900; and the Wabash lowland, 4900.
Their names indicate the relative
elevations; the Dearborn upland is
about 1000 ft. above sea level; the
Wabash lowland is near 500 ft. The
Mitchell plain is the sink hole region of
the state. It together with the eastern
part of the Crawford plain, is the cave
region containing Wyandotte, Marengo,
Shawnee and other less notable caverns.

The Tipton till plain is a ground
moraine with little variety in topog-
raphy. It occupies the southern half
of the glaciated area in the morainal
and lake region. This consists of a
small lacustrine area near Fort Wayne,
and the Michigan lacustrine area, the
Kankakee lacustrine area, the Val-
paraiso moraine and the Huron-Erie
Saginaw interlobate moraine. The
Michigan lacustrine area west of Gary
consists of several parallel ridges which
mark successive beaches of Lake Michi-

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

373

gan. The Kankakee plain is a complex
of outwashed plains, much of it formerly
was marsh land. The interlobate mor-
aine extending from the northeast part
of the southwest for 100 mi. is a lake
region of Indiana.

2. Climate

The average temperature in the state
for January is 28°, southern part is 33°
and the northern part is 25°. The lowest
state record is —33°.

The July average is 75° for the state,
for the southern part is 79° and for the
northern part is 73°. The average maxi-
mum for June, July and August is 80°.
The highest recorded temperature for
the state is 111°. The average diurnal
fluctuation is 15° in winter and 20° in
the summer. The average rainfall for
the state is about 40 in. In the north
half one-tenth of this is snow and in the
south half one-twentieth is snow. The
rainfall in the north is less than 30 in.
and in the south more than 40 in. In
one small area it reaches 50 in. The
average annual evaporation from ex-
posed water surface is about 50 in. The
state receives an annual average of about
2800 hours of sunshine. The daily aver-
age for December is 3h hours and for
Jul}' slightly more than 10 hours. The
average growing season is 170 days. The
station with the shortest growing season
has 150 days and the extreme southwest
part of the state has nearly 200 days.
(See Visher, 1922. U. S. Weather Bu-
reau summaries of Climatological data
Nos. 67 and 68.)

3. The original biota

About seven-eighths of Indiana
formed a part of the hardwood belt.
The other eighth was prairie (Oak Grove
Savanna). This occupied the northern
part of the west side of the state and
was continuous with the prairie region
of Illinois (q.v.). The hardwood belt
has been described under Ohio (q.v.).

4. Local biota

A. Sand area biota. (Lacustrine area
south of Lake Michigan.) West of

Gary this is a series of low ridges alter-
nating with long narrow shallow ponds
both of which parallel Lake Michigan.
"The ridges showed a series of biota:
Cottonwood, jack pine (of which there
were several hundred acres immediately
west of Gary), black oak, white oak and
red oak. East of the city of Gary dunes
l)egan and skirted the Lake into Michi-
gan. The dunes area is characterized
by cacti and lizards. (See Shelford,
Cowles, 1899, 1901.)

B. The Kankakee Marshes. (The
Kankakee lacustrine.) The marshes of
this area were among the most extensive
in the middle west. It was drained l)y
the Kankakee river which was a stream
with great meanders and many broad
shallow stretches. The most notaljle
of these was called English lake, origin-
ally the largest water bodj' in the state.
It formed a great breeding place for
aquatic birds and has a rather rich
mammalian fauna. (See Butler, 1897;
Ilahn, 1908.)

C. Caves. The cave region extends
from Crawford County on the Ohio River
north about 125 mi. (See section on
topograph}-.) Wyandotte, Marengo,
Shawnee, and Mayfields are the Ijest
known. A few hundred feet from the
entrance of a cave is a habitat of abso-
lute darkness, constant temperature
(52°), and high humidity, and dependent
upon the inwash from the surface for all
basic organic food materials.

The characteristic animals of the cave
are totally or partially blind and usually
without pigment. The blind fish (Am-
blyopsis spelaeus De Kay), the blind
crayfish {Cambarus peUucidus Packard),
the beetle (Anophthalmia tenius Horn)
and the cave isopod {Caccidolea slygia
Packard) are the most typical; in the
twilight regions occurs the cave sala-
mander [Eunjcea lucifugn}; bats in
large numbers spend the winter in the
caves. Eight species have l)een taken
from Indiana caves (Ilahn, 1908).
The plankton forms arc all epigean spe-
cies. Almost any o{ the epigean fauna
of the cave region may l)e taken in the
caves except possibly the birds and some

374

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

mammals. Banta recorded 110 species
from Mayficld's cave. He classifies
them as follows: cave exclusive, 10;
permanent residents, 28; temporary resi-
dents, 24; visitors, 36; strays, 17. (See
Packard, 1888; Eigenmann, 1909; Banta,
1907; Mclndoo, 1910; Scott, 1909; Hahn,
1908.)

d. Solution Ponds. The Solution
Ponds of the Cave Region. The Solu-
tion Ponds of Southern Indiana are
formed by the occlusion of the outlets
of "sink hole§." They are formed
suddenly, a pond of some acres being
formed sometimes in a few hours. This
makes them ideal habitats in which to
study the incidence and development of
aquatic faunas. The size of the basin
in which they lie, its slope, whether it is
covered with woodland, grass, or thicket
gives them great variety. Some are so
large and permanent that they develop
the fauna of small lakes, others are
seasonal. These characteristics makes
them the finest sort of material for the
analysis of ecological factors.

e. Lakes. The lakes of Indiana do not
differ markedly from others formed in
the Pleistocene glaciation. They lie in
lower latitudes than the other Pleisto-
cene lakes of America. Many are al-
ready extinct. In a small area, lakes
exhibiting various stages in the process
of extinction may be found. Turkey
lake is the largest, area about 5 sq. mi.,
and Tippecanoe the deepest (37 M.).

Probably twenty of these lakes are
large enough to show thermal stratifica-
tion in the summer. Of those examined
about one-third exhaust the oxygen in
the hypolimnion during the summer.
The lakes are stratified by June first and
the autumnal overturn occurs from late
September to early November.

There have been more lakes destroyed
in Indiana than exist at present. Plant
deposition and marl deposits have been
the most potent factors in this destruc-
tion. Erosion of outlets also has oc-
curred but has played a minute part in
the process. Since 1890, drainage has
lowered the level of many lakes. This
gradual destruction of lakes hag resulted

in swamps, the bogs of various types.
A few examples may be cited. There is
a tamarack swamp about 1^ mi. south of
Leesburg. One mile north of North
Webster a woodland lakelet almost
extinct contains Umbria in enormous
quantities. One mile south and a little
east of Syracuse is a quaking bog formed
in part by swamp loosestrife. Several
woodland marshed with interesting
odonate faunas are located near
Bluffton.

The cypress swamps. The Wabash
Lowland originally contained about
20,000 acres of cypress swamps according
to Collett, 1874 (quoted by Hahn, 1908;
Butler, 1897). They harbored the water
hare {Lepus aquations) and formed
nesting sites for the egret. They have
been reduced by drainage and cutting
until only a few small remnants remain,
one near Vincennes and less than a half
dozen in Gibson and Posey counties.

II. PRESENT BIOTA

The great till plain of central Indiana
has little of the original flora and fauna
left. The Kankakee region is rapidly
changing. The Lake region has been
discussed under the "Original Biota."

The unglaciated part of the state still
holds a few patches of undisturbed
timber. Much second-growth occurs.

The larger mammals (deer, bear, elk,
etc.), the passenger pigeon, paroquet,
and wild turkey have disappeared.
The rufTed grouse and the pileated wood-
pecker are rare and limited to the
wooded hills of the "knobstone area."

On the other hand, the rodents of the
field, the sparrows, meadow lark and
quail are more numerous than a century
ago, due to the replacing of the forests
with cultivated fields.

The Tippecanoe River is the only river
in Indiana approximating primitive
conditions. Much of its upper course
has been unaffected by man except for
fishing. Power is being developed in the
last 40 mi. of its course. The principal
southern tributaries of the Wabash have
been damaged by the oil field waste.
The West Fork of White River has been

NATURAL AREAS AND RECJOXS

375

damaged by industrial waste and sewage.
The Whitewater River has suffered little
from pollution but its basin has been
denuded of forests so that it is subject
to floods.

The short streams that enter the Ohio
between the Whitewater and the Wabash
are not polluted and their fauna has not
been changed in quality although the
number of individuals of some species
has been reduced.

III. AREAS PRESERVED OR OP SPECIAL
INTEREST

Turhetj Run State ParkX. (A4.) This
area is a virgin forest of 466 acres. It is
traversed by Sugar Creek. The area is
comparatively level except near the
creek where it is cut by ravines. Along
the ravines there are rocky sandstone
ledges up to 80 ft. in height. The forest
is of the white oak, tulip, sugar maple
. type. On the ledges of the creek is a
fringe of hemlock and yew. Elevation
699 ft.

Marshall, Parke Co., C. I. & W. R. R.
Bus line 4 mi. North to park.— C. C.
Beam.

*McCormick^s Creek Canyon State
Parkt. (D3.) Area 380 acres. The
greater part is woodland, which was cut
over many years ago. It is traversed b.y
McCormick's creek, whose bed is 50 to
125 ft. below the surrounding country.
The area is bounded in part by White
River. The woodland is of the white
oak-black oak type for the greater part.
Elevation 560 ft.

Spencer, Owen County, Penna. R. R.
Vincennes Div. Bus 3 mi. east to the
park. — C. C. Beam.

Cliftij Falls State Park. (D3.) Area
300 acres. This is a natural forest along
the bluff of the Ohio River. It extends
from the river valley to the top of the
bluff. It receives its name from Clifty
Creek which traverses it. The creek is
a small one, but is interesting in that
its water at one place falls 90 ft. The
forest is of the beech-oak type. Eleva-
tion 376 ft.

North MadisonI, or MadisonJ. Jeffer-

son County, Penna. R. R. Madison
Div. (w) or (a) 3 mi. west to park.—
C. C. Beam.

*Clark Count!/ 'SV^/c Forc.<il. (D3.)
Area 2337 acres. Several hundred acres
will be added as soon as the purchases
can be validated. The state forest is
in the "knob" area.- About half of the
area lies in the knobs at an elevation
of from 800 to 1000. The area was
originally compo.sed of several small
farms. There were about 400 acres
cleared when purchased, but all of this,
except about 50 acres has been planted
to forest or has grown up. The whole
area was heavily cut over, but for eight-
een years there has been no grazing and
only one fire, which was of small e.xtent.
The forest is of the white oak-black oak
type on the lower levels. The summit
of the ridges are crowned with scrub pine
(Pinus virginiana) and the chestnut oak
(Quercus prinus). Beech is frequent
in the extreme northwestern part.
Elevation 520-1000 ft.

HenryvilleJ, Floyd County, Penna.
R. R., Louisville Div. or Interstate
Traction Line. Walk one mi. north. —
C. C. Beam.

Vinegar Mills State Park. (D3.)
Small park of beech, white oak and black
oak along the bluffs of Muscatatuck
River between Vernon and North
\'ernon. Region near park of great
phj-siographic interest and beauty. Ele-
vation 665 ft.

North Vernont, B. ct O. S.-W. R. R.,
Penna. R. R., ^ladison Div. or Big Four
R. R. Greensburg Div. — C. C. Beam.

There is a considerable tract of wild
land given to the city of Indianapolis
adjacent to one of the city parks, by tlie
late William Watson Woolen to be
maintained as a bird preserve. — W. L.
McAlee.

**Indiana Unioersity Farm. (A4.)
This area is owned \:>y Indiana Uni-
versity. Area 182 acres. It is a virgin
forest of oak and tuHp with a few walnut
and hickory. Sonic of the trees are four
feet in diameter. It is generally level
l)eing a part of the Mitchell plateau.
The exceptions to this condition mpo a

376

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

few sink holes, the gorge below the open-
ing of Shawnee cave, and two places
where the roof of the cave has collapsed
and exposed the cave stream. The
bottom of the gorge at the mouth of
Shawnee cave is 105 ft. below the road
above it. Most of the original flora
remains and as a result includes several
plants generally regarded as rare in this
region. Hahn has discussed the verte-
brates of the farm . Elevation &S5-570 ft.
MitchellJ, B. & O. S.-W. R. R. and
Monon R. R. (a) or (w) to farm 3 mi.
east.— Will Scott.

Grassy Creek. (D3.) This creek is
a drainage line between the Barbee
Lakes and Tippecanoe Lake. It is
bordered by a narrow marsh that cannot
be drained or pastured. Full of marsh
plants and aquatics, marsh wrens, red
wunged black birds, rails, herons, bit-
tern, muskrats and several species of
turtles. Not preserved but cannot be
damaged much on account of the lakes
that it connects. Can be reached by
boat from Tippecanoe LakeJ or Kuhn's
Landing on Barbee Lakes. Boats may
also be obtained at a bridge on a cross
road just below Saw-mill Lake which is
the lowest one of the Barbee group.
Elevation about 800 ft.

Leesburg, Big Four R. R. or Winona
Traction, (a) to Tippecanoe Lake 4
mi. or Kuhn's Landing 8 mi. east. —
Will Scott.

The Knobstone Area. (D3.) Brown'
County together with the Eastern part
of Monroe and Laurence and the north-
west part of Jackson form the most
typical and least disturbed part of this
area. Much of this region is covered
with second growth timber. Different
parts are burned over almost every year
so that excellent material is furnished for
the study of succession. The trailing
arbutus and other rather rare plants oc-
cur in certain sections of it. Most of
the remaining species of mammals and
land birds of the state are to be found.
Elevation 650-950 ft.

Helmsburg, III. Cent. R. R. 6 mi. (a)
to Nashvillet. Both in Brown County.—
Will Scott.

The Cave Region. This lies whoUj-
in the Mitchell Limestone and includes
parts of the following counties; Munroe,
Lawrence, Orange, Washington, Harri-
son, the Crawford. The following four
caves are typical and easily reached.

Mayfields Cave. A small cave 5 mi.
northeast of Bloomington, J mi. in
length. Banta, 1907, has described the

fauna. A dozen other small caves may
be reached from Bloomington.

Bloomington. 111. Cent. R. R. Monon
R. R.

**Shawnee Cave. {Donaldson Cave).
(D3.) Located on University Farm
described above. Two mi. have been
mapped which is about as far as it is
possible to go. Canvas boat is necessary
for any extended examination. Blind
fish, blind crayfish, blind isopods, beetles,
spiders, cave salamanders. Part of the
fauna has not been worked up. Location
same as University Farm.

Marengo Cave. (D3.) This is a "show
cave" about ^ mi. long. It is listed
because of the ease with which it can
be explored.

Marengo, Crawford County. Southern
R. R.

Wyandotte Cavet- (D3.) Rivals Mam-
moth Cave in extent. Three routes.
Longest six hours walking. Guides at
the cave. These are necessary. The
cave has never been mapped and the
fauna has never been collected in any-
thing like completeness.

One of the interesting features of the
cave region is the solution ponds that
form above the underground drainage
lines. They exhibit great variety in age,
size, depth, surroundings and biota.

Corydon Harrison County, Southern
R. R. 12 mi. west {a,).—Will Scott.

The vicinity of New Harmony, Indiana
(D3)

This is classic ground, and for that
reason if for no other ought to be repre-
sented by a suitable reservation. It
would, in fact, be my second choice.
New Harmony was the residence, and
base of activity, of Thomas Say, Le Seure,
and other well-known naturalists, and
is the type-locality of many species of
fishes, turtles, insects and moUusks.
The Prince Maximilian von Wied resided
there during one entire winter, and
published much valuable information on
the plants and animals of the vicinity in
his celebrated work Reise durch Nord-
amerika. — Robert Ridgivay.

Buzzards Roost. There has been con-
siderable agitation for a Dune Park
near Chestertin (North) a state reserva-
tion, and this worthy project should be
put through so as to preserve for all time
some of this unique and interesting area,
as a recreational and educational re-
source for the citizens. A large section
of typical cypress swamp near Vincennes

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

377

(S.E.) also should be reserved before
it is too late.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Banks, N. 1906. A Preliminary List
of the Arachnids of Indiana with Kej^s
to the Families and Genera of Spiders.
31st Ann. Rept. Ind. Dept. Geol. and
Nat. Res., pp. 715-747.
Banta, A. M. 1907. The Fauna of
Mayfield's Cave. Pub. Carn. Inst
Wash. No. 64.
Blatchely, W. S. 1891. A Catalogue of
the Butterflies Known to Occur in.
Indiana. 17th Rept. Ind Dept. Geol.
and Nat. Res., pp. 365-408.

Blatchely, W. S., and Daniels, L. E.
1901. On Some Mollusca Known to
Occur in Indiana. A supplementary
paper to Call's catalogue. 2Gth Ann.
Rept. Ind. Dept. Geol. and Nat. Res.,
pp. 577-628.

Blatchely, W. S. 1901. Orthoptera of
Indiana. 29th Ann. Rept. Ind. Dept.
Geol. and Nat. Res., pp. 123-471.

Blatchely, W. S. 1910. The Coleoptera
of Indiana. Ind. Dept. Geol. and
Nat. Res. Bull. No. 1.

Bollman, C. H. 1888. A Catalogue
of the Myriopoda of Indiana. Proc.
U. S. Nat. Mus. Vol. II, pp. 403-410.

Butler, Amos. W. 1897. The Birds of
Indiana. Rept. Ind. Dept. Geol. and
Nat. Res.

Call, R. E. 1899. A Descriptive Illus-
trated Catalogue of the Mollusca
of Indiana. 24th Ann. Rept. Ind.
Dept. Geol. and Nat. Res., pp. 337-535
+ 78 pi.

Cowles, H. C. 1899. The Ecological
Relations of the Vegetation on the
Sand Dunes of Lake Michigan. Bot.
Gaz., Vol. 27, pp. 95-117, 167-202, 281-
308, 361-391.

Cowles, H. C. 1901. The Plant Socie-
ties of the Vicinity of Chicago. Bull.
2, Geog. Soc. Chi.

Deam, Chas. C. 1921. Trees of In-
diana. Ind. Dept. Con. Pub. 13.

Evermann, B. W., and Clark, II. W.
1920. Lake Maxinkuckee. Ind. Dept.
Cons. Pub. No. 7.

Greene, F. C. 1908. Caves and Cave
Formation of the Mitchell Limestone.
Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 1908.

Hahn, W. L. 1908. Notes on the Mam-
mals and Coldblooded Vertebrates
of the Indiana University Farm,
Mitchell Indiana. Proc. Nat. Mus.,
Vol. 35.

Hahn, W. L. 1908. The Mammals of
Indiana. 33rd Ann. Rept. Ind. Dept.
Geol. and Nat. Res., pp. 419-654.

Hay, O. P. 1894. The Lampreys and
Fishes of Indiana. 19th Ann. Rept.

Ind. Dept. Geol. and Nat. Res., pp.
147-246.

Hay, O. P. 1S91. Batrachians and
Reptiles of Indiana. 17th Ann. Rept.
Ind. Dept. Geol. and Nat. Res., pp.
412-602. *

Lj-on, M. W., .Ir. 1922. Notes on the
Mammals of the Dune Region of
Porter County, Indiana. Proc. Ind
Acad. Sci., 1922, pp. 209-221.

Mclndoo, N. E. 1910. The Biology of
the Shawnee Cave Spiders. Biol
Bull., Vol. 19, pp. 303-323.

Mdls, W. M. A Physiographic and
Ecological Study of the Lake, Eagle
I W moiia Lake) Region, Indiana. 28th
Ann. Rept. Geol. and Nat. Res., pp.
379-396.

Packard, A. S. 1873. On the Cave
Fauna of Indiana. 5th Ann. Rept.
Trus. Peab. Acad. Sci. Salem, 1872, pp.
93-97.

Scott, Will. 1909. An Ecological Study
of the Plankton of Shawnee Cave, with
notes on the Cave Environment.
Biol. Bull., Vol. 27, pp. 3SG-406.

Scott, Will. 1910. The Fauna of Solu-
tion Pond. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 1910.

Scott, Will. 1916. The Lakes of the
Tippecanoe Basin. Ind. Univ. Stud-
ies. No. 31.

Shelford, A'ictor E. 1911. Ecological
Succession. III. A Reconnaissance of
its Cau.se in Ponds ivith Particular
Reference to Fish. Biol. Bull., Vol.
22, pp. 1-38.

Shelford, Victor E. 1911. Ecological
Succession. II. Pond Fishes. Biol.
Bull., Vol. 21, pp. 127-151.

Sanders, N^ell Jackson, and Shelford, V.
E. 1922. A Quantitative and Sea-
sonal Study of a Pine Dune Animal
Communitv. Ecology, Vol. 3, pp.
306-320.

\'isher, Stephen S. 1922. The Geogra-
phy of Indiana. Ind. Handbook of
Geology, pp. 7-56. Ind. Dept. Cons.

13. MICHIGAN

Bv L. R. Dice, Lyxds Jones (Birds),

.VXD Helen T. G.vige (Rcptilc.f and

Arnphibians)

I. TOPOfJUAPIIY A.VD CLIMATE

Most of the topographic features of
Michigan are due to the action of the
fonner continental glaciers in forming
moraines, drumlin,'?. nutwash plains,
lakes and other typic;d glacial features.
Subsequent erosion has modified this
glacial topography only slightly. The

378

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

relief is in general verj^ moderate, the
highest point in the state, in the Porcu-
pine Mountains of Ontonagon County,
heing only 1421 ft. above the level
of Lake Superior.

The two peninsulas of which the state
is composed are nearly surrounded by
the waters of the Great Lakes: Superior,
Michigan, Huron and Erie, giving a great
length of shore line. At many places
along these shores are developed exten-
sive sand dune areas. The presence of
the great lakes profoundly modifies the
climate of the state. The state is well
drained, with numerous rivers and small
streams. The drainage of Michigan is
all into the St. Lawrence River system,
with the possible exception of a few small
lakes in the western part of the upper
peninsula.

II. FLORA

The alternating tracts of clay, of sand,
and of gravel soil, and the varying fea-
tures of hill, bottomland, and of swamp,
marsh, or bog, due in general to the
effects of the former glaciers, result in
much overlapping of the various vegeta-
tion types in the state.

Further, the state is, to a considerable
extent, the meeting place of the eastern
deciduous hardwood forest and of the
northern coniferous forest, and a con-
siderable part of the state is occupied
by the transition between these two
types of vegetation.

On the uplands of Isle Royale in Lake
Superior and on the northern part of
Keewenaw Peninsula the Canadian
coniferous forest is dominant, the most
common trees being the balsam fir
{Abies balsamea), white spruce (Picea
canadensis), and paper birch (Betula
alba papyri/era). Isolated patches of
this type of forest occur south as far as
the northern part of the southern
peninsula.

On the uplands with good soil in the
northern peninsula the dominant trees
are hard maple {Acer saccharum), yellow
birch {Betula lutea), and linden {Tilia
americana) . On lower ground with more
moisture the hemlock {Tsuga canaden-

sis) becomes common in the hardwood
forest, and may on lower slopes form
pure stands. The white pine {Pinus
strobus) formerly occurred commonly as
large isolated trees in the hardwood
forest, and sometimes as a pure stand
covered considerable areas.

In the central and eastern part of the
northern peninsula there are extensive
sand areas dominated by pines, mostly
jack pine {Pinus banksiana), though
much red pine .{Pinus resinosa) and some
white pine occurred. In general, the
pines seem to be successional stages
in the development of hardwood forest,
which is the climatic climax of the state,
and which when established prevents
the development of pine seedlings. The
jack pine grows on the poorest soil,
while white pine is a later stage requir-
ing quite rich soil, and red pine is inter-
mediate between these two in its require-
ments. On very sandy soil the hardwood
forest is extremely slow in replacing the
pines, which then persist for a long time.

On protected wet slopes in this penin-
sula the arbor-vitae {Thuja occidentalis)
often formed extensive swamps, and
some of the trees reached a very large
size. In the lowlands there were very
extensive bogs covered by tamarack
{Larix laricina), black spruce {Picea
mariana), or arbor-vitae. Sphagnum
{Sphagnum spp.) and bog sedge {Carex
filiformis) are very characteristic of the
open parts of these bogs, and a number
of characteristic shrubs occur, such as
the leather-leaf {Chamaedaphne calycu-
lata), Labrador tea {Ledum groenlan-
dicum), and cranberry {Vaccinium
oxycoccus).

The forests of the northern part of the
southern peninsula are quite similar to
those of the northern peninsula, except
that beech {Fagus americana) comes into
the hardwood forest as a prominent tree,
becoming more common to the south-
ward, while the yellow birch and hemlock
tend to drop out to the southward.

In the southern peninsula, particularly
in the middle portion, there are very
extensive tracts of sand, originally
covered mostly by pines. However,

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

379

there were also extensive tracts of hard-
wood on the richer soil here, and many
extensive bogs. The wet lowland forest
in this region, as in the upper peninsula,
was usually dominated by ar])or-vitae,
white spruce, tamarack, black spruce, or
black ash {Fraxinus nigra).

In the southern part of the southern
peninsula the drier upland forests were
largely dominated by oaks (especially
Quercus rubra and Q. alba) and hickories
(especially Carya alba, C. ovata, and
C. glabra), while hard maple and beech
were confined mostly to the heavy clay
soils. The extensive lowland hardwood
forests, especially on the flood-plains of
rivers and lakes, were dominated largely
by such trees as red maple {Acer ru-
brum), swamp oak {Quercus paluslris),
white elm {Ulmus americana), linden,
black ash, white ash {Fraxinus ameri-
cana), and butternut {Juglans cinerea).
In these forests are found a few represen-
tatives of the southern hardwood forest,
such as the tulip tree {Liriodendron
tulipifera), sycamore {Platanus occi-
dentalis), and gum {Nyssa sylvaiica).
Numerous tamarack bogs occurred,
mostly in the glacial depressions, but
on a much less extensive scale than
further north. In many places on lake
and river shores occurred dense thickets
composed of such shrubs as willow {Salix
spp.), alder {Alnus incana), buttonbush
{Cephalanathus occidentalis) , and red-
osier dogwood {Cornus slolonifcra) .

Numerous meadows or prairies were
originally present in this southern part
of the state, some of these being exten-
sions of more ex-tensive prairies in the
states to the south and southwest.
Some of these prairies were certainly
due to frequent fires, while others had
apparently developed following the
filling up of beaver ponds and of lakes.
A characteristic vegetational feature
in this part of the state were the "oak
openings," which were large or small
open tracts covered with scattering oaks
{Quercus macrocarpa or Q. velutina),
and sometimes having a thick under-
brush of hazel (Corylus).

The vegetation of Michigan is now

much modified from the primitive. In
the southern part of the lower peninsula
much of the land is under cultivation
and only a few tiny patches of native
forest remain. The timber in the
woodlots is mostly second growth, and is
frequently in l)ad condition from pastur-
ing and heavy cutting. Many swamps
and bogs have been drained. The
streams are often badly polluted by
sewage and industrial wastes, and the
aquatic conditions are therefore much
modified.

Forest fires and destructive lumbering
have destroyed most of the native for-
ests in the northern part of the state,
also, although numerous areas only
slightly modified can still be found in
the northern peninsula. The pine forests
of both peninsulas are now practically
all cut or burned. Hundreds of square
miles of the sandy plains are now cov-
ered with a low growth consisting of such
forms as sweet fern {Myrica aspleni-
folia), blueberries {Vaccinium spp.),
bracken fern {Pteris aquilina), and June
berrj' {Amelanchier canadensis). Other
extensive areas are covered with sapling
forests of aspen {Populus irernuloides
and P. grandidentata), and some areas
have grown up again to small jack pines.

On richer soil in all parts of the state
a shrub stage is common following
clearings and fires; this includes such
forms as red raspbcrrj' {Rubus idaeus
aculeatissimus), blackberry {Rubus alle-
gheniensis), pin cherry {Primus pcnn-
sylvanica), and sumac {Rhus glabra).
Commonly this is followed by a sapling
growth of the aspens, and in the north
commonly also by the white birch
{Betula alba papyri/era).

III. F.\UNA

The animal life of Michigan, like the
vegetation, shows a series of transitions
from north to south. Contrary to what
might be expected, the Straits of
Mackinac, between the twi) peniii.sulas
of which the state is composed, does not
appear to act as a very etToctive barrier
to animal or plant distribution.

380

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

/. Mammals

The principal native mammals in the
Canadian conifer forest of Isle Royale
are the marten (Maries americana),
Bonaparte weasel (Mustela cicognanii),
deer-mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) ,
red squirrel (Sciurus hudsonicus), snow-
shoe hare (Lepus americanus) , moose
(Alces americanus), and rarely caribou
{Rangifer caribou).

In the hardwood forests of the main-
land of the northern peninsula of Michi-
gan all these forn s occur except the
caribou, and numerous forms occur
which do not occur on the island. The
deer-mouse {Peromyscus maniculatus
gracilis) and the red squirrel (Sciurus
hudsonicus loquax) are slightly different
from those occurring on Isle Roj^ale.
The bob-tailed shrew (Blarina brevi-
cauda talpoides) is very common in
some of the wetter parts of the forests
and in swamps. Several bats occur in
summer, of which the most common
seems to be the little brown bat (Myotis
lucifugus). The black bear (Ursus
americanus) and the timber wolf (Canis
lycaon) are numerous, and so is the red
fox (Vulpes fulva). The fisher (Maries
pennanti) now is rare, though formerly
more common: a few bob-cats (Lynx
rufus) occur; and the skunk (Mephitis
hudsonica) is common. The Canada
lynx (Lynx canadensis) is reported to
have formerly been numerous, but it is
now practically extinct. The red-
backed vole (Evotomys gapperi) is
common, while the jumping-mouse
(Zapus hudsonius) is less common in the
forest than it is in grass and sedge
meadows. The porcupine (Erethizon
dorsalum) is abundant, but woodchucks
(Marmota monax canadensis) are few
in the forest. The eastern chipmunk
(Tatnias striatus lysteri) is numerous,
but the western type of chipmunk
(Eutamias minimus borealis) prefers
the more open brush, and probably was
never common in the dense hardwood
forests. The northern flying-squirrel
(Glaucomys sabrinus macrotis) is fairly
common, though not often seen. The

Virginia deer (Odocoileus virginianus
borealis) is common, but the moose is rare.

In addition to these forms living in the
forest proper, the star-nosed mole (Con-
dylura cristala) occurs principally in
marshy places, as do several species of
shrews (Sorex personaius, S. richard-
sonii, and Neosorex palustris). The
mink (Mustela vison group) and the otter
(Lutra canadensis) occur chiefly along
streams and lake shores, as do the
muskrat (Ondatra zibethica) and beaver
(Castor canadensis michiganensis) . The
meadow vole (Microtus pennsyli aniens)
occurs rather rarely in marshes and
meadows. Within recent years, with
the clearing of the forests, the brush
wolf or coyote (Canis latrans) has spread
from the westward completely over this
peninsula.

In the hardwood forests of the middle
and northern portions of the southern
peninsula the mammals show slight
differences from those of the northern
peninsula, although much the same
forms are present. The moose. Lake
Superior chipmunk, and the northern
shrews are absent. The weasel (Mustela
noveboracensis) and skunk (Mephitis
nigra) are a different species from those
of the northern peninsula; and the forest
deer-mouse is a more southern form
(Peromyscus leucopus noveboracensis) ;
a different subspecies of woodchuck
(Marmota monax rufescens) is found; and
a southern form of flying squirrel (Glau-
comys volans) replaces the one of the
northern peninsula. The masked shrew
(Sorex personatus), bob-tailed shrew,
black bear, timber wolf, red fox, marten,
fisher, bob-cat, jumping-mouse, porcu-
pine, eastern chipmunk, red squirrel,
snowshoe hare, and Virginia deer, how-
ever, all occur in the forest. In addition
to these fomis, the raccoon (Procyon
lotor), gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargen-
teus), gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis
leucotis), and elk (Cerims canadensis)
were formerly common, and a few cougars
(Felis couguar) were found. In swamps
and along the shores of lakes and
streams the star-nosed mole, mink, otter,
muskrat, and beaver were abundant.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

381

In the northern part of the southern
peninsula some of these more southern
species overlap the ranges of the more
northern forms and in this section we
maj^ find, for instance, both forms of the
flying squirrel and both forms of the
forest deer-mouse.

In the pine forests of the sand plains
of the central part of this peninsula,
and probably in the sand plains of the
northern peninsula, there was originally
probably a considerable congregation of
animals specially adapted for this situa-
tion, such as the marten, fisher, red
squirrel, and Virginia deer.

Along the southern border of Michi-
gan, and extending a short distance into
the state, a considerable number of still
more southerly and prairie forms occur,
along with most of the forms living in
the central part of the peninsula. Some
noteworthy mammals in this section are
the opossum {Didelphis virginiana),
small shrew- (Cryptotis parva), prairie
mole (Scalopus aqualicus machrinus),
large brown bat [Eptesicus fuscus),
red bat (Nycteris borealis), prairie vole,
{Microtus ochrogaster) , northern pine
vole {Microtus pinetorum scalopsoides) ,
southern woodchuck {Marmota monax
monax), striped ground-squirrel {Citel-
lus tridecemlineatus) , fox squirrel [Sciu-
rus niger rujlventer), cottontail rabbit
(Sylvilagus Jloridanus mearnsii), and
bison {Bison bison). The beach mouse
{Peromyscus maniculatus hairdii) is
common along the open beaches of the
larger lake, and in the open fields of the
southern part of the state. The bison is
now extinct, and with the clearing of
the forests the prairie mole, ground
squirrel, fox squirrel, and cottontail
rabbit have spread northward, some of
them reaching the Straits of Mackinac.

It is in the southern part of Michigan
that the native mammal fauna has been
most modified by civilization, and many
species have been exterminated there,
such as the deer, bear, and porcupine,
which still live in more northern parts
of the state; while others, such as the
gray squirrel, are much reduced in
numbers. On the contrary, numerous

species feeding on cultivated crops or
living in open fields or brush have be-
come more numerous than ever before,
even becoming pests. 'I'hc Norway rat
{Raltus norvegicus) and the house mouse
{Mus muscuhis) have l)cen introduced
and are very abundant around houses
and even invade the fields.

2. Birds (L. J.)

The breeding Inrds of the swampy and
marshy areas are the same as those of
Ohio, with the addition of loon, Bona-
parte gull, Caspian tern, Forster's
tern, Canada goose, Wilson's snipe,
alder flycatcher.

Birds breeding along the lake shore
on the sand and on islands: The same
as those of Ohio and the herring gull.

Birds breeding on the original prairie
and in other grassy places: The same as
those of Ohio, and Wilson's phalarope,
sharp-tailed grouse, short-eared owl,
lesser scaup duck, pintail (rarely).

Birds breeding in the deciduous woods:
The same as those of Ohio, except sum-
mer tanager, and in addition merganser,
red-breasted merganser, hooded mer-
ganser, black-crowned night heron.

Birds breeding in brushy tangles,
flood plains etc.: The same as those of
Ohio.

Birds breeding in the evergreen for-
ests: Spruce grouse, ruffed grouse, pas-
senger pigeon, wild turkey, mourning
dove, sharp-shinned hawk, Cooper's
hawk, goshawk, red-tailed hawk, red-
shouldered hawk, broad-winged hawk,
bald eagle, duck hawk, pigeon hawk,
sparrow hawk, osprey, barred owl, saw-
whet owl, screech owl, great horned
owl, yellow-billed cuckoo, black-billed
cuckoo, hairy woodpecker, downy wood-
pecker, arctic three-toed woodpecker,
yellow-bellied sajjsucker, northern pile-
ated woodpecker, red-headed wood-
pecker, northern flicker, whippoorwill,
nighthawk, chinuiey swift, ruby-
throated hummingbird, kingbird,
crested flycatcher, phoebe, olive-sided
flycatcher, wood pewcc, least flycatcher,
blue jay, crow, bronzed grackle, pvirple
finch, red crossbill, goldfinch, pine

382

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

siskin, white-throated sparrow, chipping
sparrow, shUe-colorcd junco, song spar-
row, towliee, rose-breasted grosbeak,
indigo bunting, scarlet tanager, purple
martin, cliff swallow, barn swallow, tree
swallow, cedar waxwing, migrant shrike,
red-eyed vireo, warbling vireo, blue-
headed vireo, black and white warbler,
Nashville warbler, northern parula
w^arbler, yellow warbler, black-throated
blue w^arbler, myrtle warbler, magnolia
warbler, chestnut-sided warbler, Black-
burnian warbler, black-throated green
warbler, Kirtland's warbler, pine warb-
ler, oven-bird, Connecticut warbler,
mourning warbler, northern yellow-
throat, Canada warbler, redstart, cat-
bird, brown thrasher, house wren,
brown creeper, white-breasted nuthatch,
red-breasted nuthatch, black-capped
chickadee, golden-crowned kinglet,
veery, olive-backed thrush, hermit
thrush, robin, bluebird.

Birds breeding in banks, bird houses,
etc. : The same as in Ohio.
S. Reptiles and amphibians {H. T. G.)

In the Canadian conifer forest on
Isle Royale are found the toad {Bufo
americanus) , the wood-frog (Rana con-
tabrigensis) and the red-bellied snake
(Storeria occipitomaculata) , while in
streams and lakes the mudpuppy {Nec-
turus maculosus) occurs. The spring
peeper (Hyla crvcifer), and the mink-
frog {Rana sepientrionalis) chiefly live
in swamps and streams, as does the com-
mon garter-snake {Thamnophis sirtalis).

In the hardwood forests of the north-
ern peninsula are found the wood-frog,
toad, spring peeper, comm^on tree-frog
{Hyla versicolor), leopard-frog {Rana
pipiens), mink-frog, red-backed sala-
mander {Plethodon cinerens), Jefferson
salamander {Amby stoma jef ersonianum) ,
spotted salamander {Ambystoma macu-
latum), red-bellied snake, fox-snake
{Elaphe vulpinus), green-snake {Liopel-
iis vernalis), and ring-necked snake
{Diadophis punctatus edwardsii) ; chiefly
along the streams and in the swamps are
found the green-frog {Rana clamitans),
newt {Triiurus viridescens) 4-toed sala-
mander {Hemidactylium scutatum),

water-snake {Matrix sipedon), garter-
snake {Thamnophis sirtalis), pond-turtle
{Chrysemys bellii bellii), snapper {Chely-
dra serpentina), and the wood-turtle
{Clemmys insculpta).

In the hardwood forests of the south-
ern peninsula occur all the forms listed
above except the mink-frog and the
pond-turtle. Here also occur the tiger
salamander {Ambystoma tigrinum),
swamp tree-frog {Pseudacris triseriata),
cricket-frog {Acris gryllus), skink
{Eimieces fasciatus), brown snake {Store-
ria dekayi), milk-snake {Lampropeltis
triangulum), and racer {Coluber c. con-
strictor). Chiefly along streams and in
swamps are found the pickerel-frog
{Rana palustris), bullfrog {Rana cat-
esbeiana), queen-snake {Natrix leberis),
garter-snakes {Thamnophis sauritus and
T. butleri), and ground rattlesnake
{Sistrurus catenatus) , soft-shelled turtle
{Amyda spinifera), musk-turtle

{Sternotherus odoratus), spotted turtle
{Clemmys guttata), and map-turtle
{Graptemys geographica) . The southern
pond-turtle {Chrysemys bellii marginata)
replaces the form of the northern penin-
sula. The Fowler toad {Bujo fowleri)
and the hog-nosed snake {Heterodon
contortrix) are found chiefly in sand
dune areas.

A number of southern forms enter the
southern part of the state. Among
these are the black-snake {Elaphe
obsoleta), Kirtland snake {Natrix kirt-
landii), Blanding turtle {Emys bland-
ingii), and box-turtle {Terrapene Caro-
lina Carolina).

IV. NATURAL AREAS

*Bogardus Tract. 3200 acres. Cut-
over and burned-over hardwood and pine
land, some swamps, and the shores of
several large lakes. Now mostly oc-
cupied by second-growth forests. An
area typical of the conditions in the
region. Cheboygan County, 4 mi.
east of Pellston. Under control of
Regents of the University of Michigan.

*The Huron Mountain Club. (B2.)
About 10,000 acres typical of the North-
ern Peninsula of Michigan, including

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

3S3

hardwoods, coniferous forests, swamps,
and bogs. Includes sand ridges, low
mountains, medium-sized lakes, small
streams, and a considerable stretch of
the shore of Lake Superior. Is being
preserved in its natural condition.
Some shooting in season. Marciuette
County, 10 mi. northwest of Big Bay
(station). Owned and controlled by the
Huron Mountain Club.

*Warren Dunes. (18.) 293 acres of
dunes along the shore of Lake Michigan,
part covered by forest and part by
shifting dunes. Includes a considerable
strip of lake beach, and several small
pools. One mi. north of Sawyer, Ber-
rien County. Preserved in its natural
conditions, under management of Ed-
ward K. Warren Foundation, Three Oaks.

* Warren Woods. (C4.) About 200
acres, part in native beech-maple forest,
with flood-plain forest, and a sluggish,
sandy-bottomed stream. About half in
cleared fields reverting to wild con-
ditions. One of the few forests of beech
and maple still intact near the head of
Lake Michigan. 4 mi. north of Three
Oaks, Berrien County. Preserved in
natural conditions, under the Edward
K. Warren Foundation, Three Oaks.

*Grand Island. (A3.) 14,000 acres,
the whole island except about 100 acres
in clearing, and the immediate vicinity
of the hotel and cottages. In native
forest, mostl}^ hardwoods and conifers.
Roads and trails have been constructed,
and elk and white-tail deer have been
introduced, as well as some birds and
fish. A small lake in the middle of the
island. In Lake Superior (Alger County)
one mi. from the nearest mainland, and
3^ mi. north of Munising. Owned and
controlled by the Cleveland-Cliffs Iron
Co., Negaunee. — L. R. Dice.

* Enmielt County Game Refuge. About
8000 acres, beginning about two mi.
southwest of Cecil. Includes sand and
gravel shores of Lake Michigan, and
sand dunes of varying height. Forest
mostly of fir, arbor vitae, and white
spruce, all about 40 years old. A little
Norway pine and hardwood, few bogs.
Tern rookery on an island.

2 mi. S.W. Cecil; automobile.— L.
R. Dice.

*Fletcher State Park. IGO acres on
north branch of Thunder Bay River
in Posen Twp., Presque Isle County.
Has some virgin hardwood. — L. R. Dice.

*Mackinac Island Park. 1015 acres,
consisting of the Military Reservation
connected with "Old Fort Mackinac"
on Mackinac Island.

Mackinac City, boat. — L. R. Dice.

* Young Stale Park, .\bout 230 acres
on Pine Lake, Charlevoix County.
Mostly covered with aspen second-
growth. Sand and gravel beach.

Boyne City, 3 mi. West, (a).— y^. R.
Dice.

*Cedar Hill State Park. 260 acres,
in Jackson, Washtenaw, and Lenawee
counties. Second-growth timber. Lakes.

Manchester, 7 mi. S. (a). — L. R. Dice.

*Burl Lake State Park. Will comprise
eventually 500 acres. On south side of
Burt Lake, Cheboygan County. In-
cludes shore line. The area consists
of cut-over and burned-over land, with
at present a jack pine and second-
growth cover. The location is central
for work by boat in any part of the
chain of lakes. Boats are available,
and camping places are provided.
I mi. west of Indian River (Michigan
Contra! R. R.).— C. IF. Creascr.

*Onaway State Park. 152 acres. Has
second-growth hardwood and some ar-
bor-vitae. On foot of Black Lake.

4^ mi. N. Onway. — L. R. Dice.

*Intcrlochen State Park. (C4.) 200
acres in Green Lake Township of Grand
Traverse County. Part in virgin white
and Norway pine forest nearly in natural
condition. Oaks and other hardwoods
l)resent on part of tract. Shores of
Duck Lake and Green Lake. One mi.
south Interlochen (on foot). — W. G.
Waterman {Mich. Acad. Sci. Rept.,
191S).

The following state parks are mainly
tourist camps, and in general have little
of ecological interest:

Day State Park. 32 acres, Leelanaw
County.

384

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Traverse City State Park. 40 acres,
Grand Traverse County.

Harrisville State Park. 6 acres, Al-
cona County.

Cheboygan State Park. 8 acres, Che-
boygan County.

Cadillac State Park. 25 acres, Wex-
ford County.

East Tawas State Park. 16 acres,
Iosco County.

Paw Paw State Park. Van Buren
County.

Gladwin State Park. 8 acres, Gladwin
County.

Harrison State Park. 35 acres, Clare
County.

Mears State Park. 12 acres, Oceana
County.

Silver Lake State Park. 35 acres,
Oceana County.

Grand Haven State Park. 25 acres,
Ottawa County.

Otsego Lake State Park. 54 acres,
Otsego County.

Manistee State Park. 26 acres, Manis-
tee County.

Muskegon State Park. 37 acres,
Muskegon County.

Lyon Lake State Park. 40 acres,
Calhoun Countj\

Benton Harbor State Park. 100 acres,
Berrien County.

*Jackson County Sanctuary. 35 acres
on Sandstone Creek; ground pitted by
old mine shafts and dumps. Vegetation
mixed; probably all second-growth.

4| mi. West of Jackson. — L. R. Dice.

*Hanson Military Reservation.

About 15,000 acres, including shore of
Portage Lake. Jack pine and barrens.

Grayling, 2 mi. W. (a).— L. R. Dice.

*Hillsdale College Preserve. 15 acres.
Upland deciduous second-growth forest,
and partly wooded swamp.

Hillsdale.— 5. A. Barber.

*Mickigan National Forest. (See Na-
tional Forests of the Rocky Mountain
District, p. 248.

*State Forests

More than 40 state forests are estab-
blished in Michigan, containing thou-

sands of acres. They are distributed
over all the northern part of the state.
Practically all of these have been logged
and burned. Young stands of jack pine
and aspen are abundant, and many
areas are being planted to more valuable
lumber trees. The named forests are
as follows:

Alcona. 40,640 acres, Alcona and
Oscoda County.

Alpena. 14,400 acres, Alpena County.

Antrim. 160, acres Antrim County.

Arenac. 1200 acres, Arenac County.

Au Sable. 51,560 acres, Alcona and
Iosco Counties.

Baraga. 80 acres, Baraga County.

Benzie. 200 acres, Benzie County.

Black Lake. 8000 acres, Cheboygan
County.

Cheboygan. 6040 acres, Cheboygan
County.

Chippewa. 8800 acres, Chippewa
County.

Drummond Island. 2040 acres, Chip-
pewa County.

Fife Lake. 10,420 acres. Grand Trav-
erse County.

Garden Island. 1640 acres, Delta
County.

Gogebic. 480 acres, Gogebic County.

Grayling. 17,120 acres, Crawford
County.

Higgins Lake. 18,760 acres, Crawford
and Roscommon Counties.

Houghton Lake. 48,080 acres, Ros-
common County.

Iosco. 3200 acres, Iosco Countj'.

Kalkaska. 6400 acres, Grand Trav-
erse and Kalkaska Counties.

Manisleo. 8160 acres, Kalkaska
County.

Lake Michigan. 6080 acres, Emmett
County.

Lake Superior. 119,320 acres, Luce
County.

Leelanau. 820 acres, Leelanau
County.

Mackinac. 8580 acres, Mackinac
County.

Manistee. 1280 acres, Manistee
County.

Marquette. 10,400 acres, Marquette
County.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

38.5

Menominee. 320 acres, Menominee
County.

Missaukee. 1800 acres, Missaukee
CountJ^

Montmorency. 12,160 acres, Montmor-
ency County.

Muskegon. 800 acres, Muskegon
County.

Neivaygo. 320 acres, Newaygo
County.

Oceana. 80 acres, Oceana County.

Ogemaw. 6240 acres, Ogemaw
County.

Oscoda. 16,640 acres, Oscoda County.

Otsego. 6880 acres, Otsego County.

Ontonagon. 1920 acres, Ontonagon
County.

Pigeon River. 8640 acres, Otsego
Count}-.

Presque Isle. 35,200 acres, Presque
Isle County.

Saginau). 280 acres, Saginaw County.

St. Ignace. 1800 acres, Mackinac
County.

* Lighthouse Reservations. A number
of Lighthouse Reservations occur around
the Great Lakes. Many of these contain
situations of ecological interest, espe-
cially for shore life. Most are on islands
or peninsulars, and special facilities are
necessary for reaching most of them.
Animals are protected, but some use is
made of the timber present. Those in
Michigan of most importance are here
listed.

Au Sable. 326 acres, Lake Superior.

Beaver Island. 227 acres, Lake
Michigan.

Big Sable. 933 acres. Lake Michigan.

Bois Blanc. 640 acres. Lake Huron.

Charity Island. 200 acres, Saginaw
Bay.

Detoiir. 71 acres, at mouth of St.
Mary's River.

Devils ■ Island. 320 acres, Lake
Superior.

Drummond Island. 56 acres, on Drum-
mond Island, Lake^Huron.

Forty-Mile Point. 27 acres. Lake
Huron.

Grand Island Harbor Range. 115
acres, Alger County.

Grand Island. 91 acres. Lake
Superior.

Grand Ma mis Harbor of Refuge. 1014
acres, Lake Superior.

Gull Island. Lake Superior.

La Poinle. 152 acres, Lake Superior.

Manitou Island. 685 acres. Lake
Superior.

Michigan Island. 77 acres, Laki-
Superior.

142

acres,
acres,
201 acres.

Lake
Lake
Lake

acres. Lake
161 acres. Lake
42 acre.s. Lake

Forest. (A2.)

Mis.'iion Point.
Michigan.

Outer Island. 279
Superior.

Passage Island.
Superior.

Presque Isle. 1.38 acres. Lake Huron.

Raspberry Island. 288 acres, Lake
Superior.

Round Island. 311 acres. Straits of
Mackinac

Sand Island. Ill
Superior.

Thunder Bay Island.
Huron.

West Huron Island.
Superior.

Northern Michigan
Large area of deciduous and coniferous
forest; with hills, shore, rocky and
glacial topography ; swamps, pond, lake,
river, spring. This is a typical northern
Michigan forest; abundant small sphag-
num-lined lakes, rich in fish and micro-
fauna; birds abundant. In virgin for-
est, deer, bear, wolf, and beaver common.

Iron County, 10 mi. from Kentou,
C. & N. W. R^ R.— .4. R. Cahn.

Mason County Forest. (C3.) Tract
10-20 s(i. mi. deciduous and eastern
coniferous forest, witli particularly good
shore and sandy area, swamp, lake, with
waterbirds, muskrats, raccoon. Adniir-
abl}- situated for a state park. Contains
some of the finest dunes in Michigan.
Has little valuable timber, but bits of
deciduous and pine forest remain. Has
a beautiful interior lake. Lake Hamlin,
0 or 7 mi. long, which should be included.
None of the land involved is good for
tillage. Within the area there is a
lighthouse and lifesaving station. Lud-
ington, 5 mi. — Geo. D. Fuller.

Benzie County Hardwood. About (UK)
acres of virgin hardwood on Cry.'^tal
Lake, south side, about middle of lake.

386

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Called Old Preemption. On heights
sloping to the lake. Includes ravines.
Variously owned.

Frankfort.— r. H. Hubbell.

Grayling Pine. 76 acres, Young stand
of white pine, with some Norway pine,
hemlock, and hardwood. The last white
pine in Michigan.

Grayling.— P. S. Lovejoy.

Otsego County Hardwood. Several sec-
tions of virgin hardwood remain in this
county, the last hardwood forests of any
adequate area remaining in the southern
peninsula. At least 640 acres should be
permanently preserved.

Gaylord, 6 mi. W. (a).— L. R. Dice.

Pictured Rocks. (B3.) 10 to 100 sq.
mi. along Lake Superior shore in Alger
County. Sand dunes, pictured rocks,
hardwood and pine forests, cedar
swamps, tamarack bogs, small rapid
streams, rock exposures. Lake Superior
shores. Privately owned. 20 mi. north
of Seney (wagon), camp. — L. R. Dice.

Porcupine Mountains. (B3.) 10 to
20 sq. mi. in Ontonagon County. High-
est-elevation in Michigan. Mountains,
rock exposures, hardwood forest, hem-
lock, pine, bogs, beaver meadows, shrub
thickets, small streams and lakes. Lake
Superior shore. Privately owned. 24
mi. west of Ontonagon (wagon), camp.
■ — L. R. Dice.

Carpenter Woods. (C4.) About 500
acres in Hope Township, central Barry
County. Rolling topography, original
hardwood forest; soil of clay and gravel,
small stream and swamps. Privately
owned. One mi. south Cloverdale (a).
— Doreen Potter.

Waterloo Big Marsh. (C4.) About
1200 acres in Waterloo Township, Jack-
son County, at the headwaters of the
Grand River. About one-third in cat-
tails, and a considerable portion in
tamarack bog. Much rose shrub and
numerous other marsh and swamp
habitats; a small creek; one small lake.
Sandhill crane breeds; snowshoe hare
lingered here until the early nineties.
The Grand River drain now under con-
struction will drain most of the area.
Privately owned. One mi. northwest
Waterloo (w).- — Walter Koelz.

Cisco Lake Region. (B2.) Southern
Gogebic County. Mostly mixed hard-
wood deciduous forest in nearly natural
conditions, except that the white pine
has been removed. Gently rolling to-
pography. Many lakes. Deer abun-
dant. Privately owned. 6 mi. east

(c), Bent's Resort (State Line, Wise).
— L. R. Dice.

Little Girl's Point. (A3.) 10 to 20
sq. mi., southeast of Little Girl's Point
on Lake Superior, Gogebic County. A
high ridge with splendid development
of dry sugar maple-linden-yellow birch
forest. Numerous black spruce bogs,
arbor vitae swamps, hemlock slopes, and
stages following burns. A few small
patches of white pine. Owned by lum-
ber companies. 14 mi. north, (a)
Ironwood. — L. R. Dice.

North End Gogebic Lake. (B2.) 10 to
20 sq. mi. west side of Gogebic Lake
near north end. Mostly low, wet hard-
wood forest, numerous extensive black
spruce bogs, few beaver meadows, few
black ash swamps along Gogebic Lake
shore. In nearly natural conditions.
Privately owned. 3 mi. south (boat),
Lake Gogebic Station. — L. R. Dice.

Isle Royale. (A3.) About 200 sq.
mi., making up Isle Royale in Lake
Superior. Canadian coniferous forest
dominant. Hardwood ridges, swamps,
bogs, marshes, small streams, lakes,
bays, shore of Lake Superior. Moose.
Still in nearly natural conditions.
Mostly privately owned. 20 mi. north
of Houghton (c), camp.' — L. R. Dice.

SELECTED REFERENCES ON THE ECOLOGY
OF MICHIGAN

Adams, C. C, and others. 1909. An
ecological survey of Isle Royale, Lake
Superior. Mich. Geol. Survey, Lan-
sing. XV, 468 pp.

Adams, C. C, and others. 1906. An
ecological survey in northern Michi-
gan. Mich. Geol. Surv., Ann. Rept.,
1905, pp. 1-133.

Clayberg, H. D. 1920. Upland soci-
eties of Petosky-Walloon Lake region.
Bot. Gaz., 69: 28-53.

Cooper, W. S. 1912. The ecological
succession of mosses, as illustrated
upon Isle Royale, Lake Superior.
Plant World, 15: 197-213.

Cooper, W. S. 1913. The climax forest
of Isle Royale, Lake Superior, and its
development. Bot. Gaz., 55: 1-44,
115-140, 189-235.

Cowles, H. C. 1900. Plant geography
of North America. I. The physio-
graphic ecologv of northern Michigan.
Science, n.s., 12: 708-709.

Dice, L. R., and Sherman, H. B. 1922.
Notes on the mammals of Gogebic
and Ontonagon counties, Michigan.
Univ. Mich., Occ. Papers, Mus. Zool.,
no. 109.

Dice, L. R. 1920. The mammals of
Warren Woods, Berrien County,

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

387

Michigan. Univ. Mich. Occ. Papers
Mus. Zool., no. 86.
Gaige, F. M. 1914. Results of the
Mershon Expedition to the Charity
Islands, Lake Huron. The Formi-
cidae of Charity Island. Univ. Mich.,
Occ. Papers AIus. Zool., no. 5.
Gaige, Helen T. 1915. The amphib-
ians and reptiles collected by the
Bryant Walker Expedition to School-
craft County, Michigan. Univ.
Mich., Occ. papers Mus. Zool., no. 17.
Gates, Frank C. 1912. The vegeta-
tion of the region in the vicinity of
Douglas Lake, Cheboygan County,
Michigan, 1911. Mich. Acad. Sci.,
14th Ann. Rept. 46-lOG.
Hankinson, T. L. 1908. A biological
survey of Walnut Lake, Michigan.
Mich. Geol. Surv., Ann. Rept., 1907:
153-288.
Hankinson, T. L. 1916. Results of
the Shiras Expeditions to Whitefish
Point, Michigan: Fishes. Mich.

Geol. and Biol. Surv., publ. no. 20,
Biol. Sev., no. 4, pp. 111-170.
Harvey, LeRoyH. 1920. Some phyto-
geographical observations in Lake
County, Michigan. Mich. Acad. Sci.,
21st Ann. Rept. 213-217.
Hubbell, Theodore H. 1922. The Der-
maptera and Orthoptera of Berrien
County, Michigan. Univ. Mich., Occ.
papers, Mus. Zool., no. 116.
Hussey, Roland F. 1922. Hemiptera
from Berrien County, Michigan.
Univ. Mich., Occ. papers Mus. Zool.,
no. 118.
Leverett, Frank. 1917. Surface geol-
ogy and agricultural conditions of
Michigan, with a chapter on climate
by C. F. Schneider. Mich. Geol. and
Biol. Surv. Publ. 25, Geol. Ser. 21.
Leverett, Frank, and Taylor, F. B.
1915. The Pleistocene of Indiana
and Michigan and the history of the
Great Lakes. U. S. Geol. Surv.,
Monograph., no. 53.
Livingston, B. E. 1905. The relation
of soils to natural vegetation in
Roscommon and Crawford counties,
Michigan. Bot. Gaz., 39: 22.
Livingston, B. E. 1903. The distri-
bution of the upland plant societies
of Kent County, Michigan. Bot.
Gaz., 35: p. 36.
Nichols, George E. 1922. The Bryo-
phytes of Michigan, with particular
reference to the Douglas Lake region.
Bryologist, 25: 41-58.
Peet, Max M. 1908. An ecological
study of the birds of the Ypsilanti
Bayou. Mich. Acad. Sci. 10th Ann.
Rept., pp. 162-196.
Reed, H. S., and others. 1902-1911. A
botanical survey of the Huron River
Valley I-VIII. Bot. Gaz., 34-52.

Ruthven, A. G., and others. 1911. A
biological survey of the sand dune
region on the south shore of Suginaw
Bay, Michigan. Mich. Geol. and
liiol. Surv., |)ul)l. 4, biol. ser. no. 2.

Transeau, E. X. 190<). The Ijogs and
bog flora of the Huron River Valley.
Bot. Gaz., 40: 351-375, 418-448; 41:
17-42.

Waterman, W. G. 1919. Development
of root svstems under dune conditions.
Bot. Gaz., 68: 22-53.

Wenzel, Orrin J. 1912. A collection
of mammals from Osceola County,
Michigan. Mich. Acad. Sci., 14th
Ann. rept., 198-205.

Whitford, 11. N. 1901. The genetic
development of the forests of northern
Michigan, a study in phvsiographic
ecology. Bot. Gaz., 31: 288-325.

Wood, N. A., Smith, Frank, and Gates,
Frank C. 1916. The summer birds
of the Douglas Lake region, Cheboy-
gan County, Michigan. Univ. Mich.,
Occ. papers Mus. Zool., no. 27.

Wood, N. A. 1914. Results of the
Shiras Expeditions to Whitefish Point,
Michigan. — Birds. Michigan. Acad.
Sci., 16th Ann. rept., 55-73.

14. NATIONAL FORESTS OF THE
EASTERN DISTRICT

By E. H. Frothingh.^m

The eastern National Forests in
District 7 cover an aggregate net area
of 3,458,638 acres. About 42 per cent
of the area, situated principally in the
Arkansas, Ozark, and Florida National
Forests, was originally public domain
and became National Forest land by
presidential proclamation. Most of the
remainder was purchased untler the act
of March 1, 1911 (the Weeks law).

The forests may be 'Conveniently
discussed under four geographical divi-
sions: The White Mountain, the South-
ern Appalachian, the Ozark, and the
Florida regions. Of these the Southern
Appalachian is the largest and most
complicated from an ecological stand-
point.

THE WHITE MOUNTAIN REGION

This region, lying principally within
the spruce-balsain-birch-area (Canadian
Life Zone) corresponds with the "spruce
and northern hardwoods region" recog-
nized in the report of the Committee on

3SS

XATURALISrS GUTOE TO THE AMERICAS

Beseartb. Xew Frg "sri Seedoai of the
Socirtj erf Aznenc&r Fc?esi«s-- Sxtees
forest nrpes are fonni in tie re?ioii- - :-
cotdi^ to ifce repc»i, Tiaese are c_ -
acs«aed bj beedu sogar lo&pZe. veiiow
amdptper hiiches Br
prnpsiriftT*] , gproee.
i'slsem^.z . aorthem "^^ t

~ type, two
' ~-4k and

oi^ viate piiie (JPiai^:
ihese Types are jfistmcrnre.
BCKtiiem visite c--:
fir tjpes. Ibor ^x-.
asfjea type.

:i-L^c Hzs:;

C^

b«c"-o'^ 1 JX fi.. wiiile at points in North

Ci^clir^ and Tennessee th^c are many

-^ V; -- -'c^- exreedii^ 6000 ft. in

anying these raiia-

^y st«ep and brokoi

iioimeed Ipeal

"-•-enees and

----- sponsiUe,

in ram- for a great diversity of vegeta-

- "as listed 12 fewest associations

in Tibe Soothsn A^^nladians. in -fiiiieh

he recognizes 35 fonest types,' 5 in the

Canadian life Zone, 21 in the Alfe-

g^asnisn area ol the TransitioiL, and 9

:_ ~re Carolinian area oi the a]^)er

T. For a detailed discussion

T - Ashe's paper above re-

- '« consoited. In an

--.- zz.e distinctions

- tentative state-

_--= jHevailing under

-"Irrrr-Tiwital ecmdi-

iM»sis: r r ^ :e-i.-

SiAalpime

groups

tOTtS^^,

I'T^SIS

in zrjz

WeU-marked sohalpuie f (Heat types

--ear in Weak Tiiginia— nearly 400

:rx>m their nearest exteaare oerar-

inec to ibe ncrt 1— in .rmd sonth-

" rasing
Fed

tie Al

-Ol (JLc:

IS

233&.nno aaes,

iheSootb-

ers oi tiiese Xj
re c-herrr P.-.

Zei.

-d
are
Be-

^^aadoah^ i:i_ _t

1 r -1

in -.^oruL Car:

LaTgetO^"'

- Wesi

tode and over 9

^pean «t a lorr •

N'ATCRAL AREAS AND REGION'S «i

(P. tremuloide-s is eIso said to c«ecar in L: --r- -
eertain i~: Lite i -

e: rse xjzies. - ^T

betier deTelopHJeii" at loTfer eieTiiicns. cz£st:^':it, yeiiow
The .

alriru.--^ -- - ■ .: ------ -'-- — — :_.:- --- - — -- - ■ -

West Virgiiiia and CTer 4SJJ ft. in Ntrtii eiitei species- Arryfrir these are red

Carolins. and Te:2:n£ssee- 1151151-7 ^^:~"; ^=-^1^-6 J-cer
wittoth-' rr ar- e— eri s:=j—

-^ :_ - 2. blsck rain -Vy«*a f.

K" - - = nake "^o ti=e great btils !'" ,

--_:_ti : leirr niore or .ess aonii-^aiitiy. -■-^"" '-'

often in n—r? 5tan.is. G?-nsider?-t _'

reiaiiTely small geogrsprn-ri as e-cm- ^.- _ _. ,

pa^^^^_"^^^^=^^^-"f^"[^"^?;-— : With stich a '-arxe nt:irier of species a

-_-e TO Girer^nc-rs m ^'".J'J;?^' ^' grsat eompiexitj of

:\. :::-rs of exncstr-e ana ai-^i-ae. i-i -^v-- -_- --r :

- "- - bn>ad sense, therefore^ tJiese assc- _^ _._ ^

. _. _ , _-__ ^_;^ •»--^c-.' —

;j;:_,;;, c~i^ - '- - *'- -- - ^ t-^^-C a- ^ _

(Nompo-sition .iifer^nees aue to g€o- -

grapnieai linjitationi ox range oi sons occtfov tn^ ridges and cjj s-:pes

^:" - "" " '^- ~'-"~ _^ . _ iLe Pla: -

are the highest in altiriiae oi a^ tps ^^ ^ __. .-_ .v^ ^-^—v — -^ ^v^g i^pper

Sotrdiem Arntalaennan tyre; —- — ,-.i5^ sk'T* rrnes cei exic-sei asr»e<rts-

~ ' ""^" '""^'i -^^^^hisi^i^ Tbedry' -" - ---■-: -n-

cresxs and are eharaeterlied by so ea^e- ' .:: ^^--^i on - -t^as is xbe

"no-rthem ns" -' _ ^ye-^o» --^'-- case in the - - P^^'

sugar r" ' : ..e^n ann ^•!:_--s-- _ - .-_.;-

^-Ji .; often ab'^dant. ana _^

basswood ^Tilia ^p ). ene amber A--;- _-^_ g^^-^^^^^, jiie area oceapwd is

ndia '-J^.- "w^i« ^-^ /-"— - -rerr extensive- A^ ■ ' " ^

- black eherrr P~,%vi .;.._. — r - _ ^.

. \"i«fr!r;:i^ -^^"- e-ni of

chestnut ^C s^-r^'W'-u - — ■ *_ -* =• .j]^ jj(%£' ^^i^ mt - "-^^
decrees of nixture- ---:- -:^ -= —_.■.-
tant where it arrears, as on

sparsely iaio this assc-ciattcn :r\:-- »-^^^.j reSecis
below.

by Asbf sj

lioa life Zocic-

390

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

{Quercns velutina), scarlet oak {Q. coc-
cinea), black jack oak (Q. marylandica) ,
white oak {Q. alba), locust, sassafras,
pitch pine {Pinus rigida), Virginia pine
{Pimis virginiana), and table mountain
pine (P. pungens). Carolina hemlock
{Tsuga caroliniana) has a limited occur-
rence in the southern part of the region.
In the northern part Virginia pine and
black jack oak assume a prominence not
found in the type farther south.

Plateau group''

Upland types. These types include
the hardwood and pine formations which
characterize the woodlots of the Pied-
mont Plateau and Appalachian Valley,
and extend over the lower hills and
ridges skirting the main mountain ranges
and spurs into the plateau lands en-
closed within the mountain groups.
The upper altitude of these types may
be stated as approximately 2500 ft. in
the southern mountains, less in the
northern part of the region. In the
National Forests of the region they are
more largely represented in the south
than in the north. There is a wide
variety of composition and stand con-
ditions. On ridge and bench lands the
characteristic species include principally
shortleaf pine {Pinus echinata), southern
red oak {Quercus digilata), black oak,
post oak {Q. stellata), white oak, hick-
ories, red maple, black gum, Virginia
pine, pitch pine, dogwood, and sour-
wood. In moister situations such as
northerly slopes and ravines, red maple,
yellow poplar, red gum {Liquidambar
styraciflua), and scattered ash trees
mix with a variety of oaks and hickories.
Lowland and river edge types. These
are unimportant, in point of area, in
the National Forests. They are almost
wholly hardwood, and are confined to
narrow strips along streams, valley
bottoms, and small swampy areas.
Sweet gum, sycamore, {Platanus occi-
dentalis) river birch {Betula nigra),
black gum, and black willow {Salix

nigra) are characteristic. Yellow pop-
lar, white oak, and other species inter-
mingle to greater or less extent.

THE OZARK REGION

The Ozark and Arkansas National
Forests are situated in the mountainous
portions of Arkansas (Carolinian area
of the Upper Austral). The elevation
of the forests varies from 500 to 3000
ft. The principal tree species of the
uplands include shortleaf pine, white,
southern red, post, and black oaks, and
shagbark, pignut, and white hickories
{Carya ovata, C. glabra, C. alba). Sweet
gum, basswood, sycamore, sugar maple,
and black walnut are found on the
moister soils or along streams.

THE FLORIDA GULF REGION

The two divisions of the Florida
National Forest, in northwestern and
north central Florida, respectively, are
the areas concerned. This region (ly-
ing in the Gulf strip of the Austroripa-
rian area), is characterized by longleaf
pine (Pinus palustris), slash pine {P.
heterophylla), sand pine (P. clausa),
and other pines, scrub oaks, palmetto
{Sabal palmetto), and low evergreen
shrubs, with cypress [Taxodium dis-
tichum), swamp hardwoods, and south-
ern white cedar (Chamaecyparis thyoides)
in river and bog swamps. A good place
to study the typical "scrub" vegetation
of the poorer, drier, sandy lands of
Florida, showing all stages of succession
from ancient sand dunes to longleaf
pine forest. Conditions have been
largely modified by fire. Bear, deer, and
wild turkeys are to be found.

THE NATIONAL FORESTS

Since the individual National Forests
are treated here in alphabetical order,
their location by regions, in a general
north to south direction, may be of
interest.

' These types include approximately those listed
by Ashe as of the Carolinian Area of the Upper
Ausaral Life Zone.

White Mountain region
White Mountain National Forest

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

391

Southern Appalachian region
Monongahela National Forest
Shenandoah National Forest
Natural Bridge National Forest
Unaka National Forest
Pisgah National Forest
Nantahala National Forest
Cherokee National Forest
Alabama National Forest

Ozark region
Ozark National Forest
Arkansas National Forest

Florida region
Florida National Forest

The National Forests, which are
administrative units, are often made
up of two or more detached parts, the
more important of which are mentioned
in the discussion of the individual
Forests.

Alabama National Forest {Alabama).
Area 97,198 acres, on Walden Ridge,
principally in Lawrence and Winston
counties. Forests of the plateau tj'pes,
largely of pine on the upper slopes and
deciduous forest, containing consider-
able valuable white oak and yellow
poplar in the hollows.

Supervisor's headquarters at Moul-
tonj.

Arkansas National Forest (Arka7isas).
Area 652,565 acres in mountainous
western Arkansas, mostly in Perry,
Saline, Garland, Yell, Logan, Scott,
Montgomerj', and Polk Counties.
Mixed coniferous and deciduous forest
with shortleaf pine predominating. Un-
disturbed areas are to be found.

Supervisor's headquarters at Hot
Springsl, 12 mi. N. W. (C, R. L & P.
Ry. and Mo. Pac. R. R.). Other points
from which accessible are Womble, 3
mi. N.E. or W.; Eagleton or Rich Mt.,
one mi.; Bates, 3 mi.; Waldron, 10 mi.;
Mansfield, 8 mi. S.; Booneville, 9 mi.
S.; Waveland, 8 mi. S.; and Plainville,
13 mi. S.

Cherokee National Forest (Georgia,
North Carolina and Tennessee). Area
211,832 acres, mostly in Polk and Monroe
Counties, Tenn., Cherokee County,
N. C, and Fannin, Union, Lumpkin,
Towns, and White Counties, Ga. For-
est types of the Appalachian inter-

mediate and plateau groups. A saw
timber estimate compiled in 1910 by the
Forest Service indicates the following
percentages of species : oaks 24, clie.stnut
21, yellow pines 14, yellow poplar 13,
white pine 13, hemlock 7, others 8.
Elevation 1500 5000 ft.

Supervisor's headquarters Atliens,
Tenn.t, (L. & N. R. R. and So. Ry.).
Forest most readily reached (a) from
Blue Ridge, Ga., (L. & N. R. R.). Good
roads jjcnetrate the Forest.

Florida National Forest (Florida).
Area 320,273 acres in two divisions:
the Ocala, mostly in Marion County,
and the Choctawhatchee, in Santa Rosa,
Okaloosa, and Walton Counties, in the
extreme northwestern part of the State.

Supervisor's headquarters at Pensa-
colat (L. & N. R. R.) The Choctaw-
hatchee division is accessible from
several points on the L. & N. R. R.
notablj' Pensacola, Crestview, and De
Funiak Springs. The Ocala division
may be reached from points near Ocala
and Palatka.

Monongahela National Forest (West
Virginia). Area 170,377 acres in the
Alleghany highlands, mostly in Tucker
and Randolph Counties, W. Va. Forest
almost entirely cut-over. Subalpine
and intermediate types represented,
including much of the northern hard-
wood type. Excellent second-growth of
yellow poplar and other species in places.

Supervisor's headquarters at Elkinst
(Western Maryland Ry. and C. & O.
R. R.). Forest also accessible from
Parsons, Hendricks, and Durbin.

Nantahala National Forest (Georgia,
N^orth Carolina, and South Carolina).
Area 221,613 acres, mostly in Macon,
Graham, and Clay Counties, N. C,
Rabun County, Ga. and Oconee County,
S. C. The forest adjoins the Ciierokee
National Forest and is situated in the
Nantahala Mountains on headwaters of
the Savannah and Tcnnc.^.-^ec Rivers.
Forest types are of tiie intermediate
group. Forest Service estimate of saw
timber indicates following percentage
of priiu-ipal species: oaks 39 (mostly
chestnut and red oaks), hemlock IS,

392

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

chestnut 13, yellow poplar 7, basswood
6, hickories 5, birch 2, maple 2, others 8.
Some fine stands of virgin timber.

Supervisor's headquarters at Frank-
lin, N. C.J (L. & N. R. R.). Forest
accessible from Tallulah Falls, Ga.
(So. Ry.), Murphy, N. C. (So. Ry., 20
mi. (a)), and Lake Toxaway (So. Ry.,
12 to 30 mi. (a)).

Natural Bridge National Forest {Vir-
ginia). Area 143,386 acres in the Blue
Ridge Mountains, mostly in Rock-
bridge, Amherst, Botetourt, and Bed-
ford Counties. Altitudes are between
1000 and 3000 ft., with some peaks in the
neighborhood of 4000 ft. The forest
types are of the Appalachian plateau
and intermediate groups. There is no
subalpine type. The Forest Service
saw timber estimate of 1916 indicated
the following percentages of important
species: chestnut 40, oaks 36, yellow
pines 4, yellow poplar 3, hickories 2,
hemlock 2, white pine 2, others 11.
The chestnut blight {Endofhia para-
sitica) has reached an advanced stage.

Supervisor's headquarters at Lynch-
burgt (Southern Ry.; C. & O. R. R.
and N. & W. R. R.). The Forest may
also be reached from Natural Bridge
by automobile or on foot.

On the border of the Forest is the
Natural Bridge ravine, which was
presented by George III to Thomas
Jefferson in 1774. (See Harshberger,
John W.: "The Forest of the Natural
Bridge of Virginia." Forest Leaves,
9: 42-44, June, 1903. See also American
Forestry, 2: 238.)

Ozark National Forest {Arkansas).
Area 291,526 acres of rolling and moun-
tainous country on the divide of Boston
Mountains, north of the Arkansas
River. There are three detached tracts,
the western in Franklin, Crawford,
and Washington Counties, the central
mostly in Newton, Pope, and Johnson
Counties, and the eastern in Stone and
Ba.xter Counties. The altitudes are
between 600 and 1800 ft. in the eastern,
and 1500 and 2000 in the two others.
Undisturbed areas are found in the west-
ern division near Cass, the central divi-

sion near Simpson, Lurton, and Crowell,
and the eastern division, accessible
from Sylamore.

Supervisor's headquarters at Russell-
villet (Mo. Pac. Ry.). The western
division is accessible (h) and probably
at times by automobile from Ozark,
Ark., 12 mi. N.W. on Mo. Pac. Ry.;
or from Combs, on Frisco (St. Paul
Branch from Fayetteville) over Cass,
Combs, and Eastern Ry., a logging road,
carrying passengers to within 1^ mi. of
Cass. The central division may be
reached from Russellville, by auto
to Lurton, and other points; the Forest
Service maintains a 34 mile road through
this tract, and connecting links are being
completed, making it the most scenic
route in the State. The eastern division
is accessible from Sylamore (Mo. Pac.
Ry.), ferry to W. Sylamore, (regular
auto service) IS mi. of government
road with 17 mi. through forest to Big
Flat or Mountain View.

Pisgah National Forest {North Caro-
lina). Area 269,000 acres. There are
four divisions: The Grandfather Moun-
tain (Boone), most of which is in Avery,
Caldwell and Burke Counties; the Mount
Mitchell, in McDowell, Mitchell, Yan-
cey, and Buncombe Counties; the
Pisgah, in Buncombe, Henderson, Tran-
sylvania, and Haywood Counties; and
the French Broad, in Cocke and Green
Counties, Tenn., and Madison County,
N. C. The Pisgah division is a national
game preserve. The Mount Mitchell
division is adjacent to the Mount Mit-
chell State Park, which occupies the
high ridge and peaks of the Black Moun-
tains, including Mt. Mitchell (altitude
6711 ft.). Most of the National Forest
lies between altitudes of 2000 and 5000
ft., and the prevailing vegetation is
that of the intermediate Appalachian
types, with intrusion of the plateau
types at the lower altitudes. At a
few points there are elevations of over
6000 ft. The subalpine types occur at
altitudes of usuallj^ over 4500 ft.; spruce
and fir are found in small amounts in all
four divisions of the Forest.

The prevailing tree species are indi-

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

393

cated by the Forest Service estimate of
saw timber compiled in 1916. The
percentages of species are: chestnut 45,
hemlock 11, yellow poplar 10, chestnut
oak 10, other oaks 6, yellow pines 3.
basswood 2, spruce and fir 1, others 12.

Supervisor's headquarters Ashevillet
(So. Ry.). Pisgah division easily acces-
sible by auto from Asheville or J^revard.
A motor road open from si)ring to fall
extends from Black Mountain (and
Asheville) to near the top of Mt. Mit-
chell. The Boone division may be
reached from Linville (3 mi. east) or
Lenoir (6 mi. west).

Shenandoah National Forest {]'ir-
ginia and West Virginia). Area 353,544
acres in three main divisions: The
Massannutten, on the Blue Ridge,
chiefly in Shenandoah, Page, and Rock-
ingham Counties; the Shenandoah, in
the AUeghanj^ Front region, in Rock-
ingham, Augusta, Highland, and Bath
Counties, Va., and Pendleton County,
W. Va.; and the Potomac, just north
of the Shenandoah, in Shenandoah and
Frederick Counties, Va., and Hardy
County, W. Va. The intermediate and
plateau groups of types are represented.
Timber largely second-growth, with
some good bodies of original growth.
The Forest Service saw timber estimate
of 1916 indicates the following per-
centage of species : oaks 53, hemlock 20,
white pine 8, chestnut 5, yellow pines 4,
yellow poplar 4, hickories 4, others 2.
Chestnut, which forms a larger per-
centage of the second-growth than here
indicated for saw timber, is badly in-
fected with the chestnut blight (Endolhia
parasitica). On the forest and still
intact are trench systems of Stonewall
Jackson.

Supervisor's headquarters at Harri-
sonburg, Va.t (B. & O. R. R. and So.
Ry.). The Massannutten area is acces-
sible (a) from Harrisonburg, Wood-
stock, Edinburg and Strasburg, Va.;
the Shenandoah from Harrisonburg

and Staunton, Va.; and the Potomuc
from Woodstock, Edinburg, and other
point.s in \'irninia.

Unnka National Forest {Virginia,
Tennessee, and North Carolina). Area
155,466 acres in two principal divisions:
the Wiiite Top, in Smyth an<l Wasiiing-
ton Counties, Va., and Sullivan and
Johnson Counties, Tcnn.; and the
Unaka, in Carter and Unicoi Counties,
Tenn. The forest is principally of
intermediate types, with the subalpinc
on the highest elevations in or near the
National Forest. The 1016 estimate of
saw timber indicates the following
percentages of species: oaks (princi-
pally chestnut and black) 35, chestnut
28, hemlock 12, white pine 6, yellow
pines 5, yellow poplar 4, birch 2, others
8. There are two or three undisturbed
stands. The remainder is culled, cut-
over, and largelj' second-growth
forest.

Supervisor's headquarters at Bristol,
Tenn.J (N. &. W. R. R. and So. Ry.).
The White Top division may be reached
(a) or (w) from Damascus, Va., the
Unaka from Erwin, Tenn.

White .Mountain National Forest {New
Hampshire and Maine). Area 440,581
acres in Coos, Grafton, and Carroll
Counties, N. H., and Oxford County,
Maine. Elevations from 1000 to 0290
ft. The flora varies with forest con-
ditions from nearly natural to badly
disturbed by logging and fire. The
largest area of virgin timber is the
"Great Gulf" immediately below Mt.
Washington. This is covered with a
mixed stand of red spruce, balsam lir.
and paper birch.

Supervisor's headquarters at Gorham,
N. II. t (B. & M. Ry. and Grand Trunk
R. R.). The whole White .Mountain
region is easily accessible from the
Boston it Maine, Maine Central, and
Grand Trunk Railways, and excellent
automobile roads i)cnetrate it. Sum-
mer and winter resorts are numerous.

394

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

C. States with Deciduous Forest, Southeastern Coniferous Forest and

Large Swamp Areas

This section includes the Atlantic
Coast and Gulf Coast States and Arkan-
sas. Texas includes large areas of the
three tj-pes mentioned but since its
largest areas are steppe and desert
grassland transition, supporting steppe
animals, it is placed with the steppe
areas. Arkansas includes all three types
but its swamps are in no sense coastal
as are most of those of the other states
except Louisiana.

1. NEW JERSEY

By T. C. Nelson

GENERAL ACCOUNT

Physiographic features and original biota

The state of New Jersey is 8224 sq.
mi. in area and exhibits rather diverse
conditions. The northwestern portion
of the state, which lies above a line
running from Seabright to Glassboro to
Bridgeton, includes many elevated and
rocky districts. Within this area are
the Kittatinny Mountains, the lesser
ridges of the Newark and Orange Moun-
tains, a group of ridges known as the
Highlands, and the Palisades of the
Hudson. The ridges are separated by
depressions containing swamps and
lakes. Nearly all kinds of rock and soil
are found in this region. The northern
third of the state is covered by glacial
drift, giving to the soils of the northern
and north middle counties a most varied
character.

The southeastern part of the state,
lying below the above-mentioned line,
presents far greater uniformity in topog-
raphy and in the nature of its soils.
Broad sandy plains rising locally in hills
300 to 400 ft. high, with here and there
an outcropping of rock, and abundant
swamps comprise this area. Much of
this region was within comparatively
recent times sea bottom, but is much
more ancient than the glacial drift to
the north.

A third region of the state which forms

a belt running along the eastern shore
of the southeastern part of the state,
and for some distance up the shore of
Delaware Bay, comprises about 463 sq.
mi. of low lying tide marsh and 28 sq.
mi. of sandy beach. Throughout the
southern half of the eastern shore the
beach is separated from the mainland
by shallow estuaries which communicate
with the Atlantic Ocean by several
inlets.

The total area of the state was shown
by the survey of 1883 to include 7514 sq.
mi. of land and 710 sq. mi. of water
surface. Of the land 7023 sq. mi. is
upland, as distinct from tide marsh,
divided into 3234 sq. mi. of forest lands
and 3789 sq. mi. of cleared upland. The
actual coast line from Jersey City to the
head of Delaware Bay is approximately
350 mi.

Associated with each of these regions
is a distinct biota. Originally the
northwestern area was covered with a
heavy growth of hardwoods: oak, chest-
nut, maple, hickory, beech, tulip poplar,
ash, birch, gum and elm, with a very
few overgreens; white and pitch pine,
red cedar, hemlock and occasional black
spruce, white cedar, and tamarack
{Larix laricina) .

The native mammal fauna included
the fox squirrel {Sciurus niger neglectus),
gray squirrel {Sciurus carolinensis),
red squirrel {Sciurus hudsonicus loquax),
flying-squirrel {Glaucomys volans), chip-
munk {Tamias striatus), woodchuck
{Marmota monax), beaver {Castor cana-
densis), muskrat {Ondatra zibethica ma-
crodon), deer-mouse {Peromyscus leuco-
pus noveboracensis) and other native
mice, snowshoe hare {Lepus americanus
virginianus), cottontail rabbit {Sylvila-
gus floridanus rnallurus), bobcat {Ljjnx
rufus), red fox {Vulpes fulva), gray fox
{Urocyon cinereoargenteus), mink {Mus-
tela vison mink), weasel {Mustela nove-
borazensis), otter {Lutra canadensis),
skunk {Mephitis nigra), raccoon {Pro-
cyon lotor), black bear {Ursus america-

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

395

nus), Virginia deer (Odocoileus virginia-
nus), and opossum {Didclphia vir-
giniana).

Common birds were : passenger pigeon,
quail, partridge, wild turkey, egret;
common reptiles; rattlesnake, copper-
head {AgJdstrodon mokasen), and spade
foot {Scaphiopus h. holbrookii), in addi-
tion to common frogs, toads and other
amphibians.

The southeastern area of the state was
covered principally by pitch pine and
shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata), witli
southern white cedar {Chamaecijparis
thyoides) in the very numerous cedar
swamps which are characteristic of the
region. The fauna was much as found
in the northwestern area with the exce[)-
tion of copperheads and northern hare,
with fewer beaver, bear, and otter, but
with deer much more abundant.

Many changes have occured in this
state since the coming of the white man.
Nearness to large cities and ease of
access made it inevitable that the re-
sources of the state should be heavily
drawn upon. Ruthless exploitation and
many forest fires have removed the
virgin vegetation, save for a few small
plots, which though much modified still
bear virgin trees. Second growth hard-
woods, comprising 750,000 acres (f of
the total forest area) are found in the
northwestern area, while second growth
conifers cover some 1,240,000 acres of
the central southeastern area. Pitch
and shortleaf pine occupy nearly one-
half of this region, oak and other hard-
woods one-quarter, brush land and
burned areas extend over the remaining
quarter, with about 4 per cent of the
total in southern white cedar swamps.

The original fauna has been greatly
reduced by hunters, the inroads of
civilization, and by forest fires. In
parts of the state, bear and otter still
are occasionally seen, while in the south-
ern part deer are plentiful. The snow-
shoe hare, water hen, wild turkey, pas-
senger pigeon, and lynx have dis-
appeared.

The coastal belt, beginning at the
Metedeconk River at the head of Bar-

negat Bay, and running south to Cape
May and northward along Delaware
Bay, contains some area.s wliicli are less
modified from the original than any
other portions of the state. Level salt
marshes, flooded during spring tides,
border the tidal areas. These are
covered with dense growths of sedge
grass, Spartinn, with here and there
patches of Snlicornia, and salt grass.
The bottoms of the shallow estuaries
are for the most part covered by exten-
sive growth of eel grass (Zo.stera marina) ;
ditch grass [Ruppia marilima) becomes
abundant in the mouths of the brackish
water streams which enter these bays.
Luxuriant growth of numerous marine
algae cover much of the bottom and line
the shores of the estuaries; these include
Ulva, Enter omorpha, Egardhiella, Cysto-
seira, Porphyra, with many less abun-
dant species. The fauna is that charac-
teristic of muddy bottoms and sandy
beaches.

Pollution

The chief rivers of the state, except
the largest, the Mullica River, and the
Great P]gg Harbor, Tuckahoe Rivers,
and the Maurice River, are all grossly
polluted. The lower portions of the
Passaic, the Hackensack, and the Rari-
tan Rivers, are little better than open
sewers. Twenty years ago shad, her-
ring and other fish ascended these
streams in quantity, but none are found
now. Many of the smaller streams of
the state, notably those connected with
public water works, are free from pollu-
tion and contain trout and other game
fish. Barnegat Bay, and most of the
estuaries north of Atlantic City, to-
gether with the streams entering them
are largely unpolluted, and save for
first and second cuttings of the south-
ern white cedar in the swamps present
in a few spots conditions which are but
little modified from the original.

Preserves

State owned forest preserves, eight in
number, comprise about 57,134 acres,
with a possible additional 33,000 acres

396

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

which it is hoped may be added to the
Kittatinny Mountain Project. Five of
these parks are in the southeastern part
of the state, the remaining three in the
extreme northwestern portion. Three
game sanctuaries and fish hatcheries
make up 5656 acres while 181,400 acres
have been set aside by individuals and
corporations for forestry projects or for
private parks. With the exception of
the state owned parks these areas have
been so profoundly modified by selective
cutting that none remains in even semi-
natural condition. Introduction of for-
eign plants and animals (the Japanese
beetle, for example) has caused even
further modifications.*

NATtJKAL AREAS

1. *Bass River State Forest. (C3.)
Burlington County, sand area, 1633 acres
of open forest on the Bass River.
Second growth pitch pine, shortleaf
pine with various oaks, such as white,
red, and chestnut oak, mixed in. Area
contains several southern white cedar
swamps, typical sphagnum bogs with
second growth white cedar. River mod-
erate, unpolluted. 10 to 50 ft., level.
Under state control since 1905-07.
Contains some experimental plantations.

Philadelphia, Pa.t 2| hours on P.
R. R. to Tuckerton, N. J.|, 6 mi. N.W.
(a).— r. C. Nelson.

2. *Penn State Forest. (C3.) Bur-
lington County, sand area, 2764 acres
on the headw^aters of the Wading River.
Second growth pitch pine, shortleaf pine,
little oak except the true scrub oak
mixed in with pine. Several southern
white cedar swamps, sphagnum bogs
with second growth white cedar. River
moderate, unpolluted. Of all the state
forests in southern New Jersey this
tract shows the most nearly undisturbed
conditions. Elevation 50-165 ft., level.
Under state control since 1910.

Atlantic CityJ, 2^ hours on C. R. R.

1 The writer is indebted to the New Jersey De-
partment of Conservation and Development for
most of the information contained in descriptions
1 to 8 inclusive, and for important facts contained
in other descriptions here listed.)

of N. J. to Chatsworth§ (a) 6 mi. S.E.—
T. C. Nelson.

3. * Lebanon State Forest. (C3.)
Burlington County, 4812 acres in the
typical south Jersey sand area, second
growth pitch pine, shortleaf pine, oak
southern white cedar. Contains experi-
mental plantations. Under State con-
trol since 1908-09. 100-160 ft. level.

TrentonJ, 1 hour on P. R. R. to Pem-
bertonj (a) 9 mi. S.E.— 2'. C. Nelson.

4. *Jackson State Forest. (C4.)
Ocean County, sand and sandy loam,
43 acres of forest 40 years old. Con-
sists of nearly pure pitch pine and
shortleaf pine with few oaks. Used for
demonstration of practical methods of
forestry. 160 ft. level. Under state
control since 1915.

Lakewood.J 10 mi. W. to Cassville§
(w).— r. C. Nelson.

5. *Mount Laurel State Forest. (C4.)
Burlington County, 21 acres, upland
forest, mixed hardwoods, red, black,
and chestnut oaks, red maple, hickory,
tulip poplar, white ash, fed gum, black
gum, black locust, some scrub pine.
70-175 ft., rolling. Under state control
1908.

Philadelphia!, | hour on P. R. R. to
MoorestownJ (a) 3 mi. S.E.—T. C.
Nelson.

6. *Kittatinny Mountain Project. Pro-
posed. (C2.) Sussex County 40,000
acres of hardwoods on Kittatinny moun-
tain, which extends about 36 miles north
from the Delaware Water-Gap. It
contains 12 small lakes besides many
unpolluted streams; 7231 acres of this
already preserved in the Stokes Forest
(7). As this region embraces some of
the most extensive woodlands and least
disturbed areas in the State it is desir-
able that the remaining 33,000 acres be
acquired with the least possible delay.
700-1800 ft., rolling.

May be entered as in 7, or through
highways by (a) from New York City in
less than 3 hours.^ — T. C. Nelson.

7. *Stokes State Forest. (C3.) Sus-
sex County, 7231 acres of upland forest
in the Kittatinny Range, Blue Moun-
tains. Second growth hardwoods in-

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

397

eluding oaks, chestnut, maple, birch,
beech, hickory, ash, with some pitch
pine, white pine, hemlock. Streams
unpolluted. 700-1600 ft., rolling to
sharp. Acquired by state 1907-18.

New York CityJ, 3 hours on Lacka-
wanna R. R. to Branchville§ (a) 3 mi.
W.—T. C. Nelson.

Swartzwood Lake. (B2.) Sussex
County, 560 acres in the foothills of
the Blue Mountains; 544 acres of this
is water, and about 16 acres of land
approaches including a 12 acre hemlock
grove. Maintained as recreation area
by State.

New York CityJ, 3 hours on Lacka-
wanna R. R. to NewtonJ, 7 mi. N. \V..
or Susquehanna Western R. R. to
Swartzwood Sta.§ (a) 2 mi. N. W.—
T. C. Nelson.

9. * Buckwood Park. (C3.) Game
Preserve, 5000 acres leased for this
purpose for 5 years. Lies in Knowlton,
Blairstown, and Pahaquarry townships,
to S.E. of Kittatinny Mountain Project.

New York Cityt, 3 hours to Warren, t
(a).— T. C. Nelson.

10. *State Fi^h Hatchery. (04.) 119
acres of open deciduous forest and pools
used for fish cultural purposes.

Hackettstownt— T. C. Nelson.

11. *Game Farm. (C4.) Ocean
County, 537 acres of sand area on Barn-
egat Bay sand area. Pines, southern
white cedar swamp, along Forked River.
Elevation less than 30 ft.

LakewoodI, 1 hour C. R. R., to Forked
Rivert (w).— T. C. Nelson.

12. Newark City Watershed Preserve.
(C4.) Morris and Passaic Counties,
about 20,000 acres of mixed hardwoods
in rough upland along headwaters of
Pequahannock Creek. Stream unpol-
luted.

Extensive replanting before the war,
will probably continue.— T. (\ Nelson.

13. White Oak Ridge: East Orange
Watershed Preserve. (C4.) Essex
Countv, about 1400 acres of hardwoods,
plus 400 acres unforested land._ Ex-
tensive replanting and conservation of
timber practised.— T. C Nelson.

Private Estates

14 *New Jersey Zinc County, Pre-
serve. (F6.) About 10,000 acres of
hardwoods "at "Franklin, N. J.t

15. *Ringicood Iron County, Preserve.

About 45,000 acres of hardwoods at
liingwood, N. J.J

10. *Wharton Estate. (C3.) Burling-
ton, Canidon, and .Xtiantic Counties.
About 100,000 acres in the sand urea of
pitch pine, shortleaf pine, few oaks.
Area centers about Atsion, 2 hrs. from
Atlantic City on C. R. R. Ileachiuar-
ters at TLammonton.J

17. *Kinncy Estate. (F6.) About
5000 acres of hardwoods, mixed, at
Butler, N. J.t

18. *nartshorne Estate. (F6.) Con-
tains a few acres of virgin hardwoods,
liave been in estate of family since
colonial days. Chestnuts suffering with
blight the only trees removed. Jligli-
lands, N. J.t '

19. H'hrystie Estate. (FG.) Few
acres of virgin stand of oak, hickory,
ash, maple, beech. High Bridge, N. J.J
— T. C. Nelson.

The Worthing ton Forest and Game
Preserve. 2500 acres is on the New
Jersey side at the Delaware Water
Gap. Shawnee on Del.

Barren or semi-barren areas of interest
to the ecologisl

20. Pine Barrens. (D4.) Between
Bass River Forest and Penn Forest,
and between Penn Forest and Lel>anon
Forest lie about 30,000 acres of stunted
pines. These bear seeds when about 3
to 4 ft. high, do not grow taller. Many
deer, rabbits, quail and other animals
found here.

Reached as for any of the above named
forests, see 1, 2, 3.— T. C. Nelson.

21. Bnrnegat Sand Area. (A4.)
Ocean County, sand spit about i to i
mi. wide and 12 mi. long which separates
Barnegat Bay from the Atlantic Ocean.
Covered with several species of Spartina
and other grasses, with occasional
clumps of red cedar, and bay bushes.
Area includes many sand dunes, ocean
beach, salt ponds, salt marshes. Except
for occasional Coast Guard Stations
region is practically undisturbed. Bar-
negat Bay practically unpolluted, fur-
nishes excellent region for study of
transition from fresh water to marine
fauna and flora. Water of Barnegat
Bay shows sub-tropical conditions dur-
ing summer, many broad flats with
typical Zostera associations. Alt. 0-40

ft. level.

New York or Philadelphiat 3 hours on
P. R. R., to Seaside Park, 1 mi. S. E.—
T. C. Nelson.

References:
For map of forest areas anil distribu-
tion of species of trees thereon see

398

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

reports of the State Department of
Conservation and Development,
especially 1919.

REFERENCES

Britton, N. L. 1889. A catalogue of
the plants of New Jersey. Report of
the State Geologist, Vol. II, Pt. 1,
p. 27-642. Trenton, N. J.

Harshberger, J. W. 1900. An ecological
study of the New Jersey sand flora.
Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. for 1900,
p. 623-671.

Harshberger, J. W. 1910. The vegeta-
tion of the Navesink Highlands.
Torreya, 10: 1-10.

Harshberger, J. W., and Burns, V. G.
1919. The vegetation of the Hacken-
sack Marsh; a typical American fen.
Trans. Wagner Free Inst. Sci., Vol.
IX, Pt. 1.

Martin, G. W. 1923. Food of the
Oyster. Botanical Gazette, Vol.
LXXV, No. 2, p. 143-169. (Contains
descriptions of salt marshes and
partial list of flora of marshes and
adjoining bays.)

Nelson, Julius. 1889. A catalogue of
the Vertebrates of New Jersey. Re-
port of the State Geologist, Vol. II,
Pt. II, p. 489-824.

New Jersey Department of Conserva-
tion and Development. Annual Re-
ports, especially for 1917, 1918.

New Jersey State Museum. Annual
Reports.

Noble, G. K. and R. C. 1923. The
Anderson tree frog. Zoologica, Vol.
II, No. 18. (Contains important
references to biota of pine barrens.)

Stone, W. 1910. The plants of sou-
thern New Jersey with especial refer-
ence to the flora of the pine barrens.
Ann. Rpt. N. J. State Museum for
1910, Part II.

2. DELAWARE

By Frank Morton Jones
I. general features and original

BIOTA

Delaware, with a land area of approx-
imately only 1950 sq. mi., and with the
least average elevation above sea level
of any of the states, yet includes within
its limits a far from uniform physical
environment, and naturally possesses
a rich and varied fauna and flora.
About one-twentieth of its area, in the
north, lies within the Piedmont Plateau,
with rocky hills reaching a maximum

height of 440 ft.; the remainder of the
state lies on the Atlantic Coastal Plain,
and is rolling to flat, usually not exceed-
ing 60 ft. above sea level. With the
exception of the tidal marshes bordering
the Delaware River and Bay, the estu-
aries of the larger streams, and the sand-
dune and salt-marsh areas adjacent
to the Atlantic Ocean, the state origi-
nally was heavily forested. The original
forest was principally hardwood, —
almost exclusively so in the north.
At the south-central extremity of the
state, a large area, still indicated on the
maps as "Cypress Swamp" or "Cedar
Swamp," once included within its limits
a magnificent growth of cypress.

The once abundant bald cypress
(Taxodium distichum), the occurrence
of such plant forms as the Muscadine
grape {Vitis rotundifolia), the sweet
leaf (Symplocos tinctoria), the habitual
nesting of the prothonotary warbler
(Protonotaria citrea), the yellow-
throated warbler {Dendroica d. domin-
ica), the summer tanager (Piranga r.
rubra), — all point to a marked admixture
of southern (Lower Austral) forms in
lower Delaware, more marked than is the
presence of northern species in the
proportionately much smaller Piedmont
Plateau region, whose fauna and flora
are essentially identical with those of
southeastern Pennsylvania. The Swed-
ish records for this region (northern
Delaware) include reference to the ship-
ment of the skins of bear, lynx, and
beaver, to Sweden and to England;
to the abundance and the destructiveness
of wolves; and to the use of the wild
turkey and the passenger pigeon as food.

II. present biotic condition

In the Piedmont Plateau portion,
the hardwood forest has been largely
removed, except on the steeper hills
and the narrow stream-valleys. On the
Coastal Plain, much of the upland
swamp area, through clearing and
draining, has been converted into
agricultural land; dykeing, ditching,
and filling have materially modified or
destroyed many of the tidal marsh

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

399

areas, which, however, are still exten-
sive; only a remnant of Taxodium
remains in the Cypress Swamp, the area
and character of which are greatly
changed; in the sandier southern portion
of the state, stands of pine or of pine
and oak have replaced, to a great extent,
the hardwood forest, and have also
invaded abandoned agricultural lands.
No considerable areas of primitive forest
remain in the state. About 30% of the
area of the state is forested, the propor-
tion of woodland being greater in the
south, and probably not exceeding 15%
in the Piedmont Plateau region. On the
Coastal Plain, by the damming of
small streams, numerous permanent
ponds have been created, and these with
their natural margins support an exten-
sive fauna and flora. The sea-beach
areas, sand-bar strip, and adjacent
salt-marshes bordering the Atlantic are
largely state-owned; they have been
little modified, and support the limited
fauna and flora characteristic of such
situations.

In Delaware, the larger mammals,
black bear, Virginia deer, and beaver,
have been extinct for many years; otter
and mink survive; foxes, raccoons,
opossums, and smaller mammals are
generally distributed; a few pairs of bald
eagles still nest within the state; the
abundance of game birds and game fish
has been affected by human agency;
but lying as it does in the path of the
annual migrations, and with conditions
still favorable to permanent residence,
Delaware possesses a rich bird fauna,
and of fish— as yet little studied— prob-
ably as many species as in the past.

See Maryland for list of birds and
mammals.

III. FISH AND GAME PRESERVES

Delaware does not contain any
national or state Fish and Game Pre-
serves. By a General Order prohibiting
all hunting thereon, the state Rifle
Range, 300 acres of meadow and marsh
land along the Delaware River three
miles south of New Castle, has been
made a game refuge; and on many

privately owned tracts throuRhout the
state, all trap|)ing and hunting are
prohibited, and tliis liroliihition is
enforced in varying degree.

IV. roi.LGTIO.V

The Delaware River, the lower Chris-
tiana, the Brandywine and Red Clay
Creeks, are polluted with sewage or
with manufacturing waste, though not
to the extermination of tlieir normal
fauna and flora. In general, the other
waters of the state are free from ex-
tensive pollution.

V. NATURAL AREA.S

A. Represenlalive of the Hardwood
Forest of the Piedmont Plateau

The Remains of the Brandijuine Forest.
(D4.) New Castle County. With some
interruptions, bordering the winding
course of the Brandywine Creek from
within the city limits of Wilmington
(Wilmington City Park System) to the
Pennsylvania line, about seven miles.
The forest strip is of variable width
(maximum, about one mi.), occupying
the banks of the stream, the steep rocky
slopes and the hilltops, and the narrow
ravines of small tributary streams;
elevation, 25 to 408 ft. above sea level.
Most of this wooded area has never
been completely cleared, little cuttin
has been done for 50 years or more, an
portions of it have been protected
against cutting and burning for a
longer period, and approximate virgin
conditions. The principal trees are
oaks, chestnut (largely destroyed by
the blight), tulip p()i)lar, beech, hick-
ory, ash, maple, and walnut. The fauna
includes foxes, woodchucks, squirrels,
raccoons; the vulture occasionally
nests among the boulders.

Included areas of special interest or
accessibility are:

Alapocus Woods. (D4.) City Park
lands, and private owners); about 250
acres, bordering north side of Brandy-
wine Creek l)etween Augustine and
Rising Sun l)ridges. at edge of city;
fine protected woodlands, witli undis-
turbed natural herbaceous llora.

Wilmington t (w).

Rockland Woods. (D4.) Woodlawn
Trustees, and ])rivate owners); al)out
150 acres, nortli side of Brandywine
Creek, above Rockhuul; the Creek
Road traverses these woodlands for
i mi., paralleling the stream; fine un-
spoiled woodlands witii rich flora: steep
wooded rocky hills, rising 270 ft. in

400

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

1000 ft., to a maximum elevation of
408 ft.

From Wilmington!, 3 mi. north to
Rockland (a), or Rising Sun trolley to
terminus and (w); from Rockland
bridge, follow Creek Road | mi. north.

Garden of Eden Woods. (D4.) Wood-
lawn Trustees.^ About 135 acres, 4 mi.
north of Wilmington, between the Con-
cord Turnpike and Brandywine Creek,
^ mi. south of Thompson's Bridge, its
southern border separated from Rock-
land Woods by the Garden of Eden
Road; bordering and occupyiig the
valley of Rocky Run, to within 1000 ft.
of its affluence with the Brandywine
Creek. Little frequented and unspoiled
woodlands, with rich flora, fine boulder
masses, and a magnificent natural
growth of mountain laurel. 200-400 ft. ;
varied.

From Wilmingtonl, 3 mi. north to
Rockland (a), tlaence Creek Road one
mi. to Rocky Run bridge.

B. Exceptional and Typical Coastal
Plain Areas

The Heronry near Delaware City.
(D4.) Two mi. west of Delaware City,
New Castle County, north of the Dela-
ware City-St. Georges road, and occupy-
ing a marsh, swamp, and wooded slope
bordering Dragon Creek (on the farm
of Mr. John Higgins and adjacent prop-
erties) ; for many j'ears a nesting site
of the Great Blue Heron; 80 to 100
pairs present annually; the nests are
usually grouped within an area of a few
acres, though not always in the same
trees from year to year; the adjacent
marshes, the shores of the Delaware
River and Bay, and the banks of the
Delaware and Chesapeake canal, form
extensive and convenient feeding areas.
The birds have received some protection
from the owner of the land. Their con-
tinued protection, and the permanent
reservation of 2.5 acres of woodland and
swamp, would probably ensure the
indefinite survival of this interesting
colony. 0-40 ft.

Delaware City, DelawareJ; (w) west
on St. Georges road 2 mi., north across
fields to edge of woods.

The Tidal Marshes of Kent County.
(B3.) On the shores of Delaware Bay,
in Kent County, and extending from the
mouth of Smyrna River southward to

I William P. Bancroft of Wilmington, has deeded
to Woodlawn Trustees Inc. about 2000 acres of land
lying to the north and east of Brandywine Creek,
New Castle County, Delaware, the intent (in part)
being to preserve for park purposes the steeper
wooded portions bordering the Brandywine and its
tributaries, thus safeguarding for the future these
remnants of the Brandywine Forest.

Little Creek, is an uninterrupted tidal
marsh area about 15 mi. in length, with
a maximum width of 4 mi. Here, 50
sq. mi. of land surface, approximately
30,000 acres, are in more nearly their
primitive condition than any other
considerable area in the state. The
marsh is treeless, and is cut into islands
by the tortuous courses of many small
creeks; its shores are not embanked and
are only slightly above the level of the
usual tides; with the exception of a few
comparatively small intruded higher
areas of farm, woodland, and sandy
shore, it is without human inhabitants,
and its chief commercial value consists
in its production of salt hay, and in the
muskrats which are trapped in great
numbers. Hundreds of pairs of Black
Ducks nest in the marsh.

Title to the marsh area, in general,
is vested in a few owners of large tracts.
No adequate study of its fauna and flora
has been made.

From Doverl, go 5 mi. north (a) to
Leipsic, at the western edge of the
marsh; here motor-boats may be pro-
cured.—Major John P. LeFevre, Chief
Game & Fish Warden.

The Ellendale Forest. (C4.) The
largest densely-forested areas remaining
in Delaware are located in Sussex
County. For example, south of Ellen-
dale, and lying on both sides of the du-
Pont Boulevard, with Ellendale midway
of its northern boundary, a rectangle
4 mi. square (sundry private owners)
has less than 20% of its area cleared,
and most of the cleared portions nar-
rowly follow the main roads. This tract
of 16 sq. mi. includes the height of land
between the Delaware and Chesapeake
bays, and has a maximum elevation of
about 50 ft. The forest varies from
pine, or mixed pine and oak, to pure
hardwood^ — -its trees, in their apparent
relative abundance, consisting of pine,
oak, maple, in the order named; sweet
gum, sour gum, tulip poplar, and holly,
are also abundant; and of lesser growth,
Magnolia and Aralia; Clethra and
Vaccinium form a large part of the
prevailing undergrowth.

Over most of this area, cutting has
been intermittent and selective, rather
than complete, and hardwood trees of
75 to 100 years of age still remain. The
forest is penetrated by natural streams
and by some artificial drainage ditches,
and suggestions for its more thorough
drainage and its eventual conversion
into agricultural lands, are made from
time to time. Sphagnum areas are
present, and many of the more interest-
ing herbaceous plants of southern Dela-
ware occur here. Bird and insect

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

401

records from this and adjacent and
similar areas indicate an interesting
fauna, as yet very inadequately in-
vestigated. 38-52 ft.; level.

From Georgetown, Delawaret, go S
mi north by P. R. R. to (w) or (a)
Ellendale, Delaware.

Delaware Sand-bar Land. (04.) The
state-owned lands of Delaware consist
almost exclusively of a narrow strip
along the coast, beginning at the mouth
of BroadkiU River in Broadkill Hun-
dred, Sussex County, and extending
southeast and south to the Maryland
line, thus including a comparatively
short frontage on Delaware Bay, and
(with some interruptions, notably at
Lewes, Rehoboth, and Bethany Beach)
the entire ocean front of the state,
from Cape Henlopen southward, a
total distance of about 30 mi. The
width of the strip is variable, from a
few hundred yards to 2 mi. or more, its
western boundaries, over most of its
extent, following the shallow waters of
Rehoboth, Indian River, and Little
Assowoman bays. Included are the
sandy beaches, shifting dunes of pure
sand, others partially fixed by beach
grass (Ammophila arenaria) or clothed
with Hudsonia; thickets of Myrica and
Baccharis, extensive grassy flats ; though
many miles; of the sand-bar strip are
treeless, wherever conditions are favor-
able, a good stand of loblolly pine main-
tains itself, and the sj^stematic affores-
tation of a considerable portion of these
state lands has been strongly recom-
mended.

Except in the vicinity of the towns
mentioned, the sand-bar strip is almost
uninhabited, and has been little changed
by human agency. Mcst of it lies
beneath the 20 ft. contour line, though
at Cape Henlopen one large dune exceeds
70 ft. in height.

LewesJ; Rehoboth J; Bethany Beach J
(in summer).

3. MARYLAND
By C. C. Hamilton

i. general conditions

The topography

Maryland, although ranking as the
eighth smallest state of the Union, is so
situated that it offers a wide variety of
conditions for the study of plant and
animal life out of all proportions to its
area. Its greatest length is some 320
mi., measured from the northwest to the

southeast, which is nearly at a right
angle to the general direction of the
Allcglieny Mountains. The state is,
in effect, a cross-section of the Coastal
Plain, the Piedmont Plateau and the
Allegheny Ridges. The elevations pass
gradually from sea-leyel to 3342 ft. near
Table Rock in Garrett County. Wliile
the north and south extent of the state
is not great (250 mi. at its greatest
point), yet it lies between the north
and the south and is a meeting ground
for plants and animals of northern and
southern range. The geological forma-
tions range from the most ancient
granite and gneiss, through rocks of
every age and great niineralogical
diversity, down to the coastal deposits
of recent times. Overlying these varied
rocks and deposits are a diversity of
soils, which have been nowhere modified
by glacial action, as in the neighboring
states to the north. Through the middle
of the coastal portion of Maryland
stretches the Chesapeake Bay with its
great system of estuaries, varying the
topography, modifying the climatic
conditions and bringing about the
constant changes in the distribution of
plant communities.

The climate

Although the climate in general is
what is known as continental, it is
greatl}' modified in the eastern portion
of the state by the ocean and the Chesa-
peake Bay, and in the extreme southeast
becomes almost oceanic or insular,
surrounded as the land is on nearly all
sides by water.

Due to the geographical position of
Maryland and the increasing altitudes
encountered in passing from the coast
to the northwestern corner there are
considerable differences in temperature,
which are of importance in determining
the type of vegetation. The average
annual mean temperature varies from
47° to 57°, the average annual mean
maximum temperature varies from 5S°
to 07° and the average annual mean
minimum temperature varies from 35°
to 4S°. There is approximately three

402

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

weeks difference in the appearance of
spring between the southern and the
northern part of the state and in the
higher portions of the Allegheny Moun-
tains this is increased almost two
additional weeks.

The average annual rainfall varies
from 30 to 55 in., with the larger amounts
of rain in the extreme western part of the
state (in Garrett County), in the north-
central portion of the state (in Harford
and Carroll counties) and in the south-
central part of the eastern shore (in
Dorchester and Wicomico counties).
The greater part of the state receives an
average annual precipitation of 40 to
45 in. The precipitation is more or less
equally distributed throughout the
months, when the means for a long term
of years are taken.

The original biota

Maryland lies in a region in which the
dominant vegetation was the deciduous
forest, and before settlement by the
white man, the state was undoubtedly
covered by continuous forests. Only
here and there were there restricted
areas of marshes, bogs, bare rocks, or
sandy areas, in which local conditions
were not favorable for tree growth.
The forests differed from place to place
in their vegetational landscape aspects.
Shreve^ in his Vegetational Map of the
United States, divides the state into
four regions. These are, beginning
with the southernmost portion of the
state and extending north and westward,
the Southeastern Mesophytic Evergreen
forest, the Deciduous forest, the North-
ern Mesophytic Evergreen forest, and
the Northeastern Evergreen Deciduous
Transition forest. These vegetational
landscape aspect regions in Maryland
correspond- — fairly closely^ — respectively
to the Louisianian, Carolinian, and
AUeghenian zones of Verrill and to the
Lower Austral, Upper Austral and the
Transition Life-zones of Merriam.

Since, in the undisturbed condition,
Maryland was originally largely covered

' Shreve, Forrest, Vegetational Map of the United
States, Geographical Review, February, 1917.

with deciduous and evergreen forests,
the animal life must have largely corre-
sponded to that generally found in
forests of that type. There was, no
doubt, considerable difference in the
southeastern and the northwestern parts
of the state due to the differences in the
climate and the physiography. These
differences in the animal and plant
biota will be discussed according to the
various vegetat.onal landscape aspect
regions as given by Shreve, Chrysler,
Blodgett and Besley.^

The Southeastern Mesophytic Forest

This region includes the area south
and eastward from a line extending from
the Delaware Bay across the middle of
Delaware, through Caroline and Queen
Anne counties in Maryland to Baltimore
City, from there to the District of Co-
lumbia, and thence across the eastern
one-third to one-half of Virginia, North
Carolina, South Carolina, and south-
ward. This area was largely a forest of
evergreen needle-leaved trees with a
subordinate admixture of evergreen
broad-leaved and deciduous species.
Extensive areas in Maryland were pure
stands of loblolly pine {Pinus taeda)
in open formation, nearly devoid of
shrubs and carpeted with grasses and
herbaceous plants. Most of this area
has but little elevation, only in a few
places rising above 150 ft. Many
swamps, marshes and bogs were common
along the low lying shore of the Chesa-
peake Bay and its tributaries. The
marshes of the Eastern Shore aggregate
many acres in area and are most ex-
tensive in Dorchester and Somerset
counties, and have probably changed
but little from their original condition.
These marshes are of both the salt and
the fresh water kind.

The plant life of the salt marshes is
limited to those plants which have

- Shreve, Forrest, Chrysler, M. A., Blodgett,
Frederick and Besley, F. W. The Plant Life of
Maryland. Maryland Weather Service. Special
publication. No. Ill, 1910. Pp. 533.

This publication is a very valuable piece of work
and should be consulted by anyone interested in
the ecological plant life of Maryland. It has served
as the basis for much of the information regarding
plants contained in this report.

NATURAL AREAS AND RIXIKJN.S

403

adapted themselves to living in soil or
water of high osmotic pressure due to
the salt in solution. Salt marsh grass
{S-partina glabra) predominates on the
outer parts of the salt marshes, while
in the inner portions there are associated
with it some of the more salt resisting
plants, such as Salicornia europaea,
Spergularia marina, Alriplex hastata,
and Aster tenuifolius.

The vegetation of the fresh water
marshes is much more abundant than
that of salt marshes, and consists prin-
cipally of grasses and herbaceous plants.
These marshes lie along broad, low
streams and are areas above high tide.
As one passes up the salt marshes into
the fresh water marshes Sparlina glabra
and Spartina patens soon give way to
stands in which one or another of
Scirpus americanus, S. olneyi, S. robus-
tus, Spartina cynosuroides, and Zizania
aqnatica are dominant. Reed {Phrag-
mites communis) and cat-tail {Typha
angustifolia) also occur in more or less
pure stands. Besides these more or less
dominant plants a large variety of other
plants will be found.

The vegetation of the dunes and strand
along the ocean front is characteris-
tically devoid of trees and made up of a
limited number of species of grasses and
herbaceous plants of xerophytic charac-
ter. The fringing bar which forms the
ocean front of Maryland is very narrow
from the Delaware line southward to the
Chincoteaque Bay, below which it
widens, but nowhere exceeds a mile in
width. Along its inner side the bar is
fringed by fresh or salt marshes and on
the outer side is a low series of dunes,
everywhere being in a comparative
stable condition. The predominant
plant of the dunes is sand reed {Ain-
mophila arcnaria), with which are asso-
ciated the plants characteristic of dunes
throughout the north Atlantic Coast, as
American sea rocket {Cakile edentula),
beach heather {Hudsonia tomentosa),
sea beach sandwort {Arenaria peploides),
seaside evening primrose {Oenothera
humifusa), cocklebur {Xanthium cana-
dense), saltwort {Salsola kali), knotweed

spurge (I'Jiiphorlna pnhjgonijolia), and
seaside knotweed {Polygonum mari-
timmn).

The animal fauna of the Southeastern
Evergreen forest ws, in the original
undisturbed condition abundant and
probably (juite varied. Some of the
characteristic mammals' for this region
were the Virginia mu.skrat (Ondatra
zibelhica macrodon), the rice rat (Ory-
zomys paluslris), Bachman shrew {Sorex
longirostris), the little short-tailed shrew
{Cryplolis parva) and the fox squirrel
{Sciurus niger). This squirrel al.so ex-
tends into the Deciduous forest region.
Other mammals which occurred in
this region but also in other regions are
the meadow vole {.\ficrolus pcnnsyl-
vanicus), the gray fox {Urocyon cinerco-
argenteus), the eastern cotton-tail rabbit
{Sylvilagus floridanus mallarus), the
beaver {Castor canadensis). The beaver
is exterminated except for a few colonies
in West Virginia. The otter {Lulra
canadensis), raccoon {Procyon lotor),
mink {Mustela vison mink), the Virginia
deer {Odocoileus virginianus), the black
bear {Ursus americanus), the red fox
{Vulpesfulva), the bob-cat {Lynxrufus),
the short-tailed shrew {Blarina brevi-
caiida), the star-nosed mole {Condylura
cristata) and the common mole (Scalopus
aquaticus) .

The bird fauna of the Southeastern
Mesophytic Evergreen Forest was, and
still is, exceedingly rich. The list of
birds have been furnished by Dr. A. Wet-
more' of the U. S. Biological Survey,
Washington, D. C. Some of the species
characteristically breeding along the
marshes and beaches are as follows:
Gull-billed tern, Caspian tern, Forster's
tern, least tern, black skimmer, king
rail, clapper rail, willet, piping plover,
Wilson's plover, sharp-tailed s|)arro\v,
and the seaside sparrow.

Some of the migrant species found

3 The list of rnivminnls hiif. l)cep kiiully furnished
by Dr. II. II. T. Jackson, of iho U. S. BioloRicnl

Survoy. . • i i .11

*Tlic iii)iui'iicl:it\irc usoil in tli^- '■-•- ■■• '■"■■i-
follows tli:it of tho .\nuTio;iii Ortiii
Clicddist, :JrdcHl., 1<J!U, with tlif till. ,.
isBuetl to d.ite, wiiii-h arc puliliMlicd in tlio .Vuk lor
1912, pp. 3S0; l'J20, p. -IIO; mid 1U23. p. 513.

404

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

usually near the coast are Holbocll's
grebe, loon, red-throated loon, dovekie,
great black-backed gull, laughing gull,
Leach's petrel, Wilson's petrel, gannet,
old-squaw duck, American scoter, white-
winged scoter surf scoter, brant,
whistling swan, American egret, little
blue heron, dowitcher, knot, red-
backed sandpiper, sanderling, black-
bellied plover, golden plover, semipal-
mated plover, ruddy turnstone, and
oyster-catcher.

Species breeding generally throughout
the coastal plain are as follows: fish
hawk, chuck-will's-widow, fish crow,
boat-tailed grackle, Prothonotary
warbler, yellow-throated warbler, long-
billed marsh wren, and the brown-
headed nuthatch.

The insect fauna of the southeastern
mesophytic evergreen forest region has
not been studied in relation to the
original biota. The number of species
of insects is much larger than for the
larger forms of life and many insects
are limited very much more to distinctly
local vegetational conditions. Instead
of attempting, therefore, to give a list
of species characteristic of this region it
will probably serve the purpose much
better to name some of the vegetational
associations, or types, each of which will
have their characteristic local fauna.
If the area as a whole was originally a
mesophytic evergreen forest the pre-
dominating types of insects must have
been those of this type of forest. All
orders of insects were represented;
certain ones, however, more noticeably
than others. In the Hymenoptera the
Cynipidae and the Tenthridinidae are
important while the Cecidomyiidae is one
of the important families of the Diptera.
The beetles or Coleoptera constitute
one of the most important of all orders
occurring in forest areas. Of this order
the Buprestidae, the Cerambycidae, the
Chrysomelidae and the Scolytidae are
very important. The Bombyidae and
Sesiidae are very important groups of
the moths.

A more restricted insect fauna will be
found in the salt marshes. In these

situations the number of species of
plants are limited, due to the salty
water, thus limiting the number of spe-
cies of insects. The fresh water marshes
farther back will have a corresponding
larger insect fauna, due to the increase
in the number of species of plants.

The beaches and sand dunes have an
insect life very different from that of the
forest but very similar to that of beaches
and sand dunes along the Atlantic Coast.

The Deciduous Forest

This area extends northward and
westward from the limits of the South-
eastern Mesophytic Evergreen forest
and includes all the remaining portion
of Maryland except Garrett County in
the extreme northwest.

The western portion of this deciduous
forest area in Maryland is much rougher
and rockier than the eastern portion.
It is crossed by four natural belts extend-
ing from the north to the south. Three
of these belts are hilly or mountainous;
the Parr's Ridge belt, the Blue Ridge,
including Catoctin Mountain, and the
group of ridges westward from North
Mountain. The fourth belt lies mainly
between the Blue Ridge and North
Mountain.

The commonest trees were species of
oak (Quercus), hickory (Carya), chestnut
{Castanea dentata), beech {Fagus grandi-
folia), maple (Acer saccharum), walnut
(Juglans nigra), tulip tree (Liriodendron
tulipifera) and ash (Fraxinus). The
vegetation in this area is the least
diversified of any of the ecological dis-
tricts of Maryland. The topography of
the lower part is quite uniform and the
marshes and swamps are absent. The
soil is also more uniform, playing an
important role in the plant life.

The mammals distinctly characteristic
of and more or less limited to the decidu-
ous forest area are few in number. The
New England cotton-tail rabbit {Sylvila-
gus transionalis) is quite characteristic
of the deciduous forest area. The gray
squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) is char-
acteristic of this region but also extends
into the Northeastern Mesophytic Ever-

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

green forest. The elk {Cervus canaden-
sis), which has long been exterminated,
was probably characteristic of the
deciduous forest area.

In addition to the mammals listed
above as typical and distinct for the
deciduous forest the following generally
distributed mammals occurred: meadow
vole, common mole, star-nosed mole,
short-tailed shrew, eastern cotton-tail
rabbit, gray fox, red fox, beaver, otter,
raccoon, mink, bob-cat, Virginia deer
and black bear.

The birds characteristically limited
to the deciduous forest area for their
breeding are quite few. The southern
robin is one of these.

Some of the breeding species occurring
here but found also on the Coiistal
Plain or Southeastern Mesophytic Ever-
green forest are as follows: red-billed
woodpecker, orchard oriole, cardinal,
summer tanager, Louisiana water-
thrush, Kentucky warbler, hooded warb-
ler, yellow-breasted chat, Carolina wren,
tufted titmouse, Carolina chickadee,
and blue-gray gnatcatcher.

Species breeding in the deciduous
forest area but also found in the North-
eastern Evergreen Deciduous Transition
forest, are as follows : ruby-throated hum-
ming bird, Baltimore oriole, cliff swallow,
and the white-breasted nuthatch.

The insect fauna of the Deciduous for-
est region was probably that typiciil of
deciduous forests in general. There
were no marshes, bogs or sand dunes in
this area so that the insects found
inhabiting such places were absent.
Streams, many of them with consider-
able fall, are numerous. There were
probably many small clearings in the
forests which would have a fauna differ-
ent from the solid forest.

Northern Mesophytic Evergreen Forest

The Northern Mesophytic Evergreen
forest area includes within its boundaries
ail of Garrett County, except a small
corner in the extreme northwestern
part. This area extends north and
south as a narrow belt across the western
one-third of Pennsylvania, Garrett

County in .Maryland and Houth across
West Virginia, including a small spot in
Virginia. This region was characterized
throughout by a pure or nearly pure
stand of needle-leaved evergreen trees,
among wliich deciduous trees were often
present either as minor components of
the forest or else as trees of lower
stature. In the eastern portion the
white pine (Pinus strobus), the hemlock
(Tsuga canadensis), the jack pine (Pinus
hanksiana), and the balsam fir {Abies
balsamea) were among the most common.
White oak and white pines were formerly
present in pure stands.

The mammals characteristic of this
region are the smoky shrew {Sorex
fumeus), the snowshoe hare {Lepus
americanus virginianus), the cloudland
deer mouse iPcromyscus maniculatus
nubiterrae), the red squirrel {Scuirus
hudsonicus loquax), and the hairy-tailed
mole {Parascalops breweri).

Other mammals found in this region
and also common in the other regions of
the state are the meadow vole, eastern
cotton-tail rabbit, beaver, otter, rac-
coon, mink, Virginia deer, black bear,
red fox, bob-cat, short-tailed shrew,
star-nosed mole, and the common mole.

Among the birds mainly restricted
to the Northern Mesophytic Evergreen
forest area are two, the Carolina junco,
and Cairn's warbler.

Characteristic birds found as migrants
throughout the state are the magnolia
warbler, Blackburnian warbler, black-
throated green warbler, water-thrush,
Canadian warbler, red-breasted nut-
hatch, brown creeper, and the veery.

Northeastern Evergreen-Deciduous
Transition Forest

This region lies as a narrow belt to the
west of the Northern Mesophytic Ever-
green forest and is about one-third its
width. It includes only a small portion
of the extreme northwest corner of
Garrett County. It is a region in which
the trees of tiie deciduous forest area to
the west and those of the eastern portion
of the Northern Mesophytic Ivlvergreen
forest were intermingled in nearly equal

406

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

proportions. A very common type of
forest in this region was that in which
maple {Acer saccharum) , beech, and
hemlock {Tsiiga canadensis) were
dominant.

The common muskrat {Ondatra zibeth-
ica zibetliica) was characteristic of this
region. Other mammals found here and
common throughout are the meadow-
vole, common mole, star-nosed mole,
short-tailed shrew, eastern cotton-tail
rabbit, gray fox, red fox, beaver, otter,
raccoon, mink, bob-cat, Virginia deer,
and black bear.

The species of birds mainly restricted
to this area are the northern raven and
the mountain vireo.

The characteristic breeding species
of this region found as migrants through-
out the state are black-billed cuckoo,
yellow-bellied sapsucker, alder fly-
catcher, prairie horned lark, bobolink,
cowbird, rose-breasted grosbeak, golden-
winged warbler, cerulean warbler, chest-
nut-sided warbler, Wilson's warbler,
Bewick's wren, black-capped chickadee.
Hermit thrush, and the robin.

Present biota

The animal and \Asint life of Maryland
has been considerably modified through
the clearing of the forests, the cultiva-
tion of the land and settlement by man.

The Southeastern Mesophytic Ever-
green forest region has many areas which
are still in the original or semi-original
condition. The marshes, swamps, sandy
dunes and beaches have changed but
little, and probably has an animal fauna,
especially of the smaller forms, some-
what similar to the original. This is
particularly true of the insects and many
aquatic and semi-aquatic animals. The
wooded areas have probably all been cut
over once and some several times. While
most of the arable land has been cleared,
there are still large areas heavily tim-
bered, some of which are pure or nearly
pure stands of pines. The larger
mammals listed for this region are
extinct but most of the smaller ones are
still found. The birds are probably

very nearly as given in the list for this
area.

The eastern and central portion of the
deciduous forest area is mostly cleared
and tilled. There are, however, many
small areas with deciduous forest trees.
The western portion of this area is much
rougher and has many acres of land in a
semi-natural condition. It has all been
cut over and much allowed to reforest
itself. Most of the larger mammals
listed in the original biota for this
region, although scarce, are still found.
The smaller mammals, and birds are
probably all present, although their
numbers are not as numerous.

The area included in the Northern
Mesophytic Evergreen forest still has
several stands of virgin timber. These
are listed in the list of natural areas
available for study. The topography is
rough and rocky with only small valleys
under cultivation. The animal and
plant life is abundant and offers an
excellent opportunity for study.

II. NATURAL AREAS

Forest Reserves

*Herrington Manor State Forest. (B3. )
In Garrett County, consists of 650 acres,
of which about 200 acres are in the
original condition of virgin forest,
principally of the white oak type. It
occupies a plateau of about 2500 ft. and
is one of the few undisturbed areas in the
state. The fauna consists typically of
that listed for the Northern Mesophytic
Evergreen forest. It is on a state road,
has good trails through it and is used as
a state play ground with a forest warden
in charge.

Oakland, about 4 mi. southeast, B. &
O. R. R. The park can be reached by
automobile .^ — F. W. Besleij.

*Swallow Fall Reserve. (C2.) Con-
sisting of 823 acres, *Skipnish Forest
Reserve (C2), consisting of 888 acres and
*Kindness Forest Reserve (C2), consist-
ing of 206 acres, are in Garrett County
situated from 3 to 7 mi. from Oakland.
The first two named are north of the
Herrington Manor Reserve while the

NATURAL AIIKA8 AND RKOIONS

407

F^indness Reserve is a short distance
south. These three reserves consist
principally of deciduous forests cut over
previous to 1906 at which time they were
acquired by the state. The flora and
fauna is similar to that of the HerrinRton
Manor reserve.

Oakland, B. &. O. R. R. then (a) or
wagon. — /. //. Harshberger and C. C.
Hamilton.

*Patapiico Slate Forest Reserve. (C2.)
In Howard and Baltimore counties alonj^
the Patapsco River. It consists of
nearly 1000 acres of state owned land
and about 1500 acres of private land, the
use of which is given to the state for
forest reserve purposes. Some of this
area is in its original condition, and it is
held in a wild state, with the exception of
building of roads and trails to make it
accessible to campers. The region con-
sists of a gorge cut through by the
Patapsco River, with steep slopes on
either side. It has a most interesting
flora, including a great variety of tree
species and shrubs. The animal fauna
consists essentially of the smaller mam-
mals and most of the birds listed for the
deciduous forests. These are not abun-
dant due to the nearness to Baltimore.
The reserve is about 10 mi. from Balti-
more and is open to camjoers and others
who may wish to take advantage of out-
door life.

Baltimore, 10 mi. w., B. & O., Penn.,
and other R. R. Frequent train service
on the old main line of the B. &. O. R. R.
from Relaj' makes most parts of the
reserve easily available. — /''. W. Besletj.

*Meadoiv and Negro Mountains Game
Preserve. (C2.) Consisting of 4000
acres in Garrett County, privately
owned but the use of it is given to the
state for game protection, and is main-
tained in as near a natural condition as is
possible. It is a cut-over deciduous
forest. The animal fauna is principally
an overlapping of that of the Northern
Mesophytic Evergreen forest and the
western portion of the Deciduous forest.
Most forms are present although the
larger forms of animals are scarce.
Elevation about 2500 ft.

Oakland, 10 mi. S.W., M. Sc. O. R. R.;
two mi. N.E. (a) from Thayersviile.—
F. W. licdcj.

*\Voodmounl Rod and Gun Clii'i. (H'.i.)
Have leased in Washington County an
area of appro.ximately 1000 acres. This
is located on l)oth sides of .Sidling Moun-
tain, is principally virgin forest and is
kept for game propagation. Wild turkey
and (luail are more abundant here than
elsewhere in the state. About 2500 ft.
elevation.

Hancock, about 15 mi. east, B. &. O.
R. R. and Western Maryland R. R.; a
short distance north i wj from Woodmont
Station, Western Maryland R. R. —
C. C. Hamilton.

*Plummcrs Island Preserve. This con-
sists of an island of 13 acres, located on
the Potomac River in Maryland, 5 mi.
west of the District of Columbia line and
45 acres, flanking the island on the Mar> -
land shore and extending from the bank
of the river to the Chesapeake and Ohio
Canal. .\11 but 12 acres are thickly
covered with deciduous forest growth.
The property is well fenced, and visitors
are only allowed in company with a
member. None of its wild life may be
destroyed or removed, unless it is of very
objectional character, except for sci-
entific i)urposes. The island has a cabin
for the accommodation of members and
guests while studying the faima ami
flora of the area. The island is main-
tained its natural condition, the only
introductions being a few rare wild
l)lants around the cabin. On the main-
land, any wild plant of the region, not
l)oisonous, or an especially aggressive
weed, may be introduced, and colonies
of many of these have been established.
The property is owned by the Washing-
ton Biologists Field Club. Systematic
and life-history study of the fauna and
flora of the preserve, the most conspicu-
ous of which has been the identification
of over 2000 species of beetles from the
area and the working out of the life-
histories of a number. A long bibli-
ography of publications relating to the
j)re.serve is availai)le and tiie general
features of the preserve are given in

408

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

some detail in the members book pub-
lished in 1913— P. L. Richer.

*Gwynnbrook Slate Game Farm at
Gioynnbrook. (B3.) Baltimore County,
consisting of 290 acres used to propagate
game (at the present time principally
quail and pheasants) for distribution to
the various counties.

Baltimore, 16 mi. north; Gwynnbrook
Station, Western Maryland R. R.; or
get in touch with the Conservation
Commission of Maryland, Munsey
Building, Baltimore.— C. C. Hamilton.

Zekiah Swamp. (B3.) Is about 6
mi. east of La Plata, the county seat ot
Charles County, extending for about 13
mi. in a northerly and southerly direc-
tion, and is about h mi. wide. It is a
fresh water swamp which has resulted
from seepage and also the siltmg of
Zekiah Creek. The interior of the
swamp is in virgin timber, while the
margins show successive encroachments
of the forest upon adjacent cleared
lands. In some places, three parallel
lines of ditch banks are evident. These
parallel ditches represent three lines of
defences thrown up at different periods
to protect the adjacent cleared land
from becoming water logged. Outside
of the first ditch, probably built 75 or
100 years ago^ and extending to the
second ditch, is a growth of timber of
corresponding age. Between the second
and third ditches is a later growth, of
probably 40 or 50 years. Then outside
of the third ditch, the younger forest,
grading down to very small trees on the
outer edge, has encroached extensively
into the open spaces, producing a rather
wide swamp in some places.

In the forest may be found opossum,
muskrat, squirrels, and other common
mammals, and the birds listed for the
deciduous forest area. Elevation but
little above sea level.

La Plata, 6 mi. west of the marsh,
is on the P. B. & W. R. R. and may
be reached from Washington, D. C. —
F. W. Besley.

A peculiar upland swamp. (B4.) 7
mi. northeast of Oakland, near Thayers-
ville, covering some 10 acres on which is
found tamarack, black spruce, Canadian
yew, cranberry bogs, and vegetation
peculiar to this type. So far as I know
this is the southernmost native stand
of tamarack. There is another swamp
somewhat similar near Cranesville,
about 10 mi. northwest from the one
described. About 2500 ft.

Oakland, 7 mi. N.E., B. & 0. R. R.;
one mi. N.E. from (W) Thayersville,
Md.—F. W. Besley.

Swallow Falls. (B4.) OntheYoughi-
ogheny River, 7 mi. north of Oak-
land, Garrett County, which has for its
setting a 10 acre virgin forest of hem-
lock, with its undergrowth of rhodo-
dendron and other types associated with
hemlock. The animals are those com-
mon to western Maryland. 2600 ft.

Oakland, 7 mi. north, B. & O. R. R.
(a) or wagon to the swamp. — F. W .
Scslcu

Magnolia Bogs. (C4.) Extending
along Indian Creek from Ammendale,
Hollywood, Riverdale, Hyattsville,
Bladensburg, Reform School and Deane-
wood, a distance of about 15 mi. This
is boggy land, due to water from the
adjacent hills, which seeps out from a
layer of sand between two layers of
clay and is intensely cold. The com-
mon mammals are present but scarce.
See McAtee, W. L.; A sketch of the
Natural History of the District of
Columbia with an index map. Bulletin
of the Biological Society of Washington,
No. 1, May, 1918, pages 74-90. Should
be DrGSGrvGci.

Washington, D. C. Any of the above
mentioned places can be reached to
within a short distance by trolley. —
J. W. Harshberger.

*Edgewood Government Reservation.
(C2.) Consists of a tract of approxi-
mately 16 sq. mi. extending along the
west bank of the Chesapeake Bay
between the Bush and Gunpowder
Rivers, a distance of 8 mi. The tract
extends from the bay back to the Penn-
sylvania R. R., an average distance of
2 mi. It is used for a Government
Arsenal. Much of this is low, marshy
land and is covered with second growth
timber consisting of oak, gum and tulip.
Wild life of all kinds abounds here.
Geese, ducks of many kinds and the
whistling swan are found on the waters ;
otter, mink, opossums and other animals
are found in the woods. The reserva-
tion is under military supervision and a
permit is necessary to enter the ground.
However, it offers exceptional oppor-
tunities for studying plant and animal
life undisturbed.

Baltimore, about 18 mi. southwest of
southern part of the reservation; Edge-
wood Station, Penn. R. R. It would
be advisable to write the Commanding
Officer, Edgewood Arsenal, Edgewood,
Maryland, to make arrangements to
investigate the reservation. — C. C.
Hamilton.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

409

Choptank River Marshes. (A4.) In
Caroline County, comprising an area
several hundred acres in extent, are of
unusual interest. The fauna consists
principally of raccoon, muskrat, opos-
sum, otter, mink, weasels and other
small mammals. Most of the Maryland
marsh birds live and breed here. This
is a fresh water marsh.

Easton, 10 mi. east, B. C. & A. R. R.;
Turner station at the marshes on the
B. C. & A. R. R.— /. W. Harshberger.

*Governors Run Oyster Reserve Area
in Calvert County. Comprising about
3 sq. mi., \ mi. from the west bank of
Chesapeake Bay, near Port Republic,
between a sand bank and the mud
bottom. The cultch is a combination
of oyster shells, fossil shells and stone.
This ai'ea has been set aside by the Con-
servation Commission of Maryland as a
breeding ground for oysters.

Prince Frederick, 6 mi. S.E., on the
bus line from Annapolis; one mi. east
(W) of Port Republic— fl. V. Truitt.

*Plum Point Oyster Reserve. Calvert
CountJ^ Comprises an area of 3 to 4
sq. mi. at Plum Point. It lies about
J mi. from shore and is of the same nature
as the Governors Run Reserve Area,
lying about 10 mi. north. It may be
reached by the bus line from Annapolis.
—R. V. Truitt.

*St. Jerome's Oyster Reserve Area.
St. Mary's County. Consists of 3 sq.
mi., at St. Jerome, and lying about \
mi. off the shore. The cuftch is similar
to that of the Governors Run Reserve
Area. To visit any of these oyster areas
it would be advisable to get in touch
with the Conservation Commission of
Maryland, Munsey Building, Baltimore,
Md.

Tide Water Bus line from Washington
to St. Jerome.— /2. V. Truitt.

Annemessex Rimr Flats. (A4.) In
Somerset County at the mouth of_ the
Little Annemessex River. This is a
salt water area of about 2 sq. mi.,
averaging about one foot of water. The
Chesapeake blue crab abounds here,
and it is one of the most favorable
places for its molting. Tliis area is
being recommended for a preserved area.
Crisfield, 2 mi. S.W., New York, Phila-
delphia, and Norfolk R. R.; or boat
from Baltimore or Annapolis.— rt. 1 .

Truitt. , , ^ . ^-

Susquehanna River Flats. (A4.j Ul-
fer very favorable conditions for the
breeding of shad. This area consists of
about 10 sq. mi. adjacent to Havre de
Grace in Harford County. Water prac-
tically fresh. Depth vanes over the
area from 1 to 10 ft. This area is pro-
posed for preservation.

Havre de Grace, main lines B. & O.
and Pennsylvania Railroads. — R. V.

Truitt.

Sinepuxent Tide Waters. (A4.) In
Worcester County Ijctwoon Public Land-
ing and Stockton a distance of about
12 mi., offers ideal conditions for breed-
ing and trapi)ing muskrats. These tide
waters include many small islands bor-
dering the sliore. The marshes are
boggy, soft and have a luxuriant plant
growth. Marsh birds are plentiful —
sage hen, kildeer, plover, gulls, terns,
and strikers.

Snow Hill, 5 mi. S., Penna. R. R. —
R. V. Truitt.

Dorchester County Tide Waters. ('A4.)
P'rom Taylors Island to Hooper Island,
afford man}'^ places ideal for the breeding
of muskrats and other marsh animals.
These grounds may be reached by
boat from Baltimore to Taylors Islan(l,
or take the Cambridge bus line from
Cambridge direct to some of the marshes
at Golden Hill.— 72. V. Truitt.

The Calvert County Cliffs. This in-
teresting formation extends from Chesa-
peake Beach on the north to Cove
Point on the south along the Western
Shore of Chesapeake Bay. There is
but little beach, from which rise abrupt
cliffs of from 50 to 100 ft. in height com-
posed of clay, sand gravel, marl and
diatomaccous earths, containing great
masses of fossils. The beach vegeta-
tion and the insect life are interesting.
Chesapeake Beach, Chesapeake Beach
Railroad from Washington; boats from
Baltimore to bay wharves; no boarding
house; must be prepared to camj) out.
— Ernest N. Cory.

Conoiringo Barrens. This is an area
of unproductive, light yellow to whitish
soil, very shallow in most places, derived
from serpentine rock that outcrops
in ridges throughout the area. Only
stunted oaks and pines forest thi.s area.
The plant growth is sparse owing to
almost total absence of nutrient ele-
ments, and the animal life is restricted.
These barrens start about i '"i-
north of Conowingo on the Susquehanna
River and extend in a general triangular
shaped area to the Pennsylvania line
comprising about 10 sq. ini. This
formation may be found also in limited
areas through Harford County.

Conowingo nearest town. May be
reached by Columlua and Port Dci)Osit
Branch of the Pennsylvania Railroad
from Pcrryville on the south, or by auto-
mobile on state road from l-llkton
through Rising Sun from out of the
state, or from Baltimore through licl
Air. — Ernest N. Cory.

Worcester Comity Sand Dunes. Very

410

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

interesting sand dunes are found along
the Atlantic Coast at Ocean City.
These dunes occur on the outer edge of
a bar fringed along its inner side by
fresh or salt Marshes. The predominant
phmt of the dune is the seasand reed
with which are associated the plants
characteristic of dunes throughout the
North Atlantic Coast, as, American sea
rochet, beach heather, sea beach sand-
wort, seaside evening primrose, Ameri-
can cocklebur, saltwort, knotweed
spurge and seaside knotweed.

Ocean City, B. C. & A. R. R., is in
the immediate neighborhood. — C. C.
Hamilton.

Historic and Other Trees Worth
Preservation, Maryland

Tulip trees on St. John's College
Campus, Annapolis.
Wye Mills Oak near Easton.
St". Paul's Oak near Chestertown.

4. VIRGINIA

By Ivey F. Lewis

The fauna and flora of Virginia in their
geographical affinities include represen-
tatives of four of the great forest types:
the northern coniferous forest type
(the Boreal Canadian), the northern
mixed coniferous and hardwood forest
type (Transition Alleghenian), the
mixed hardwood forest type (Upper
Austral Carolinian), and the southern
mixed coniferous and hardwood type
(Lower Austral-Austroriparian) .

The northern coniferous forest
(Canadian) fauna and flora is limited
to a small area, comprising the higher
Alleghenian ridges in the extreme south-
western corner of the State. Into this
zone come some of the animals and
plants characteristic of more northerly
localities, particularly evergreen trees
such as red spruce {Picea rubra), hem-
lock {Tsuga canadensis), and southern
balsam {Abies halsamea).

The northern mixed coniferous and
hardwood forest (Alleghenian zone)
covers the lower ridges and high valleys
of the western portion of the state.
It stretches in a band about 100 mi. wide
from the northern to the southern
boundary, running northeast by south-
west. It includes the Blue Ridge, the

Appalachian Valley (Shenandoah Val-
ley), and the lower of the Appalachian
Ridges. Here the

"chestnut, walnut, oaks, hickories (and
yellow poplar), of the South meet and
"overlap the beech, birch, hemlock, and
sugar maple of the North; the southern
mole and cottontail rabbit meet the
northern star-nosed and Brewer moles
and varying hare; and the southern
bob-white, Baltimore oriole, bluebird,
catbird, chewink, brown thrasher and
wood thrush live in or near the haunts
of the bobolink, solitary vireo, and the
hermit and Wilson's thrushes. "^

The butternut and hazelnut are also
characteristic.

The mixed hardwood forest area
(Carolinian zone) occupies the Pied-
mont Plateau between the "fall line"
and the eastern base of the Blue Ridge,
as well as the northern portion of the
Coastal Plain. It embraces the central
part of Virginia and much of the eastern
section. Characteristic trees are sassa-
fras, yellow poplar {Liriodendron tulip-
ifera), hackberry {Celtis occidentalis) ,
sycamore {Platanus occidentalis), red-
bud (Cercis canadensis), persimmon
{Dios'pyros virginiana), shortleaf pine
{Pinus echinata), and hickories, with
chestnut {Castanea dentata), and walnut
{Juglans nigra) common in the western
portion, and willow oak {Quercus phel-
los), sweet gum (Liquidambar styra-
ciflua), and sweetbay (Magnolia
virginiana) in the eastern section. Of
animals, the opossum {Didclphis vir-
giniana), gray fox (Urocyon cinereoar-
genteus), fox squirrel {Sciurus niger
neglectus), cardinal, Carolina wren,
tufted titmouse, gnatcatcher, summer
tanager, and yellow-breasted chat are
common.

The southern mixed coniferous and
hardwood forest area (Austroriparian
zone) occupies the southeastern corner
of the state, with its best development
seen in the Great Dismal Swamp of

1 Merriam, C. H.: Life zones and crop zones.
Bulletin 10, United States Department of Agri-
culture, 1898. See also Merriam: The Geographic
Distribution of Life in North America with special
reference to the Mammalia. Proceedings of the
Biological Society of VVashington, Vol. 7, pp. 1-64.
1892.

NATURAI. AliKAS A.\I) RKdEONS

111

Nansemond and Norfolk counties. The
longleaf and loblolly pines {Pinus palu-i-
tris and P. laeda), magnolia {M. vir-
giniana), live oak {Quercus virginiana),
bald cypress {Taxodium distichum),
black and water gums {Ni/ssa sylvalicn
var. hiflora and N. aqualica), yellow
jessamine {Gelsemium seinpervirens),
cane (Arundinaria macrosperma) and
southern white cedar {Chamaecyparis;
thi/oides) are characteristic. The mock-
ing bird, painted bunting, prothonotary
warbler, red cockaded woodpecker, and
Chuck-will's-widow are said by Merriam
to be characteristic birds of this faunal
area, but only the first and last named
may be considered to i-epresent it in its
northernmost extension in Virginia.
While many of the plants and animals
of this area occur in V^irginia. they are,
even in the narrow area mentioned
above, mixed with many forms of the
mixed hardwood area.

GEOGRAPHICAL AREAS

The geographical areas of Virginia
occupy belts running northeast by south-
west. The easternmost is the Coastal
Plain, which lies between the oceau
and the "fall line" through Fredericks-
burg, Richmond, and Emporia. This
area is now approximately two-thirds
wooded, though there is not much virgin
forest except in the Great Dismal
Swamp. The characteristic trees are
the loblolly pine, the red, black, and pin
oaks (Qiiercus rubra, Q. velutina, Q.
palus(ris) sweet gum, black gum, yellow
poplar, hickory, soft maple, holly (Ilex
opaca), and in certain restricted locali-
ties the southern white cedar {Chamaecy-
paris thyoides). Animal life is in gen-
eral abundant, especially along the
rivers. Wild turkeys, bobwhite, snipe,
and sora are common, while on the
larger rivers and along the Chesapeake
Bay ducks and geese occur as common
migrants. Black bear {Ursus ameri-
canus), deer {Odocoileus virginianiis)
and bob-cat [Lynx rufus) occur in the
more remote wooded areas.

West of the Coastal Plain is the

broad Piedmont Plateau, a region of
shortleaf and Virginia pine {Pinus echi-
nala and P. virgininwi), white, red,
black, southern red, and chestnut oaks
{Quercus alba, Q. rubra, Q. velutina, Q.
digitata, Q. prinus), hickory, yellow
poplar, soft maple, and black gum.
Less common are loblolly pine, che.stnut,
ash, black locust (Robinia pncudo-
acacia), sycamore, river birch (Bclula
nigra), walnut, cucumber tree (Magnolia
acnminala), buckeye {Aesculus oclan-
dra), elm, willow, Cottonwood, and
cherry.

There is very little virgin forest in
this region, as practically all the forests
have been cut and burned over. The
second growth timber occupies about
two-thirds of the area. Game and
native wild animal life is in general less
abundant than in the Coastal Plain,
though by no means extinct.

The Blue Ridge Region comprises a
strip of land on both sides ot the crest
of the iJlue Ridge, varying from 10 mi
wide in the northern portion to 43 mi.
in the southern. This region is mostly
wooded, with considerable virgin forest,
though fires have caused extensive
damage.

In the higher portions of the Blue
Ridge Region some of the animals ex-
tinct or nearly so in the other regions
are not rare. The black bear, Virginia
deer, and bobcat occur here not un-
commonly, and their presence may be
interpreted, as in the Great Dismal
Swamp, to indicate a condition in which
the native fauna and flora is almost
untouched. While the bison, timber
wolf, and passenger pigeon are long since
extinct here, the survival of the larger
feral animals points to the continued
existence of considerable areas essen-
tially in their original condition.

The trees are mostly chestnut, reil.
black, white, and chestnut oaks, yellow
poplar, hickory, maple, basswood, and
beech. Shortleaf pine, white pine, and
hemlock also occur.
^The Appalachian or Shenandoah Val-
ley lies between the Blue Ridge and the
Alleghenies, and is 30 to iO mi. wide.

412

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

This is a limestone area, fertile and
mostly cleared and under cultivation or
devoted to the raising of stock. Wild
game is scarce, though the streams
afford good fishing; there are fewer
sources of pollution from industrial
plants than elsewhere in the state.
The streams in this region drain north
into the Potomac.

The characteristic trees are oaks, yel-
low poplar, and sugar maple.

The Appalachian Ridges lie between
the Valley and the boundaries of
Kentucky and West Virginia. Here
there is more virgin timber than else-
where in the state, and the native wild
life is not so scarce. In this respect,
the same remarks apply here as to the
Blue Ridge Region.

The white, red, and chestnut oaks,
chestnut, yellow poplar, maple, beech,
basswood, hickory, white pine, short-
leaf pine {Pinus echinata), and hemlock
are common trees.

In this section, and in the Blue Ridge,
are the National Forest areas, which
afford the best prospects of maintaining
undestroyed the native wild life, both
plant and animal.

Of the state as a whole, approximately
54% is wooded. Of the forested areas,
43% is softwood, 57% hardwood. The
softwoods predominate in the eastern
section, hardwoods elsewhere. The
dominant softwoods are the pines
(loblolly, shortleaf, and Virginia), while
among the hardwoods the oaks pre-
ponderate, especially the white oak.

The condition of the forests is given
in some detail because it furnishes the
best indication of the condition of the
native wild life. Where there is virgin
forest, wild life is abundant and rela-
tively unaltered, but where the forests
have been cleared, cut, or burned over
the wild life has largely disappeared.

NATURAL AREAS

Lynchburg City Forest. (C3.) Com-
prises 7000 acres of land situated north-
west of the city on the Blue Ridge. See
American Forestry, 2; 238.

Stony Man Mountain Summit. (B3-
C4.) Comprises 16,500 acres of moun-
tain deciduous forest. It protects the
watershed of the Shenandoah River and
a portion of that of the Potomac and
James Rivers. On the area and still
intact are trench systems constructed
during the Civil War and under the
supervision of Stonewall Jackson. It is
preserved by the nation. See Science,
October 4, 1918: 342.

Rockingham, Augusta, Bath and
Highland Counties, Va., and Pendleton
County, W. Va.— /. W. H.

Natural Bridge Ravine. (C4.) Is a
long rocky river; it was presented by
George III to Thomas Jefferson in 1774.
See Harshberger, John W. : "The Forest
at the Natural Bridge of Virginia.
Forest Leaves, IX: 42-44, June, 1903.
Natural Bridge (Rockbridge Co.).—/.
W. H.

Great Dismal Swamp. (A2-B3.)
Formerly about 1000 mi. of coniferous
{Chamaecy-paris thyoides and Taxodium
distichum) and deciduous forest, now
being much restricted by drainage and
deforestation, so that its exact area at
the present time cannot be given. It is
a large peat bog, the best developed of
all the bogs in unglaciated North
America. Within its area are hygrophile
deciduous forests, swamp or juniper
land, and numerous sluggish streams.
Near the center is Lake Drummond
tapped by a canal (known as the Feeder
Canal to the main Dismal Swamp Canal)
deep enough for good sized motor boats.
The juniper grows in the moister parts
where the subsoil is sandy and porous.
These areas are held by lumber com-
panies. The hardwoods occur in areas
which under drainage make very good
farming land. The progressive drainage
of this area is threatening the existence
of the swamp as a whole. Much of this
land is held by the Norfolk County farms
and is for sale.

The Great Dismal Swamp is the most
important wild life area in the state.
Its preservation, at least in part, is the
most immediate duty and most vital
need in Virginia. Not only are there
large stands of virgin forest, but in the
tangled thickets and along the sluggish
streams are found many of the animals
formerly common and now disappearing.

NATURAL AREAS AND UIXIIONS

413

It is the sort of place generally de-
scribed as a "sportsman's paradise."
See Kearney, 'J'homas H.: Report on
Botanical Survey of the Dismal Swamp
Region. Contribution from the U. S.
National Herbarium, Vol. V, No. 6, 1901.
The Swamp may be reached from
Suffolk by automobile, two mi. to
Jericho, thence by boat down a drainage
canal, or by boat from Norfolk. The
Dismal Swamp Canal runs through the
swamp east of Lake Drummond from
Norfolk to Elizabeth City on Albemarle
Sound, N. C.

Cape Henry Dune Forest. This com-
prises about 300 acres of high dunes,
sandy shore, and back of the dunes,
deciduous forest and loblolly pine.
The forest is being gradually destroyed
by the encroachment of the dunes.
The area was used by the U. S. govern-
ment during the World War for fortifica-
tion and proving ground. See Forest
Leaves, XV, June, 1916. A similar area
in North Carolina is described by Lewis
in Economic Papers, N. C. Geological
Survey, 1917. The area may be reached
from Norfolk (12 mi. east) by trolley.

*Luray Cavern. (B2.) Magnificent
galleries and halls with fine stalactites
and stalagmites. It has a remarkable
cave fauna. As it is in private hands,
an admission fee is charged to mainlam
the cave and electric lights for illu-
minating purposes. It may be reached
from Luray (4 mi.) on the Norfolk and
Western Railway.

The Grottoes. This is a cavern some-
what similar to Luray, reached from
Staunton by hard road (10 mi.), or from
Grottoes on the Norfolk and VNestern

Railway. > ^, , •

Corner's Rock Area. (B2) Contains
about 1000 acres, mostly in the Lnaka
National Forest but partly under the
ownership of the "Douglas Land
Company," Marion, Va. It is covered by
a deciduous and eastern coniferous
forest of mixed hardwoods and hem-
lock on ravines and along creeks. In-
formation may be obtained from the
Forest Supervisor, H. L. Russell, Bris-
tol, Tenn. 500 acres located at Kon-
narock, Smyth County, Va. 3 mi. from
post office. May be reached by (a
from Rural Retreat on the Norfolk ad
Western Railway.-^. H. /frotlm^hmn.
For Natural Bridge National I' oust,
Shenandoah National Forest, ami ^^««/^''
National Forest, see "xNational lorests
of the Eastern District."

Shenandoah National Park. (B3.) A
committee headed by Hon. H. W.
Temple of Penn.sylvania ha.s recently
recommended to Congress the c.statjlisli-
mcnt of a National Park compri.sinu
700 sq. mi. of heavily wooded and
ecologically unspoiled territory on the
western sIo|>e of the lilue Ridge from
Albemarle County north and ea.st.
This territory is tyjiical of the liluc
Ridge Region described above. Its
boundaries run close to the celebrated
cavern area of the Shenandoah Valley,
and besides important historical spots
include a wide variety of haljitats still
virgin.

totomac River drainage area. An
area of deciduous forest extending along
the Virginia side of the Potomac River
from Rosslyn to Great Falls, a distance
of Ifi mi. and extending back from the
numerous high rocky clilTs along the
river bank, a distance ranging from at
least h to I mi.— P. L. Richer.

5. NORTH CAROLINA

By Z. p. Metc.vlf and B. W. Wells

i. gener-\l condition
North Carolina is one of the most
varied states east of the Rockies as far
as its ecological features are concerned.
The elevation ranges from sea level to
the highest peaks east of the Rockies
with considerable areas above 6000 ft.
The state is divided roughly into tliree
main regions, the Coastal Plain, the
Piedmont Plateau and the Blue Ridge
Mountains.

1. Coastal Plain

The Coastal Plain is principally a low
plain and extentls from sea level to
about 500 ft. elevation. It is charac-
terized by sandy and sandy loam soils.
The lower Coastal Plain is generally
flat and the uppQr Coastal Plain rolling.
The characteristic trees are the longleaf
{Pinus palustris) and loblolly pines
{P. Taeda). Some of the characteristic

animals are:

Uammah: Cotton rat {Sigmodon his-
pidus), Carolina shrew (/i/«riHa brcvi-
cauda carolinensis) and little shrew
{Cryptotis parva).

Birds: Red-cockaded woodpecker,
Chuck-will's-widow.

414

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Reptiles: Green lizard (Anolis caro-
linensis), glass snake (Ophisaurus ventra-
lis), whip snake (Coluber flagellum),
corn snake (Elaphe guttata), southern
green snake {Opheodrys aestivus), ground
snake {Carphophis amoena), southern
hog-nosed snake (Heterodon sirmis),
red-bellied water snake (Natrix sipedon
fasziata).

Amphibians: Ditch eel (Aviphiuma
means), dwarf salamander (Manctdus q.
quadridigitatus), narrow-mouthed toad
{Gastrophryne carolinensis) .

For convenience the Coastal Plain
may be divided into the following areas :
(a) Sand Dunes, (b) Sounds, (c) Bay
Lands, (d) Cypress Swamps, (e) Savan-
nas, (J) Pine Flat Woods, (g) Sand
Ridges, (h) Sand Hills and (i) Upland
Pine Forests.

a. Sand dunes. These are mostly
small, from 8 to 10 ft. high but locally
they range upward to 80 ft. Usually
they form narrow bars called "banks"
which separate the sea from the sounds.
The northeast facing coast is charac-
terized by the absence of dune cliffs
which may be found in the southeast
facing coast. The characteristic plants
are sea oats {TJniola paniculata), and
sea kale {Cakile edentula). Charac-
teristic animals are the ghost crab,
sand crabs, salt marsh cicada, Spartina
leaf hopper, beach tiger beetle, beach
grasshopper, dune fiddler crab.

h. Sounds. The sounds are broad or
narrow shallow areas cut off from the
sea by the banks. They vary from
fresh water at the mouths of the rivers
through brackish water to the salt
water of the sea. The characteristic
plants are, eel grass [Zostera marina)
in the salt water, pond weed in the
fresh water, Chara spp. and Ruppia
marifima. Some of the characteristic
animals are the blue crab, and the
oyster.

1. The salt marshes are characterized
by Jtmcus roemerianus and salt marsh
grass {Spartina glabra). This is the
haunt of the salt marsh fiddler crab
and the boat-tailed grackle.

2. The fresh water marshes are charac-

terized by the broad -leaved cattail
{Typha latifolia) and by Scirpus spp.
and the river fiddler crab.

c. Ray lands. Large areas of level,
poorly drained soil covered with a
growth of evergreen shrubbery, charac-
teristic species being inkberry {Ilex
glabra), bayberry {Myrica Carolinensis),
Leucothoe spp., and pond pine {Pinus
serotina). Characteristic animals are,
painted bunting, and diamond rattle-
snake {Crotalus adamanteus) . ■

d. Cypress swamps. Swamp forest
characterized by deep humus soil and
the following plants, Nyssa spp., bald
cypress {Taxodium distichum), southern
white cedar {Chamaecyparis thyoides),
and red maple {Acer rubrum). Charac-
teristic animals are marsh rabbit {Syl-
vilagus palustris), Prothonotory warb
ler, Swainson's warbler, American egret,
snowy egret, Louisiana heron, little
blue heron, Florida cormorant, cotton-
mouthed moccasin {Agkistrodon piscivo-
rus) and alligator {Alligator missippien-
sis).

e. Savanna. Upland sandy bogs
which are level and essentially treeless
and covered with a vegetation com-
posed of bog xerophytes such as toothache
grass {Ctenium aromaticum), trumpets
{Sarracenia flava) and Dichromena
latifolia.

f. Pine flat woods. Formerly exten-
sive areas of longleaf pine which have
been cut and largely replaced by loblolly
pine commonly associated with black-
jack {Quercus Marylandica), post oak
{Q. stellata), water oak {Q. nigra), and
Spanish oak {Q. falcata). Characteris-
tic animals are ground rattlesnake
{Sistrurus miliarius), glass snake and
green lizard.

g. Sand ridges. Local areas in south-
eastern part of the state with course
sandy soil which appears as a layer of
glistening sand, with a characteristic
vegetation adapted to this habitat in
various ways. The prominent plants
are turkey oak {Quercus Catesbaei)
and wire grass {Aristida stricta).

h. Sand hills. Large areas in Hoke,
Moore, Cumberland and Montgomery

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

ii:

counties representing in their charac-
teristic features an advanced stage of
the sand ridge. Dominant trees arc
blackjack, and longleaf pine.

i. Upland pine forests. Undulating
areas principally of sandy loam soils
now chiefly under cultivation.

2. Piedmont

An extensive area in the center of
the state of broad, rolling, red clay hills
extending from about 500 ft. elevation
to 2500 ft. elevation. This area may be
divided into the Lower and Upper
Piedmont.

Lower Piedmont. The lower Piedmont
areas are characterized by upland pine
forests {Pinus Taeda and P. echinata)
and valley slopes covered with deciduous
forest climax, in which beech, maple and
tulip trees (Liriodendron lidipifera)
are important trees.

Upper Piedmont. This includes the
upper part of the Piedmont and the
Asheville Plateau. It is characterized
by oak and hickory forest. In certain
areas characterized by sterile soils
shortleaf and Virginia pine {Pinus
echinata and lirginiana) are prominent.

3. Blue Ridge Mountains

The mountains generally range from
2500 to 6700 ft. in elevation with some
considerable areas above 6500 ft. For
convenience this area may be divided
into the Mountain Slopes and the
^Mountain Summits.

Mountain slopes. This includes the
area in the mountains from 2500 to 5500
ft., and is characterized by chestnut-
oak and hickory forests. Some of the
characteristic animals are the red
squirrel (Sciurus hudsonicus loqu(u),
woodchuck {Marmota monax), star-
nosed mole {Condylar a crislata), Caro-
lina junco, song sparrow, Baltimore
. oriole, Canada warbler and ruffed

grouse.

Mountain summits. 5500 to 6700 ft.
Characterized by spruce fir forests
{Picea rubra, Abies Fraseri). The fol-
lowing animals, cloudland deer mouse
{Peromyscus maniculatus nuhiterrae),

Carolina re<l-backod volo (Kvn(nmi/»
(•(irolinmsis), pino siskin, .\inorican
cro.ssbill, winter wren, l)ro\vn crei';M!r,
red-breasted nuthatch, bl:ick-capj)cd
chickadee, yellow-bclliod sapsuckcr,
Metcalf sahunandcr {Plcthodon metcalfi)
and rcillcg salamander {Plcthodon
shcrmani).

11. VATORAL ARBA.S

Coastal Plain. Tlie principal points
of interest in the dune area are: Roa-
noke Island, Manteo and the Banks at
Nags Head aljout 40 mi. by boat from
Elizabeth City, Norfolk-Southern R. R.,
or about 80 mi. by boat from Norfolk,
Va., through the inland water ways.
Shackleford Bank about 5 mi. by motor-
boat from lieaufort, Norfolk-Southern
R. R. Wrightsville Beach about 10
mi. by electric railroad from Wilming-
ton, Atlantic Coast Line and Seaboard
Airline Railroads. Fort Fisher about
25 mi. (ii) from Wilmington. Smith's
Island reached by motorboat from
Southport which is reached by River
Boat from Wilmington.

Salt water .sounds may be easily
reached at Beaufort, Norfolk-.'^outhern
R. R., and at Wrightsville Beach.
Electric Line, 10 mi. east from Wilming-
ton. Fresh water sounds, 5 mi. ciist
from Movock, Norfolk-Southern R. R.,
25 mi. South of Norfolk, Va.

Roml ''^hoal. (D4.) A small tidal
flat in Pamlico Sound. Nesting site
for roval, common and least terns,
liu"-hing gulls, Ijlack ski miner and oyster
catchers. Preserved by the Audubon
Society. S mi. from Ocracoko wlucli
mav be reached (c) from Beaufort.
Norfolk Soutliern Railroad.
" Shackleford lianlc. (C3.) A narrow
bank about 6 mi. long containing some
of the largest sand dunes along the
North Camlina Coast. One mi. rom
Beaufort, N. C, on tiie Norfolk. southern
Railroad.

Fort Fisher. (B4.1 A small area at
the mouth of tiip Caiw Fear River
Should be preserved for its liistorioal
interest as well as because of it^ gr<-at^
ecological interest. Largo areas of
tidar marshes, sand dunes, etc. .\bout
•>5 mi down the river from W ilminnton
Atlantic Coast l-ino .md Seaboard

^^'fmiUi island. (B3.) Clroup of seven

416

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

small islands at the mouth of the Cape
Fear River. Sand dunes and swamps.
Loblolly pine, cedar, palmetto, oaks
and wild olive principal trees. Pre-
served by owners. Southport, reached
by steamer from Wilmine;ton, N. C,
thence by launch. Atlantic Coast Line
and Seaboard Air Line R. R.

Areas of cypress swamp may be easily
reached from any of the coastal cities
and towns such as Elizabeth City,
Edenton, Washington, New Bern, Beau-
fort, on Norfolk-Southern Railroad; or
from Wilmington on the Atlantic Coast-
line or Seaboard Airline Railroads.
Typical savanna localities are found
near Burgaw, 25 mi. north of Wilming-
ton on the Atlantic Coastline Railroad,
or at Havelock, 25 mi. southeast of
Newbern, on the Norfolk-Southern R. R.

Piedmont. University Forest. (C4.)
500 acres of deciduous and eastern
coniferous forest, level plain with hills,
sandy and rocky situations, springs and
brooks. Preserved by the University
of North Carolina. In Orange County,
one mile from Chapel Hill, Southern
Railway.

* Riverside Park, Rocky Mount. (B3.)
This is an area of about 5 acres of forest
land in a 30 acre park bordering Tar
River, one mi. west of Rocky Mount,
in Nash County. The Park is owned
by the Rocky Mount Mills, Mr. Turner
B. Bunn, Secretary, it is to be used
perpetually as a public park. The
land is rolling and is where the higher
Piedmont land breaks off in the lower
lands of the coastal plain. The forest
is fairly typical, mixed hardwood and
pine of the eastern Piedmont and west-
ern Coastal Plain regions, containing
mature and young trees of shortleaf
pine, loblolly pine, southern red oak
{Quercus digitata), white oak, sweet
gum, and some 25 other species. The
remainder of the Park, containing
altogether about thirty acres, has been
recently thinned in order to obtain the
best development for the remaining
trees. The preserved area is to be left
uncut, and although some cutting has
been done in the past, it is left in a semi-
natural condition. The Park will be
visited by hundreds of people from the
town of Rocky Mount and the sur-
rounding country, and this area will be
valuable as an educational exhibit.

The Atlantic Coast Line Railroad
station of Rocky Mount is only two mi.
away, a hard-surface road leading to the
border of the Park. Well graded auto-
mobile roads wing through the Park
itself.

Principal points of interest in the
mountains are Grandfather Mountain,
reached by bus about 25 mi. from Lenoir,
Carolina-Northwestern R. R.; Black
Mountains, reached by motor from
Black Mountain, Southern R. R. 15 mi. .
east of Asheville; Pisgah Mountains by
motor 15 mi. southwest of Asheville;
Smoky Mountains 10 mi. north of
Bryson City, Southern R. R., 50 mi.
west of Asheville.

Principal mountain summits of in-
terest. Roan Mountains, virgin spruce
forest, reached by driving 20 mi. from
Burnesville, Clinchfield R. R.; Mt.
Mitchell, reached (a) 15 mi. from Black
Mountain, Southern R. R., 15 mi. east
of Asheville ; Balsam Mountains, reached
(w) 6 mi. from Balsam Station, Southern
R. R., 35 mi. west of Asheville; Smokies,
10 mi. from Bryson City west, Southern
R. R., 50 mi. west of Asheville.

Grandfather Mountain. (C3.) 1000
acres on the summit of the mountain.
Covered chiefly by hardwoods. Mostly
above 5500 ft. two mi. northeast of
Linville on the Eastern Tennessee and
Western North Carolina Railroad or 30
mi. Northwest of Lenoir on the Carolina
and Northwestern Railroad.

Santille Creek Forest. *Large tract
of virgin hardwood, one of the best in
the southern Appalachians. Tract was
recently acquired by the Government.
Part of the area under the supervision
of the Ashville-Alton. The area is
known as the Olmstead tract. Located
on the Santille Creek, head waters of
the Checoh River. Located in Graham
County, 35 to 45 mi. from the Southern
Railway at Amherst, N. C. — E. H.
Frothingham.

*Pisgah National Game Preserve.
(B3.) 90,000 acres upper water shed of
the French Broad River. In Transyl-
vania, Haywood, Buncombe and Hen-
derson CountieSjN. C. Mostly decidu-

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

417

ous and eastern coniferous forest.
Valleys and mountains mostly between
2000 and 4000 ft. Few peaks above
5000 ft. Land stocked with deer, wild
turkey, elk, and bison. Asheville G to
20 mi. south. Southern R. R. Pre-
served by the Forest Service.

* Grounds of the Blue Ridge Association.
(B2.) 1190 acres on northern slope of
the Swannanoa Mountains, Buncombe
County, N. C. Mostly deciduous for-
ests. Preserved by the Association.
Black Mountain 3 mi. south. Southern
R. R.

* Mitchell Slate Park. (B4.) 1224
acres summit of Mount Mitchell, Bun-
combe County, N. C. Mostly spruce
and balsam forest. Preserved by the
State. Black Mountain 6 mi. north.
Southern R. R.

Summit of Roan Mountain. (B3.)
*Miichell County, N. C, and Carter
County, Tenn. This area is included
in what has been known as the Cloud-
land Property, which belonged to
General J. T. Wilder of Monterey,
Tenn. It is now owned by his family,
represented by James A. Maher, a
son-in-law of General Wilder, of Kings-
port, Tenn. This tract contains some
4500 acres, all of it above 5500 ft. in
elevation. There are about 700 acres,
all of it above 5500 ft. in elevation.
There are about 700 acres covered by a
dense spruce forest. The summit of the
mountain is a succession of open areas
interspersed with groups of varying
size of spruce and balsam trees. On
these areas the mountain alder {Alnus
crispa) flourishes, one of the few places
in this state where it occurs. The area
is typical of high mountain summits
in the Southern Appalachians. The
owners are now planning to develop
the property as a health resort, and may
be willing to leave certain parts of this
property in its native condition.

The Mountain may be reached in a
10 mi. walk, or horseback ride, from
Roan Mountain Station, Tenn., on a
narrow gauge railroad running from
Johnson City, Tenn., to Boone, N. C.

It may also bo reached from Toecane,
a station on the C. C. & O. Railway,
between Johnson City, Tenn., and
Marion, N. C, by (h) or (w) some 12 or
14 mi. — J. S. Holmes.

National Forests wholly or partly
in North Carolina: Cherokee; Nanta-
hala; Pisgah; Unaka. See "National
Forests of Eastern District."

Cona, the estate of Mrs. Moses H.
Cone, Blowing Rock. 5000 acres con-
taining much primeval forest lands and
other native vegetation, destined to be
an endowed state park.

BIBLIOGHAPUY

Ashe, W. W. Loblolly or North Caro-
lina pine. North Carolina Geol. and
Econ. Surv. Bull. 24, 1015.

Brimley, C. S. Zoo-Geography. A
Study of Life Zones. Journal Eliaha
Mitchell Scientific Societal, xxix: 10-27.

Brown, William H. The Plant Life of
Ellis, Great, Little and Long Lakes
in North Carolina. Cont. U. S. Nat.
Herb. 13: 323-341, 1911.

Harshberger, John W. An Ecologic
Studv of the Flora of Mountainous
North Carolina. Bot. Gaz. 3G: 241-
258, 368-383, 1903.

Lewis, I. F. The Vegetation of Shackle-
ford Bank. North Carolina Geol.
and Econ. Surv. Paper 40, 1917.

Kearney, T. H. The Plant Covering of
Okracoke Island. A study in the
Ecology of the North Carolina Strand
Vegetations. Contrib. U. S. Nat.
Herb. 5: 261, 1900.

Kearney, T. H. Report on a Botanical
Survey of the Dismal Swamp Region.
Contrib. U. S. Nat. Herb. 5: 321, 1901.

Metcalf, Z. P. Some Ecological Aspects
of the Tidal Zone of the North Caro-
lina Coast. Ecology, Vol. I, 193-197.

Metcalf, Z. P., and Osborn, Herbert.
Some observations on Insects of the
lietween Tide Zone of the North
Ci^rolina Coast. Annals of the Ento-
mological Society of America, Vol.
XIII: 108-117.

Mohr. Chas. and Roth Filibert. Timber
Pines of the Soutiicrn United States.
U. S. Dept. of .\gr. Bull. 13 (Revised
Ed.) Division of Forestry, 1897.

Pearson, Brimlev and Brimley. The
Birds of North Carolina. Volume IV,
North Carolina Geological and Eco-
nomic Survey.
Pinchot, GilTuril, and Ashe, \\ . NV .
Timber Trees and Forests of Xortli

418

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Carolina. North Carolina Geol. Surv.
Bull. No. 6, 1-224, pis. 1-23, 1S97.

Smith, The Fishes of North Carolina.
Volume II, North Carolina Geological
and Economic Survey.

Wells, B. W. The Major Plant Com-
munities of North Carolina. Tech.
Bull. 25 N. C. Agr. Exp. Station, 1924.

6. SOUTH CAROLINA

By Philip Luginbill

i. general conditions

The state of South Carolina is approxi-
mately 31,000 sq. mi. in area. In shape
the state approaches the form of an
isosceles triangle, the apex of which rests
upon the summits of the Blue Ridge
Mountains. The base borders the At-
lantic, while the western and southern
boundary are washed bj'^ the Savannah
River and its tributaries. The geologi-
cal formations lie parallel to the coast
line. For several miles inland the post
Pliocene formation rests upon the
Eocene. These together with the Mio-
cene and cretaceous formation extend
about 100 mi. inland or until they touch
the crystalline rocks. The line of the
crystalline rocks separates the state into
two portions well defined geologically,
topographically and vegetation and also
politically, industrially and even
socially. The upper region, the (Pied-
mont Plateau) is spoken of as the up-
country and the lower (the Coastal
Plain), as the low-country. The up-
country is characterized by its growth
of shortleaf pine {Pinus echinata) and
deciduous oaks, the low-country by its
evergreen oaks (Quercus virginiana) ,
draped with long gray moss, {Tillandsia
usneoides) . Socially the regions are
distinctive in customs, manners, ances-
try and even in the speech of the people.
From the crystalline rocks to the moun-
tains we find various strata, such as
limestones, itacolumite, clay talc, mica
slates, gneiss and granite. The same
parallelism of formations is maintained
throughout the mountain region.

1 . Geographical regions and biota

Geographers' have divided the state
of South Carolina into seven regions,
(1) Coastal Region, (2) Lower Pine
Belt or Savanna Region, (3) Upper Pine
Belt, (4) Red Hill Region, and (5)
Sand Hill Region, belonging to the
Coastal Plain; (6) Piedmont Plateau;
(7) Mountain Region. These regions
are quite distinctive in types of soil,
climate and the biota.

a. Coastal Region. This region occu-
pies a narrow strip of land along the
coast rarely extending more than 10
mi. inland. It almost coincides with
the pliocene formation. It consists
largely of sea islands which at some
points along the shore are three and four ■
deep, being separated from the mainland
by salt water rivers and inlets of the sea;
The salt marshes uncovered at low tide
bordering the sea islands are also part
of this region. The soil of the sea
islands consists largely of fine sandy
loam, resting on a subsoil of yellow clay,
which gives the soil a yellowish appear-
ance. Besides these soils there are
others in the many flats or fresh water
swamps and bays, which are composed
largely of black vegetable mould of
great fertility. These soils are sus-
ceptible to drainage. The climate of the
sea islands is equable. Extremes of
temperatures are greatest in the direc-
tion of low temperatures. The rainfall
is heavy (mean annual about 50 in.).
However the climate is not excessively
moist due to the large number of clear
days. Fogs are infrequent.

As to the flora of the sea islands; the
palmetto, from which the state derived
its name "Palmetto State" was formerly
veiy common. Evergreen oaks with
long strings of hanging moss were also
abundant. Water oaks abounded plen-
tifully while pines, myrtles, vines of
various sorts also thrived in abundance.

These islands attain a height of from

1 Hammond's "South Carolina" used as an
authority. Some of the material from which this
article has been prepared has also been gleaned from
that valuable and rare volume.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

410

10 to 15 ft., sometimes of 30 ft. above
high tide.

The Lower Pine Bell or Savanna
Region. This region lying parallel with
the coast region has a width of about 50
mi. and attains a maximum elevation
of about 130 ft. It may be divided into
two sections, a region below tide water,
formerly including the rice fields of
the state and a region above tide water,
formerly characterized by terpentine
farms and cattle ranges.

The soil of this region is composed of
a sandy loam with either a white shady,
yellow or clay subsoil. Deposits of
accessible marl are found. The drainage
is poor. The luxuriant growth of
vegetation clogs up the channels scarcely
permitting any current to pass. Many
swamps and bays are formed in this way.

As to the flora: The most elevated of
the swamp lands were cypress ponds
containing dense growths of cypress.
The bays, contained dense growths of
bay, gum, tulip, and undergrowth of
vines and bushes. The open savannas
of the river bottoms have been the rice
lands of the state. The sandy plains
were clothed with pines, chiefly longleaf
pine, which give to the region its name.

The climate is similar to that of the
Coastal Region.

b. The Uppe-f- Pine Belt. This region
which is sometimes also called the
middle country and central cotton belt
of Carolina consists of that portion of
the state lying between elevations of
130 and 250 ft. above sea level. The
region is characterized by its large
inland bays and rolling pine lands.
The drainage is good. The soil is a
light sandy loam with a red and yellow
clay subsoil. The climate is cooler
than that of the Lower Pine Belt. The
winters are often dry and cold and the
summers hot.

As to the flora: The uplands formerly
were covered with longleaf pine and
contained a thick undergrowth of
hickory and oaks. They arc still found
in this region but not as abundant as
formerly. The evergreen oak docs not

appear unless planted. This is the
northern limit of the Rray moss. The
swamps contained cypres.s, white oak,
ash, hickory and gum. Cultivated
fruits such as plums, pecan nuts, grapes,
etc., are successfully grown.

c. The Red Hill Region. The "Red
Hills" as they are termed by some
geographers may also be called a region
although in outline the .section is not as
distinctive as the others. They give
way in some places to the Sand Hills
immediately above. They rise 200 to
300 ft. above the plain of the Upper
Pine Belt in a distance of several miles,
this elevation sometimes being attained
in traversing several hundred yards.
The soil is made up of red clay anrl sand.
Along the Santee River thej' attain the
highest elevation and are known as the
"High Hills of the Santee." As this
region has an elevation of from 400 to
500 ft. above the level of the .sea it enjoys
a climate that is much drier and more
bracing than the region to the south.
The nights are cool, with refreshing
breezes.

As to the flora: Longleaf pine w?^
formerly quite abundant. The charac-
teristic growth however was oak and
hickory of large size. Of the oaks, the
southern red oak, appeared to thrive
the best. The evergreen oak. wherever
planted, does well.

d. The Sand Hill Region. This region
is composed of a remarkable chain of
sand hills that stretch across the state
and has an average width of 10 mi.
and a maximum width of 30 mi. They
attain an elevation above sea level
of from GOO to 700 ft.

The chief constituent of the soil is
loose sand. The soil is very poor,
lacking in humus but responds readily
when properly fertilized. The climate
is sunny and dry, and therefore very
healthful. Snow does not often occur;
sleet is more common but seldom re-
mains long when exiwsod to tlie sun for
several iiours.

As to tlie flora: This region is charac-
terized by the pine barrens of the state,

420

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

the growth formerly consisting largely
of longleaf pine, later supplanted by the
shortleaf and scrub pines.

e. Piedmont Plateau. This region
consists of that part of the state region
spoken of as the up-country. It has a
mean elevation of 400 to 800 ft. above
sea level. Three varieties of soils
exist, namely, granite, clay slate and
trappean. The rocks of the upper part
of this region belong to the Laurentian
and Huronian formations; gneiss, gran-
ite, mica, talc, and clay slates are also
found here.

The Piedmont Plateau has somewhat
lower temperatures and shorter seasons
than those prevailing in the Coastal
Plain regions immediately to the south.

As to the flora: The original growth
has disappeared, and is supplanted by
the characteristic growth of the short-
leaf pine with hickories and large varie-
ties of oaks.

/. The Mountain Region. This region
continuing the Blue Ridge of North
Carolina, consists of a narrow strip
in the extreme northwestern part of the
state. It has an elevation from 500 to
3430 ft. above sea level. The soils are
similar to those in other parts of the
state which are formed from the decom-
position of gneiss rock." The level
uplands consist of sandy loam, the hill
sides, of red clay and the bottom lands
of dark loam, containing an abundance
of lime and potash.

This region has a mean temperature
corresponding with that of New Jersey
and Kansas, but very different extremes.
The mountainous portion, however,
has a mean temperature corresponding
with the lower lake region. This region
is exempt from destructive storms.
The annual rainfall is over 60 in. which
places this region among those having
the heaviest precipitation in the United
States.

As to the flora: Shortleaf pine, cucum-
ber tree, mountain laurel, white pine
and scrub pine were formerly common.
Ginseng {Panax quinquefolea) and snake
root {Cimicifuga racemosa) as well as
other herbs thrived in abundance.

It is claimed that the Indians in former
years earned their living by collecting
and disposing of these medicinal herbs.

II. PRESENT BIOTA

/. Flora

Most of the large timber has been
removed throughout the entire state.
There are still, however, some large
specimens of live oaks with the beautiful
festoons of hanging moss, in the coastal
region. These oaks are often found
in groups, in some cases presumably
having been planted by the early
settlers.

The palmetto still abounds on the sea
islands though not as abundant as
formerly. Myrtles and vines of various
sorts still thrive in some spots on the
islands.

The longleaf pine has been largely
supplanted by the shortleaf and loblolly
pine. However, even the latter are
fast being destroj'ed by the ax followed
often by destructive fires which kills
all the undergrowth.

Young forests of longleaf pine are
springing up here and there in the sand
hills and if protected will in time, replace
to some extent, the former magnificent
growth of these trees.

Many species of grasses abound in the
state. Panicum is especially well rep-
resented in the coastal region. About
50 species have been collected in the
state. Water millet {Zizaniopsis milia-
cea) grows to a large size and clumps
in marshy places along the coast. Sea
oats {Uniola paniculata) is common
on the sand dunes on the coast. Ber-
muda grass {Cynodon Dactylon) and
crab grass {Digitaria sanguinalis) thrive
well and are largely used for hay. De-
structive fires often ravish open woods
and uncultivated fields thereby destroy-
ing all vegetation.

f . Fauna

The beaver and cougar have been
extinct for some time. A color variety
of the black bear, known as little brown
bear, is common in the swamps of the

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

4J1

southern part of the state. Some
specimens attain a fair size. Wolves
are rare, almost extinct. Bob-cats
and gray and red foxes are common.
The deer is abundant in the swamps of
the low-country. The opossum, rac-
coon, skunk, mink, and muskrat are
common throughout the state. The
alligator is common in the rivers and
streams of the coastal region of the state.
Ruffed grouse are abundant throughout
the state except in the immediate vicini-
ties of the large cities. In the coastal
region, the old submerged rice fields
afford resting and feeding places to many
kinds of migratory birds. Many kinds
of fish abound in the streams and bays
in the state. Among the common fish
are bass, perch, and brim. It is a well
known fact, however, that many streams
have been "fished dry" owing to the
lax laws in the state.

The land and fresh water mollusca
of this state are not represented by a
large number of species, as compared
with other southern states farther west.
Of land molluscs there are 79 species
and varieties distributed among 23
genera, of which Polygj'ra has 28 species,
Gastrodonta 10, Gastrocopta 5, and the
others 1 to 4 each. Of the fresh water
moUusks there are 107 species divided
among 20 genera. There are 60 species
of naiades, of wdiich Lampsilis contains
18 and Elliptic 34. Goniobasis, so
abundant in Alabama and Georgia,
has but 12 species. The fresh water
pulmonates, Lymnaea, Planorbis, and
Physa are represented by but few
species. No attempt has been made by
students to study the fauna ecologically.
See Maxyck, Contributions from the
Charleston Museum, No. 2 for a catalog
of the species of South Carolina. — F.
C. B.

3. Pollution

Several cases of pollution of streams
by fertilizer factories and cotton mills
have been reported. It is held that the
former allow sulphuric acid to contami-
nate the streams and that the latter
permit wastes of various kinds to be

dumped into the waters. Tlii.s is a
serious menace to fish an<l it is pU'a.sitiK
to note tiiat state action is beinn taken
against such practices.

-{. Sea coast and marine conditions

Oil burning ships along the coast of
the state permit oil to run on the water
in harbors and bays. This is not only
a nuisance but a menace to young fish.

III. NATURAL AREAS

The swamps in the low-country of
the state are the least modified and
many of these would afford suitable
areas for preservation.

An area suitable for preservation is
the Combahes tract compo.sed of 12,000
acres about half of this amount being
in a modified natural state (B2). This
tract includes sand areas, swamps,
marshes and baj's formed from old
submerged rice-fields. It is under the
influence of the tides. Deciduous trees,
evergreen oaks covered with hanging
moss, undergrowth of various shrubs
and vines abound. The Combahee
River is a favorite rendezvous for the
alligator. Many kinds of birds abound.
The migratory species remain in the
marshes for some time to feed. This
tract is located 4 mi. east of White Hall,
S. C. on the A. C. L. Railway.

Preserves

1. State Preserves. The State Game
Farm, is the only state preserve in the
state of South Carolina. It consists
of several hundred acres located at
Camp Styx, near Columbia. The pur-
pose of this farm is to raise pheasants,
wild turkeys, and deer to restock certain
areas of the state which have been
depleted in game. This farm is main-
tained by the surplus revenue collected
by the State Game Department after
paying the schools their portion and the
game wardens their salariox tmd
expenses.

2. National Preserves. There are no
national preserves except several forest
preserves. One National Forest -Mau-
hahala — includes part of Oconee County.

422

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

There is movement under way to set
aside about 25,000 acres of land of the
Camp Jackson tract at Columbia for a
national forest to be known as the Camp
Jackson National Forest Preserve.
This movement is sponsored by Dr.
A. C. Moore, of the University of South
Carolina, for many years an ardent
worker in the cause of reforestation
of South Carolina. To quote Dr.
Moore, "The purpose of this preserve
is to demonstrate proper forestry
methods applicable to the Sand Hill
Region of the state. This site lies
within the typical Sand Hill Region.

3. Private Preserves. There are a
large number of private preserves from
several acres to 20,000 acres and over.
One of the largest preserves of this kind
is the Oketee Club at Ridgeland, S. C.
which contains 70,000 acres. These
preserves are maintained mainly for
sport but in spite of this fact they are
not to be utterly condemned as they
aid in keeping game from becoming
extinct in this state. It is claimed that
one may readily observe upon investiga-
tion the much greater abundance of
game in these preserves as compared
to the surrounding country.

7. GEORGIA

By Henry Fox

i. general features and original

BIOTA

1. Physiographic regions

Five physiographic provinces are
represented in Georgia. These, begin-
ning at the coast, are (1) Coastal Plain;
(2) Piedmont Region; (3) Blue Ridge;
(4) Appalachian Valley; and (5) Cum-
berland Plateau.

1. The Coastal Plain includes practi-
cally the entire southern half of the
state. Its inland boundary is marked
by the Fall Line, which extends in a
northeast-southwest direction from
Augusta, through Milledgeville and
Macon, to Columbus. In general, the
region is characterized by low and
gentle relief, though in its northern

portion, in the vicinity of the Fall
Line, it displays considerable hilly and
broken topography. In correlation with
local differences in soil, altitude and
vicissitudes of geologic history, the
Coastal Plain exhibits a greater variety
of well defined minor physiographic
features than do any of the other physio-
graphic provinces. These minor sub-
divisions are: (o) Sea Islands, a series
of long, narrow sandy islands fringing
the coast; (b) Tidal Lagoons and
Marshes, a confused network of tidal
bays, lagoons and channels, with much
salt marsh, between the sea-islands and
the mainland; (c) Satilla Plain, a strip
of nearly level land about 20 to 35 mi.
wide parallel to the coast, with a general
elevation of from 15 to 25 ft. ; (d) Okefi-
nokee Plain, a higher plain, 20 to 40
mi. wide, roughly parallel to the last,
and with a general elevation of 60 to
100 ft.; (e) Southern Lime-sink Region,
a narrow strip of rather rugged topog-
raphy, parallel to and adjoining the
Florida border, and with an elevation
of 150 to 275 ft.; (/) AUamaha Upland,
an elevated tract of country, popularly
termed "the wire-grass country," from
40 to 75 mi. wide, in the south-central
part of the state, with a gently undulat-
ing topography and an altitude varying
between 125 and 470 ft.; {g) Dougherty
Plain, a tract of nearly level country
in the southwest corner of the State, a
lime-sink region, with an elevation from
125 to 450 ft.; (Ji) Red Hills, a narrow
tract of hilly country, a few miles south
of and parallel with the Fall Line,
characterized by the prevailing red
color of its soil, and having an elevation
from about 450 to 600 ft. ; (i) Sand Hills,
a very narrow belt of rolling or fiat-
topped hills, composed of pale gray sand
or gravel, adjoining the Fall Line, with
a maximum elevation of about 700 ft.
2. The Piedmont Region forms a wide
strip occupying practically the southern
two-thirds of the northern half of the
state. It is a section of crystalline
rocks with a broken or hilly topography.
Its elevation varies from about 400 ft.
along its southern edge to 1200 ft.

NATURAL AREAS AND RIXHONS

423

along its northern boundary. As a
rule, the tops of the hills and ridges
in the Piedmont present a level sky-
line, but locally, dome-like elevations,
like Stone Mountain near Atlanta, or
Kenesaw Mountain near Marietta, may
rise conspicuously above the general
level of the country.

3. The Blue Ridge, the highest and
most rugged section of the physiographic
provinces, occupies the northeastern
part of the state. It is a region of bold
peaks and high mountain ridges, with
narrow intermontane valleys. The
country has an altitude of from about
1200 to 5000 ft.

4. The Appalachian Valley is a lime-
stone valley situated between the
Blue Ridge on the east and the Cumber-
berland Plateau on the west. It has a
width of 40 to 50 mi. The topography
in general is rolling, but it is traversed
by numerous parallel ridges, formed
of more resistant rock, which often rise
considerably above the general level
of the valley itself. The region has a
general elevation of 600 to 1000 ft.;
the ridges, however, maj^ rise to as
much as 1800 ft.

5. The Cumberland Plateau is formed
of a small number of flat-topped moun-
tains or tablelands in the extreme
northwest corner of the state. They
attain an altitude of 1700 to 2500 ft.
above sea-level.

3. Geographic and local plant and animal
communities

There are three principal kinds of
forests represented in Georgia: the
northern mixed coniferous and hard-
wood forest, the mixed hardwood forest
and the southern mixed coniferous and
hardwood forest.

The Northern mixed coniferous and
hardwood forest (Transition Zone) in
Georgia is typically represented only
on the higher elevations of the Blue
Ridge province in the northeastern
corner of the state, though in a minor
degree its influence is shown on the
ridges in the Appalachian Valley and
on the Cumberland Plateau. In the

Blue Ridge occur such trees, HUKi^cHtive
of more northern re?;ion8, as chestnut
(Cnstanca dcntala), white pine (Pinus
slrohus), hemlock (Tsuya canadenais),
chestnut oak {Qucrcus prinus) and
maple. Cliaracteristic shrubs arc
mountain hiurel {Knlmia lalifolia) and
rhododendron {R. maximum). In the
valleys of this section there appears
to be a strong (Austral) mixed hardwood
infusion, .southern species meeting and
mingling here with typically northern
species.

The mixed hardwood forest area
(Upper .Vustral Zone) forms by far the
greater part of the northern iialf of
the state. It includes most, if not
quite all, of the Piedmont region and
practicalh^ all of the .Appalachian Valley
and Cumberland Plateau. Under exist-
ing conditions this in Georgia is the
zone of shortleaf pine (Pintis echinala).
Mingled with this tree are the remnants
of a once extensive deciduous forest
consisting predominantly of a variety of
oaks and hickories and dogwood. Most
of the countrj'' embraced in the mixed
hardwood forest area (Upper Austral
Zone) is in a state of rather intensive
cultivation. As a consequence natural
conditions are represented only in
places unfavorable for cultivation. The
herbaceous flora is predominantly of a
weedy type, but in favorable spots the
native flora is represented by an assem-
blage of species typical of rich, de-
ciduous woodlands, such as hepatica,
bloodroot, anemones, trilliuras, wild
geranium, and jack-in-the-pulpit. la
general the flora is like that of the Pied-
mont Region of the Central Atlantic
States, with, however, a strong infusion
of other forms from the Mississippi
Valley. The latter are best represented
in the Ap|xdacliian Valley ami Cumber-
land Plateau.

The southern mi.xed coiiiferou:? and
hardwood forest area (Lower Austral
Zone), as limited and defined by Rehn
and Mebaril, includes the up|)er two-
thirds of the Coastal Plain and the
lower portion of the I'iedmont Region.
In this zone the character of the vegeta-

424

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

tion varies considerably according to the
prevailing types of soil. In sections
where loamy soils prevail the predomi-
nant tree, under present conditions, is
loblolly pine, but in sandy soils this is
very largely replaced by longleaf pine.
In the Piedmont portion of this zone
mesophytic hardwoods, such as white
and black oak and hickories prevail,
whereas south of the Fall Line these
become relatively infrequent and are
largely replaced by more zerophytic
species, such as blackjack oak and post
oak. Longleaf pine was and, so far as
it has not been destroyed, is still the
dominant forest tree of the Altamaha
Upland — a region which has vegetational
features reminiscent of typical pine-
barrens. The same species also appears
to predominate on the Fall Line Sand
Hills. In the Red Hills section it is of
more local occurrence, being almost
entirely supplanted in this section by
loblolly pine. In general, the herbace-
ous flora north of the Fall Line has
closer affinities with that of the adjoin-
ing portions of the mixed hardwood
forest area (Upper Austral Zone) than
to that south of the same line. In the
Piedmont Region the soils are prevailing
neutral or faintly acid, while south of
the Fall Line distinctly acid soils are of
rather general occurrence. In the Pied-
mont, also, swamps and other per-
manently wet areas are rare and of
limited extent, whereas in the Coastal
Plain they are common and often of
considerable size. These swamps are
of two kinds, river swamps and upland
swamps. The river swamps border
the major streams while the upland
swamps form about the headwaters
of local streams. The river swamps
occupy alluvial flats and support a
luxuriant growth of trees of which the
more conspicuous and characteristic
forms are species of evergreen oaks,
as the willow-oak {Quercus phellos)
and water-oak (Q. nigra). The upland
swamps are of the nature of strongly
acid bogs in which such trees pre-
dominate as gums {Nyssa), sweet-bay
{Magnolia glauca), red maples and pond

pines (P. serotina). The most interest-
ing flora of the southern mixed conifer-
ous and hardwood forest (Lower Austral
Zone) in Georgia is that found in the
Altamaha Upland (the Altamaha Grit
Region of Harper), where the conditions
approximate those of the typical south-
ern pine barrens.

A Gulf Strip or Palmetto Belt (Saba-
lian Zone)- is recognized by Rehn and
Hebard, and is typically represented in
the Okefenokee and Satillo plains. As
intimated in one of the names, this
zone is co-extensive with the range of
the cabbage palmetto {Sahal -palmetto)
which forms the most characteristic
tree of the forests. The latter are
almost exclusively coniferous in com-
position, the dominant species being
longleaf and slash pine. This is a rich
faunal and floral region, with strong
affinities to Florida. The alligator is
largely limited to this zone, also the
diamond-back rattler, and such trees
as slash pine and live oak. Cypress is
abundant in the swamps, which are
often of great extent and tropical
luxuriance. Black bears and Virginia
deer are reported to exist in this section
in considerable numbers. On the im-
mediate coast maritine conditions pre-
vail, the tidal marshes supporting a
luxuriant growth of tall reeds in which
water-fowl of several kinds find a con-
genial home, while on the sea-islands
the sand dunes show characteristic
vegetational features.

II. PRESENT BIOTIC CONDITIONS

In Georgia human occupancy and
exploitation have for the most part
so completely altered natural conditions
that it is difficult to form a clear idea
of what these conditions were. Georgia,
like the other southeastern states, was
originally covered with an unbroken
forest, but this has been removed on
such an extensive scale, especially the
more valuable timber trees, that it
seems probable that present-day con-
ditions may be misleading. Thus, it
is a matter of common knowledge that
the dominant forest growth in central

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

425

and north-central Georgia consisted
originally of hardwoods, while at pres-
ent pines predominate. Probably the
nearest approach to primitive conditions
is to be found in the mountainous north-
eastern part of the State and in the
flat, poorly drained lands of the south-
eastern part. In the Blue Ridge there
are extensive hardwood forests, some
of which, according to government
reports, have never been lumbered.
Certain of these are now included in the
Cherokee and Nantahala National For-
ests. In the southeast the sandy soils
support dense stands of longleaf and
slash pine, while the extensive swamp-
lands are occupied with a heavy growth
of cj'press, gums, bays and other trees.
In this section is situated the Okefenokee
Swamp — a natural wonderland which,
it is hoped, may be preserved unchanged
for future generations. The Altamaha
upland is predominantly a sandy dis-
trict, at one time covered with a wonder-
ful forest of longleaf pine, which, accord-
ing to reports from various sources,
appears to have been almost completely
destroyed. This region has the reputa-
tion of being a botanical paradise,
similar to, and in many particulars
agreeing with, typical pine barrens
country. On the coast, according to
information furnished by Dr. George R.
White, of Savannah, certain of the sea
islands (liittle Tybee, Wassaw, Ossabaw,
St. Catharine's, and Black Beard) are
said to be almost uninhabited and to
have an interesting flora and fauna.
With the growing popularity of the sea-
shore resorts there is constant danger
of the natural features on these islands
being destroyed, and efforts should be
made to preserve them before it is too
late. There is said to be a private
game preserve on one of the islands,
but at the present writing particulars
are lacking. According to the same
informant there is also considerable
wild land on the mainland oi)posite the
islands. Between the two are the salt
marshes, bays and lagoons in which a
typical halophytic flora is developed.
In other parts of Georgia, especially

in tiie .\i)palachian Valley, Piedmont
Region and tiie upper and western
portions of the Coastal Plain the forests
are represented only by scattered groves,
except locally in the bottomlands where,
at least in the Coastal Plain, extensive
alluvial forests are frcfiucntly repre-
sented.

Faunal conditions in Georgia vary
according to the character of the coun-
try. The larger animals, as deer and
black bear, are confined to the more
heavily forested sections in the north-
east and south. The bob-cat, raccoon,
fox, opossum and gray squirrel are said
to be rather generally distributed,
though becoming scarce in the more
thicklj' settled districts. Snakes are
common, especially in the swamps and
remote country districts. The rattle-
snake and copperhead are of frequent
occurrence, and the moccasin abounds
in the swamps of the Coastal Plain.
Alligators still occur in the Okefenokee
and other swamps in the lowlands of the
coast. Small birds appear to be abun-
dant, but the larger ones are for the
most part scarce. Water-fowl congre-
gate in large numbers in the marshes
and tidal lagoons on the coast. Forms
closely dependent on forested condi-
tions, as the pileated and ivory-billed
woodpeckers, the wood duck, and the
wild turkey, have either been exter-
minated or driven to seek refuge in the
wilder and more remote sections.

III. STREAM POLLUTIO.V

Very little information appears to be
available on this subject. The general
impression is that, for the greater part
of their course, all the larger and more
important rivers of Georgia are con-
taminated by refuse from the cities and
towns of the surroumling country. All
the streams which have their sources
north of the Fall Line are heavily
charged with silt. Typical mountain
streams of clear water occur in the
mountainous sections in tiie north-
eastern part of the state and many of
those in the National Forests are pro-
tected from pollution. Certain of the

426

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

local towns and tourist resorts derive
their supply of water from these sources.
In the Coastal Plain, the local streams
have a sluggish flow and exhibit the
reddish-amber discoloration character-
istic of the streams of acid pine lands.
All of these streams are more or less
contaminated wherever they happen to
pass close to human habitations.

IV. NATURAL, AREAS

Possible new localities

1. Cumberland Island. Owned by
Andrew Carnegie, 2nd. Has been a
bird and game preserve for nearly forty
years. Situated in Camden County.
Reached by boat from Brunswick. Area
considerable, but exact figures not
available at this writing.

2. Ossabaw Island. Owned by Stra-
chan and Co., Savannah. A game pre-
serve of 30,000 acres, containing mag-
nificent colony of herons. Situated in
Chatham County. Reached, probably
by private arrangement with the owners,
from Savannah.

3. St. Catherine Island. Owned by
the Rauer's Estate. A game preserve,
much like Ossabaw Island. Situated
in Liberty County. Not very acces-
sible, could probably be reached by
private arrangement with owners from
Savannah.

4. Okefenokee Swamp, Charlton County.
(C2.) Deciduous swamp forest in midst
of southeastern coniferous forest, a
region of nearly level country, the
greater part permanently wet, but with
limited areas of higher dry sandy land
as islands within the swamp. Vegeta-
tion much like that of the Dismal Swamp
of Virginia as described by Kearney.
Swamp traversed by sluggish streams,
water of a clear amber color. Bears,
otters, raccoons, deer, opossum, alli-
gators and snakes reported as common,
but scarce in region of settlements, due
to incessant gunning. Game laws very
poorly enforced, as in most parts of
Georgia. Well forested for most part,
but the larger and more valuable cypress
and longleaf pine now being rapidly
removed in lumbering operations.
Owned by a lumber company.

Reached most readily from Waycross,
Ga. Excellent hotel accommodations
at this place. Swamp can be penetrated
along line of railroad (Waycross &
Southern) owned and operated by a
lumber company. Passage could prob-
ably be secured on a log train by appli-
cation to agent of the company at Way-

cross. Train starts from Hebardville,
about two miles north of Waycross, and
goes far into the Swamp with stops at
Hopkins, on its northwestern margin,
and Billy's Island about 15 miles further
south in the midst of the swamp. Log-
ging camp on this island where sleeping
accommodations might be obtained
through courtesy of lumber company,
also excellent meals at the company's
dining hall for its white employees.
Extensions of the company's line pene-
trate far into the swamp. Guides pro-
curable at Billy's Island. Trip from
Waycross to Billy's Island takes half a
day, to Hopkins about half the time.
Parts of the Swamp, especially along
its northern and eastern margins can be
reached, according to information re-
ceived at Waycross, by automobile from
the latter locality. The Swamp can
also be reached from Folkston, Charlton
County, but hotel accommodations there
not ascertained.

Strong local sentiment at Waycross
in favor of preserving the Swamp as a
natural game refuge. The lumber com-
pany, according to information received
from several sources, is willing to sur-
render its title at cost to either State or
National Government.

Information on Okefenokee Swamp
based on recent trip with party of Boy
Scouts to Billy's Island.

5. Stone Mountain, DeKalb County,
Ga. (C4.) A prominent granite dome
rising abruptly out of a gently rolling
plain in the Piedmont Region. A nearly
bare rock mass, with some limited
woodland on its flanks near its base.
Surrounding country mostly cleared
and in high state of cultivation, with
scattered groves of mixed deciduous and
coniferous trees. Area much modified
by human agency. Gently flowing
streams at base of mountain bordered
by tree growth and harboring interesting
flora. The rock dome is the habitat of
an interesting species of plant and of a
rare saxicolus grasshopper. Extent of
area suitable for preservation not deter-
mined, but would not include much more
than the rock dome. Readily reached
on foot from the village of Stone Moun-
tain, about 12 mi. east of Atlanta, the
terminus of an electric line from Atlanta.
Trolley service good. Hotel accommo-
dations in Atlanta excellent. Observed
personally on visit to Stone Mountain
in April, '1921.

6. Mountain Foot-hills, vicinity of
Toccoa, Ga. Observed along route of
Southern Railway from car window.
Mixed deciduous and coniferous forest,
more or less modified by human agency.
Country rugged, with deep ravines, at

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

427

headwaters of Savannah River. Hotel
accommodations at Toccoa said to be
good .

7. Cohutla Mountains, Murray Counli/.
Reported as a rugged and heavily
wooded mountainous section near Cliats-
worth, about 20 mi. east of Dalton,
Whitfield County. Doubtless eastern
deciduous forest. A part of the Blue
Ridge Section of Georgia. Good hotel
accommodations at Dalton. Could be
reached by automobile from latter
place according to information given,
but map shows a railroad (L. & N.)
extending from Cartersville, Ga., north
into Tennessee, with station at Chats-
worth.

8. Tallulah Falls, Rabun Countij.
(D5.) Eastern deciduous forest, a
region of mountains and rocky ravines,
with originally beautiful waterfalls, now
understood to be partially modified by
water power development. A part of
the Blue Ridge Mountain section of
northeastern Georgia. Extent of area
suitable for preservation not known.
Not examined in person. Readily
reached, according to information sup-
plied by railroads, from the village of
Tallulah Falls, which is a station on the
Tallulah Falls Branch of the Southern
Railway, connecting with the main line
(Washington, D. C, to Atlanta, Ga.)
at Cornelia. Hotel accommodations
good, the locality being a favorite sum-
mer resort.

9. *Shorter College Reserve, Rome,
Floyd County. (H8.) Not examined
personally, but reported as a tract of
open ravine woodland and meadowland
along Coosa River. Evidently eastern
deciduous forest, probably much modified
by artificial "improvement." Ai)par-
ently in part a pleasure ground. Re-
ported to be about two mi. from Rome.
Readily reached by automobile. Hotel
accommodations at Rome good.

v. REFERENCES

Harper, R. M., A New Method of Map-
ping Complex Geographical Features,
Illustrated by some Maps of (k'orgia.
School Science and Mathematics,
xviii (1918), G99-708.

Rehn, J. A. G., and Hebard, .Morgan,
Studies in the Dermaptera and Or-
thoptera of the Coastal Plain and
Piedmont Region of the Southeastern
United States. Proc. Acad. Nat'l.
Sci., Phila., LXVllI (191ti), 90 105.

U. S. Geological Survey, Topographic
Maps, Georgia.

Watch, Otto, and Stophciisoii, L. W.,
(leology of the Coastal Plain of
Georgia. Ga. Gcol. Siirv., liull. 20
(1911).

8. FLORIDA

By J. R. Watso.\>

I. GENERAL CONDITIONS

1. Topography and soil

Florida is geologically, physiographi-
call}'', and ecologically young; progres-
sively so from north to south. Its
physiographic youth is shown bj' its
generally poor drainage, numerous
swamps and shallow lakes, sluggish,
ill-defined, crooked streams with low,
generally swampy banks.

Much of the northwestern portion is
hilly and rolling; a broken north and
south ridge divides the drainage of the
east and west coasts. The highest
elevation above sea level is about 300
ft. Along a considerable part of the
west coast and nearly the whole eastern
coast extends a line of sandy reefs and
narrow islands enclosing narrow shallow
bodies of salt water, often called ''riv-
ers," viz., "Indian River," "Halifax
River," etc.

The underlying rock is largely lime-
stone. The central region is remarkable
for its large number of lakes (Lake
County alone has 1400) — largely sink-
holes due to solution of limestone. The
numerous subterranean streams are of
similar origin.

2. Climate

Owing to its long stretch from north
to south and the fact that the southern
part is a narrow peninsula with warm
seas on both sides, Florida i)resents a
great diversification of plant and animal
life. In fact there is much difTorence
bcween the vegetation of the northern
and the extreme southern portions of

' The dutii on orthoptcru h:ivc l>oi<n siipolied by
Prof. T.ll. Hubb,-ll, on cnino-flicw l.y I'rof. .1. Sim;o i
RoRcrs, botli of the D(?p;irtMU'nt of Hiolocy. I'm-
versity of Florida, on reptiles by I'rof. UoRers sinil
T. Van IIvninR, curator of the .State Mu«'-um, on
birds by Prof. Van llyninu. and on the lepidop-
tcra of .south Florida by D.Marston Hates, a .stu<ieiU
in the University of Florida. Mr. A. H. Howell
suKKCsted a number of important changes in the
original draft.

428

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Florida. The extreme southern part
of the peninsula is practically tropical.
The infrequent frosts are so light that
they do not ordinarily penetrate the
forest canopy, with the results that
tropical plants can grow as undergrowth.
This region is, however, very narrow,
extending but a few miles from the coast,
and gradually changing as it goes north.
Probably St. Lucie Inlet should be
considered as about the northern limit
of the subtropical temperatures. On
the west coast it extends up to about
Fort Myers.

3. Soils

The soils of the state are mostly sandy,
and in general progressively lighter from
north to south and towards the coasts.
Over much of the state, especially the
interior, the sand is underlaid at no
great depth by strata of clay or lime-
stone. In places along the northern
edge of the state, as about Marianna,
Tallahassee, Monticello and Madison,
a rather sandy red clay outcrops. Many
swamps have a layer of muck on the
bottom. These, when drained, ulti-
mately make rich trucking lands, con-
sequently there are many drainage
projects. The largest of them is the
Everglades.

4. Original biota

The state's ecological youth is shown
by the small proportion in which the
native vegetation has reached the
climax formation, the magnolia-bay-
holly forest or even the present hard-
wood forest or "hammock," which is
largely made up of deciduous trees,
and by the general small amount of
humus in the soil. Ecological suc-
cession is slow. The natural deposition
of humus is slow, even when not inter-
fered with by man. The high mean
temperature causes rapid nitrification
and the torrential rains of summer wash
the nitrates from the soil into the
streams which are dark with organic
matter. But fires are very common

during the dry season with the result
that most pine- and grass-covered lands
are burned over every year or two and
ecological succession prevented or
reversed.

To understand the types of vegetation
in Florida it is important that one
should bear in mind that there is a
marked dry and wet season. The wet
season ■ occurs generally during the
months from June to September (Octo-
ber on the East Coast) ; the drier season
from November to May, usually reach-
ing its climax in April. This diversi-
fication of seasons becomes more marked
the farther south one goes in the penin-
sula. It is the inability to withstand
the drj'' season which retards the spread
of the hammocks and limits them to the
more moist soils or to those that best
retain water. It also explains why
many plants such as red maple, ash,
hackberry, and blackberries, which
grow in mesophytic situations in the
north are in Florida confined to swamps
or moist soils.

We can divide the vegetation of
Florida into five great groups:

1. Grassy Sivamps, Savannas, and
salt marshes, of which the Everglades
would be the largest example, — areas
largely under shallow water during the
summer, and comparatively dry during
the winter and spring and covered with
a growth of very tall grasses and sedges,
one of the most common being "saw
grass," {Cladium effusum), a sedge.
On the higher points and islands are
occasional patches of forest. Border-
ing these islands and swamps is often a
narrow zone occupied by a more or less
dense grove of cabbage palmettoes whose
tall, slender, naked trunks, bearing at
the top a cluster of large leaves, give
to the landscape of much of Florida its
tropical appearance. On the other
side these savannas merge into the
aquatic vegetation of the lakes and
swamps (and along the coast salt
marshes), such as water lilies, and
especially the floating water hyacinth
[Piaropus crassipes), which almost gov-

NATURAL AREAS AND RFOGIONS

429

ers many of the smaller shallow lakes
and sluggish streams.

These savannas occupy most of the
southern third of the peninsula. In
these savannas and swamps nest the
Florida duck, the Florida redwing,
the boat-tailed grackle, Ward's heron
the common little blue heron, whose
young are white, the black-crowned
night heron, the reddish egret, the snowy
heron, the American egret, the king rail,
the clapper rail, the Florida gallinule,
the purple gallinule, on the Kissimmee
prairie, the Florida burrowing owl, and
in the cypress trees nest the swallow-
tailed kite, and the everglade kite.
On the beaches various sandpipers
(plovers) nest.

This is also the home of the alligator
{Alligator mississippiensis), rapidly di-
minishing in numbers. The marsh rat
{Oryzomys palustris) is abundant, the
round-tailed muskrat (Neofiber allcni)
occurs, also the otter {Lutra canadensis
vaga), mink {Mustela vison hitensis),
and raccoon {Procyon lotor).

Burrowing in the mud occurs the
horn snake {Farancia abacura). Other
characteristic snakes of the region are
the green water-snake, the banded
snake, and the cotton mouth moccasin
{Agkistrodon piscivorus). Here also oc-
cur the Florida terrapin {Pseudemys
floridana), the alligator snapper turtle
(Macrochelys temminckii), the common
snapper, the soft-shelled turtle [Amyda
jerox), the banded mud-turtle {Ki-
nosternon baurii), and in the extreme
south the crocodile {Crocodylus acutus).
Common amphibians are the Congo
eel {Amphiuma means) and the mud-
eel {Siren lacertina). The curious
gopher-frog {Rana aesopus) leaves the
gopher holes to breed here.

Characteristic orthoptera are the
earwig {Doru davisi), the katydids
and the lubberly locust.

Among the butterflies most abundant
here are the pearl crescent {Phycodes
tharos), P. phaon, the white peacock
{Anartia jatrophae), Basilar chia flori-
densis, which breeds on willow, the

minute skipper {Ancyloxypha numitor,
whose larva feeds on grasses, the little
rod moth Eulnphe rulncundarin, the
pretty little Utctheim belln, and Ap<inte-
sis spp.

Some of our largest and most charac-
teristic plant bugs occur here, the large
club-legged plant bug {Acnnlhncephnlus
femorahis), the southern green stink
bug (Nezarra viridaln), the leaf-footed
plant bug {Leptoglossus phyllopus).

The salt marshes along the coasts
form a well marked and distinctive
type. The grass Spartinn is the domi-
nant plant. Another coarse grass is the
sea-oats {Uniola panic ulata). In the
tidal flats grow two succulent woody
plants, one with broad leaves {Scaevola
Piumieri) and one with narrow leaves
{Tourneforlia gnaphaloides. Here also
grows the high-water -shrub {Iva imbri-
caria).

In the extreme south characteristic
plants are the sawgrass {Mariscus
jamnicensis) and Juncus Roemerianus.

Characteristic orthoptera of the salt
marshes are the locusts Orphulclla
olivacea, and 0. halophila, and the
meadow grasshoppers Conocephaliis aigi-
alus, C. nigropluroides, C. spartinx,
and Orchelinum fidicinium. Haplo-
thrips leucanthemi is the characteristic
thysanopteran. The great southern
white butterfly Pieris monusta is
characteristic.

E.xcept during the winter months the
salt marsh mosquitoes are extremely
abundant. The malaria mosquitoes
{Anopheles) are, however, comparatively
scarce. In the late spring horse-flies
{Tabanus and Chrysops) are extremely
abundant.

Characteristic of the salt marshes are
the following birds. Some of them nest
in the cabbage palmettoes and shrubs
along the edges of the swamps and on
the islands. The brown jiclican, the
wood ibis, the Anhinga, the herring
gull, and the black skimmer. Charac-
teristic reptiles are the salt-water
moccasin {Natrix cumpressicnuda). the
loggerhead turtle {Careila cir.lt.i). the

430

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

bastard-turtle (Caretta kempii) and the
green-turtle {Chelonia mydas) which
nest on the upper beach.

Mangrove Swamp: Much of the low
coasts of tropical Florida which are
protected from hard frosts, are lined
with a dense growth of mangrove, the
red mangrove {Rhizophora mangle),
and the black mangrove {Avicennia).
In these mangroves nests the Florida
cormorant and various herons and
egrets. Here occurs the katydid, and
the crickets Anaxipha scia, Orocharis
gryllodes, Nemobius cubensis, and Hygro-
ncmobius alleni, and the earwig Euborel-
lia ambigua. The butterfly Phocides
balabano breeds on the red mangrove.

3. Flatwoods. a. The so-called "flat-
woods," are comparatively' level regions,
poorly drained, and underlaid at a
depth of a few feet with a layer of hard-
pan that is almost impervious to water.
The result is that the soil is very acid
although often comparatively well sup-
plied with humus. The vegetation
consists of an open forest of long-
leaved and loblolly pine and, especially
in the south, the slash pine and saw
palmetto interspersed with gallberries,
huckleberries, pitcher plants, sun-dew
(Drosera), and other plants charac-
teristic of sour boggy soil, and a good
growth of grasses.

Mammals : The cottontail rabbit {Syl-
vilagus floridanus) and the Florida
swamp rabbit (Sylvilagus palustris palu-
dicola) occur here, as does also the
raccoon.

Reptiles: An occasional diamond-
backed rattle-snake, and ground rattler
occur here, as do also the black-snake,
the common chicken-snake (Elaphe
quatrivittata) , the spotted chicken-snake
{E. obsolela confinis), the king-snake
{Lampropeltis g. gctulus), and the corn-
snake {Elaphe guttata). Lizards are
comparatively scarce.

Characteristic birds are the bald
eagle and the Florida red-tailed hawk,
which nests in the tallest pines, and
the wood duck.

Insects: The beautiful little pink day
flying moth {Utelheisa bella) is especially

abundant here. Butterflies characteris-
tic of this region are the southern dog-
face {Zercnc caesonia), the pearl cres-
cent, and Phaon, Hunter's butterfly
{Cynthia virginiensis), always abundant
about thistles, the nymph Neonympha
phocion, the small reddish brown south-
ern metal mark {Lephelisca virginiensis
syn. Calephelis), Strymon melinus, and
S. cecrops.

Gallberries are often blackened by
the sooty mold fungus growing in the
honey dew given off by the Florida wax
scale {Ceroplastes floridensis). Orthop-
tera characteristic of this region are
the mantids {Stagmomaniis floridensis,
S. Carolina, Oligonyx scudderi, and
Thesprotia graminis) ; the walking sticks
{Manomera tenuescens, M. brachypyga,
and Anisomorpha buprestoides); the
locusts {Radinotatum brevipenne, Mer-
miria alacris, Gymnoscirtetes pusillus,
Aptenopedes sphenarioides. A. aptera,
and Melanoplus rotundipennis) ; the
katydids {Odontoxiphidium apteriim, Or-
chelinum militare, Belocephalus sub-
apterus, and B. sabalis) ; and the crickets
Falcicida hebardi, and Nemobius ambitio-
sus. Characteristic crane flies are Tip-
ula sayi, Decranomyia liberta, Rhaphidia
domestica, and Gonomyia sulphurella. ^

During the late spring horseflies and
"deerflies" {Tabanus and Chrysops
and mosquitoes are very abundant
here.

Jassids and cercopids are abundant
on the grasses and shrubs, and on the
former the black thrips {Haplothrips
graminis).

b. Cypress swamps: The shallow de-
pressions in this flatwoods country,
which are usually under water but often
go dry, are commonly occupied by a
dense growth of the pond cypress {Taxo-
diiim imbricarium. From the roots of
this tree there extend up into the air
numerous projections, "knees," which
are covered with mosses and ferns.
The trunks of the trees frequently bear
orchids and other epiphytes {Tillandsia) ,
and from the branches droop long fes-
toons of "Spanish moss," {Dendropogon
usneoides). These cypress swamps also

NATURAL AREAS AND R|.:C.IONS

131

line most of the streams and swampy
lake margins and gradually merge into
"low hammock." The largest of these
cypress swamps is the "Big Cypress"
southwest of Lake Okeechobee in Collier
County.

In the larger of these swamps alliga-
tors (Alligator mississippiensis), water-
moccasins, and water birds abound.

Insects, except mosciuitocs, are not
especially abundant in the dense shade
of the cypress swamps. But craneflies
{Geramimyia vanduzeei, Toxorhina
magna and Polymera georgiae) are
characteristic.

3. Scmb and spruce pine land. On
many of the higher ridges in the central
part of the peninsula where the sand is
deepest and therefore least retentive of
moisture, and especially along the sand
dunes of the coasts, occurs a dense
growth of saw^ palmettoes {Serenoa
serrnlaia), evergreen oaks {Quercus myr-
tifolia, Q. geminata), interspersed with a
great variety of evergreen shrubs with
small leaves and often thick succulent
stems. Cacti (Opuntia spp.) are com-
mon. It is a typical scrub forest.
Some of the more characteristic shrubs
are Dahoon holly (Ilex Cassiae), Ana-
momis, Dodonaea Jamaicensis, a heath
{Xolisma ferruginea), the hemp vine
(Mikenia), golden buttons Aclino^per-
mwn), Polygonella sp., Thysanelly sp.,
and Vaccinium Myrsiniles. Other
characteristic plants are blue curls
(Trichostema dichotomum, the carpet
weed {Mollugo verlicillala), Pelalostemon
Feayi, Froelichia floridana, the umbrella
plant {Eriogonmn floridanum) IFarea sp.
(a crucifer), the dark green and very
leafy shrulj — Rosemar\' — the dodder-
like parasitic vine (Cassyiha americana).
South of Mosquito Inlet the major dune
plants are the sea grape {Coccolobis nvi-
fera), the cabbage palmetto, the saw
palmetto, the cocoa plum (Chrysobalanus
pellocarpus), the poison wood {Melopium
metopium) and the minor ones the
century plants (Agave decipiens and A.
neglecta), the strangling fig (Ficus
aurea), the Spanish bayonet (Yucca

(thufiiliii), Solannm huhamcnsc, Lanlann
iivdlifitUn, Ernodcn lilloraliH, the black
torch (ErUhnlis fruticom), the kikiw
berry (Chiococca raccmosa), the niarl-
l)erry (Icacorea paniculala), Myrsine
(Rapnnca guinenNin).

North of Mosquito Inlet the lurgrr
trees, in addition to liic oaks mentioned
above are the Shore bay (Tamnla littor-
alis), red cedar (Sahina silicicola),
cassena (Ilex vomiloria), the wild olive
(Desmanthus amcricnnus) Xolisma fer-
ruginea, and the spice tree (AnamomiK
.simpsoni). Smaller shrubs are the
French mulberry named from its beauti-
ful magenta colored berries, the Gall-
berry (Ilex glabra) and the horse sugar
(Symplocns (inclnria). On tiie upper
beach the sunflower (Ilelianlhus dchili.s)
and the blue verbena (V. maritima) are
conspicuous.

In the older and less dry portions of
this area a small pine, Finns clausa,
is the most conspicuous plant. The
region has very little grass and therefore
does not burn over so readily as the
higher pine lands, but occasionalh' it
does burn and the destruction is much
more complete. In the higher pine
lands, the fire consumes onlv the grass
and shrubs of the forest floor, — "ground
fire," but in the scrub the trees and all
are destroyed. There are large areas
of this scrub which can be said to be in
an almost natural state of preservation
as fire runs through them infrequently.
The soil is so poor from an agricultural
standpoint and the grazing so almost
negligible on this land that its commer-
cial development is very slow. The
spruce pine is so small as to be valueless
for timber except for fire wood, and it
does not yield turpentine. The only
extensive developments arc along the
lower parts of the East Coast where the
land has been cleared for pineapple
fields. This type of vegetation is
interspersed to a very marked degree
witii both flatwoods and high ])ine land.
Animal life is not abundant, the fauna
is the poorest of the state, and oven
insects arc not abundant on the coarse

432

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

tough plants, although the locusts
{Spharagemon collare ivyomingi, Scirti-
tica marmorata picta, Psinidia feneslra-
lis, and Melanoplus keeleri keeleri) are
characteristic. The great southern
white butterfly {Pieris monuste) is
characteristic, especially in the south.

4. High pine woods. This is usually
rolling, well drained country with
numerous small lakes and ponds between
the hills. The soil is sandy, usually
underlaid with clay (sometimes lime-
stone) at no great depth. The typical
growth is an extremely open forest of
long leaved pine with scattered clumps
of saw palmetto. Where not over
grazed there is a sparse covering of
short grasses, herbs, and a few low
bushes such as the "oak-runner" (Quer-
cus pumila). There would doubtless be
more shrubs were fires not so frequent.
On the higher, drier ridges there is much
"scrub oak" including the turkey oak
{Q. catesbaei). The lupin {Lupinus sp.)
makes large conspicuous green mats
with spikes of blue flowers. Ground
fires spread rapidly through this region
although they do not generate as much
heat as in the flatwoods, and a large part
is burned over annually, largely pur-
posely by owners of cattle to provide
fresh green grass in the spring. In this
region the greatest development of
citrus has taken place and as a result
much of it is cleared. Where underlaid
by limestone, particularly in the north
central part, the dwarf chinquapin
{Castanea nana) is often common, and
scattering cedar trees. On the lower
East Coast much saw palmetto occurs
in the high pine land and the cycad
"Coontie" {Zamia floridana) is abun-
dant and characteristic.

Two burrowing animals, the "gopher"
and the "salamander," are characteristic
of this region. Both animals are sadly
misnamed. The "gopher" {Gopherus
polyphemus) is a burrowing turtle, and
the "salamander" {Geomys floridanus)
a ground rodent, similar to the pocket-
gopher of the West.

Snakes characteristic of these open

woods are crown-snake (Tantilla coro-
nata), the coach whip {Coluber flag ellum
flagellum), the black-snake, the chicken-
snake, the corn-snake, the common hog-
nosed snake {Heterodon contortrix), the
king-snake and the common garter-
snake {Thamnophis s. sirtalis).

Characteristic birds are the bald
eagle, the Florida red-tailed hawk, the
Florida red-shouldered hawk, the Florida
screech owl, the sparrow hawk, the Flor-
ida bob-white, the loggerhead shrike,
and the Florida wren.

Among the characteristic orthoptera
are the locusts {Amblytropidia occiden-
talism Melanoplus rotundipennis, and
M. puer); the katydids (Arethaea phalan-
gium, Orchelimum minor, and Conoceph-
alus saltans), and the cricket {Falcicula
hebardi).

Characteristic butterflies which breed
here are Papilio philenor on the pipe
vine {Aristolochia) , the Ajax (P. mar-
cellus), on Asimina, lole {Nathalis iole),
on Cassia, the cloudless sulphur {Catop-
silia eubule) on Cassia, Nicippe {Eureme
nicippe) on Cassia, the little sulphur
(E. lisa) and E. delia, on Cassia, the
Gulf fritillary {Dione vanillae) on
Passiflora, the Buckeye {Junonia
coenia), Danaus berenice on Asclepias
tuberosum, Eumaeus atala on Zamia,
extremely abundant in the south,
Atlides halesus, common about blossoms
of Chinquapin and Eupatorium sero-
tinum — larva on oaks, Strymon melinus,
Hemiargus catalina on Pithecolobium
in the south, Goniurus proteus and Epar-
gyreus tityrus on legumes, the larvae
rolling up the edges of the leaves,
Staphylus hayhustii on Alternanihera,
and Hylephila phylaeus on grasses.

5. Hammocks {Hardwood forests), a.
Low hammocks: In the low hammocks,
which occupy the low wet lands between
the high hammocks and the cypress
swamps, the dominant trees are sour
gums {Tupelo), ash {Fraxinus spp.)
red maple {Acer rubrum), hackberry
{Celtis mississippiensis) , and an under-
growth of blackberries (Rubus spp).,
Andromeda, Virginia willow {Ilea vir-

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIOVS

433

ginica), laurel-leaved smilax {Smilax
laurifolia), trumpet flower {Tccomn
radicans), and a host of other shrubs.

"Low hammocks" can be subdivided
according to the dominant trees. In
the lower, more swamp\' places where it
merges into the cypress ponds the sour
glim is often dominant. In other places
the cabbage palmetto is the most com-
mon plant. In the less swampy parts
there is a greater variety of trees, the
water oaks {Quercus nigra), and the
swamp oak (Q. -palusiris) are often the
common trees. In many wet boggy
places at the heads of streams and along
their banks the bull bay {Magnolia
glauca) is the dominant tree, and with a
heavy undergrowth, forms a dense
thicket. These are commonly called
"bay-heads."

These hammocks are the home of the
gray squirrel, Florida opossum {Didel-
phus virginiana pigra), raccoon, marsh
rabbit and an occasional gray fox, and
in the larger remoter ones occur the
Florida black bear (Ursus floridanus),
the Florida wildcat {Lynx rufus flori-
damis) and deer. Here nest the great
horned owl, the Florida barred owl, the
black vulture, the turkej' vulture, doves,
hawks and numerous small birds. The
little poisonous coral-snake {Micrurus
fulvius) is occasionall}^ seen, and its
mimic the scarlet king-snake {Lampro-
peltis c. elapsoides) .

Characteristic butterflies of the low
hammocks Papilio glaucus and Enonia
porllandia, of moths the Polyphemus
{Telea polyphemus) , and several species
of Catocala. The locust {Melanoplus
furcatus) is characteristic. The cricket
{Nemobius carolinus) is typically found
in the black gum swamps. The follow-
ing craneflies are characteristic of the
low hammocks, Molophilus forcipula
M. Hirtipennis, Pilaria recondita, Lim-
nophila macrocera, Biltacomorpha clav-
ipes, Pseudolimnophila luteipennis,
P. contempta, Brachypremna dispdlans
and Epipmagma solatrix. Mosquitoes
are very numerous and so are tabanids
(Chrysops).

''. High hammocks: The high "ham-
mock" occurs in well drained but good
moisture holding soil.s, usually those
containing considerable clay or under-
laid with limestone. It occui)ie8 but a
relatively small part of the surface of
the land, increasing in amount as one
goes north in the state. Where it has
reached its apparent climax it is com-
posed largely of broad-leavetl evergreen
trees of which the dominant ones are
magnolias, red bay {Tamala sp.) and
holly. Deciduous trees of the types
noted below are mixed with them to
some degree. Only on the best, moist
(but not swampy) soils are these broad-
leaved evergreen trees dominant. In
drier situations, which include the great
bulk of the "hammock" the majority
of the trees are the deciduous ones, such
as blue beeches {Carpinus), hop horn-
beam {Oslrya), cork elm {Uhnus alata),
basket oak {Quercus Michauxit), bass-
wood {Tilia sp.), sweet gums, short-
leaved pines, live oaks, water oaks
{Q. nigra), hickories, which occur to
some extent in the climax stands,
Spanish oak {Q. falcala), with an under-
growth of wild plums, {Prunus sp.),
prickly ash {Aralia spinosa and Fagara
Clava-Herculis), red bud, French mul-
berry, smilax and yellow jasmine {Gel-
simium), and on the forest floor, par-
tridge berry {Milchella repens), sedges
and grasses. The high hammock gradu-
allj' merges into high pine land on the
one hand and low hammock on the
other. As one approaches the northern
part of the state the broad leaved
evergreens diminish in numbers, as does
also the Spanish moss antl other epi-
phytes, tulip trees {Liriodendron),
beeches {Fagus grandifulia), red oak
{Quercus rubra) and scarlet oak {Q.
coccinea) appear, and the hammock
gradually merges into the eastern
deciduous forest.

The percentage of evergreens in these
hammocks is sufficiently high to keep
the forest floor damp and prevent the
spread of fire.

In the hammocks are found the usual

434

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

small animals of the forest, most of
which like the plants range far north;
but some like the "chameleon" {Anolis
carolinensis), and some of the butter-
flies, (viz., Heliconidae) are distinctly
southern.

Birds which nest here or in the shrub-
bery of the forest margin are: Chuck-
Will's-widow, Florida nighthawk, the
fish crow, the cardinal, nests in the
dense thickets, and the mockingbird.

Characteristic snakes are the black-
snake, chicken-snake, corn-snake, com-
mon hog-nosed snake, king-snake, and
the burrowing worm-snake {Carphophis
amoena), which looks like a large earth
worm.

The lizards are Sceloporus spinosus
floridanus, the glass-snake {Ophisawus
ventralis), and the swift {Cnemidophorus
sexUneaius) .

Insects: Butterflies typical of the
high hammocks are : Papilio polydamus,
whose larva lives on Aristolochia, P.
cresphontes, whose larva the "Orange
Dog" lives on prickly ash {Fagara).

6. Tropical hammocks. This is a dense
jungle of trees, shrubs, lianas, and
epiphytes, mostly evergreen but con-
taining a species of hickory. Typical
trees are banyans, wild papaya the
Gumbo Limbo (Bur sera simaruba), Ma-
hogany {Suietenia mahagoni), Rubber
Trees (Ficus aurea and F. populina),
and Lance Wood Ocotea catesbyana.
The butterflies include the big yellow
Turnus {P. glaucus), P. troilus iloneus,
P. palamedes on Persea and Magnolia,
Ajax (P. marcellus), the Zebra {Migoni-
tis charithonia) on Passiflora, Bupioieta
Claudia also on the passion flower,
Polygonia interrogationis, Enodia port-
landia, the Wood nymph {Megisto
sosybius), and the skipper Calpodes
ethlius.

Characteristic moths are the Luna
(Actios luna dictynna), Polyphemus
(Tclea polyphemus), the underwings
{Catocala spp.), the regal moth {athero-
ma regalis), whose larva is the "Hickory
Horned Devil," the wasp moth {Cosmo-
soma myrodora), Dahana atripennis,

the moth of the velvet bean caterpillar
(Anticarsia gemmatilis), and that of the
puss moth {Megalopyge opercularis) .

Characteristic hemiptera are the club-
legged plant bug, the northern green
stink bug {Nezara hilaris), numerous
cicadas, membracids, tingids, etc.

For a list of the beetles, see Dozier,
1920.

Many large and beautiful snails are
found here.

Characteristic locusta are Melanoplus
rotundipennis and M. querneus; katy-
dids, Stilpnochlora coidoniana, Lea flori-
densis, Pterophylla camellifolia, Atlanti-
cus gibbosus. The common mantid is
Gonatista grisea.

The craneflies are Tipula mingwe,
the T. umbrosa group, Dicranomyia
liberta, Gnophomyia luctuosa, and Dicra-
noptycha sobrina.

Typical butterflies are Papilio polyda-
mus, on Aristolochia, the South Florida
White {Appias ilaire neumoegenii) , Ca-
topsilia agarithe on Cassia, the Zebra,
Eunica tatila, Athena peleus on Ficus,
Anaena portia.

These tropical hammocks are noted
for numerous species of large and
beautiful snails.

Fresh waters. Springs in Florida
ivhose waters are practically unpolluted.
These are underground water courses in
limestone regions which come to the
surface in certain places. The largest
of these is Silver Springs, six miles east
of Ocala. The spring is so powerful
that good-sized steamboats regularly
navigate the river flowing from it and
come up in the spring itself. There
are a nimiber of these springs in the
state which are but little smaller. As
a general thing the more shallow springs
and streams although unpolluted as far
as pathologenic germs are concerned
are so charged with decaying organic
matter as to be unpalatable. Most of
the streams and many of the lakes are
very dark in color as a result of the
presence of decaying organic matter.
Some of the larger lakes are quite clear
and palatable. Lake Weir is one of

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

135

the best examples. In general the
streams and lakes of Florida are excej)-
tionally well supplied with fish.

Caves. The limestone region includes
a number of caves but none are very
extensive. Immense number of bats
find refuge in them and the camel
cricket {Ceuthophilus laiihuli) is a
characteristic insect.

Succession. The relation of these
different types of vegetation to each
other and the ecological succession are
indicated in the following diagram:

(14)

Evergreen Magnolia Bay Holly Hammock

T

T

Low Hammock (11)

(13)

Mixed High
Hammock

T

T

^^^^ (12) J_
Woods High

Pine

(10)

Cabbage
Palmetto (8)
Hammock

Spruce ,Q^
Pine

Saw Palmetto

^^^ Scrub

T

Cypress Swamp,

Prairies and

Savannas (6) |

(5)

Marsh (3)

Salt
Marsh

(2)

Active
Dunes

(4)

Lake

(1)

II. PRESENT BIOTA

Less than 10% of the land area of
Florida is under cultivation. A large

part of the remainder is occupied by
open pine forests which have Imich cut
over by lumbermen, tur()entined, grazed
(by cattle and hogs chiefly), and fre-
quently burned over. The fires are,
however, "ground fires" and do not
damage mature pines a.s scriou.sly as a
nortliern forest fire. They do, however,
tend to kill out the oaks and other
hardwood trees and hence prevent
succession.

Both the pine timber and the cypress
are being rapidly consumed, and except
for two small forest reserves, no attempt
is being made at reforestation. Even
young pines but a few inches in diameter
are being turpentined. Many aban-
doned fields are growing up in second
growth pines, largely loblolly. Some
of the hammocks are in a nearly natural
condition, there being even a few black
bear, deer, and wild turkeys to be found.
The drainage of swamps is also pro-
ceeding rapidly as the drained areas
make the best trucking soils.

Still there are many areas in nearly a
natural state and much of the area of the
state offers desirable opportunities to
the student and collector. Some of the
more desirable areas for such purposes
are described in the following pages.

III. NATUU.\L ARE.VS

o. Extensive natural regions

The Knox Hill Country and Homes
Valley are two very small but rather
unique areas in West Florida, con-
stituting cases of rich soil and hardwood
forests surrounded by sandy pine re-
gions. A good deal of the area of both
has been cultivated and some aban-
doned, so that some of the forest is
second growth. They differ from each
other in soil, topography, etc., but on
account of their small size the two plant
lists are combined. (For additional
details about these regions sec (Uh Ann.
Rep. Fla. Geol., Surv., pp. 217-224.)
Both regions are off the main routes
of travel, and Holmes Valley i.s almost
uninhabitetl. But one can see a good
deal of the Knox Hill country in one

436

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

day by walking out from DeFuniak
Springs or Ponce de Leon, and the
Valley, a railroad crosses it near its
eastern end, is reached from Vernon or
Chipley. — R. M. Harper.

The West Florida Lake Region is a
sandy longleaf pine region, compara-
tively level except for being pitted with
numerous approximately circular de-
pressions containing lakes and ponds.
The region is almost uninhabited and
uncultivated, but of course the lumber
and turpentine men have cut or bled
all the longleaf pine they could con-
veniently reach from the railroads.

Pinus palustris (longleaf pine), Taxo-
diurn imbricarium (pond cypress). Mag-
nolia grandifiora (Magnolia), Ldrioden-
dron (tulip poplar), Pinus Elliottii
(slash pine), P. serotina (black pine),
Quercus laurifolia occur.

The salamander, Geomys Tuza Mobi-
lensis, is abundant, the dry sandy soil
furnishing ideal conditions for it.

Round Lake, near its eastern end,
is one of the highest points in Florida,
about 300 feet above sea level. — R. M.
Harper.

The Apalachicola flatwoods is a low
flat region near the Gulf coast, with no
rock exposures of any kind, and soils
classed as fine sand, swamp, loamy
fine sand, etc. Less than 5% is culti-
vated, but Imnbering and turpentining
have been going on for a long time.
The vegetation is mostly open pine
forests with much low shrubby under-
growth, interrupted by many shallow
ponds, swamps, and tyty "bays."
Oaks are rather scarce. The estuarine
swamps of the Apalachicola River
belong to this region, but they are much
like the Mobile delta, and will be ex-
cluded from the following plant list.

Large trees. Pinus palustris (longleaf
pine), Taxodium imbricarium (pond
cypress), (slash pine), P. serotina (black
pine), Nyssa biflora (black gum), (sweet
gum), (red maple), Pinus Taeda (short-
leaf pine), Quercus nigra (water oak),
Liriodendron (tulip poplar), Magnolia
grandifiora (Magnolial.

The whole region is not very easy to
explore, being so flat that there is much
standing water, especially in rainy
seasons, and roads, railroads, and settle-
ments are rather scarce. April is a
pretty good month to visit the region,
that being before the rainy season and
late enough for many flowers in that
latitude, though the number of flowers
increases as summer advances. One can
get a good view of it though from the
railroad running north and west from
Apalachicola, or can walk out from that
place or Port St. Joe or Wewahitchka
(the last being a river landing near the
Dead Lakes and remote from rail-
roads).— R. M. Harper.

The Apalachicola River endemics

There is a colony of Torreya taxifolia,
together with a number of other endemic
and disjunct species along the bluffs
of the Apalachicola River between
Chattahoochee and Bristol. Are
well drained, but at the same time
thoroughly moist, because of the abun-
dant seepage water and the low evapora-
tion rates that prevail. Magnolia occurs
among the trees and scrub palmettos
in the undergrowth, are plentiful.

Torreya grows all over the slopes of
the ravines, from stream-bank to rim,
wherever there is any shade. It is
mostly an undergrowth tree, seldom
reaching a height of more than 20 or
25 ft. or a trunk diameter of more than
6 in. — Frank Thone.

Everglades. A portion of the Ever-
glades is still in an almost natural
condition. This is particularly true
of the region lying southwest of Lake
Okeechobee where no drainage opera-
tions have been undertaken. The whole
region from Lake Okeechobee to the
south end of the state can be said to be
in a virgin condition. However, roads
and drainage ditches are now penetrat-
ing it.

The Everglades can be reached (c) up
the canals from West Palm Beach, Fort
Lauderdale or Miami; by the Atlantic

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

4.17

Coast Line to Moorehaven. The Tanii-
ami Trail, Tampa to Miami, via Fort
Myers and Everglade will be finished
in 1926 and cross the lower "glades."
Hotels at Moorehaven and Canal
Point.— J. R. W.

There are a few bird reservations in
Florida. One of these is about Mosquito
Inlet south of Daytona.

Ten Thousand Islands. There is a
considerable area in the extreme south-
western part of the state along the Gulf
Coast parts of wdiich are probably in
a nearly natural state. This is adjacent
to the big Cypress Swamp. It is a
place of alternate mangrove islands and
water extending from Marco to Cape
Sable. Some settlements have been
made on the larger and higher islands.
Communication and lodging are such
that if one wished to get about he would
have to use a house-boat or camp.
A road reaches south to Marco. Boats
from Ft. Myer to Everglade several
times a week. — /. R. W.

Gulf Hammocks. .\ region of alternate
hammocks, flatwoods, and swamps.
The hardwood forests are not suitable
for grazing as there is very little grass
in them and fire does not go through
easily on account of a large part of the
vegetation being the large-leaf ever-
greens, and a consequent absence of a
layer of pine needles and grass on the
ground. Furthermore, the dense shade
keeps the forest floor so moist that fire
does not readily run through it. The
open pasture lands have been grazed
and some of them burned over. The
hardwood forests, however, are almost
in their natural condition except for
the relative scarcity of the larger game.
Wild turkeys are common. Deer and
bear are still found in the region, but
of course they are not as abundant as
they originally were. The region is but
little settled and developed.

Levy and adjoining counties. Can be
reached (a) from Cedar Keys, Bronson,
or Old Town.— ^. R. U'.

Turnbull Hammock. A hammock of
considerable area. Except for clear-

ing.s made in this land for orunp;c Rroves
and roads it can be siiid to he in an
almost natural condition except for the
absence of big game. The clciiring of
this land is so expensive that it has
delayed development. Some of the
immediate seacoast is also in an almost
natural state.

East Coast. New Smyrna is in the
midst of it. An area still remains south
and west of town. — J. R. W.

East Seacoasl Regions. Much of the
immediate seacoast is still in a natural
condition witli the exception of the
absence of larger game. The soil is so
light and poor that it is practically
worthless for agricultural purposes,
and the vegetation so scattered and of
such a nature that fire does not readily
run through it. This, however, is true
of only a few rods from the seashore,
the beach itself, and the more recent
of the sand dunes behind it. Except
in the immediate neighborhood of
resorts the sand dune areas are mostly
untouched. — J . R. W.

h. Areas suitable for preservation

pAllaysatakntchec Flats. (C3.) A
large area in St. Lucie County, Florida.
A savanna consisting of grassy areas
where the principal growth is ".saw
grass" alternating with "hammocks,"
or forest patches of cabbage Pahnettoes,
bays, and similar semi-tropical vegeta-
tion usually called in Florida a "low
hammock."" There are many shallow
ponds and swamps. Wild turkey.s and
deer; few bears occur. A portion should
be preserved.

Ft. Pierce I, 12 mi. west, or Okee-
chobee, Fla. East Coast Ry, 10 nn.
northeast. § (a) Good roads extend
through the tract.—/''. M. O'Bijrur.

pDevil's Mill Hopper. (Do.) Tins is
a large deep "sink" in a limestone region.
Several small streams flow into it hut
the outlet is so large tiiat there is little
or no standing pool in tlie bottom. ISO
ft. deep. The steep sides are covered
with a dense southeastern climax forest.

Cainesvillet, A. C. L. Ry. au<l Sea-
board Rv. 7 mi. N.W., or Paradise.
A. C. L.'Rv. 3 mi. W. (a).

pTIie Kven/lades. (A4.)

This area is being drained. A portion
should be preserved in its natural state.
Miamit, Moorehaven (a, c)X.

438

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

pUniversity of Florida Grounds. In-
cluding typical 'high hammock.'' A
portion of the climax forest of the region.

Gainesvillet, Fla. 1.5 mi. W.

Streamside Flood-Plain Forest. (C3.)
(b). Along Hogtown Creek. Atypical
flood-plain forest of the region, of
ashes, gums, catalpa, tupelo, magnolias,
short-leaved pine, dogwood, holly.

Gainesvillet, 2 mi. W (w) (a).

pGidf Hammock. (D4.) A savanna
country occupied by saw grass areas
alternating with shallow ponds and
dense cypress swamps, and heavy, low
hammocks of magnolia. All stages of
the succession to the climax forest of
the region. The haunts of bear, wild
turkey, many birds, etc. Levy County.

Otter Creek, t, on the Seaboard Rail-
way, and Gulf Hammock (a), (h)§.

pPineola Fernery. (B4.) A broad-
leaved evergreen forest in lime rock
region in Citrus County, Fla.

Invernesst; Pineola, 2 mi. S., or
Istachatta 2 mi. N. Atl. Coast Line Ry.
(w), (a).

The Jungle. Miami. (B4.) A tract
of Tropical hammock (1200 acres) in
Dade County.

Miami J, Fla. East Coast Ry. 3 mi.
S. (a), (w).

Arboretum of Chas. Deering. A pri-
vate collection of sub-tropical plants
amid native vegetation open for the
benefit of students and the public.
Miami.

Royal Palm Parkt. (B3.) A state
park in Dade County. Belongs to
Florida Federation of Women's Clubs.
It is on Paradise Key in the Everglades.
It has a wonderful growth of Royal
Plams and a rich development of "fan-
nick trees," and other sub-tropical
vegetation — both forest, savanna and
swamp. This is an excellent place to
study sub-tropical vegetation and ani-
mal life as there is a good lodge on the
grounds, and driveways and paths make
all parts easily accessible. There is
some complaint that it is being "parki-
fied."

Royal Palm Beach I (a).

Torreya and Taxus Floridana Preserve.

(B4.)

River Junctionf, (w), (h).

pSilver Springs and River]. (C2.) At
the head of the Silver River, a branch of
the Oklawaha. A spring so large and
powerful that good sized steamboats
come into it regularly. The river is
lined by a dense growth of trees, cypress,
live- and water-oaks, cabbage palmet-
toes, bays, etc.

OcalaJ, Seaboard and A. C. L. Ry. 6
mi. east, but commonly and best reached
by a line of excursion steamers up the

St. Johns and Oklawaha Rivers, (a),
(c).

Thousand Islands. (A2.) South of
Marco, in Lee, Collier and Munroe
Counties (see page 000).

Reached only (c) from Marco|, Cax-
ambas. Everglade, or Chokuluskee (c) 11 .

pTurnhull Hammock. (C3.) A mag-
nolia hammock in Volusia and Brevard
Counties. Vines and epiphytes grow
here in profusion. In the tree tops grow
ferns as well as air plants in especial
abundance.

The Florida East Coast runs through
it from New Smyrna to near to Titus-
ville (a)|.

Peace River Hammock. (C3.) In the
southwest corner of DeSoto County.
Extends along the Peace River.

Ft. OgdenJ, on A. C. L., and Charlotte
Harbor and Northern Ry. 3 mi. west
(w), (c).— F. M. 0' Byrne.

*Florida National Forest, Ocala Divi-
sion. A large tract in eastern Marion
County has been set aside as a forest
reserve. The vegetation is largely
spruce pine, high pine, and flat woods.

Ocala 12 mi. east (h)§. Choctaw-
hatchee Division. See "National For-
ests of the Eastern District."

REFERENCES

Stork, Willis

1765 An account of East Florida with
Journal kept by John Bart-
ram.
Chapman, A. W.
Flora of the Southern States.
1885 Torreya Tacifolia, Aruatt. A
reminiscence. Bot. Gazette
(10-251-254).
Bartram, William

1792 Travels.
Blatchley, W. S.
1902 A Nature Wooing at Ormond by

the Sea.
1914 Can Ent., pp. 62-63. A brief
description of the Kissim-
mee Region.

1917 Can Ent., p. 137. A_ brief

description of the vicinity
of Dunedin.

1918 Jour. N. Y. Ent. Soc. The

same. Pp. 155-162.

1920 Orthoptera of N. E. America.
(Nature Publishing Co., Indi-
anapolis.)

1920 Can Ent., pp. 42-43. A brief
description of the Cape Sable
region.

1922 Can Ent., pp. 9-11. A brief

description of the vicinity of
Ft. Myers and Chokoluskee.

1923 Can Ent., pp. 13-14. A brief

description of Moor Haven
and Lake Okeeschobee.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

439

Blatchley (W. S.) and Leng (C. W.)
Rhynchophira or Weevils of X. K.
America.
Catesby Mark

1732 Natural History of Carolina,
Florida and the JJahama
Islands.
1762 Nortus Europae Am. Ericanus
40.
Cory, Chas. B.
The Water Birds of Florida.

Dozier, Herbert L.
An Ecological Study of Hammock and
Piney Woods Insect in Flor-
ida. Ann. Ent. Soc. of Ain.,
Vol. XIII, No. 4.

Gray, Asa

1875 A Pilgrimage to Terreya. Am.
Agriculturist, 34: 2GG-2G7.
Harper, Roland M.

1907 Science, Vol. 25, X^tes on Dis-
tribution of S. E. Salaman-
ders.

1912 Science, Vol. 35, pp. 115-119.

1916 Fern Grottos of Citrus Co.,
Fla. Am. Fern Jour., Sep-
tember.

Harshberger, John W.

1914 The Vegetation of South
Florida. Trans. Wagner Free
Inst. Sci., 7: 49-189.

Hebbard, H. G.
1890 Second report of U. S. Ent.

Comm.
1894 Insect Guests of the Florida
Land Tortoise. Insect Life,
Vol. VI, No. 4.
Sargent, C. S.

(Forests of) Florida. Tenth Census
U. S., 9: 520-523.
Sellards and Harper

Florida State Geological Reports,
III, VII, XIII, contain full
descriptions of the floral re-
gions of Florida, peat de-
posits, etc.

Simpson, Chas. T. ^ ^ t^ .

In Lower Florida Wilds. G. P. Put-
nam Sons.
1923 Out of Doors in Florida. E. B.
Douglas Co., Miami.
Shreve, Forrest

Map of the Vegetation of the U. b.
Geographical Review, 3 pp.
119, 125. February, 1917.

John K. .

Report on Exploration in irop-
ical Florida. Jotir. N. Y.
Bat. Gar., 5: 49-55, 157-104.
1904.
Exploration of Southern
Florida. Jour. N. i . Bot.
Gar., 8: 23-28. 1907.
1909 Exploration in the Everglades.

Small,
1904

1907

1910 Rc^jort on Jiotanical Explora-
tion in Andro.s, Jiahaiiius.
./our. A. 1'. Jiol. Gar., 11:
88-101. 1910. (IncliKlcd on
account of relation of flora of
Andros to that of Florida.)

I'lxploration in Southern Flor-
ida. Juur. N. y. Hut. Gar.,
12: 147-157. 1911.

Report on Exijloration on Tron-
ical Florida. Jour. N. Y.
Bot. Gar.. 14: 81-80. 1913.

191 1
1913
1914

1916
1916
1916
1917

1917

1918

1918

1918

1918

1919

1919

1919.

1920

1920

the EverRlades
Florida Keys.
Bot. Gar., 15:

Exploration in

and on the

Jour. N. Y.

69-79. 1914.
Exploration in Southern Flor-
ida in 1915. Jour. N. Y. Bot.

Gar., 17: 37-45. 1916.
Royal Palm Hammock. Jour.

N. Y. Bot. Gar., 17: 165-172.

1916.
A Cruise to the Cape Sable

Region of Florida. Jour. N.

Y. Bot. Gar. ,17: 189-202. 1916.
Botanical Exploration in South-
ern Florida in 1916. Jour.

N. Y. Bot. Gar., 18: 98-111.

1917.
The Tree Cacti of the Florida

Keys. Jour. N. Y. Bot. Gar.,

18: 199-203. 1917.
Collecting Prickly Pears at

Apalachicola. Jour. N. Y.

Bot. Gar., 19: 1-6, 1918.
Ferns of Tropical Florida. Am.

Museiwi Jour., IS: 127-135.

1918.
A Winter
Florida.
Gar., 19

1920

Jour.
4&-55.

N. Y.
1909.

Bot. Gar., 10:

Collection Trip in
Jour. N. Y. Bot.
„ _ 69-77. 1918.

Botanical Explorations in Flor-
ida in 1917. Jour. X. Y.
Bot. Gar., 19: 279-290. 1918.

Narrative of a Cruise to Lake
Okeechobee. Am. Museum
Jour. 18: 684-700. 1919.

The Prickly Pears of Florida.
Jour. N. Y. Bot. Gar., 20:
21-39. 1919.
Coastwise Dunes and Lagoons.
Jour. N. Y. Bot. Gar., 20:
no. 237. October, 1919.

Of Grottoes and Ancient Dunes.
Jour. N. Y. Bot. Gar., 21:
25-38. February and March,
1920. . ,„

Cypress and Population m 1-lor-
"ida (The Relation of Pliyto-
geograpliy to the Drift of
PoiJulation as Shown in the
Case of Taxodiuin.) Jour.
N. Y. Bot. Gar., 21 ' ^1 ^'•.
Mav, l'."20.

The L:Uid of Imtms. Jcir. <•)
the Elisha Milrhrll Sriiulitlc
Society, 11: '-'2 104. June,
1920.

440

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

1920 In Quest of Lost Cacti. Jour.
N. Y. Bot. Gard., 21: 101-
178. September, 1920.

1920 A Botanical Excursion to the

Big Cvpress. Natural Hist.,
20: 488-500. September and
October, 1920.

1921 Reminiscences of Alvan Went-

worth Chapman. Jour. N.Y.
Bot. Gar., 22: 1-12. Feb-
ruary, 1921.

1921 Old Trails and New Discoveries.

Jour. N. Y. Bot. Gar., 22:

25-40, 49-64. February and

March, 1921.
1921 Seminole Bread. Jour. N. Y.

Bot. Gar., 22: 121-137.

1921 Historic Trails by Land and by

Water. Jour. N. Y. Bot. Gar.,
22: 193-222. November and
December, 1921.

1922 Wild Pumpkins. Jour. N. Y.

Bot. Gar., 23: 19-23. Feb-
ruary, 1922.

1922 The Buccaneer Palm. Jour.
N. Y. Bot. Gar., 23: 61-70.
March, 1922.

1922 Botanical Fountain of Youth.
Jour. N. Y. Bot. Gar., 23:
117-133, 139-155. September
and October, 1922.

1922 The Blue Stem. Sabal Minor.

Jour. N. Y. Bot. Gar., 23:
161-168. November, 1922.

1923 Land of the Question Mark.

Jour. N. Y. Bot. Gar., 23:
1-23, 25^3, 62-70. January,
February and March, 1923.

1923 The Needle Palm. Jour. N. Y.
Bot. Gar., 23: 105-114.

1923 The Cabbage tree Sabal Pal-
metto.

1923 Ferns of Tropical Florida.
Illustrated.

1923 Ferns of Royal Palm Hammock.
Illustrated.

1923 Flora of Miami.

1923 Florida Trees.

1923 Flora of the Florida Keys.

1923 Shrubs of Florida.

1923 The Cape Sable Region of
Florida.
Smith, Dr. Eugene A.

Vol. 6. Tenth Census Reports. Nat-
ural and Agricultural Fea-
tures of the Cotton Belt.
Torrey, Bradford

1894 A Florida Sketch-book. Hough-
ton, MilHin & Co.

Wright and Bishop

1915 A Biological Recognizance of
Okefinokee Swamp. II.
Snakes. Proc. Acad, of Nat.
Sci.

9. ALABAMAi

By R. M. Harper, M. S. Johnson, and
A. H. Howell

I. Physiographic Features and
Original Biota^ (M. S. J.)

TOPOGRAPHY

The northern and northeastern portion
of Alabama, comprising altogether about
two-fifths of the state, is varied, hilly,
and in places mountainous; the remain-
der is comparatively smooth coastal
plain, which becomes lower and less
hilly toward the south.

Across the north end of the state
extends the Cumberland Plateau, more
or less interrupted by rivers. Entering
from the northeast is the southern end
of the Appalachian Valley — -known here
as the Coosa Valley region, from the
principal river which drains it. In
general this region consists of parallel
ridges running in a northeast-south-
west direction, with broad valleys
between them; but in detail it is very
broken and irregular. In the Blue
Ridge, southeast of the Coosa Valley
region, is the highest mountain of the
state, Cheaha, with an elevation of
2400 ft.

The Tennessee Kiver cuts through the
Cumberland Plateau, draining part of
it in a westerly direction. The Chatta-
hoochee River, forming except in the
north the boundary between Alabama
and Georgia, drains the region near it.
The remainder of the state is drained
southwest into Mobile River and Bay
by the Tombigbee and Alabama Rivers
and their tributaries. In the northern
mountainous districts the rivers are
swift and the valleys are steep. In the
region of the coastal plain the valleys
slope more gradually, and in the south
the land is so nearly flat that the rivers
may be bordered for several miles by

1 Where there was no cooperation between the
authors their names are given in the order of receipt
of their manuscripts and the parts written by each
are indicated in the body of the text. The mamrnal
lists were corrected by A. H. Howell, and the entire
paper read by H. P. Loding.

2 1 am indebted to R. M. Harper for suggestions
and helpful criticism. — .M. S. J.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

441

swamps which are filled with water
during flood seasons.

CLIMATE

Difference in latitude, combined with
higher altitudes in the north, give a
gradation in temperature from one end
of the state to the other; but the range
of temperature, either regional or
seasonal, is not very great. The mean
for the state as a whole is G3°. The
winter mean in the north is 41°; the
summer mean in the south is 81°. The
rainfall throughout the state, except
in the immediate vicinity of the coast
where it is somewhat greater, is about
52 in. per year. In general the greatest
rainfall occurs in summer in regions of
pine forest, and in winter in regions of
hardwood forest. The distribution of
vegetation within the state seems to
correspond much more closely to soil
than to climate, however.

SOIL

Throughout the greater part of the
coastal plain the predominating soil
type is sandy loam, usually somewhat
intermixed with clay or loam. A con-
siderable part of this region is under-
laid by limestone, but the surface soil
is often sandy. The black belt (prairie)
has rich soil, formed by the weather-
ing of soft limestone, which extends
in a band about thirty mi. wide
nearly across the state just south of
the central part. North of the black
belt, the remainder of the coastal plain
is mingled clay and sandy loam, gener-
ally deficient in lime.

In the hilly country to the north, the
soil is less sandy. The soil here has
mostly been formed by the weathering
of the hard rocks of the region. As
streams cut through and expose to
weathering agencies the different layers
of rock, the soil even of a limited area
is necessarily very variable. A brief
account of the soils of separate sub-
divisions will be found in the second
part of this report.

Coniferous forests, principally of long-
leaf and shortleaf pine, occur throughout

the state wherever the soil ia poorest.
Pine forests (especially those of Iohr-
leaf pine) are subject to fires which,
feeding on fallen needles, do.stroy other
vegetation but apparently do not injure
the pines. The fires destroy the humus
in the soil and keep the soil poor in
nitrogen. Regions protected from fire
by ravines or forks of .streams, even
though in a pine forest territory u.sually
develop patches of hardwooil forest.

ORIGINAL BIOTA (m. 8. J.) (a. II. H.)

1. Vegelalional regions

Alabama can be divided, very roughly,
into a northern deciduous forest and a
southern coniferous forest area. In-
cluded within the coniferous forest area
is a prairie belt, corresponding to the
black belt already referred to under
the heading "Soil." This division into
vegetational regions is somewhat in-
definite, though, for a certain proportion
of one forest type occurs in the territory
of the other; and between the two, and
in certain local areas elsewhere, the two
types of forest grow mixed together.
Besides these principal forest types,
which themselves can be further sub-
divided (as in the second part of this
paper), are various other les.ser vegeta-
tional regions, locally distributed and
dependent on local conditions. Animal
distribution is influenced by the various
factors which affect plant distribution,
and by plant distribution itself.

a. Deciduous forest. The deciduous
forest of Alabama is primarily oak.
White oak,' post oak, red oak, black
oak, black-jack oak, chestnut oak, and
Spanish oak are most common of the
many oaks. Other trees characteristic
of deciduous forest are tulip po|)lar,
sweet gum, chestnut, beech, hickory,
and dogwood. Even in the deciduous
forest areas, though, shortleaf pine is
often more abundant than any otlu-r

one tree.

Animals. iMammals: Virginia opos-
sum {Didclphis virginiana), common,

» Scientific names of trecearc given in the second

part of this paper.

442

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

in woods, ravines, etc.; Howell mole
{Scalopus aqualicus hoicelli), burrows,
in sandy or loamy soil; Carolina short-
tailed shrew {Blarina brevicauda caro-
linensis), hollow logs and stumps,
burrows in moist soil; Florida black
bear {Ursus floridamis), probably once
everywhere, now limited to the southern
swamps ; southeastern wolf {Canis flori-
damis), once everywhere, now only in
mountain country; gray fox {Urocyon
cinereoargenteus cinereoargenteus) , in all
sections; cougar {Felts couguar), once
occurred here; bob-cat {Lijnx rufus
floridanus), mountains, swamps, and
thickets; New York weasel {Mustela
novehoracensis), scarce in mountainous
area; deer-mouse {Peroviyscus leuco-pus
leucopus) timber tracts, upland woods,
hollow logs; cotton-mouse {Peromyscus
gossypinus), timbered region of the
entire state, both in mountains and
swamps; Florida woodrat (Neotoma
floridana floridana), common south of
Tennessee River in wooded bottoms and
swamps; woodchuck or groundhog (Mar-
mota monax monax), northern part of
state, burrows under rocks or tree-
roots on steep wooded slopes; south-
western chipmunk {Tamias striatus),
northern two-thirds of state, in brush
and fallen timber on forested hillsides
and rocky slopes; gray squirrel {Sciurus
carolinensis carolinensis), mostly bot-
tomlands, also hillsides, not in pine;
Bachman fox squirrel (Sciurus niger
texianus), mountain regions, mixed
pine-hickory-oak forest, dry uplands;
southeastern flying-squirrel (Glaucomys
volans saturatus), in all sections, hollow
trees and stumps; eastern cottontail
rabbit {Sylvilagus floridanus mallurus),
common, in open woodland; New Eng-
land cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus tran-
sitionalis), mountain slopes and foot-
hills; Virginia deer (Odocoileus vir-
ginianus virginianus) , once common
here, now confined to big swamps and
rough mountains; large brown bat
(Eptesicus ftiscus fiiscus), moderately
common in north, spends winters in
caves; red bat (Nycipris borealis bore-
alis), common, migratory, sometimes

winters in caves or hollow trees; south-
eastern pipistrelle bat (Pipislrellus
subflavus subflavus), common in north,
winters in caves ; evening bat (Nycticeius
humeralis), abundant, in winter prob-
ably hibernates; silver-haired bat
(Lasioni/cieris noctivagans), migrant, re-
sorts to hollow trees in day time; mahog-
any bat (Nycteris seminola), common in
southern half of state, a tree-dwelling
species; hoary bat (Nycteris cinerea),
rare migrant, rests in hollow trees;
LeConte big-eared bat (Corynorhinus
ynacrods), local, spends day in caves;
LeConte free-tailed bat (Tadarida cyno-
cephala) local in southern half, lives
about buildings.

Birds (A. H. H.). Ruffed grouse, wild
turkey, Cooper's hawk, sharp-shinned
hawk, red-tailed hawk, red-shouldered
hawk, broad-winged hawk, great horned
owl, long-eared owl, hairy woodpecker,
downy woodpecker, pileated wood-
pecker, red-bellied woodpecker, flicker,
chuck-will's-widow, whip-poor-will, ruby-
throated hummingbird, crested fly-
catcher, wood pewee, blue jay, crow,
blue grosbeak, indigo bunting, painted
bunting, red-eyed vireo, yellow-throated
vireo, black and white warbler, worm-
eating warbler, parula warbler, cerulean
warbler, over-bird, Louisiana water-
thrush, Kentucky warbler, hooded warb-
ler, redstart, Carolina wren, white-
breasted nuthatch, tufted titmouse,
Carolina chickadee, blue-gray gnat-
catcher, wood thrush.

Reptiles. (Only more common and
characteristic reptiles are listed.) Cha-
meleon (Anolis carolinensis), in large
bushes and small trees; glass snake
(Ophisa^irus veniralis), burrowing;
ground lizard (Leiolopisma later ale),
under loose bark of fallen trees; scorpion
(Eumeces fasciatus) under loose bark
and under logs; red-bellied snake (Store-
ria occipitomaculata) , under loose stones;
worm snake (Carphophis amoena), bur-
rowing, or in rotten tree-trunks or
vegetation; gray rat snake (Elaphe
obsoleta confinis), sometimes in trees;
green snake (Opheodrys aesiivus), in
bushes and low trees; ring-necked snake

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

443

{Diadophis punctalus punciatus), under
rocks and loose bark of fallen trees;
king snake {Lampropeltis gelulus), dry-
patches of timber; hog-nosed snake
{Heterodon contcrlrix) ; copperhead snake
(Agkistrodon mokasen), poisonous, not
found in lowlands; timber rattlesnake
{Crotalus Jiorridus), poisonous, in moun-
tains and other inaccessible regions,
was once generally distributed.

h. Coniferous forest. The coniferous
forest is chiefly pine. In the more
typical portions of this region there
may be considerable areas of almost
pure stand of longleaf pine, growing in
open park-like fashion on rather dry
sandy soil. Elsewhere, two species of
shortleaf pine together with the long-
leaf pine contribute chiefly to the for-
mation of the coniferous forest. Other
evergreen and deciduous trees included
in the region of coniferous forest are
mostly confined to low wet land or
stream borders, and hence cannot be
considered a component part of the
coniferous forest itself.

Animals. Mammals. Howell mole,
sandy or loamy soil; southeastern wolf,
once here; gray fox, in all sections;
deer mouse, in mixed conifer and decidu-
ous forest; pine mouse (Pilymys pineto-
rum pinetorum), less common here than
in meadows and bottomland; Alabama
pocket-gopher {Geomijs tuza mobilensis),
called "salamander," occurs in southern
Alabama east of Tombigbee River,
common in sandy pine flats or mixed
timber, burrows extensively in poor
uncultivated land ; Carolina fox squirrel
(Sciiirus niger niger), limited to dr\'
pine forest, in southeast corner of state;
Bachman fox squirrel, intergrades with
typical 7iiger and ranges over rest of
state; southeastern flying squirrel, in
all sections, in hollow trees and stumps;
eastern cottontail rabbit, common in
thickets; Virginia deer, once here; red
bat, common, in trees in summer, some-
times in caves in winter; evening bat,
abundant, hibernates in winter.

Birds (A. H. H.). Mourning dove,
great horned owl, red-cockaded wood-
pecker, chuck-will's-widow, blue jay.

crow, fish crow, liachman sparrow,
summer tanagcr, yellow-throated warb-
ler, black-throated green warbler, pine
warbler, brown-headed nutliatch.

Reptiles. Chameleon; common swift
(Sceloporus undulalus), dry sandy pine-
lands, or on fallen pines; spiny swift
{Sceloporus spinosus floridamis) ; race
runner {Cncmidophorns sexlinealus),
common, dry sandy places; scorpion,
in dry pine woods; ground lizard; black
snake {Coluber constrictor), generally
abundant, dry open situations; coach-
whip snake (C. flagellum flagcllum),
habits similar to black snake; gray rat
snake; corn snake {Elaphe guttata),
found under bark of dead pine trees in
spring; DeKay's snake {Storeria dekayi),
nocturnal, beneath logs and stones;
green snake; ring-necked snake; scarlet
king snake {Lampropeltis clapsoides
elapsoides), burrowing, or under loose
bark of dead pine trees; king snake;
hog-nosed snake, dry sandy places;
copperhead snake; pigmy rattlesnake
{Sislriirus iniliarius), dry sandy areas,
cut-over pineland; timber rattlesnake.

C. Prairie. The prairie belt is a
strip 35 to 45 mi. wide extending across
Alabama just south of the central part
(between Sumter and Russell counties).
It corresponds with, and is no doubt
caused bj'^, the black belt of rich lime-
stone-marl soil which has already been
mentioned. The prairie belt contains,
besides considerable amounts of prairie
or treeless plain, a certain proportion
of swamp, canebrake, and even of
deciduous and conifer wooded patches —
all of which are not unlike corresponding
regions elsewhere in the state. The
prairie region, being treeless and espe-
cially fertile, was most easily available
for cultivation. It is mostly prairie
animals which are found in cultivated
fields, not only in the original prairie
belt but in other parts of the state.
Land which has been cultivated ami
later abandoned is more favorable for
animal life than land actually under
cultivation.

Animals. .Maminal."i. SouthiMstern
wolf, formerly; gray fo.\; ea-storn ctlon-

444

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

tail rabbit; Florida wood rat, in osage-
orange hedges; Alabama pocket gopher;
swamp rice rat {Oryzomys palustris
palusiris), in sloughs; cotton rat {Siqmo-
don hispidus hispidus); harvest-mouse
{Reilhrodonlomys); muskrat {Ondatra
zibethica zihclhica), in streams; AUe-
ghenian spotted skunk {Spilogale puto-
rius); Virginia deer, formeily.

Birds (A. H. H.). Killdeer, bob-
white, mourning dove, ground dove,
nighthawk, meadowlark, lark sparrow,
field sparrow, dickcissel, loggerhead
shrike, mockingbird.

Reptiles. Box turtle (Terrapene Caro-
lina Carolina); glass snake; black snake;
coachwhip snake; corn snake.

2. Local areas

A . Swamp and marsh. Byfar the most
conspicuous and important of the local
areas in the state is a series of wet
situations which may be designated
collectively as swamp. Of these situa-
tions the following may be distinguished:
moist bottomlands, wooded swamps,
canebrake, rivers and streams, and salt
marshes. Characteristic trees of moist
bottomland are water oak, willow oak,
swamp chestnut oak, elm, mulberry,
poplar, ironwood, and scaly-bark hick-
ory. Characteristic trees of wooded
swamps are white bay, cypress, water
oak, black gum, swamp maple, red
maple, water hickory, water ash, white
cedar, and swamp cottonwood. These
trees do not all occur together, how-
ever, for certain ones as the ba}', swamp
maple, and white cedar, grow in peaty
swamps bordering small streams, where
there is no great fluctuation in water
level; and certain other trees, as the
red maple, water hickory, water ash,
and swamp cottonwood, are found in
swamps bordering larger rivers, where
they are subject to considerable seasonal
fluctuations in the water level. The
canebrake is made up of a dense growth
of bamboo-like grasses (Arundinaria) ,
which reach a height of 15 to 30 ft.
Cane is abundant along streams on low
land which is submerged a part of the
year. Formerly a smaller switch cane

occurred extensively over much of the
western part of the prairie belt. Trees
occurring chiefly along rivers and
streams are silver maple, sycamoie,
birch, willow, cottonwood, and catalpa.
In the salt marshes along the coast
there are no trees, the dominant vegeta-
tion being reed-like grasses and large
rushes.

Animals. Mammals. Virginia opos-
sum, swampy bottom lands; Carolina
short-tailed shrew, moist or peaty soil,
rotten logs; Florida black bear; south-
eastern wolf, formerly, now extermi-
nated here; gray fox, in all sections;
raccoon (Procyon lotor lotor), timbered
swamps, river bottoms, salt marshes;
mink (Mustela vison mink), swamps,
marshes, streams; Alabama weasel
{Mustela peninsvlae olivacea), scarce
throughout the state in timbered swamps
and on mountain slopes, dens under
roots of trees and in hollow stumps;
otter {Lutra canadensis canadensis),
sparingly distributed, swamps, streams,
ponds; cougar, once here, perhaps some
still remain; bob-cat, swamps, brushy
thickets, canebrake; cotton - mouse,
heavy timbered swamps of river bot-
toms in all parts of state; southern
golden mouse {Peromyscus nuttalli aure-
olus), swampy woodland, canebrake;
swamp rice rat, marshy areas in fields,
wooded swamps, coastal salt marshes;
cotton rat, abundant in marshes; Florida
wood rat, wooded bottoms or swamps;
pine mouse, sometimes in bottomland
timber; muskrat, streams and ponds,
except in south of state; Louisiana
muskrat {Ondatra rivalicia) marshes
near coast, west of Mobile Bay; south-
western chipmunk, most of state, moist
bottomland woods, timbered swamps;
gray squirrel, moist bottomlands and
swamps, nut-bearing trees; bayou graj'
squirrel {Sciurus carolinensis fuligino-
sus), confined to shores of bayous and
deep cypress swamps; southeastern
flying squirrel, hollow trees and stumps;
beaver {Castor canadensis carolinensis),
formerly in streams throughout state,
now very local; eastern cottontail
rabbit, occasionally in swampy bottoms;

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

445

swamp rabbit {Sylvilagus aqualicus
aquaticus), known as "cane-cutter,"
abundant over lowlands of state except
southeast, found in all river swamps,
and ranges up small streams; coast
swamp rabbit {Sylvilagus aquaticus
litloralis), coast west of Mobile Bay;
marsh rabbit {Sylvilagus palustris palus-
tris), south counties, east of Mobile
Bay, salt marshes, swamps, ponds, and
streams in timber; Virginia deer, com-
mon in big swamps at head of Mobile Bay.

Birds (A. H. H.). Snake-bird, cor-
morant, hooded merganser, wood duck,
least bittern, great blue heron, little
blue heron, green heron, black-crowned
night heron, yellow-crowned night
heron, king rail, Louisiana clapper rail,
purple gallinule, Florida gallinule, wood-
cock, barred owl, kingfisher, Acadian
flycatcher, red-winged blackbird, boat-
tailed grackle, Alabama seaside sparrow,
white-eyed vireo, prothonotary warbler,
Swainson warbler, Bachman warbler,
Marian marsh wren.

Reptiles. Common snapping turtle
{Chelydra serpentina), inhabits slow-
running muddy rivers and streams,
ponds and marshes; common mud turtle
{Kinosternon subruhrum); box turtles
{Terrapene Carolina and T. major);
Alabama terrapin {Pseudemys alabamen-
sis), tends to frequent salt marshes;
Mobile terrapin {Pseudemys mobilensis) ;
diamond-back terrapin {Malaclemys
pileata), requires salt water, found in
salt marshes, salt and brackish water;
southern soft-shell turtle {Amyda ferox) ;
alligator {Alligator mississippiensis) ,
rivers and swamps of coastal plain;
scorpion; ribbon snake {Thamnophis
sauritus), borders of streams and lakes
in mountainous regions; Ostensacken's
snake {T. sackenii); common garter
snake {T. sirtalis), along streams and
brooks; green water snake {Matrix
cyclopion); diamond-back water snake
(iV. rhombifera) ; striped water snake
{N. rigida); banded water snake (A^.
sipedon fasciata); ground snake {Pota-
mophis striatulus) ; ring-necked snake;
king-snake, meadows and cultivated
fields; horn snake {Farancia abacura),

burrowing, in swampy Btretches of
timber; water moccasin {Agkistrodon
piscivorus), poisonous, ciilldl "cotton-
mouth," abuiiihitit in swamps adjoining
rivers; diamond-back rattler {Crolalus
adamanteus), poisonous, rare.

b. Forest border. Much of the locally
distributed animal life yet to be con-
sidered can be grouped as belonging to a
"forest border" habitat — that is, living
where rather narrow regions of shrubs
and thickets lie between forest and
treeless areas. Even before any land
was cleared for agriculture this tyi)eof
habitat was occasional throughout the
state, and quite considerable in the
prairie belt.

Animals. Mammals. AUeghenian
spotted skunk, borders of brushy
swamps and waste land generally, not
in wet swamps nor heavj' timber; east-
ern skunk {Mephitis nigra), den in
brush}^ thicket, rock pile, gully, pro-
tected location; old-field mouse {Pero-
myscus polionotus polionotui), weedy
hedgerows, neglected fields, edges of
open timber, in east part of state;
Merriam harvest mouse {Reithrodoulo-
mys humulis merriami), brushy borders
of cultivated land; cotton rat, weed-
grown borders of fields, brushy pastures;
deer mouse, borders of cultivated fields,
and brushy hedgerows; eastern cotton-
tail rabbit, old fields, brier patches,
brushy borders of woodland; least shrew
{Cryptotis parva), in grass, fields, and
borders of cultivated land.

Birds (A. H. H.). Bob-white, spar-
row hawk, screech owl, yellow-billed
cuckoo, red-headed woodpecker, night-
hawk, kingbird, meadowlark, orchard
oriole, Baltimore oriole, goldfinch, chip-
ping sparrow, field sparrow, Baciunan
sparrow, towhee, cartlinal, purple mar-
tin, white-eyed vireo, blue-winged warb-
ler, prairie warbler, Maryland yellow-
throat, yellow-breasted chat, mocking-
bird, catbird, brown thrasher, Bewick
wren, brown-headed nuthatch, robin,
bluebird, barn owl, |)urple grackle.

Reptiles. Reptiles listed for prairie;
also: gray rat snake, green snake,
hog-nosed snake, chameleon.

446

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

C. Sandy Beach. Animals. Mammals.
Florida skunk {Mephitis elongata), coast
region, logs and driftwood on shore;
white-fronted beach mouse {Peromyscus
polionotus albifrons), abundant among
drifting sand dunes, coast of Baldwin
County.

Birds (A. H. H.). Least tern, black
skimmer, willet, Cuban snowy plover,
Wilson plover.

Reptiles. Alabama terrapin; dia-
mond-back terrapin; Clark's water snake
{Natrix clarkii).

D. Rocks. Animals. Mammals. Flor-
ida wood rat, rocky bluffs or cliffs,
south of Tennessee River; Allegheny
cliff rat {Neotoma pennsylvanica), cliffs,
rock bluffs, caves, north of Tennessee
River; deer mouse, rock piles and crevi-
ces in cliffs; weasel, crevices in cliffs
or rock piles; cotton mouse {Peromyscus
gossypinus megacephalus) , rocky ledges
or bluffs; caves, crevices, rock houses;
woodchuck, burrows under boulders or
ledges; gray bat {Myotis grisescens),
caves along Tennessee River; pipistrelle
bat, caves in winter; large brown bat,
sometimes caves in winter.

Birds (A. H. H.). Phoebe, raven,
cliff swallow, rough-winged swallow.

Reptiles. Worm snake, under rocks;
copperhead snake; timber rattlesnake,
hibernates in recesses of rocky ledges.

ALABAMA MOLLUSCA (fKANK C. BAKEr)

No state in the Union has a more
varied or abundant fauna of moUusks
than Alabama. The fresh water fauna
may be divided into three divisions,
the Tennessee drainage region on the
north, the Gulf drainage area on the
southeast, and the drainage of the
Alabama River which occupies nearly
the whole of the state. Of the 533
species of naiades found in America,
411 are to be found in the three drainage
areas mentioned, and over 300 are found
in Alabama, 91 of which are restricted
to the waters of that state. The family
Pleuroceridae or river snails number
some 500 species, 80% of which are
found in the drainage areas mentioned
and a large majority are found in Ala-

bama. This state may be said to be
the center of distribution for these
families. The Amnicolidae are equally
well developed, several species, partic-
ularly of Somatogyrus, being peculiar
to the state. Viviparidae is abundant
in both species and individuals.
Sphaeriidae, Lymnaea, Planorbis and
Ancylidae are less abundant in species
than in the north; but Physa, of the
fresh water pulmonates, is more largely
developed than northward. It is prob-
able that more than a thousand species
of fresh water moUusks may be found
in the confines of Alabama, this being
the largest number from any other
state. It is classic ground, giving
material for the labors of Say, Lea,
Conrad, Tryon, Lewis, Ortmann,
Walker, and other students. Many
species have doubtless been extermi-
nated by the building of large dams on
the Coosa and Tennessee Rivers in re-
cent years.

The state also contains a diversified
land snail fauna, though this is not as
well developed as is the fresh water
fauna. Polygyra, Gastrodonta, Vitrea,
Omphalina, Zonitoides, Pyramidula, and
Philomycus are well represented; several
other genera are represented by one or
more species. The development of the
snail fauna is greatest in the moun-
tainous districts where there is con-
siderable diversification as regards en-
vironmental factors.

II. Present Biota and Areas

Available for Study

(R. M. H.)

In the following pages the regions
numbered 1 to 7 belong to the rocky
uplands or hill country, and the remain-
der to the coastal plain. In regions 1
to 9, and 11 to 14 the forests are compar-
atively dense, and the native herbs are
relatively inconspicuous and constitute
only a small fraction of the total bulk
of vegetation. Most of the other regions
have open pine forests and an abundant
and varied shrubby and herbaceous
vegetation, the most abundant species
of which will be listed.

NATURAL AllEAS AND HIOGION'S

117

Soil surveys of most of the counties have
been published by the United States
Bureau of Soils. The United States Geo-
logical Survey has published topographic
maps of most parts of Alabama north of
Montgomery and east of Tuscaloosa
(including all the mountains), and some
of the later ones indicate woodland
by green overprint.

Before listing the dominant plants
of each region it will be worth while to
point out a few species that are more
abundant in Alabama than elsewhere,
including a few that are endemic or
nearly so :

Small trees: Magnolia macrophylla.

Shrubs : Illicium Floridanum, Hydran-
gea quercifolia, Neviusia Alahamensis,
Croton Alabamensis, Aesculus parviflora.

Herbs: Trichomanes Petersii, Luziola
Alabamensis, Carex picta, harperella
fiuvialilis, HymenocaUis coronaria, Hex-
aslylis speciosa.

The dominant plants will be divided
into large trees (a foot or more in diam-
eter), small trees, shrubs and woody
vines, and (vascular) herbs, and ar-
ranged as nearly as possible in order of
abundance. All bryophytes and thal-
lophytes are omitted. In the case of
genera represented by only one species
in the eastern United States the specific
name is usually omitted.

1. TJie barrens or Highland Rim* is
chiefly north of the Tennessee River,
and is more extensive in Tennessee. It
is a comparatively level region, except
in the vicinity of streams, some of which
have cut rather deep and narrow valleys.
The soil is mainly a grayish or yellowish
silt loam of medium fertility, with
angular chert fragments scattered

* The much discussed Muscle Shoals is near the
sout hern edge of this region. There arc rocky shoals
on the Tennessee River most of the way from
Decatur to Florence, but the principal portion is in
Lauderdale County, where the river drops 85 ft. in
15 mi. and is about 1 mi. wide and was dotted with
wooded islets. The place was doubtless named
originallv about 100 vears ago from the abundance
of mussel shells (and the obsolete spelling muscle
is still used for the shoals by most people), which
have been collected there by various conchologists
who however seem to have published no special
account of the place. The vegetation has never
been studied, and the opportunities for <lomg so
were destroyed by the completion of the W Hson
Dam in 1924. Florence and Sheffield, cities ot
several thousand inhabitants, arc close to loot 01
shoals on opposite sides of river.

tiirough it. The upljinii forcsls are
rather monotonous and unintorcslint^,
and made up of widely distribute. 1
species. A few lierlw more clmrjic-
tcristic of tlie coastal plain, hucIi aa Kri-
anlhus slriclus, Iti/nchoHpora corniculala,
Cyperus pseufiuvcyelus, Carcx glaun- -
cens, Juncus scirpoidea, Eriingium pr,, -
Iralum and Hydrocotylc vcrlicillula, arc
found in shallow jmnds north of .Vthen.s,
where the pines are most abundant.
Near streams, especially on bluffs of
flinty limestone, there is a much greater
variety, and some very interesting
plants, including a large number of
spring flowers. A few woody plants
chiefly confined to the coastal plain,
such as bald cypress (Taxodium din-
tichum), planertree (Plancra aqualica),
Brunnichia, and swamp privet (Adclin
acuminata), extend up the Tennessee
River a little way into this region.

The commonest trees are : Large trees :
Red oak {Quercus falcala)^ white oak
(Q. alba), loblolly pine (Pinus Taeda),
sweet gum (Liquidamhar), beech
(Fagiis), tulip poplar (Liriodendron),
post oak {Quercus slellata), hickory
{Gary a alba), red cedar (Junipcrus
virginiana), shortleaf pine {Pinun
echinata), chestnut {Castanea denlala),
black gum {Myssa sylvatica).

Small trees: Dogwood (Cornus flor-
ida), black willow {Snlix nigra), iron-
wood {Carpinus caroliniana).

Tri Cities Park. \ few hundred acres
on the south side of the Tennessee River
is still in excellent condition except for
having a few squatters' cabins near its
edges, and is a very good example of
the original forest. East of Shellield.

2. The Tennessee Valley proper lies
on both sides of the river, and is ciiarac-
terized in its low and level |iortions by
fertile red clayey soils derived from
limestone. At the southern and eastern
borders of the valley, where it passes
into the platoati region, the slopes are
composed of nearly i)uri' hard limestone,
with very little soil. Tiiere are several
limestone springs and caves, with more
or less interesting fauna. The most
noted cave, to zoologists, is Xickajack,
at the northeastern corner of the state.
(Its entrance is in Tennessee.)

The level red valley lands are mostly
under cultivation and have been for a
long time, and the present forests in the
lowlands are chiefly confined to the
poorer anil wetter spots. Little Moun-
tain, a sandstone out crop, and the rough
limestone slopes arc pretty well woo.lod.
though tlie lu'st timber, esneeially red
cedar, has been cut out. The following
list of trees covers both th«- -"■' l"'!-^

448

NATUEALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

and the limestone slopes, but not Little

Mountain.

Larger trees: Red cedar, red oak,
sweet gum, willow oak Qi.iTcus Phelios),
scalv-bark hickor%' Hicoria ovata),
beech, shon-life pine {Pinus Faela),
mostly second growth, sycamore {Plat-
anus occideTitalis) , chinquapin oak {Quer-
eus Ifuhlertbergii}. white oak (Quercus
alba, Q. Schneckii), post oak (Q.
sUllata), water oak Q. Xigraj, walnut
{Juglan^ niijra^', American elm {Ulmus
americana . winged elm ((7. alaia),
hackberry Cdtis occiderUalis), tulip
poplar. iiri^eTj<iron), black gum, white
ash . :? americana.

Sn_. . -rrs: dogwood, black willow,
redbud [Cercis canaden-ris) , ironwood,
chittamwood or smoketree [Rhus cotin-
oides , mulberry (ilorus rubra).

On the Hmestone slopes are quite a
number of rare and interesting plants,
which are likely to remain for a long
time, on account of the impossibility of
cultivating such areas. Among the
many notc^ ' '- : ' be men-

tioned £€ar-. . Cotinus,

Fra-iera and Adeiia iigusirina.'

3. The plateau region, a continuation
of the Cumberland plateau of Tennessee.
i- ' . - - horizontal strata of

; _^ -er poor sandy loam

soils, li is several hundred feet higher
than most of the neighboring limestone
valleys, the highest elevation being
about iSoO ft., on Lookout Mountain
near the Georgia line. Little Moxin-
tain, in the Tennessee Valley, is an
outlier of this plateau. The uplands are
undulating to moderately hilly, and
some of the streams have cut very pic-
turesque gorges, especially near the
points where they descend into the
limestone valleys. The streams are
comparatively clear most of the time.
The establishment of a national forest
in the western part or this region prom-
ises to preserve a considerable portion,
and some extensions of it are con-
templated.

The plateau section is a mixed pine
and oak area in which the following
trees are important:

Large trees: Shortleaf pine, white
oak, scrub or spruce pine Pinus vi^gin-
ianaj, chestnut, oak (Quercui montana),
red oak. Spanish oak (Q. coccinea), post
r ' :k oak {Querent telutina), and

.Sl- "aber tree ' 'a

macT.^. . 1 . _rwood ^Ox. ^m

arboreum), holly {Ilex opaca).

s In the bottoms of the Tennessee Eiver opposte
Deeatnr are a. few plants more coromon in the
eooBtal plain, nit a3 .Vjf«« ■waflora and DtcrAcm
9erticin«tut.

The proportion of evergreens is
greatest eastward, where the rocks are
more metamorphosed and the summers
a little wetter than in the western por-
tion. The upland forests are rather
monotonous, but there are some very
interesting plants along streams, par-
ticularly in rocky places. A stirpris-
ingly large number of species chiefly
confined to the coastal plain are found
in the eastern portion, among them
Oromium, Smilax laurifolia, Magnolia
glauca, Sarracenia flora (or a variety of
it), Polygala nana, Sophronanihe pilosa,
Utricularia stibulata, Chondrophora vir-
gata. A number of species more or
less common here are rare or unknown
in other parts of Alabama.

Lookout Mountain Region. The region
is thinly settled and not well provided
with railroads. Except p>ossibly in
midsummer, the naturalist who wishes
to explore the remoter parts of it would
do well to arrange to have some resident
accompany him for protection against
moonshiners.

Little River falls and gorge, on Look-
out Mountain (Proposed; sandstone
cliffs. Noteworthy for number of rare
plants along river just above the falls,
among them Rhododendron Catavcbien-se,
Sarracenia, flata oreophila, Harperella
fluviatilis, Chondrophora virgata, and
HeliarUhus longifoUu-?. Threatened by
waterpower projects.

In Cherokee and DeKalb counties,
Alabama. See Torre^a, 6: 114: 14: 1-54:
Xatural History, 10 : 200. 9 mi. S.E. Fort
Pavne I'countv seat of DeKalb Count v\
3 mi. W. of Blanche. T. A. & G. R. R.,
Cno hotel accommodations j. Xoccalula
Falls, with a sheer drop of about 90 ft.,
is very accessible, being a few miles
north of Gadsden. DeSoto Falls on
Little River, 3 mi. S.E. of Valley Head.

4. The ba-rin region, or Warrior.
Cahaba and Coosa coal fields, consists
of three distinct areas separated by
Umestone valleys. It merges into the
preceding region (Cumberland Plateau
Region), but differs from it principally
in being lower and having more shaly
rocks, larger and muddier streams, and
somewhat richer soils.

The commonest trees are: Loblolly
pine, scrub pine, shortleaf pine, long-
leaf pine (P.pcdustris), white oak. beech,
red oak, sweet gum. red maple (Acer
ruhrumj, poplar, post oak, and
chestnut oak. With an understory of
small trees: Dogwood, black willow,
hop hornbeam ^Ostrya virginiana), iron-
wood, largeleaf magnolia, holly, and
southern sugar maple (Acer leucoderme).

Warrior River bluffs. There is a re-
markable assemblage of interesting

NATURAL AREAS AXD REGIONS

449

plants, some of them

garded as calciphile?. =

northern or souther:- and some

chiefly- confined to -^..._ ^, on bluffs

along the Warrior River a few miles

above T - -i. See Jour. Eluka

Mitchell .- ..37: 153-160. 1922.

The largest number of species there

bloom early in April. On rocky shoals

in the river near by were formerlv

Hymenocallii : ^

local species.

gradually obliieratea uy

and dams to assist nav.__... ^ ... ...

last 2-5 or 30 years, and there are none
left now within 50 mi. of the fall line
at Tuscaloosa. (.See Torre^a. 14: 14*^1>^.
1914. i The moUuscan

shoals was of course pr_.. . . .

out at the same time.

Eight Acre Rock, a few miles above
Tuscaloosa is another interesTine SDOt
in the same co^Jinry, an : ^
white sandstone with sev-
plants on it. such as L
inum terc''- " •■ , ^ ' . ..i, ■. i .. — ...
and Crot . a few miles

northeast oi \aiicc.

5. The Coosa Valley region is the
southwestern extremity of the great
Appalachian Valley, which extends with
some modifications all the way to Ver-
mont. It embraces a cor.-'
ety of geology, soil, i ,
vegetation, in narrow longitudinai oeits.
The rocks are mostly limestone, shale.
chert and sandstone, the first two
usually making valleys and : '

ridges. The soil is above -
in fertility, and a good deal of it ha?
been under cultivation for several gen-
erations. Much of the pine, especially
longleaf, has ■ -. and a little of

it has been tur_ - recent ye?.rs.

The commonest trees are as :
Large trees: Loblolly pine, 1. :-_-.-:
pine, shortleaf pine, sweet gum. post
oak. red oak, black-; ' : ' " " -
landica) willow oak. '
pine, white oak, water oaK, rea mapic,
cedar.

Small trees : Dogwood, black willow,
sweet bay ^- " -Jini'arw', iron-

wood, and ho;

The most interesiiui; plants ar
on limestone outcrops, such as
Alabamensis near the south end of the
valley in Bibb County. There are a
few si)ecies more characteristic of the
coastal plain, such as -

(nearly throughout . -^ . -
Shelbv Countv. and Virginia cr.
( Wood ---•-■•--•-■■ T \ spikerus
charts : eak rush

spora axiUai'i<!:, pipewort (,£----:..-.

.1

-a

n

on sunny slopes, u-

are

The

-t

f

n

rel map.e. :,

mockernut ...■. • r.

the small trees .." . i.

with .
: of the

L : .- ..... ., :...v.. . .a a few

hours' walk, and others are more acces-
- ' ' from r "" ■ - • ^^

ver, it p

out at leas:

7. The P , - ex-
tends northeastward to Pennsylvania.
: - ' -.aracterized by r — " ' - r- " d

orvst-illine .v

loam, stony loam, slate loam, and

-'■•■ loam. The forests hav-^ t--^!!

i for fuel and other c

"est tref^s sre I'^r^sleaf

i

pme. .
sweet gu:... : .
oak. post oak

nut
D

,..,.. ..- .....e of special interrst in
this reffion. except a few -e

.1

ocaHis

450

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

as known, is menaced in the same
manner.

8. The central shortleaf pine hell is the
innermost division of the coastal plain.
It is characterized by noncalcareous
clayey and sandy strata of Cretaceous
age, moderately hilly topography, with
more swamp than in any of the highland
regions, and soils classed as fine sandy
loam, sandy loam and gravelly sandy
loam. Lumbering operations near all
the railroads and numerous logging
roads have considerably reduced the
stand of the various pines.

There is a considerable variety of
trees, but most of them are of common
and widely distributed species, such as:
loblolly pine, shortleaf pine, longleaf
pine, sweetgum, tulip poplar, iDeech, red
maple, white oak, water oak, red oak,
post oak, black-jack oak, black gum,
swamp chestnut oak {Quercus Mich-
auxii), laurel oak, sweet bay, (some-
times a large tree) black willow, dog-
wood, holly and Magnolia macrophiilla.

There is not much of botanical in-
terest in this region, except to one
approaching it from farther inland and
meeting such coastal plain types as
cypress, dwarf palmetto (Sabal glabra),
Myrica cerifera and Planera for the first
time.

9. The central longleaf pine hills are
almost surrounded by the shortleaf
pine belt, and might be regarded as an
extreme phase of it, with rougher
topography and poorer soils. Many of
the hills are capped with ferruginous
sandstone and their slopes strewn with
quartz pebbles. The prevailing soil
types are sandy loam, gravelly sandy
loam, gravelly loam, loamy sand, and
fine sandy loam.

Probably not one-tenth of the area is
cultivated, but the longleaf pine, which
originally made up something like half
the forest, has been pretty thoroughly
exploited and some of it turpentined.
The trees are about as in the shortleaf
pine belt except that the longleaf pine is
most abundant, and there are more small
oaks (Q. Marylandica, Q.Catesbaei, Q.
Margaretta).

The occurrence of chestnut oak so far
south is interesting, but more note-
worthy is the close resemblance of
some parts of this region to the southern
pine hills (region 16). In Chilton and
Autauga counties there are some sandy
bogs, many of them visible from the
Mobile & Ohio R. R., and easily exam-
ined in a half-day's walk between sta-
tions. These contain a number of
pine-barren bog plants.

The "salamander," (Geomys tuza
mo6i7ensis), reaches practically its north'

ern limit in this region. Its "hills"
are nearly always in evidence in the
central part of Autauga County. Sum-
mer is probably the best time to find
plants in bloom.

10. The "black belt," or cane-brake
region as it is sometimes called, coin-
cides pretty closely with the area of
one of the Cretaceous formations, the
Selma Chalk. That is an argillaceous
limestone which weathers into very fer-
tile soil, but is covered in many places
with sand and clay of later age. The
topography is undulating, seldom hilly,
and small streams are comparatively
scarce, not because of any subterranean
drainage, but because the typical soil
is so impervious that water runs off soon
after a rain. Over half the soil is
classed as clay, and next in importance
are fine sandy loam and loam. As in
the northern part of the state, but un-
like most of the coastal plain, winter
and spring are the rainy seasons.

The forests chiefly confined to the
sandy areas, river-banks, and creek-
bottoms. The commonest trees at the
present time are:

Large trees: loblolly pine (mostly
eastward), sweet gum, post oak, short-
leaf pine, longleaf pine, red oak, hack-
berry, willow oak, red cedar, cottonwood
{Popidus deltoides), winged elm, white
ash, scaly-bark hickory, mockernut hick-
ory, sycamore, white oak, water oak,
beech, cypress, Taxodium distichum,
swamp chestnut oak.

Small trees: black willow, dogwood,
black-jack oak, ironwood, mulberry,
redbud.

The remnants of natural prairie are
small and scattered pretty well over
the region; they may be recognized by
the presence of such herbs as bluestem
(Andropogon furcatus) prairie clover
{Petalostemun purpureum). Polytaenia
Nuttallii, Asclepiodora viridis. Verbena
angustifolia, compass plant, (Silphium
laciniatum) , purple cone flower [Brau-
neria pallida). Aster oblongifolius, Rud-
beckia amplexicaulis, Lepachys pinjiata
and Mesadenia tuberosa. Hay fields and
pastures often contain some of these
same species, together with others
known to have been introduced but
very characteristic of this region at
present, such as Johnson grass {Sorghum
Halepense), "primrose" {Hartmannia
speciosa) , {Monarda citriodora) , and Gail-
lardia pulchella. On bare chalk out-
crops there are many red cedars and
some interesting shrulDS and herbs, such
as Arenaria patula, Rosa seligera, Ane-
mone decapetala, Rhamnus Caroliniana,
Cornus asperifolia, Houstonia angus i-
folia, Sabbatia angularis.

NATURAL AREAS Ai\D REGIONS

451

Pecan {Carya illinoensis) and C.
myrislicaeformis are said to be native
in a small area near Demopolis (see
Mohr's Plant Life of Alabama).

The Southern Railway from Selma to
Demopolis passes through the center
of the area. The greatest display of
prairie flowers is probably in early June.

11. The Chimnennuggee Ridge or blue
marl region, confined to Alabama and
Georgia, is of nearly the same geological
age as the black belt, but less fertile,
more sandy, and better watered, per-
haps partly on account of having more
rain in summer. Some of the creeks
and rivers flow in gorges 10 to 50 ft.
deep, with some interesting plants on
their shady walls. The soils are classed
as sandy loam, fine sandy loam, sand
and clay, and appear to be a little defi-
cient in iron, for quite a number of
trees that abound on ferruginous soils
in other parts of the state are rather
scarce here.

The commonest trees are about the
same as those of the "black belt," but
fewer species are represented.

There is nothing remarkable here
except the occurrence of a few trees
rare or unknown farther inland, as the
magnolia {M. grandiflora) and tyty
{Cyrilla racemiflora), and a few plants
of more northerly distribution which
have pushed southv.ard along the
shady banks of streams.

12. The post-oak flatwoods is a nar-
row belt confined to Alabama and ;Mis-
sissippi, with flattish topography and
stiff grayish clay soil, difficult to culti-
vate, and not well watered.

Probably nine-tenths of the area is
more or less wooded, but lumbering
operations have taken the best of the
pine. The commonest trees are lob-
lolly pine, shortleaf pine, sweet gum,
post oak, red oak, longleaf pine, water
oak, willow oak, black willow, ironwood,
mulberry, dogwood, and sweet bay.

There is very little of interest in this
region. The boundary between it and
the black belt is in some i)laces very
sharp, the transition being complete
within a quarter of a mile or so.

13. The southern red hill belt, shown
on the map as extending all the way
across the state, can be divided near
the middle into an eastern and western
portion, which although of about the
same age geologically, differ perceptibly
in soil, topography, climate, vegetation
and population. . ,

The western portion is characterized
by rather high ridges for the coastal
plain, some of them almost mountainmis,
with broad vallevs between them 1 he
rocks range from limestone to sandstone,

and the soils are of moderate fertility.
About half the soil is fine sandy louiii.
There is more rain in early sumtncr thiiii
in late suiniiier.

Lumbering has removed a good deal of
longleaf pine, and .some of the forest
is second growth on land formerly culti-
vated. There is a considerable variety
of trees; a few of the commonest are as
follows:

Large trees: Loblolly pine, shortleaf
pine, longleaf pine, sweet gum, spruce
pine {Pinus glabra), magnolia, beech,
poplar, white oak, water (jak, red oak,
black-jack oak.

Small trees: Black willow, sweet bay,
dogwood, ironwood, sourwood.

Oaks are relatively scarce here, the
most abundant one standing ninth in
the list of trees. About 70% of the
trees are evergreen.

There are some very interesting
places in this region. The high sand-
stone ridges, in the western ])orti(>n,
some having an altitude of perhaps (KM)
ft. and locally known as mountains,
make a belt a few miles wide parallel to
the edges of the region and passing near
Butler and Tunnel Springs. (See map in
Special Report No. 11 of the Geological
Survey of Alabama, 1920, p. 14.) They
are pretty well wooded, and are said to
still shelter some of the larger wild ani-
mals, such as bear, deer, and wild turkey.
On their shaded slopes are quite a num-
ber of more northern plants. The
mountains are crossed by two or three
railroads and the round trip from York,
Thomasville, Monroeville, or Selma can
be made in one day.

Wilcox County Prairie. In eastern
Wilcox County, a few miles east of Snow
Hill, where the soil is too thin to plow
there is some natural prairie vegetation
that is rather uni(iue. iSee Ecology, 1:
198-203. 1920.) There ought to be
some interesting land shells there, too.
Claiborne Landing. On the Alabama
River in Monroe County is one of the
most noted localities in the world for
Eocene fossil shells. There are many
other places on l)oth of the large rivers
in this region almost as interesting to
conchologists.

The eastern division of the red hills
is charactorize<l l)y broad uplands and
narrow valleys, and reddish soils below
the average in fertility, classed as sandy
loam, and line sandy loam, fine sand
and loamy sand. This region has a
little more rain in summer an<i less in
winter than i.ny previously described.

Tlie forest area decreased from about
SO' 0 in l^i'SO to oO' 0 i" 1''20. Farming
is mostly on the smooth unlands, so that
the trees of ravines and swamps are

.452

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

jelatively more abundant now than
formerly. The commonest species seem
to be as follows:

The trees are mostly those of the
western division, with some slight differ-
ences in relative abundance. Among
the smaller trees, Quercus Catesbaei, Q.
cinerea, and Osmanthus americana may
be mentioned.

Most of the plants are of common and
widely distributed species, but there are
a few which range mostly southward and
eastward, into regions with still sandier
soils and wetter summers. A very
interesting spot is the "pocosin," a few
miles east of Troy (see U. S. soil map of
Pike County), an area of practically un-
touched forest of the sandy hammock
type, about ^ mi. in diameter, unlike
anything else known in Alabama, but
not very different from some of the
hammocks of Florida. (See Bull. Torreij
Bot. Club, 41: 209-220. 1914.)

The Pea River near Elba flows through
a miniature canyon, and on its steep
wooded sides are a few plants of
interest, such as Adiantum Capillus-
Veneris, Stenanthium gramineum, Rhap-
idophyllum Hystrix, Magnolia pyr ami-
data, Ilex vomitoria, and {Kalmia
lulifoUa). Patsaliga Creek and the Co-
necuh River, near River Falls and Anda-
lusia, have rocky shoals with river weed
.{Podostemon), but these are likely to be
ruined by water-power develop.nents.

Pocosin Sand Area (available). About
3 sq. mi. of sandy soil on the east side
of Walnut Creek 100 mi. north of the
Gulf. The so-called pocosin proper
consists of about a hundred acres of
many-storied climax forest of a type
characteristic of the dry sandy soil of
the Gulf Coast. The majority of the
trees and some of the shrubs are ever-
green. Most of these are non-coniferous
and of the live oak or magnolia type.
The surrounding sand hill country is
covered with more sparse vegetation
including scrub oaks and pines as the
chief outstanding feature. The fauna
includes the raccoon, opossum, gray
fox, fox squirrel, gray squirrel, and
pocket gopher.

Located in Pike County, midway
between Troy andBrundidge. The dis-
tance between Troy and Brundidge is
approximately 10 mi. A small station
called Banks is midway between the two
by rail. Suggested by R. M. Harper.
(See Torrey Bull., 41: 209.) Compiled
by V. E. S.

14. The lime hills belt is much like the
western division of the red hills, except
for having more limestone and perhaps
more red soils. Probably at least three-
fourths of it is wooded, and there has not
been much damage from logging.

The vegetation of the lime hills in
Alabama is not very different from that
of the adjacent red hill belt.

Large trees: Longleaf pine, short-leaf
pine, sweet gum, red oak, spruce pine
(Pinus glabra), red cedar, black-jack oak,
magnolia, beech, cypress, post oak, sugar
maple (Acer floridanum) ,

Small trees: Dogwood, redbud, holly,
ironwood, and hop hornbeam.

Shrubs and vines: Dwarf palmetto,
poison ivy, sparkleberry (Batodendron),
Virginia creeper, red buckeye {Aesculus
Pavia), tyty, and {Aralia spinosa).

The commonest native herb is the
epiphytic Spanish moss {Tillandsia us-
neoides). About the half the trees are
evergreen.

Among the noteworthy plants in the
lime hills are Asplenium angustifolium,
Rhapidophyllum, Dirca, and Campanula
Americana.

In the lime hills there are mineral
springs of various kinds, some contain-
ing salt, some lime, and some sodium
carbonate, but their influence on vege-
tation has never been studied. They
are most frequent in the southeastern
corner of Choctaw County and the
southern part of Clarke, and may be
reached in a few hours' walk from Silas
and Jackson.

15. The lime-sink region is level to
undulating, with many ponds and a
few sinks and caves. The soils are pre-
vailingly sandy. Unlike most of the
regions previously described, this is
characterized by open park-like long-
leaf pine forests, carpeted with numerous
grasses and other narrow leaved herbs.
It is swept by fire every year or two,
usually in early spring, which is the
dry season. (Late summer is the rainy
season.) Most of the ponds are pretty
well filled with such water-loving trees
as cypress {Taxodium imbricarium)
black gum and May haw. There are
swamps along most of the streams, and
dense hardwood forests (hammocks)
around the few limestone outcrops.

As the soil responds readily to fertili-
zation, much of the forest has been
cleared by farmers. The wooded area
decreased from about 95% in 1880 to
50% in 1920. However, there are still
some splendid stands of virgin timber,
not even turpentined, within a few
miles of the sawmill at Lockhart, Ala.
(The city of Florala, on the state line,
a mile or two away, is a good center for
botanical excursions.)

The herbs are a conspicuous part of
the vegetation of this and most of the
remaining regions. Longleaf pine origi-
nally made up at least half of the forest
and next in importance are the following.

Large trees: Slash pine {Pinus Elli-

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

4.W

ottii), pond cypress {Taxodium im-
bricarium), loblolly pine, black ^uni,
red oak, magnolia, sweet gum, pojjlar,'
shortleaf pine, spruce pine, cypress
{Taxodium distichum) .

Longleaf pine originally made up al
least half of the forest; with it were
several other pines, cypress, oaks, ever-
green magnolia, sweet gum and tulip
poplar. As an understory are a large
number of smaller trees, of which
yaupon {Ilex mijrlifolia) and may haw
{Crataegus aestivalis) are most charac-
teristic. Shrubs and vines are impor-
tant; wire grass {Arislida stricta) is the
most abundant grass.

16. The southern pine hills (10%
virgin), or rolling wire grass country as
it is often called in Georgia, is a most
interesting region, extending with some
interruptions from eastern Georgia to
Louisiana. Its topography is flat to
moderately hilly. Nearly all the
streams are bordered by swamps five
to ten times the width of the channel,
and there are a few shallow ponds. The
soils are decidedly non-calcareous,
sandy, and below the average in fer-
tility.

The longleaf pine originally made up
about two-thirds of the forest. With it
were about the same species of trees
and shrubs and herbs as in the lime
sink region.

Herbs: Arislida stricta (wire grass),
Eriogonum tomentosum, Eriocaulon de-
cangulare, Sarracenia Drummondii
(pitcher-plant), Rhexia Alifanus, Eupa-
torium rotundifolium, Sarranccnia jlava
(pitcher-plant), Pitcheria, Campulosus
Kuhnistera pinnata, Pteris aquilina, and
hundreds of others.

Among the plants especially charac-
teristic of this region are Chamacojparis,
Myrica inodora, and Cliftonia.

The greater part of the delta is too wet
to cultivate and too near sea level to
be drained, so that farming is restricted
to its edges and upper portions. Much
of the cypress and some of the other
trees have been removed by lumbermen,
but the forests are so dense and tlie trees
grow so rapidly that they are hardly
missed.

The upper part of the delta merges
gradually into ordinary alluvial swamps,
and its most characteristic vegetation
is at the lower end, where the following
trees prevail:

Black gum {Nyssa hijlora) sweet bay,
cypress {faxodium dislichum), sweet
gum, red maple, tupelo gum, ash, black
willow and swamp cottonwood {Popidus
heterophijlla). Buttonbush iCephnlan-
thus), wax myrtle, bamboo vine, dwarf
palmetto, mistletoe, itea, and pepper

vine (AmpciopHis arhoren), htc coniinoii
slirubs and vines.

Tlicro arc coin|)ar!itively few l»crlj« in
the swamps proper, l)ut iiiore in the oi)cn
inarslics. The black giiin ktowh larKcr
and more abund.nitiy here lliaii aliiioat
anywhere else in Alal)atna. I'upuUiH
hrlcropki/Ua is practically confined to
this region as far as Alabama is con-
cerned, but it occurs also in similar
situations at the mouth of the Apala-
chicola River.

These swamps are refuges for certain
large animals, such as the bear and
alligator. They can be reached in a
few miles from any railroad station
between Jackson and Mobile, but proba-
bly more satisfactorily by hiring u
launch at Mobile.

17. The Gulf coast strip includes the
islands, dunes, marshes and shell mound.s
bordering the Gulf of Mexico and other
bodies of salt water connected with it.
On account of the copious warm sum-
mer rains the sand of the dunes is
pretty thoroughly leached, and it
appears almost as white as snow in
many places. Nearlj- all the woody
plants are evergreen.

There are practically all gradations
between trees and shrubs, so that the
following size grouping is somewhat
arbitrary.

Larger trees: Slash pine, loblolly
pine, longleaf pine, black gum. live oak
{Qucrcus virginiatia), magnolia, sand
pine {Pitius clausa), red cedar, Iiickory,
water oak, sweet gum.

Smaller trees: Live oak (Qucrcus
geminala), black jack oak, turkey oak,
Clijlonis (tyty), dogwood, holly.

Shrubs and vines: Vaupon, Ilex votni-
toria, Myrica cerifera [IJucrcus myrli-
folia), saw-palmetto {Scrcnoa scrrulata),
sparkleberry {Batodendron), French
mulberry {Callicarpa), Chrysoma pauci-
jlosculosa, bamboo vine, (Smilax auri-
culala) rosemarj' {Ccraliola), Vonradina
canescens.

Herbs: J uncus Roemerianus, sawgrass
{Cladium cffusum). Spanish moss, Pit-
cheria, Sagittaria lancifolia, Syngnnan-
thus, and over 100 otiicrs.

This region is interesting on account
of the large amount of peculiar and
almost undisturbed vegetation, and
sluubs belonging to families that are
mostly herbaceous, or else spaiingly
represented in the interior, such as
Polygondla sp., Crratiola, ' " ■<

coccincum, Conradina, Chi
charts, Iva and liorrichin. But it lias
no railroads and is rather inarcos.sililc.
It is best reached i)y hiring launches at
]5av()U la Jiatro, .Mol)ile, or 1*.

The fish and oysters of the a

454

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

waters are of considerable commercial
importance, and the usual shore-birds
are present.

*Petit Bois Island, a narrow barrier-
beach island about ten mi. long, lying
largely in Ala. with west end extend-
ing into Miss, a few miles off shore
in Gulf of Mexico. A bird reservation,
with interesting dune and marsh
vegetation.

Reached (c) from Bayou la Batre,
Ala., or Pascagoula, Miss. The former
place is nearest, but latter is larger
and has better railroad service. — R. M.
H.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Harper, R. M. 1913 Economic Botany
of Alabama. Part I. Geographical
Report on Forests. Geol. Surv. Ala-
bama, Monograph 8.

Howell, A. H. 1921 Biological Survey
of Alabama. Part I. Physiography
and Life Zones. Part II. The Mam-
mals. North American Fauna, No. 45.

Loding, H. P. 1922 Preliminary Cat-
alogue of Alabama Amphibians and
Reptiles. Geol. Surv. Alabama, Mu-
seum Paper, No. 5.

Mohr, Charles. 1901 Plant Life of
Alabama. Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb.,
Vol. VI.

10. MISSISSIPPI

By Gladys Hoke

i. general conditions

The state lies within the coastal
plain with the exception of the hills in
the northeastern corner. This fact,
a difference in minimum and maximum
altitude of only 800 ft., an average rain-
fall approximately uniform for all
sections, together with the fact that
the state lies within a natural forest
area would indicate that little diversity
would be found either in the soil, the
topography or the biota. Although this
is necessarily true to a certain extent
there are natural distributional features
of the biota which are strikingly shown
in the northeastern hill section with its
many characteristic Appalachian spe-
cies and in the coastal pine barrens
with a biota that resembles that of the
bogs of northern glaciated regions.

Climate

The summers are hot, the winters mild.
The mean July temperature is about
80° with a mean maximum seldom above
93, though temperatures of 100° or over
occasionally occur. The mean tem-
perature for January is about 47° with
a mean minimum temperature 10°
lower. Temperatures as low as 10°
are uncommon though zero temperatures
and lower have been recorded almost
throughout the state. The average
growing season is seven months. Along
the coast it is nine months. Rainfall
is heavy in midwinter and midsummer,
lighter in October and November. The
average annual precipitation is about
50 in. except on the coast where it is 60
in. Some snow usually falls every
winter though it remains on the ground
but a short time.

The sketch map shows the state
divided into ten regions based on the
topographical and geological and on
the fioristic regions which conform in a
general way.

1. Tennessee River Hills. Topogra-
phy. This region represents a tran-
sition from the Appalachian region to
the coastal plain. It is the oldest
section of the state and shows outcrops
of Paleozoic origin. This area, orig-
inally a plateau, is a region of high
abrupt hills. Limestone, sandstone and
chert are the chief formations.

Original biota. Hardwood forest.
This region was covered with a forest of
large timber. Common on the hills
and slopes were upland oaks, butternut,
magnolia, and hickory with such shrubs
as deerberry, huckleberry, hazelnut
(Corylus americana), and mountain
laurel. Some of the herbaceous species
were bittercress {Cardamine pennsylva-
nica), alum root {Heuchera sp.), and
violets. Birds once common but now
rare or exterminated were: wood duckf,^
passenger pigeon*, wild turkey t, Caro-
lina paroquet*, pileated woodpeckerf,
and bald eagle f. The following mam-

' The symbols * and t indicate extermination and
rare, respectively.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

455

mals were abundant: opossum, cotton-
tail rabbit, southern fox squirrel, gray
squirrel, flying-squirrel, bats, white-
tailed deer*, bear*, skunk, gray and
red fox, wolf*, wild-cat*, and cougar*.

Along the streams and on moist
slopes were: white oak, willow oak,
water oak, walnuts, maples, hackberry,
hop hornbeam, tupelo and black gum,
red gum, and cypress. Hydrangeas,
trailing arbutus {Epigaea repens), trum-
pet honeysuckle (Lonicera sempervirens) ,
and liverleaf {Hepaiica sp.) flourished.
Muskrat and beaver lodges were common
and mink and raccoon abounded. Wil-
low (Salix nigra) and alder {Alnus
serrulata) formed thickets along wet
spring branches. Otters* were not un-
common.

Fish were abundant in the streams.
Among the species were: minnows
{Notropis umbratilis punctulalus, N.
bellus and Fundulus notatus), buffalo
{Ictiohus iirus, cijprinella, buhalus),
yellow cat {Ameiurus natalis), channel
cat {Ictalurus punclatiis), and speck
{Ulocentra stigmaea).

2. Pontotoc Ridge. Deciduous hard-
wood forest. The topograph j^ and the
biota closely approximated that of the
Tennessee River Hills.

S. Northeast Prairie Region. Topog-
raphy. This gently rolling land re-
sembles the western prairies. The soil
is a loamy clay of Cretaceous limestone
origin.

Original biota. Some of the charac-
teristic prairie species were: compass
plant (Silphium laciniatum), prairie
dock (S. terebinthinacenm), milkweed
{Asclepias species), Indian plantain
{Cacalia tuber osa), prairie clover {Peta-
lostemum candidum), white evening
primrose (Oenothera speciosa, 0. triloba),
blue-eyed grass (Sisyrinchium sp.j,
black-eyed Susan, and other species of
Rudbeckia. Horned toads have been
taken but it is probable that they arc
not indigenous. Sandhill crane, ui)land
plover and partridge were abundant.
The bison* was once common but was
one of the first species to disappear.
This prairie region was almost treeless

except for scattered clumps of cnib-
api)lt«, honey locust, and red cedar;
and along the streams a heavy growth
of lowland oaks, hickory, iioney locust,
tulip poplar, maples, an<l lush. Asso-
ciated with these were: wi.stcria, papaw,
buckeye, blue phlox, cinnamon fern,
wild yam-root, common wood violet,
and others. The fauna associated with
these was characteristic of slightly
sluggish stream bottoms. Fish were
abundant. They included carp (Opso-
pocodus cmiliae), minnows, darters (Bole-
soma camurum, Elheosloma nrlcsiae,
Microperca proeliaris), and yellow and
channel cat.

4- Jackson Prairie Belt. Similar con-
ditions obtained in this region though
there were marked intrusions from the
adjacent sections.

■5. Flat woods Region. Topography.
The soil of this strip of undulating land
is a heavy clay or fine sand, poor, and
usually cold, acid and water-logged.
The streams are sluggish and adjacent
lands are subject to overflow.

Original biota. Xerophitic mixed for-
est. The original forest was open and
to the north consisted largely of xero-
phitic oaks on the uplands with a low-
land growth very similar to that of the
North Central Plateau. Loblolly and
jellow pine were dominant over the oaks
in the southern portion of the region.
The fauna included species of tlie
adjacent regions.

6. North Central Plateau. Topog-
raphy. The altitude of this maturely
eroded plateau varies from about 400
to 700 ft. Due to erosion the surface
has become gently rolling in tiie uplands
and intricately dissected near the
streams. Notwithstanding excellent
drainage in the uplands tlic first bot-
toms of the streams are often swampy.
The eastern and soutlicrn lialf of the
region has a clayey or sandy .soil wliich
in the western iialf is ovi-rl.iiii \<\ a
brown loam.

Original biota. Xerophitic mixed for-
est. In tlio original forest on the sandy
uplands the shortleaf yellow \t'\nc was
the dominant type though the forest

456

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

contained many hardwood trees in-
cluding blackjack, post oak and Spanish
oak, hickories, and elm, with a scrubby
undergrowth of deerberry, sumac {Rhus
glabra and copallina), poison ivy {R.
toxicodendron radicans), New Jersey
tea {CeanoUius americanus), hydrangeas,
muscadine {Vilis rotundijolia), and such
herbaceous forms as asters (several
upland species), cinquefoil, puccoon
{Lithospermum canescens), upland milk-
weeds, birdfoot violet, and tick trefoil
{Desmodium spp.)- In the richer loamy
soils of the northern and western section
pine became rare and the oaks and more
mesophytic species were dominant.
The upland flora included the species
mentioned and plantain {Plantago aris-
tala), crowfoot {Ranunculus fascicula-
ris), day-flower {Commelina virginica),
cranesbill {Geranium sp.), dwarf dande-
lion, everlasting {Antennaria -plantagi-
nifolia), may apple, several species of
violets, wild yam-root, alum root,
spiderwort {Tradescantia virginiana),
bracken {Pteris aquilina), and beech
fern {Phegopteris hexagonoptera) .

The fauna of this region was typical.
Insects, crustaceans, millipeds, and
centipeds were abundant. Other com-
mon species were: toad {Bufo lentigino-
sus), tree toad {Hyla versicolor), leopard
frog, scorpion or blue tailed lizard
{Eumeces fasciatus), common lizard
{Sceloporus undulatus), garter snake,
green snake {Opheodrys aestivus), blue
racer {Bascanion constrictor), king snake
{Lampropcltis getuhis), spreading adder
{Heterodon platirhinos), copperhead
{Agkistrodon conioririx), and rattle-
snake {Crotalus sp.).

The birds and mammals included all
the species mentioned in the discussion
of the Tennessee River Hills and the
prairies.

A heavy forest of hardwoods covered
the fertile lowlands. Common trees
were: white oak, basket oak, overcup
oak, and water oak, red and river maple,
sycamore, slippery and white elm,
l)eech, scaly bark {Carya ovata), tulip
poplar, redbud, holly {Ilex opaca),
river birch, and cypress. The under-

growth consisted of: button bush, holly
(/. decidua), bladdernut {Staphylea
trifolia), Virginia creeper {P seder a quin-
quefolia), pepper vine {Cissus arbor ea),
papaw, red haw {Crataegus marshallii),
swamp rose {R. Carolina), trumpet
honeysuckle, muscadine, trumpet
creeper {Tecoma radicans), bamboo
brier {Smilax rotundifolia), cane {Arun-
dinaria sp.), blue phlox, jack-in-the-
pulpit, ferns, yellow fringed orchis,
and marsh St. John's wort.

In marshes and in the edges of ponds
or sluggish waters were boneset {Eupato-
rium perfoliatum) , false dragon head,
sedge {Dulichium arundinaceum), arrow-
head {Sagittaria engelmanniana), great
bulrush {Scirpus validus), swamp rose
mallow {Hibiscus moscheutos), deer grass
{Rhexia sp.), and water purslane {Lud-
vigia palustris).

Snails were numerous. Several spe-
cies of mussels were abundant in the
streams. Some of the fish were: shovel
bill cat {Polyodon spathida), gar {Lepi-
sosteus sp.), channel cat, mud cat {Lep-
tops olivaris), buffalo, minnow {Hybog-
nathtis hayi), and a carp {Opsopoeodus
emiliae). Bull frogs, water moccasins
{Agkistrodon piscivorus), water snake
{Matrix fasciatus), copperhead rattle-
snake, soft shelled turtle {Trionyx sp.),
Cumberland turtle {Chrysemys elegans),
and mud turtle (C. sp.) were abundant
in and near the streams and ponds.
Essentially all of the species of birds and
mammals listed in the Tennessee River
Hills and in the prairies occurred in
this section.

7. Loess or Bluff Hills Region. Topog-
raphy. The soil is a fine calcareous
silt which has been much eroded forming
precipitous hills. This is a transition
area both as to topography and biota.

Original biota. Hardwood forest. In
the south a gloomy condition of the for-
est was due to the dense growth of Span-
ish moss {Tillandsia usneoides) on the
trees, and lianes including: fox, river
bank and muscadine grapes, Virginia
creeper, cross vine {Bignonia capreolata),
trumpet creeper, and supple jack.
Magnolias and the Cherokee rose {R.

NATURAL AREAS A\D REGIONS

457

laevigata) were common. The fauna
consisted of species of the adjacent
regions.

8. Yazoo-Mississippi Flood Plain.
Topography. This alluvial flood plain
is remarkably rich and level. Drainage
is poor and much of the land is in a
swampy condition. The streams are
meandering with numerous bayous,
cutoffs, and sloughs. Crescent-shaped
lakes, originally old stream beds, are
numerous. Levees have been builded
along the Mississippi and now overflows
from this source are not common.
Reclamation of this land will be rapid,
the greater portion already being under
cultivation.

Original biota. Deciduous hardwood
forest. A heavy hardwood forest origi-
nally covered this section of the state.
The flora was typically hydrophytic
and shade loving and the number of
species was not great. The swampy
areas had a characteristic dense growth
of: tupelo and black gum, sweet gum
{Liquidamher styraciflua), cypress, low-
land oaks, cane (A. macrosperma),
palmetto palm {Sahal minor), lizard's tail
{Saiirurus cernns), ditch stonecroj) (Pen-
thorum sedoides), frog-fruit {Lippia
lanceolata), and day-flower {Commelina
hirtella). Less swampy ground had a
less dense undergrowth and in addition
to the trees mentioned, white oak,
white ash, pecans (Carya illineonsis,
C. aquatica), hackberry, and magnolia.
Willow {Salix nigra) and Cottonwood
{Populus deltoides) were abundant on
the sandy flats near the Mississippi
River.

The fauna was typical of such a floral
association. Fresh-water molluscs,
fresh-water shrimp (in the southern
half), and crawfish abounded. The fish
included: shovel bill cat, gar, channel
cat, mud cat, buffalo, suckers {Catoslo-
rmis sp.), several species of minnows,
shad, little pickerel {Esox vermiculutua),
eel, tiny perches, and large mouthed
black bass. Snakes and turtles were
numerous. They included green snake,
copper-head, water moccasin, water
snake, and rattlesnake, soft shelled

turtle, snapping turtle (Chclydra ser-
pentina), and alligator snapper {Macro-
cficlys laartiiKi). .Mligator.s were ff)und
in the streams and bayous of the south-
ern part of this region. Of the birds
that were once abiindunt the following
have been exterminated or are becoming
rare: doul^lc-crested cormorant t,
hooded merganser, mallard, wood duckt,
fresh-water marsh hen, coot, wild
turkeyt, bald eaglet, Carolina parofjuct*,
and ivory-billed woodpecker*. .Ml the
mammals mentioned in the Tennessee
River Hills still occur here.-

9. Long Leaf Pine Region. Tuoog-
raphy. The surface is rolling, becom-
ing hilly in the western part of the state.
The reddish-brown sandy loam soil
is rather poor and dry except in the low
areas where it is often water-logged
and acid.

Original biota. Longleaf pine forest.
The biota of this region was charac-
teristic of an almost pure longleaf pine
(Pirius palustris) forest. At least nine-
tenths of the trees were of this species.
To the north shortleaf yellow pine crept
in while on the west and along the stream
bottoms hardwoods from the blufT hills
occurred with or replaced the pine. On
the sandy well drained uplands in
addition to the longleaf pine were dwarf
and staghorn sumach, upland oaks,
flowering dogwood, wild plum (Pruntis
americana), sassafras, and sweet gum.
Associated with these were: hoary pea
{Tephrosia virginiana and sincata), wild
bean {Phaseolus pauciflorus), partridge
pea {Cassia nictilans and chamaccrista),
butterfl)' pea (Cliloria man'ana and
Ccntrosoma virginiaman) , aster {Aster
adnalus, patens, paludosus), black-eyed
Susan, milkweed {Asclepias lulnrosa),
blazing star {Liatris spicatu and squar-
rosa), rosin weed {Sili>liium sp.i. and
sundew (Drosera rotundifolia) .

Along the streams and swamjjs where
the soil was flooded for several mouths
of the year the chief trees were cypress,
ash, sycamore, tupelo gum, and leather
wood {Cyrilla racvmijlora) . In the sec-
ond bottoms which were better draineil

5 With the cxpcption of I he bojivcr and otter.

458

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

common species were: loblolly and
spruce pine, water oak, laurel oak, live
oak, magnolias, sweet bay {Magnolia
virginiana), fringe tree {Chionanthus
virginica), azaleas {Rhododendron nudi-
florum and viscosuni), river maple, and
Smilax laurifolia.

Among the fish of the region were:
minnows {Fundulus notatus and Hyho-
gnathus hayi), carp {Opsopoeodus emi-
liae), shiners {Notropis cercostigma) ,
speck, sand darters {Ammocrypta, pel-
lucida, vivax, and beanii) and many of
the fresh-water fish mentioned in the
next region.

10. Coastal Pine Barrens. Topog-
raphy. This is a low flat region ap-
proaching the Gulf. The occasional
ridges about 30 ft. above sea level were
formerly drifting sand dunes. Between
the higher areas are low marshes and
swamps which are peaty and acid or
brackish. The streams are sluggish
and frequently overflow. In summer
they are brackish near their mouths.

Original biota. The biota of this
region was distinctive. Many species
were not found elsewhere in the state,
and many on water-logged soil were
characteristic of northern bogs. An
open growth of pine (P. palustris,
taeda, heterophyla) extended over the
entire area. In the dry and better
drained portions in addition to the pine
some of the most characteristic species
were: live oak, laurel oak, turkey oak,
water oak, upland willow oak, magnolia
{M. foetida), leather-wood, sour-wood
{Oxydendrum arboreum), and herbaceous
species including milkwort {Polygala
lutea and nana), deer grass, St. John's
wort, butterwort {Pinguicula lutea),
sundrops {Oenothera fruticosa), club
moss, and pitcher plants {Sarraceniaspp.)

On the low wet ground along the
streams and swamps in addition to some
species mentioned the most typical
were: inkberry {Ilex glabra), yaupon
(/, vomitoria), sweet bay, red bay
{Per sea pubescens), tupelo gum, wild
olive, dwarf huckleberry {Gaylussacia
dumosa), white cedar {Chamaccyparis
thyoides), red ti ti tree, white swamp

honeysuckle {Rhododendron viscosum),
saw palmetto {Serenoa serrulata), pitcher
plants {Sarracenia rubra, flava, drum-
mondii), sundew {Drosera filiformis,
intermedia, rotundifolia), snake mouth
{Pogonia sp.), yellow-eyed grass {Xyris
arenicola and other species), star grass
{Aletris sp.), and several species of club
moss.

Approaching and upon the beaches
were: live oaks, pine and wax myrtle
{Myria cerifera). Associated with these
on the oak and pine flats proper were
such characteristic species as sandbur
grass {Cenchus sp.), button snakeroot
{Eryngium syncihaetum) , button weed
{Diodia teres), pin weed {Lechea sp.),
and partridge pea. On the dunes in
addition to the saw palmetto, yaupon
holly and wax myrtle already mentioned
were: cow berries {Ceratiola ericoides),
sea oats {Uniola paniculata), and grass
{Panicum sp.). Down on the beaches
characteristic forms were: Carolina box
thorn {Lycium carolinianum) , black
mangrove {Avicemnia nitida) , salt-marsh
fleabane {Pluchea camphorata), marsh
elder {Iva or aria), white top {Dichromena
colorata), evergreen goldenrod {Solidago
sempervirens), salt-marsh aster {A. te-
nuifolius), bladderwort {Utricularia
sp.), and marsh grass {Spartina sp.).

The animals of this region were
varied, some coming in from the longleaf
pine region on the north and other
aquatic species from the Gulf. Snails
and mussels, crustaceans and insects
were present in great numbers. In the
streams some of the commoner fishes
were: gars, mud cat, small poison cat
{Schilbeodes gyrinus), buff'alo (/. cypri-
nella), top minnow {Gambusia affinis),
crappie {Pomoxis annularis), goggle-
eye perch {Chaenobryttus gulosus), sun-
fish {Lepomis sp.), large mouth black
bass {Micropterus salmoides), shad {Sig-
malosa atchafalayae), mullet {Mugil
cephalus), bream {Lagodon rhomboides) ,
spot {Leiostomus xanthurus), croaker
{Micropogon undulatus), and goby {Go-
biosoma bosci). During the winter and
early spring when the water of the lakes
and the bayous along the coast was

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

450

fresh or only brackish due to the heavy
rains many of these fresli-water species
came down the rivers and even into
waters that during the summer and the
early fall were brackish or salty. Dur-
ing this dry season the fresh-water
species were replaced by brackish or
salt-water species which extended their
range up into the bays and the bayous.
They included common mullet, sheeps
head {Archosargus probatoccphalus),
spotted sea-trout {Cynoscion nehulosus),
red drum (Sciacnops ocellalus), croaker
{Micropogon undulatus), and gulf men-
haden {Brevoortia tyrannus patronus).

Starfish, shrimp, crabs including the
primitive horseshoe crab (Limulus poly-
phemus), lobsters, mussels, and oysters
were among the common salt-water
invertebrates. Toads, tree toads and
frogs were abundant as were lizards
and turtles. Common turtles were
alligator snapping turtle and southern
soft shelled {Trionyx ferox), and in the
salt marshes the diamond-back terrapin
{Malaclemmys centrata concentrica) . The
gopher turtle {Gopherus polyphemus)
was common on the land. Alligators
frequented the rivers and the bayous.
The birds of this region were numer-
ous. Many spent a portion of the year
here, others were permanent residents.
The following were once abundant but
are no longer common or are extinct:
white pelicans, Wilson's tern, fish
ducks, bufflehead, roseate spoonbill*,
white t and wood ibisj, bittern, white
egret*, snowy egretf, Louisiana heron,
whooping crane*, and coot.

Note: For detailed accounts of the
flora, topography, and geology of the
State see:

Plants of Mississippi, Bulletin No.
I7t. Forest Conditions of Mississippi,
Bulletin No. 11; and Missi.ssippi, Its
Geology, Soils and Mineral Resources,
Bulletin No. 12, by E. N. Lowe, Missis-
sippi State Geological Survey.

Especially dcsirublc n.s n site for a
biological station. ( iood collecting
grovinds for iii.sccUs, suit water fauna imd
llora, oak, huckleberry, haw, oleander,
Ilex, and Siilvid. Lsland uninhabited,
one small caljin, seldom visited.

To (;ulf])()rt|, Mi,s.s., take giuiolinc
boat for trip (about 30 dollars), about 20
mi. south.

Horseshoe Lake, Tallnhntchie River.
(B2.) Frequently flooded during winter
months. ]3eiisely forested — oak,

cypress, hickory, and holly. Has Ix'cn
cut-over for big timber and occasionally
l)urned by small fires. Animals: craw-
fish, fresh water mussels, turtles, ter-
rapins, snakes, fish: cat, trout, perch,
eels, gar, etc., opossum, raccoon, mink,
skunk, squirrel, rats, gray fox, swamp
rabbit, muskrat, rarely beaver*, many
birds. (See Louisiana for details of
birds.)

L C. Railway to Oxfordt, Miss.
Brush Lake. Very sm dl lake between
Mississippi River and jiresent levee.
Surrounded by forest, disturbed as little
as anj'' in this section.

Y. and M. V. Railway to Robinsonville,
Miss.

Plymouth BlujJ and Flat. (Do.) One
of the most northerly points where
palmetto is found growing under natural
conditions in Mississippi. 50 foot bUilT
on west side of Tombigbee River. Selma
chalk over Eutaw sands. Fossiliferous
sharks' teeth, oyster shells, etc. Small
ravines. Densely forested — oaks, chest-
nut, birch, pine. Prairie across river on
which palmetto and similar vegetation
occur in natural condition. On the
bluff slopes semi-xerophytism through
mesophytism down to hydrophytism as
indicated by the trees:

Post o.ak, black jack ook,
hickories.

Read toward tlic
right and up- /
«ard. to / Cedar. Pino,
higher and / Spanish oak, black oak. red oak
drier/ Tulip tree, Qucrou* sohneckii, Un
ground / dens, chestnut oak. black locust

/ Sycamore, river birch, cotton wood.
/ Cypress.

11. NATURAL ARE.^S

pCat Island. (A2.) Off
coast, Gulfport, Harrison
Mississippi.

the Gulf
County,

Surface of water
of river.

Southern or U. & O. Railway to
Columbust, Miss.— C. R. AV"- -nd
Gladys IIolcc.

runLioGR.\pnY

Apgar, A. C. 1S98 Birds of the United

States.

460

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Evermann, Barton W. 1898 A report
on investigations by the U. S. Fish
Commission in Mississippi, Louisiana
and Texas in 1897. Report of the
Commissioner of Fisheries.

Gray, Asa. Manual of Botany.

Horniday, W. T. 1913 Our vanishing
wild life. New York Zoological
Society.

Jordan, D. S., and Evermann, Barton W.
1896 The fishes of North and Middle
America. U. S. National Museum,
Bull. 47, Vol. 1.

Jordan, D. S._ 1899 Manual of the
vertebrate animals.

Lowe, E. N. 1913 Forest conditions in
Mississippi. Mississippi State Geo-
logical Survey, Bull. 11.

Lowe, E. N. 1921 Plants of Missis-
sippi. Mississippi State Geological
Survey, Bull. 17.

Townsend, C. H. 1919 Guide to the
New York Aquarium. New York
Zoological Society.

Small, J. K. Flora of the Southeastern
United States.

U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Weather Bureau. Climatological data
of the United States.

Wailes, B. L. C. 1854 Report on the
Agriculture and Geology of Mississippi,
embracing a sketch of the Social and
Natural History of the State.

Baird, S. F. and Girard, C. 1853 Cata-
logue of North American Reptiles in
the Museum of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, Publication 49.

Hilgard, Eug. W. 1860 Report on the
Geology and Agriculture of the State
of Mississippi.

11. LOUISIANA

By G. W. Goldsmith, Lenthall Wyman
and h. h. kopman

i. general features and original

BIOTA

/. Physiographic regions (L. W.) ,

While the surface of the state does not
vary greatly in elevation, the highest
level being about 400 ft., there are great
differences in soil, general character,
and vegetation. The main divisions are :
(a) wooded uplands, partly pine, partly
hardwood and partly mixed; (b) wooded
alluvial bottoms and heavy swamps
along large rivers and also wooded
coastal plain, entirely cypress and hard-
wood; (c) level or slightly rolling prairies;
(d) coastal and usually tidal flats and

marshes; (e) coastal islands. Under (a)
the most strongly marked physio-
graphic types are the predominantly
pine-bearing lands (longleaf pine hills
and pine flats), and the richly wooded
but well drained bottoms of small
rivers in such regions. Under (b) the
strongest types are the slack water
cypress and hardwood sloughs in large
river basins above tide level, connecting
with the main streams only in times of
high water or overflow; and the usually
submerged and far-spreading tide-level
swamps of cypress and hardwood about
the so-called lakes of the coastal region.
In (d), coastal flats and marshes, the
amount of muck, character of vegeta-
tion, and degree of salinity of water
varies considerably; the surface is
greatly diversified by bayous, shallow
bays, and lakes.

Highly interesting biotic conditions
are presented at the various lines of
blending or division of the several
phj'siographic types of the state. Espe-
cially notable are the changes from
flatwoods or bottomwoods of both small
and large rivers to the pine or mixed
pine and hardwood hill type; from pine
flats to prairies; from pine flats to
coastal marshes; from wooded regions
of the coastal plains to coastal marshes
and from hardwood regions of the coastal
plains to pine flats. In other cases the
changes are usually more gradual.

2. Environmental types

The types of environment, while
varying strongly from a physiographic
standpoint, are all in a single geographic
division: the austroriparian life zone.
The principal animal communities pecu-
liar to the several physiographic divi-
sions are as follows:

a. Upland. Plants (L. W.): The up-
lands are divisible into two distinct
forest types, namely, shortleaf pine
hills and longleaf pine hills. The short-
leaf pine hills, lying in the northwestern
part of the state, have fertile sandy loam
soils with good drainage. The domi-
nant tree is shortleaf pine (Pinus echi-
nala) which occurs in pure stands on the

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

461

hills, and mixed on the better soils with
loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) or with red
gum (Liquidambar sti/racijlua), hickory
{Canj alba), and white, post and red
oaks (Quercus alba, Q. slellata, Q. fal-
zata). The undergrowth is composed
of dogwood (Cornus florida).

The bluff lands are well drained and
fertile. They support a dense hardwood
growth featured b}' white, post, overcup
and water oaks, beech, hickories, gum,
and yellow poplar. Dense undergrowth
of haw, dogwood, briers, hornbeam and
ilex feature this type. Grasses are
missing.

Animals (H. H. K) : In uplands with
considerable or predominating hard-
woods, the opossum {Didelphis vir-
giniana), skunk {Mephitis mesomelas),
cottontail rabbit {Sylvilagus jloridanus
alacer), gray squirrel {Sciurus carolinen-
sis) and occasionally the chipmunk
(Tamias striatus venustus), are most
characteristic of the mammals, while
smaller birds of commoner occurrence
than elsewhere are red-headed wood-
pecker, flicker, towhee, summer tanager,
yellow-throated vireo, Louisiana water-
thrush, catbird, thrasher, florida white-
breasted nuthatch, tufted titmouse,
and wood thrush. It should be noted
that consideration is given here and
elsewhere only to nesting birds.

In the longleaf pine hills and pine
flats regions the most abundant and
thriving or more or less peculiar species
are the red-headed woodpecker, red-
cockaded w^oodpecker, Florida night-
hawk, southern meadowlark, chipping
sparrow, pine warbler, brown-headed
nuthatch and bluebird.

In the river bottoms of the longleaf
pine hills the most regular nesting
species are j^ellow-billed cuckoo, red-
bellied woodpecker, chuck-wills' widow,
crested and Acadian flycatchers, sum-
mer tanager, red-eyed, yellow-throated,
and white-eyed vireos, parula warbler,
tufted titmouse, blue-gray gnat catcher,
and wood thrush.

b. Hardwood Bottom Lands. Plants
(L. W.): The alluvial lands cover one-
half of the state. The hardwood bot-

toms support a very luxuriant 8t:in<l of
mixed hardwoods. Several kintis of
wliite oak and water oak, Rums, clin.
ash, magnolia, sycamore, cottonwood
and willow are a few of the s|)ccie.s
found. The unrlergrowth is conii»oscd
of vines, brier.-^, paimofto. v:iiit)on, and
hornbeam.

Animals (II. H. K): In the extensive
harilwood bottoms, and wooded alluvial
coastal plain, the |)rincipal haunts of
the black Ijnar (Ursus amcricnnua, or
perhaps the yellow bear, U. lulcnlus),
cougar (Felis concolor group), bob-cat
{Lijnx rufus), and deer {Odocoiletin
virginianus louisianae) are found. The
raccoon, mink, swamp-rabbit, and gray
squirrel are common. Characteristic
birds here are water-turkey, wood duck,
wood ibis, little blue heron, yellow-
crowned night heron, red-bellied wood-
pecker, Acadian flycatcher, protho-
notary warbler, and sycamore warbler.
A peculiar feature of the bird life is
that certain species abundant in other
physiographic types are plentiful here
also, while other species abundantly
associated with them in other types
are comparatively scarce or absent here.
Particularly notable in this last con-
nection are red-headed woodpecker,
kingbird, blue jay, cowbird, chippinir
sparrow, indigo bunting (except in
migration), loggerhead shrike, yellow-
throated vireo, brown thrasher (except
in migration), catbird (except in migra-
tion), white-breasted nuthatch and
bluebird.

c. Prairies. Plants (L. W.): The
prairie region, lying in the southwestern
part of the state is a treeless country
with few bushes and vines. This belt
is marked by good soils bearing excellent
stands of grass and sedges.

Animals (II. H. K.): The fauna of the
prairies is characterized by a scarcity
of mammals. Conspicuous birds arc
mourning dove, I'loriila nighthawk,
kingbird, and meadowlark.

(/. Coastal marshes. Plants (L. \V.):
The coastal marshes border the Gulf
in a strip 10 to 40 mi. wide. This
is a treeless region which is charac-

462

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

terized by a stand of sedges, grasses,
rushes, cattails and reeds. There is a
subdivision of this region where fresh-
water swamps are found. These swamps
bear dense stands of cypress {Taxodium
distichum) and tupelo gum with little
undergrowth where the water stands
over 6 in. deep.

Animals (H. H. K.): The prevaling
mammal of the marshes is the muskrat
{Ondatra rivalicia). While the marshes
are favorite resorts of ducks in winter,
they are nesting grounds more especially
for Louisiana heron, least bittern,
king and clapper rails, purple and
Florida gallinules, boat-tailed grackl'e,
red-winged blackbird, Louisiana seaside
sparrow, Florida yellow -throat and
long-billed marsh wren.

e. Coastal Islands {L. W. and H. H.
K.). Coastal islands are the nesting
places of the brown pelican, laughing
gull, Caspian, royal, Cabot's and
Forster's terns, black skimmer and
occasional small birds, most notable
of which is the Florida nighthawk.

II. PRESENT BIOTIC CONDITIONS
(l. w. and H. H. K.)

Lumbering, hog grazing and fires
are responsible for the altering of forest
conditions in some regions. The short-
leaf pine country is reforesting fairly
well but the virgin growth is nearly
gone. Many small farms occur in this
part of the state. The longleaf pine
region has suffered most, and seven-
eighths of the cutover lands of this type
are barren. Few seed trees were left
and hogs and fires have prevented
natural reproduction. Little farming
has been or will be carried on in this
belt for many years. Although much
longleaf pine timber has been cut the
virgin trees will continue to be an
important factor for some ten or twelve
years. The bluff lands are all in culti-
vation except where the slopes are too
steep. The white oaks and other
valuable hardwoods have been cut
out. The timber in the alluvial belt
is being cleared as fast as levees are
built, and cypress and white oak have

been culled out already. Practically all
of this land will be put into cultivation
eventually. The prairie region is prac-
tically all used for pasturage or crops.
The coastal marshes are still in their
original condition and are destined to
remain so. The cypress has been
removed from many of the swamps and
tupelo gum is replacing it.

No species have been seriously reduced
in number, although the acreage of
longleaf pine will be greatly, reduced
unless range fires are eliminated and
seed trees left on the ground. Cypress
seems destined to be largely replaced by
tupelo gum.

No original animals existing in Louis-
iana in modern times appear to have
been entirely eliminated, except for the
general disappearance of a few species:
bison (a few wintered formerly in
Louisiana), Eskimo curlew, passenger
pigeon, and Carolina paroquet.

III. NATURAL AREAS (g. W. G.)

1. *Louisiana State Wild Life Refuge.
(B2.) A tract of 13,000 acres in Ver-
milion Parish given to the state by
Charles W. Ward and E. A. McUhenny.
Deciduous and evergreen savanna and
prairie comprise most of the tract
together with sandy shore, swamp,
marshes, ponds, and bayous. All stages
of marsh succession may be found.
Alligator, deer, beaver, otter and wild
fowl occur.

Abbeville, 30 mi. by boat on Bayou
Vermilion. — Stanley C. Arthur.

2. *Ward-McIlhenny Wild Life Refuge.
(B2.) Comprises 57,000 acres of marsh,
bayous, low prairie and sandy shore.
Successional stages of marsh vegetation
may be found. Alligators, mink, deer,
muskrat and water fowl occur. The
tract is preserved by the Vermilion
Bay Company and is used for very
limited hunting.

Abbeville, 20 mi. by boat on Bayou
Vermillion. — E. A. McUhenny.

3. *Rockefeller Foundation Wild Life
Refuge. (B2.) This consists of 25,000
acres of low plain and prairie with sandy
shores and live oaks, marshes, lakes, and

NATURAL AREAS AND REP, IONS

403

bayous in Cameron and Vermilion Par-
ishes. Alligator, deer, otter, mink,
muskrat, and water fowl abotind. Va-
rious conditions of marsh succession
may be studied.

Abbeville 40 mi. by boat on Bayou
Vermilion and Inter-Coastal Canal. —
B. A. Mcllhenny and Stanley C. Arthur.

4. *Marsh Island. (B2.) A tract
comprising 79,300 acres of marshes,
ponds, baj'ous and sandy shore in
Iberia Parish. Successional stages of
vegetation may be studied. Alligators,
deer, mink, muskrat and water fowl
abound. Gift to state by Mrs. Russel
Sage.

Abbeville, 30 mi. by boat on Bayou
Vermilion and Vermilion Bay. — G. W. G.

5. * Shell Keys. (B2.) Marsh and
shore conditions. Small islands located
off Marsh Island as refuge for water
fowl. St. Mary Parish.

Abbeville 60 mi. by boat.

6. *Jefferson Island. (B2.) A tract
of about 1000 acres in Iberia Parish,
composed of deciduous forest, low level
plains, swamps and lakes. Swamp suc-
cession shown. Mink, muskrat and
water fowl.

Abbeville 12 mi. by road. — Stanley
C. Arthur.

7. *East Timhalier Island. (B2.) A
national bird reserve consisting of a
few hundred acres of low sandy shore
and plain. Located in Terrebonne
Parish.

Houma 50 mi. by boat. — G. W. G.

8. *Queen Bess Island. (B2.) Bara-
tavia Bay Jefferson Parish. A small
island comprising deciduous forest,
prairie, swamp and marsh. A refuge
for water fowl.

Reached by boats from Grand Island
12 mi.— Stanley C. Arthur.

9. *Chandeleur and Breton Islands.
This group consists of a low sandy
shore and shell keys each of but a few
acres extent, the area depending upon
the seasonal conditions. They are fre-
quented by water fowl, mink, muskrat,
etc. Mangrove swamps occur.

Biloxi, Mississippi 100 mi. by boat.—
Robert Glenk.

to. *Euninium Forest Preserve. (B2.)
An area consisting of hoiiic 32,000 iicres
of (lcci(luou.s forest, eastern coniferous
forest, overflow bottom limds, ponds,
and lakes. Of tliis G240 acres are 11 game
reserve and tli(> remainder should also be
.so i)rc.servc<i. Bear, ilecr and raccoon
occur together witli many forest birds
and invertebrates. Winn, LaSalle, and
Caldwell Parishes.

Uranea located on reserve. — Robert
Glenk.

11. Lands Devoted to Reforestation.
(D3.) At Urania, La. Near Urania,
La., Mr. Henry E. Ilardtner (President
of the Urania Lumber Co.), has set
aside about thirty thousand acres of
cutover land, which he has dedicated
to reforestation. The original forests
were, for the most part, longleaf pine,
and some of the land is reforesting in
this same species. To encourage this
growth, Mr. Ilardtner has fenced off
several thousand acres, and is protecting
these plots from fire, hogs, etc. These
also constitute wild life refuges, as birds,
etc., are given absolute protection.
The demonstrations of natural reforesta-
tion are most interesting.

12. The Kisatchie Wold, or Kisatchie
Hills. (B2.) In Natchitoches Parish,
La. In central Louisiana, in the south-
ern part of Natchitoches Parish, and
extending into Vernon, is a region
(referred to in the geology of Louisiana
as the Kisatchie Wold), which should be
of great value to the Ecological Society.
It covers a territory aiiproximately 20
mi. square, and nearly all of it is in either
a natural or semi-natural slate.

The longleaf pine timber has been
removed from about half of this area,
which is otherwise in a natural state,
save where devastated by tire. The
other half is in a primeval state, except
where there are small farms, and there
are very few of these.

The Kisatchie Wold is a range of sand
hills, with an occasional bold outcrop-
ping' of Grand Gulf sandstone. .\ part
of the country is rolling, but m places the
topography may be termed sharp. Iho
elevation is not given in Louisiana
Geological llei)orts, but is probably
about 300 ft. at the highest point. 1 he
streams arc swift, clear, and pure; with
beds of sandstone' and very white sand,
it is also a regiuii of excellent springs.

464

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

The hills are covered with almost un-
broken forests of the beautiful, but
rapidly disappearing, longleaf pine
{Finns palustris) ; while in the narrow
valleys, adjacent to the streams, are
splendid growths of magnolia, beech,
oak, holly, cypress, etc. In fact, with
the exception of two or three, every
tree native to Louisiana may be found,
and some species attain their maximum
size in this locality. Wild flowers grow
in profusion, among which are some
species that are rare in Louisiana, such
as white ageratum and closed gentian.
The entire flora of the region is
luxuriant, varied and beautiful.

The wild life is highly interesting,
deer, fox, wolf, raccoon, opossum,
squirrel, rabbit, skunk, and mink being
found in abundance; also wild turkeys,
woodcock, and other rare birds, as well
as all the common species. The streams
are well-filled with a variety of fish,
such as black bass, striped bass, pike,
buffalo, cat and perch.

For two years the Louisiana Federa-
tion of Women's Clubs has been agitating
the question of a State Park and Wild
Life Refuge in this region. The lumber-
men of the state have taken it up, and
may give about 20 sq. mi., a large part
of which will be preserved in a natural
state, to Louisiana.

In sand hills of this type, the soil is
entirely unfit for agriculture, except
in the little valleys along the streams;
so, it is highly desirable that these hills
be kept growing trees.

The territory described is isolated,
and, following heavy rains, almost
inaccessible, the only means of travel
being by team. In ordinary times,
however, it may be reached in an auto-
mobile from Natchitoches or Leesville.
Both of these towns may be reached by
rail from Shreveport or New Orleans.
At present the roads are very poor, but a
model highway from Natchitoches to
Leesville is contemplated, and this will
pass through the Kis'atchie Hills. The
most desirable way to visit this region
is to camp, as there are very few places
where accommodations are obtainable.
— Caroline C. Dormon.

13. Bayou Pierre. (C3.) A fish and
mussel stream skirted with swamps,
coniferous and deciduous forest. In the
parishes of Red River and DeSoto; a 6
mi. strip. 2h mi from Westdale, La. —
A. D. Howard.

14. Bogalusa trad. (C3.) Location:
This area is located in Washington
Parish in southeastern Louisiana on the
lands of the Great Southern Lumber
Company. It lies in Townships 1, 2, 3
and 4 South, Ranges 11, 12, 13 and 14
East.

Area: 53,267 acres are included in this
tract.

Altitude: Elevations average around
45 ft. above sea level.

Conditions: This land is under con-
tract with the State of Louisiana for
twenty years. The Great Southern
LumberCompany has agreed to protect
the land from fires by employing five
patrolmen and erecting a 70 ft. fire tower.
The original timber was longleaf pine
but it has been cut clean within the last
fifteen years. Very little natural reseed-
ing has taken place. Thirteen thousand
acres are under fence, and already
several hundred acres have been planted
with loblolly pine and slash pine
seedlings.

Animals: Raccoon, opossum, mink,
rabbit and fox are present on this area,
and the birds listed above as occurring in
the longleaf pine region probabh' occur
here.

Accessibility: The Bogalusa tract may
be easily reached from the city of
Bogalusa, as it lies within 6 mi. Boga-
lusa is a city of 15,000 population on the
New Orleans and Great Northern R. R.
It is about three hours distant from New
Orleans. Bogalusa has an excellent
hotel.

12. ARKANSAS

By John T. Buchholz

i. physiographic regions and
general geography

There are two main physiographic
regions in Arkansas, the coastal plain
lowlands and the mountain or upland
country. Most of the uplands belong
to the mixed hardwood forest area
(Carolinian), while some of the lower
hilly lands, their valleys, and all of the
lowlands belong to the southern mixed
coniferous and hardwood forest area.
If one should begin at the northeast
corner of the state 8 to 10 mi. east of
longtitude 91°, and draw a line in a
southwestern direction to Little Rock,
continuing it nearly to Arkadelphia and
thence westward to the Oklahoma
boundary, the fraction of the state north
and west of this line, considerably more
than one-third of its area, is upland, and
the remaining southern and eastern
part of the state is lowland, a broad
coastal plain.

The Arkansas River with its broad
valley divides the upland portion of the

NATUKAL AREAS AND R KG IONS

46.")

state into two regions. The northern
portion consists mainl}- of a dissected
plateau, the Ozark highlantl, whicli,
beginning at the north bluff of the
Arkansas river, rises rapidly to the crest
of the Boston Mountains. These moun-
tains mark not only the highest part of
the Ozark ui)lift in this state, but also
present the most picturesque and rugged
scenery of this entire region. The
Ozark National Forest of about 1700
sq. mi. in three tracts is located mostly
on the watershed of the Boston Moun-
tains. (See "National Forest of the
Eastern District," page 392.) To the
north of the Boston Mountains the
country" continues very rough, but the
total relief becomes less as one passes
into southern jNIissouri. In western
Missouri and north Arkansas this region
of the Ozark Highland is known as the
Springfield plateau, while the subdivi-
sion to the east of this is the Salem
plateau.

South of the Arkansas River the moun-
tains known as the Ouachita Mountains
are a part of a folded system. Hard
sandstones, slates, and shales form an
eroded anticlinorium with the parallel
ridges extending principally east and
west. The valleys are often broad
between these mountains, some of which
rise to 2800 ft., or about 1750 ft. above
the surrounding vallej's. South of the
Ouachita Mountains the Cretaceous
deposits give the land a rolling aspect,
gradually merging with the Tertiary
to the south, where the gently undulat-
ing lowlands are a continuation of the
yellow-loam region of the Louisiana
and Texas coastal plain.

While the Ouachita Mountains consist
largely of hard sandstone ridges and
broad shale vallej'S with practically no
limestone, the Ozark region north of the
Boston Mountains contains much lime-
stone. The sedimentary strata are
nearly horizontal and calcareous out-
crops are frequently very clearly in-
dicated by marked changes in the char-
acter of the flora. Sometimes a good
stand of hard maple {Acer saccharum)
and many of the elements of a northern

inapic forest a|)peiir in |)rotccto(l ravines
having limestone outcrop.s und u north-
ern exposure, tlioiigh the more exfxwed
south .slopo.s usually Hiipport only the
oak savanna.s or a more xorojjhytic
flora. The dry sundstone ridges of the
Ouiichita .Mountains are covered on the
south slojjcs by a ini.\ture of shortlcaf
pine {Piniis cchinnla) with oaks and
hickories, and on the north slojxjs by
hardwood forests chiefly of oak and
hickory, with hardwoods in the rich
bottom lands of the valleys, and pines
in the poorer lands. The Arkansas
National Forest of approximately 1000
sq. mi. is situated in the Ouachita Moun-
tain region. See "National Forests of
Eastern District," page 'Wl.

In eastern Arkansas the broad flat
coastal plain region is broken by Crow-
ley's Ridge. This is a long broken hill
or ridge of Tertiary deposits varying
in width from zero, where streams have
cut through it to a dozen or more miles,
rising to a height of 100 or 150 ft. above
the surrounding bottoms. It extends
from Helena nortli and northeast to the
northeastern corner of the state. In
some of the older reports it was referred
to as "Poplar Ridge" from the forest
of large yellow poplar {Liriodendron
tulipifera) which originally covered it.

Beech is fairly common southward on
Crowley's Ridge, especially on its
southern part, and many species, as,
for example, the white walnut (Juglans
cinerea) otherwise rare in the state are
found in ravines of this elevated land.

Beech is also found in the hardwood
forests of the rich Tertiary alluvial
bottoms in the southern counties and
formed forests entirely covering some
of the lower ritlges. Pine forests occupy
the sandy soil or poorly draineil clay
lands, loblolly pine (P. taida) in the
lower bottoms and shortleaf pine {P.
echinata) on higher ground. Shortleaf
pine is the species found in the Ouacliita
]\Iountains, a belt of this species origi-
nally extending up into north Arkansas
as far as southern Missouri, now rep-
resented only by several isolated
patches in nortii .Vrkansjis.

466

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Southern Arkansas still has much
valuable pine timber. Cypress swamps
are also found in the lowlands of eastern
and southern Arkansas along the slug-
gish streams and bayous.

Prairies

Grand Prairie should be mentioned
as much the largest prairie area in the
state. It occupies the greater part of
three counties in eastern Arkansas,
about 1500 sq. mi., land now largely
given over to rice growing. A number
of small prairies very similar to Grand
Prairie are found in most of the counties
of eastern Arkansas.

In the western part of Benton County
(the extreme northwest corner) several
areas of the Oklahoma prairies extend
into the state. Other prairies are found
in several scattered areas in the Arkan-
sas river valley, located in the region
southeast of Fort Smith overlying the
Carboniferous coal beds. Southwestern
Arkansas has small patches of the Black
Cretaceous Prairie resembling the Cre-
taceous Prairie regions of Texas. Small
prairie openings in glades are scattered
throughout the forested hills of the
Ozarks.

II. FLORA AND FAUNA

AS a whole Arkansas offers a very
rich and diverse flora and also a varied
fauna. The extremes of topography
and abundance of forests support a rich
fauna of breeding birds, and, being in
the heart of the Mississippi valley, it
forms a part of the great path of migra-
tion. It also affords a winter resort
for many water fowl and land birds.

The principal hardwood forests of
the uplands are oak savannas. Lum-
bering is an important industry while
farming is very diversified. Fruits of
many kinds are successfully grown, such
as apples, grapes, peaches, strawberries
and other small fruits. The region is
also very well adapted to poultry raising
and dairying. The northwestern coun-
ties of the state grow much wheat, while
corn and oats are important farm crops
over the entire state. Cotton is grown

in some of the valleys of the upland
region, on hill land bordering the low-
land country, as well as over the entire
coastal plain region.

The following species are more or
less characteristic of the mixed hard-
wood forest area (Carolinian) : black
oak {Quercus velutina), common chest-
nut oak (Q. muhlenbergii), shingle oak
{Q. imbricaria), Ohio buckeye {Aesculus
glabra), serviceberry {Amelanchier cana-
densis), and red cedar {Juniperus
virginiana).

Among the mammals of this belt the
woodchuck {Marmota monax), Attwater
cliff-mouse {Peromyscus boylii attwateri),
weasel {Mustela sp.), and spotted skunk
(Spilogale sp.) have been listed by
Howell. The breeding birds of this
zone are Chuck-will's-widow, whippoor-
will (rare), phoebe, goldfinch, towhee,
oven-bird, brown thrasher, robin, blue-
grosbeak, prairie horned lark and
scissor-tailed flycatcher.

Other larger mammals of the state
include the black bear {Ursus america-
nus), raccoon (Procyon lotor), wolf
{Canis sp.), red fox {Vulpes sp.), gray
fox {Urocyon cinereoargenteus) , opossum
(Didelphis virginiana), fox squirrel
{Sciurus niger rufiventer), gray squirrel
(Sciurus carolinensis), and flying-squir-
rel {Glaucomys volans), chipmunk {Ta-
mias striatus venustus), muskrat (Onda-
tra zibethica), striped skunk (Spilogale
sp.) etc. Virginia deer (Odocoileus
virginianus) are still found in the low-
lands of the Mississippi and Arkansas
river bottoms.

In the Southern mixed coniferous and
hardwood area (Lower Austral Zone)
of Arkansas cotton and corn are the
principle crops, while rice is grown in
the Grand Prairie. Lumbering is an
important industry, especially in the
pine belt of south Arkansas. Important
fruits of this Zone are peaches, straw-
berries, pecans, etc.

Characteristic plants of this area
are: black cypress (Taxodium disti-
chum), tupelo gum (Nyssa aquatica),
palmetto (Sabal glabra), loblolly pine
(Pinus taeda), water oak (Quercus

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

407

nigra), willow oak (Q. phellos), basket
oak or cow oak (Q. michauxii), overcup
oak {Q. lyrata), Southern red oak {Q.fal-
cata), large cane (Arundinaria macro-
sperma), red buckeye (Aesculus pavia),
pecan {Carya pecan), planer tree {Planera
aquatica) hackberry (Cellis mississip-
piensis), holly {Ilex opaca), and wax
myrtle {Myrica cerifera) in the southern
counties.

A few of the characteristic mammals
of this area have been listed (Howell)
as follows: cotton mouse {Peromyscus
gossypi?ius megacephalus), golden mouse
{Peromyscus nuttalli aureolus), swamp
wood rat {Neoloma floridana subspp.),
cotton rat (Sigmodon hispidus), Loui-
siana pocket gopher {Geomys breviceps),
swamp rabbit {Sylvilagus aqualicus),
Louisiana skunk {Mephitis mesomelas),
evening bat, and Carolina shrew.

Among the characteristic breeding
birds of this lowland belt the following
have been listed by several ornitholo-
gists: water-turkey, Florida barred owl,
Florida screech owl, red-cockaded wood-
pecker, Florida nighthawk, Bachraan
sparrow, painted bunting, Swainson
warbler.

Water pollution

Waters are polluted in oil fields in
southern Arkansas, doing considerable
damage to plant and animal life. In
the Poteau river near Fr. Smith fish
are found to be killed by mine waters
charged with iron salts, whose rapid
oxidation de-oxygenates the waters and
suffocates the fish, or starves them by
destroying the algae and their main
food supply. Otherwise the pollution
occurring from mining, manufacturing
and sewage is probably negligible at the
present time.

III. NATURAL AREAS

*Big Lake. A federal bird and game
preserve of 7774 acres, including most
of Big Lake, which is a wide place in
Little River, a tributary to the St.
Francis River. Contains many migrant
and winter visitant birds including

cranes, many species of ducks such ns
the mallard, canvas-back, RinKnccked-
duck, pintails, gadwalis, scaui)s, mer-
gansers and redheads, woo 1 ducks breed
here. Rare wading birds such as the
yellow-crowned night heron and many
other waders have been observed.

Typical plants are lotus {!^clumbo
lutea), cypress, tupelo gum, water hick-
ory (Carya aquatica), overcup oak,
cedar elm {Ulmus crassifulin', and to
the east of the eastern shore near the
Missouri line may be found the rare
corkwood {Lcitncria floridana). Old
maps show the lake much wider than it
actually is on the Arkansas side.
Blythevillet on Jonesboro Lake City and
Eastern Railway, or Big Lake Station,
or Osceola Jet. Also reached from
headquarters of warden at Hornersville,
IMo.— J. T. B.

*Walker Lake. A federal preserve
of 15 acres set aside by executive order.
Consists of Mississippi bottom lands
shown as a lake in old maps, but practi-
cally no lake actually exists in reserved
part. Of biological interest because
it is a resort and breeding place for
rare species of wading birds, particularly
the great blue heron, the American
egret, the water-turkey, and double-
crested cormorant. The Canada goose
occasionally breeds here. Motion pic-
ture entitled "Anne's Aigrette" showing
breeding colonies of egrets and inhu-
manity of traffic in plumage was made
here by photographers of the Biological
Survey, which is available for educa-
tional purposes. Blythesvillet on
Jonesboro Lake City and Eastern Rail-
way .-J. T. B.

*Big Island. (A3.) An island along
Mississippi river in Desha County,
formed by Arkansas river on south and
west, with White river cut-off 4 mi. on
west, White river on nortii and Missis-
sippi river to cast. Circumference
about 45 mi. With the natural i)rotec-
tion that it iias it would be easy to
protect. Tlicrc are lakes, bayous, and
many species of migratory waterfowl,
and there is a great quantity of natural
cover for game. ^Contains Virginia

468

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

deer and black bear. Subject to over-
flow.— Lee Miles.

Petit Jean Mountain Park. (C4.)
A tract of 1500 acres embracing the most
picturesque portion of Petit Jean Moun-
tain, situated along Arkansas River in
Conway County, has attracted tourists
for its scenic beauty and has been set
aside as a state park. Entire mountain
is a flat top erosion remnant occupying a
synclinal structure. It is capped with
sandstone, forming a continuous line of
great sandstone boulders where it out-
crops on the brow of the hill. Elevation
1100 ft. rising from about 320 ft. along
Arkansas River. Has 100 ft. waterfall,
"Cedar Falls," which drains mountain-
top to the west through canyon several
hundred feet deep. More than 50 springs
near the summit, some discharging min-
eral water. Native timber of shortleaf
pine, white oak, hickory and a little
maple with much of its summit as yet in
virgin forest, mainly pine. Mammalian
fauna includes wolf, gray and red fox.

MorriltonJ, 9 mi. east on good road.
Missouri Pacific. — T. W. Hardison.

McNab Wooded Sand Hill and Red
River Forest areas. (C3.) One or more
small areas of indefinite size (not exceed-
ing several square miles each), west and
south of McNab in the wooded sandy
hills and bluffs adjacent to the Red
River. A region of special botanical
interest celebrated for its large number
of endemic species. Contains Quercus
arkansana, Q. Durandi, Carya myristicae-
formis, Castanea alnifolia, Ubnus sero-
tina, Sophora affinis, and many rare
species of Crataegus. Abundance of
cretaceous fossils.

FultonJ, Ark. on Mo. Pac. Ry., 3
and 5 mi. (a). McNab-Frisco Ry.
one mi. south and two mi. west. —
/. T. Buchholz.

Harrison Natural Bridge Park. A
tract formerly known as the Town
Hopper Estate in the heart of the resi-
dence district, has been acquired by the
City of Harrison as a public playground
park. Contains limestone bluff and a
natural bridge fronting along on White
River with many native trees and other
plants characteristic of the Ozark flora.
Harrisonl on Mo. North Ark. Ry.—
/. T. B.

Pigron Pasture. (C4.) Available. A
tract approximately 40 acres, known as
Pigron's Pasture is noted locally for its
bird fauna. It is a nearly level, grazed
valley, having a small stream of water,
has some meadow and many hawthorns,
wild grapes and various kinds of berries
aside from sycamores, oaks, walnuts,

and other trees. Breeding place for
oven-bird, yellow-breasted chat, Ken-
tucky warbler, sycamore warbler, also
many more common song birds such
as mockingbirds, cat birds, brown
thrasher, cardinal, wood pee-wee, field
sparrow, gold finch and blue jay. Near
Fayetteville on St. L. & S. F. (Frisco)
Railway, two mi. from station, one mi.
from Postoffice, east on Elkins-Hunts-
ville Road. — Albert Lano.

Magazine Mountain in Logan County.
(B3.) Highest point in Arkansas and
one of the highest between Rocky Moun-
tains and Alleghenys, altitude 2823 ft.
Has very diverse flora and fauna, much
of it in undisturbed condition.

Magazine 7 mi. east, Blue Mountain
6 mi. N. East on C. R. I. & Pac. Rv.—
J.T.B.

*Hot Springs National Park. In Gar-
land County has 44 hot springs, many
palatial hotels and bath houses.

Hot Springst, C. R. I. & Pac. Ry. and
Mo. Pac. Ry.— /. T. B.

Mammoth Spring. (64.) 18 acres in
Fulton County, largest spring in western
America flowing 300,000 gallons of water
per minute, source of Spring River,
altitude 580 ft.

Mammoth SpringL Frisco Ry. — /.
T. B.

Kessler Mountain. (C4.) Available.
One of the Ozark hills which has a maple
(Acer saccharinum) forest with northern
plants on its northern slopes and in
protected ravines otherwise a typical
oak savanna of this region. It is prob-
ably representative of much of the hill
surface of the southern Ozark Moun-
tains. Much of it is still relatively un-
disturbed. 200 to 1000 acres located in
Washington County between Fayette-
ville and Farmington, 3^ mi. west from
Fayettevillet, or one mi. (w) East from
Farmington, Ark., Frisco Ry. — /. T. B.

Mt. Nebo. (C4.) A tract of consider-
able acreage in Yell County. Elevation
330 to 1760 ft. Borders along Arkansas
River with much of it little disturbed.
Has always attracted tourists and should
be set aside as state or national park.

Dardanelle, 6 mi. west, C. R. I. &
P. Ry.— /. T. B.

Sugar Loaf Mountain. (C4.) In
South Sebastian County in Arkansas and
Oklahoma boundary. Said to be unin-
habited and undisturbed. A beautiful
hill typical of the western Ouachita
Mountains.

Hartford, several miles, Hartford and
Midland Valley Ry. ; Rock Island Ry.—
/. T. B.

Magnet Cove, Arkansas. (F6.) In
Hot Springs County, about 4 to 6 sq.
mi. should be included in this tract or a

NATURAL AREAS AND RKP.IONS

469

number of smaller tracts set aside within
this area. This region is underlain by
igneous rocks and has long been noted
for its wonderful display of minerals of
which 52 varieties have been reported.
It is a relic of an ancient basin of thermal
springs. The forest is largely of hard-
woods in a region of coniferous forests.
It has attracted attention of the early
botanists, some of whom reported
botanical evidences indicating that the
cove was once marshy. Forty-seven
native trees have been listed from the
region. (See Ark. Geol. Survej^ Report,
Vol. 2, 1890.)

Magnet, reached from Butterfield 4 mi.
northwest, or Cove Creek 2 mi. north on
Rock Island Ry.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ON ARKANSAS
FAUNA AND FLORA

Buchholz, John T. Notes of Arkansas
Pteridophyta. Amer. Fern Jour., 14:
33-38. April-June, 1924.

Buchholz, John T., and Wilbur R. Mat-
toon. Common forest trees of Arkan-
sas. Bull. Agr. Ext. Div. Univ. of
Ark., No. 180. November, 1924. Lit-
tle Rock.

Harvey, F. L. Arboreal flora of Arkan-
sas. Amer. Jour. Forestry, 1S83: 3-20.

Same uiithdr in Bnl. Gazette, 7: 12;
S: 3")o; 9: 19."), 1%; 10: 279 2.S(); 5: 1.');
39, S4; <»1 \)\\; 139 10; (i: 1S9-11MJ;
213-lo; 230, 273.

Howell, A. If. Hird.s of ArkansaA.
HuUotin No. 3s ; HioloKical Survey.
U. S. I). S. HUl.

Ilarjjer, R. M. IMiytoKeoKraphical notes
on the C'o.ustai Plain of Arkansas.
Plant World, 17: 3(J-4.S. 1914.

Harper, R. M. Same Undcscril>cd Prai-
ries of Northeastern .Xrkaiis.'is. I'Uint
H'orW, 20: .'jS-OC. 1917.

Palmer, E. J. The forest llora of the
Ozark region. Jour. Arnold Arbore-
tum 2: 210 232. 1921.

Palmer, E. J.' Vhe Red River Forest at
Fulton, Arkansa,s. Jour. Arnold Ar-
boretum, 4: 8-33. 1923.

Palmer, E. J. The ligneous flora of
Rich Mountain. .\rkans!us and Okla-
homa. Jour. Arnold Arboretum, 5:
108-134. April. 1924.

Palmer, E. J., Two interesting ferns
from Arkansas, .{mer. Fern Jour.,
14: 39-11. April June, 1924.

Wheeler, IF. E. Birds of Arkansas.
(A preliminary report with bibliogra-
phy by Howell.) Published by State
Bureau of Mines, Manuf. and Agr.
Little Rock, 1924.

D. States Chieflij Oak Grove Savanna

This type of vegetation which is
described on page 67 extends from
Minnesota to Texas just west of tlie
forest proper. Only those states which
are more largely of this than of any
other type are included here. Most
of Illinois and Iowa, and a large pro-
portion of Missouri and Oklahoma, are
covered by oak grove savanna.

1. ILLINOIS

By Theodore H. Frison and R. B.
Miller

i. general conditions

/. Topography

Illinois is one of the states which form
the great Central Plain region of North
America. Though essentially a gently
rolling or flat plain, the general uniform-
ity of the surface is varied and broken
in most parts of the state. Chief
among the topographical features re-
sponsible for this unevenness are the

extensive terminal moraines, the large
river systems and their accompanying
valleys, the unglaciated areas, and a
spur of the conspicously elevated Ozark
Highland.

The north-south extent of the state
is approximately oj" latitude or .385 mi.,
and the east-west extent of the state is
approximately 4° longitude or 21() mi.
The difference in elevation between the
highest and lowest points in the state
is less than a thousand feet, the highest
point being 1241 ft. above sea level in
Jo Daviess County and the lowest point
268 ft. aI)ove sea level at the lower
water mark where the Ohio and Missis-
sippi Rivers merge.

2. Climate

The climate of Illinois is determined
by its location in tiie interior of the
North American continent, the general
uniformity of elevation throughout the
state, its midille position in rcsjHJct to

470

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

north latitudes, and its position in regard
to moisture bearing winds.

Generally speaking, Illinois is a
state with warm summers and cold
winters. The average temperature for
January, the coldest month, is 26.9°F.
and that of July, the warmest month,
is 75.9°F. Changeableness of weather
is a common phenomenon and the
changes are often rapid and extreme.
Increases and decreases in the tem-
perature of 30°F. within twenty-four
hours are not uncommon, and the tem-
perature has been known to rise 48°F.
within twenty-four hours and to fall
65°F. within eighteen hours. The aver-
age temperature for the state is approxi-
mately 52°F. and the extreme range in
temperatures is 147°F. The difference
in annual temperatures between those
places having the lowest (Northern
Illinois) and highest (Southern Illinois)
annual temperatures is a matter of about
10.5°F. The growing season varies
from five months in the northern to
seven months in the southern part of
the state.

In Illinois the rainfall is well cor-
related with suitable conditions of
temperature for an abundant growth of
plant life. The normal precipitation
for the state is 36.54 in. This precipita-
tion is distributed throughout winter,
spring, summer, and fall, respectively,
as follows: 6.98, 10.33, 10.76, and 8.47
in. The month of May with 4.07 in.
of rainfall has the largest average
precipitation of the months of the j'ear,
and December the smallest with a
precipitation of 2.16 in. Nearly 60%
of the normal rainfall therefore falls
during the time of year when conditions
of temperature are favorable for plant
growth.

Though the averages of rainfall are
well balanced for the four seasons of
the year, there occur many wide de-
partures in local areas from the aver-
age. Variations in the amount of
monthly precipitation from 0 to 20
in. have been recorded. Such deviations
from the average monthly rainfall,
together with the distribution of 'the

rainfall within the month or season,
are responsible for occasional local or
general drouths and flooded conditions
in the river and stream valleys.

S. Original biota

Illinois is unique among the states
in that it contains plant and animal
forms representative of the eastern
forests, of the western prairies, of the
northern bogs, of the southern moun-
tains and the Lake Michigan coastal
plain.

a. Deciduous forest

About 44% of the state was originally
deciduous forest. The northeastern cor-
ner and the southern third of the state
were almost continuous forest. In the
other parts of the state, the forest was
confined to the stream margins and to
occasional groves away from streams.
The principal trees were white oak
(Quercus alba), red oak {Quercus rubra),
black oak (Quercus velutina), elm {Ulmus
americana), basswood {Tilia americana) ,
soft maple {Acer saccharinum) , and
especially in the southeastern part
some beech (Fagus grandifolia), and
sugar maple (Acer saccharum). The
larger animals of the deciduous forest
included the Virginia white-tailed deer
(Odocoileus virginianus), black bear
(Ursus americanus), timber wolf {Canis
lycaon), red fox (Vulpes fulva), gray fox
{Urocyon cinereoargenteus) , opossum
(Didelphis virginiana), cotton-tail rab-
bit (Sylvilagus floridanus inearnsii),
gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis leuco-
tis), deer-mouse (Peromyscus leucopus
noveboracensis), timber rattlesnake (Cro-
lalus horridus), ruffed grouse, wild
turkey, and the tufted titmouse.
Among the smaller animals such forms
as the polyphemus moth (Telea poly-
phemus), the wood cockroach {Parco-
blatta pennsylvanica), the katydid {Mi-
crocentrum laurifolium) , the oak-pruner
(Elaphidion villosum), the two-spotted
bumblebee (Bremus bimaciilatus), the
white-lipped wood snail {Polygyra albo-
labris), the striped wood snail {Pyrami-
dula alternata), and a couple of small

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

471

earthworms {Helodrilus tenius) and
(Diplocardia singularis) are coTiimon to
this regioa.

b. Prairie or Oak-Grove Savanna

The deciduous forests in central
Illinois were scattered in the midst of
a rich grassland or prairie. The bound-
ary between the two was composed of
shrubs and small trees, such as haw-
thorn, dogwood {Cornusjlorida), bladder
nut {Staphylea trifolia), raspberry {Ru-
bus occidentalis) , and bitter sweet
(Celastrus scandens), which formed a
strip about 15 or 20 ft. wide. There
were thousands of miles of these forest
edges in Illinois when the white man
first took possession of the land. They
were the haunt of the skunk {Mephitis
nigra), Franklin ground-squirrel (Citel-
lus franklinii), jumping-mousc {Zapus
hudsonius) , chipmunk {Tamias slrialus),
and short-tailed shrew [Blarina brevi-
cauda), and were also the chief nesting
places of a host of birds which now
inhabit orchards, j^ards, and hedges.
The elk {Cervus canadensis) was fond
of the forest edge. Many of the insect
pests of fruit-bearing trees and shrubs
originally lived in this transitional area
of shrubs and small trees.

The prairie proper was a rich grassland
composed of such grasses as Andropogon
fur cat as, Andropogon sco partus , various
species of Panicum, etc., together with
such herbs as the compass plant (Sil-
phium laciniatum) , the prairie dock
{Silphimn terebinthinaceum), and vari-
ous species of golden-rod. The great
prairie area was astride the Illinois
River where its general direction was
east and west. The larger portion,
south of the river, was about three
times as large as the portion north of
the river. The entire northern two-
thirds of the state included prairie
areas. The bison (Bison bison), coyote
(Canis latrans), badger (Taxidea taxm),
striped ground-squirrel {Citellus tri-
decemlineatus), pocket-gopher {Geomys
bursarius), and the prairie rattler
(Sistrurus catcnalus), were abundant
in this region during the period of ex-

ploration and early settlement. Here
also were found the dickcissel, the
prairie lark, the meadow lark, small
bee-hive snails {Gaslrocapla conlracla
and Pupoidca marginnlus), such earth-
worms as (Diplocardia communis and
Ilclodrilis trapczoidcs) and many insects
which have now become serious pests
of cultivated forage crops and Rrains
(cutworms, aphids, white grubs, etc.)

c. Local

In addition to the dominant biota
just described, there were local con-
ditions. Of these the most important
were the sand areas, rivers, lake.s, and
swamps.

The sand areas were associated with
Lake Michigan and the glacial drainage
courses, namely, the Illinois and Kanka-
kee rivers, and the swamps with the
rivers just enumerated, the Missi-ssippi
River, the inter-morainal depressions
of the prairie area, and the lake district
of the northern part of the state. The
sand areas have been the subject of
various studies of succession. All stages
in the development of the forest and
prairie occurred on the sand areas.
Here grew several kinds of oaks, cotton-
wood, cacti, Monarda, Diodea, Cassia,
Rhus and Slenophyllus, and jack pine in
the Lake Michigan Region. The fauna
of the sandy areas included such animals
as the sand lizard (Cnemidophorus
sexli}iealus), hog-nose snake (llclcrodon
conlorlrix), bo.\ turtle [Tcrrapenc Caro-
lina), many bembecid and sphecoid
wasps, such sand frequenting grass-
hoppers as (Mcnniria ticomexicana and
Spharagcmon wyomingianum), and the
cactus feeding syrphid fly (Volucelln
fasciata).

Swamps were numerous in the central
jjart of the state in the prairie area.
They occupied the depressions in the
till of the Wisconsin glacier. Prominent
among the plants in the swampy areas
were cattails (Typha), l)ulrush (Scirpus),
certain willows (Salix), flags (/n«),
swamp milkweed (.1 > ' •. : :ta),

Sparganium, and > , \ long

the animals were the muskrat {Oruiatra

472

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

zibethica), marsh hawk, marsh wrens,
red-winged blackbird, dragonflies, and
mosquitoes. In the cypress swamps
in the southern part of the state occurred
the swamp rabbit (Sylvilagus aquaticus).
In northeastern Illinois were numerous
swamps and a few northern bogs. In
the latter grew the tamarack {Larix
laricina), mountain ash (Pynis ameri-
cana), pitcher plant (Sarracenia pur-
purea), cranberry {Vaccinium macro-
carpon), and there lived numerous
insects with northern affinities such as
the tipulids {Nephrotoma sphagnicola
and Tipula senega) . Swampy areas also
occurred in the bottomlands along the
water courses and were caused by the
overflow during the early spring floods.
The extensiveness of the rivers and
lakes, particularly the former, enabled
this state to support a varied and abun-
dant aquatic and semi-aquatic biota.
The lake district of Illinois was essen-
tially in the northeastern part of the
state and here there are about 20 lakes
one mi. or more in length. These are
of glacial origin. The larger rivers and
their tributaries were more evenly
distributed throughout the state. Both
the rivers and lakes of Illinois were
originally well stocked with various
kinds of fresh water fish, and aquatic
insects and mollusks occurred in abun-
dance. These areas or their margins
also supported muskrat and mink, as
well as numerous water loving birds.

4. PRESENT BIOTA

The original biota of Illinois is very
seriously disturbed. The game, both
large and small, has been very largely
destroyed, except in the Ozark Highland
in the southern part of the state. The
bison, black bear, elk, snowshoe hare
(Lepus americanus), beaver {Castor
canadensis), and gray fox {Urocyon
cinereoargenteus) , had quite generally
disappeared before or about 1850.

While the area now occupied by most
of the plant and animal types just
enumerated, and many others neces-
sarily left out, is very much curtailed
in contrast with the display of a century

and a half ago, there still exisi; ample
examples of every major habitat except
the prairie which once was the most
representative of them all. Since very
few original tracts of prairie now remain,
it is of the most urgent importance that
some be set aside in perpetuity before
it is forever too late.

Extensive drainage has reduced much
of the area formerly of swamp and
bayous character, while stream pollu-
tion has been responsible for the change
in the biota of otherwise more perma-
nent habitats — the larger streams and
rivers. Notably, the original flora and
fauna of the Upper Illinois River is
almost exterminated by Chicago sewage.

II. NATURAL AREAS
A. CHICAGO DISTRICT

1. Prairie

*Riverside Prairie. (Cook County
Preserves.) About 10 acres near the
Desplaines River; typical mesophytic
prairie; general aspect characteristic
of large areas in Illinois oak grove
savanna. See Bryant's poem "The
Prairies." 630-650 ft. altitude, level.
(See frontispiece.)

Chicago, 12 mi. west, C. B. & Q. R.
R., or La Grande Electric; § mi. N.W.
from (W). Riverside, 111.— F. E.
Shelf or d.

2. Deciduous forest of the Cook County
district

*Cook County Forest Preserves. In-
cludes deciduous forest, flood plain,
ravines, hills, swamps, ponds, rivers,
and springs. There are at present
24,806 acres devoted to such purposes
which have been acquired since 1913,
and according to Chief Forester Ransom
H. Kennicott there are 30,000 acres
available for reservation as forests. It
must be remembered, of course, that
not all of this is wooded, but that some
is taken up by golf courses, baseball
diamonds, tennis courts, and open
spaces of various kinds. The Forest
Preserve District has also acquired
title to more than 260 acres of the

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

473

Skokie marsh so that this entire hit of
moorland amounting to over 2000 acres
will in time be preserved from drainage
projects and kept in its jjriniitive
condition.

Cook County's forest preserves are
distributed as follows:

Districts: Acres

Palos.. ■ 6,6S8.4S

Desplaines 5,274.26

North Branch of Chi-
cago River 2,690.27

Chicago Heights, Bloom

and Thornton 2. 248. 76

Calumet State Line. . . . 2, 135.82
Salt Creek and River-
side 1,236.60

Palatine 1,102.08

Elk Grove 1,273.48

Orland "34.35

Skokie 503.90

Lvons 367.94

OakFore.st 227.20

Beverly Hills 160.13

Schaumburg 50. 65

Evanston 6. 08

Total. 24,806.62

a. Upland areas

*County Line Preserve. (Cook County
Preserves.) A small tract of swampy
woods at the margin of the Skokie
marsh. Near Braeside Northwestern
R. R. 20 mi. north of Chicago.— IF. C.

Allee.

p. North Shore Ravines. (C4.) The
ravines between Winnetka and Wauke-
gan in Cook and Lake Counties. These
ravines contain a rich mesophytic flora
in an essentially natural state. These
are notable for being almost the only
stations for beech (Fagus grandifolia)
in northern Illinois. They also contain
various plants of northern range. In
most of these ravines the public is not
particularly welcome. The animals here
are those typical of mesophytic woods.
The ravine streams are mostly con-
taminated, so much so that in many
cases the resistant water isopod, Ascllus
communis, is lacking. In others the
sensitive Mav-fly nA-mphs may be found.
The ravines may easily be reached via
the N. W. R. R. or Milwaukee Electric
which runs near Lake Michigan. Per-

sons visiting thc«c ravines may see
several in a day. An excellent example
is within the military tract at Kort
Sheridan.^//. ('. Cowles.

*Dccr Grove. (1J3C3.) (Palatine Pre-
serve, Cook County.) Artifically en-
larged, natural lake with practically
entire drainage ba.sins of two tributary
brooks. About 1200 acres. Open red
oak forest with elms along water courses.
Some hickory and maple present. Tim-
ber is oak-hickory type. Streams small,
but permanent. Many temporary and
a few permanent ponds. Partly rented
for grazing. Prairie Club permanent
camp.

Chicago 28 mi. S.E., Chicago and
Northwestern 2.5 mi. N. (w or a) Pala-
tine, III.— IF. C. Allee.

*Elk Grove Preserve. (B3-C3.) (Cook
County.) Two or more mi. south of
Arlington Heights on Chicago and
Northwestern R. R. Swampy land;
contains both banks of Salt Creek for
about two mi. The creek is relatively
free from contamination at this place. —
IF. C. Allee.

b. Desplaines River Preserves

Scattered tracts along the Desplaines
River taking in much of the river bank
from Riverside to the County Line.
The river is badly contaminated for
most of the distance, but approaches
natural conditions near Wheeling where
it his been dammed. Large nunil)cr.s
of river mussels occur below Wheeling.
Riverside shows some of the best
forest.

*Riversilc Flood Plain and Savanni
Forest. About 20 acres along the Des-
plaines River: typical mature flood
plain forest of maple, elm, bass wood,
walnut and oak. Shows succession
from middle age to mature stage. For-
est edge with sinuate outlines, outlying
groves; gra.ss covered portions, typical
mesophytic prairie; general aspect char-
acteristic of large areas in Illinois oak
grove savanna. The fauna of the
forest edge is especially charnct.-ristic:
in the forest, raccoons, gray squirrels.

474

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

and many characteristic invertebrates.
Stream badly polluted. 630 to 650 ft.;
level.— F. E. Shelford.

c. North Branch Chicago River Preserves

*Shermerville Tract. (C4.) (Cook
County.) 40 acres of oak-hickory-elm
woods a third of which is rustic park
and the rest is similar to the other
wooded tracts; Claytonia and Trillium
grow thickly; wood snails and isopods
are plentiful.

20 mi. north of Chicago. C. M. &
St. P. R. R. East of the Station.—
W. C. Alice.

*Morton Grove Preserve. (B3-C3.)
(Cook County.) Oak-hickory forest.
On the North Branch of the Chicago
river. Relatively uncontaminated
water; many crayfishes and fishes. —
W. C. Alice.

*Edgebrook Preserve. (C4.) (Cook
County.) Oak-hickory forest. On
North Branch of Chicago River which
is here contaminated to a considerable
degree. Otherwise the conditions are
similar to those above. — W. C. Alice.

d. Southern Upland Preserves

*Beverly Hills Forest. (Cook County.)
20 acres of deciduous forest and glacial
topography, including some swampy
brush covered land located in Cook
County Forest.

One-half mile northwest from Beverly
Hills. C. R. I. & P. R. R. Chicago,
111.— F. E. Shelford.

*Glenwood Preserve. (C4.) Oak-
hickory forest. Thorn Creek is badly
contaminated in this region and con-
tains practically no life not found in
sewage. Butterfield Creek, which is
not reserved, is still uncontaminated
and is the best example of a normal
brook animal community to be found
near Chicago. Johnny darters, May-
fly nymphs, and caddice-fiy larvae are
abundant.

20 mi. south of Chicago. B. & O.
suburban line, Glenwood. — W. C. Allee.

*Palos Preserve. (C3.) A large tract
with widely varying conditions from
swampy thickets to open fields. In

other places there are wooded ravines.
Oaks and elms predominate. In places
one finds typical savanna conditions
which are in part a result of past farming
operations. Conditions are particularly
favorable for birds. Moraine ponds are
common.

Palos Park, 111. Wabash R. R.—
W. C. Alice.

*Chicago Heights Preserve. (C4.)
Deciduous forest. Thorn Creek is here
unpolluted. Flood plain thickets and
open forest growth of oaks and elms
give the general features.

20 mi. south of Chicago. C. & E.
I. R. R.— IF. C. Alice.

e. Southern Lowland Preserves

*Burnham and West Hammond Pre-
serves. (C4.) Swampy land in the
main, although the West Hammond
Preserves have better drainage and
support a growth of mixed oaks. The
ponds here are largely summer-dry, but
in spring there is a heavy frog popula-
tion. Salamanders {Amhystoma tigri-
num) lay eggs here. The fairy shrimp
{Euhranchipus vernalis) and an isopod
{Ascllus communis) are particularly
abundant.

Reached by various street car lines
from 63rd St., Chicago.— TF. C. Allec.

pWolf Lake or Lake Calumet. Lakes
near Chicago containing such snails as
Pleuroccra and Vivipara commonly, and
mussels in abundance. Waterfowl and
several varieties of fish are also present.
Pond weeds have been regularly removed
by ice companies.

Reached by various street car lines
from 63rd Street, Chicago.— IF. C. Allee.

f. Streams

pFox River. (Elgin to Carpenters-
ville Dam.) Good mussel and fish
conditions.

Elgin, 111.— A. D. Howard.

pHickory Creek. (New Lenox to
Joliet Park.) One of the few unpol-
luted streams in northern Illinois. Has
varied conditions and fauna. Should
be preserved by the state.

New Lenox, 111. C. R. I. & P., Joliet

NATURAL AREAS AND RLXilONS

475

and Eastern Traction. — A. D. Iloininl
and V. E. Shelford.

b/ NORTHEASTERN TIER COUNTIES

1. The Shore of Lake Michigan

pWaukegan Flats. (B3.) Onesq.mi.
sand area, level plain, with few ridges,
ponds, marshes and sluggish streams.
Some coniferous trees. A large growth
of pine trees of many species grown from
seed by the Douglas Nur.sery. These
dunes "are displayed chiefly north of
Waukegan. Though small in area and
miniature in height, the flora is very
rich and representative. An attempt
has been made to preserve the Waukegan
dune area, thus far without success.
The tract contains Dead River, a base-
levelled stream that opens at times into
Lake Michigan and again is closed off
by sand. The water is unpolluted,
and contains good fauna.

Beach, Illinois, C. &. N. W. R. R.—
H. C. Cowles and W. C. Alice.

2. Inland lakes, sioamps and hogs

pLake County Lakes, Swamps and
Bogs. Lake County is notable for its
glacial lakes and its innumerable swamps
and bogs. The largest and best known
of the lakes is Fox Lake. Grass Lake,
an arm of Fox Lake, is famous for its
bed of lotus (Nelumho lutea), a rare
plant in Illinois except along the Missis-
sippi River. There is a remarkable
variety in the fauna and flora of the
different lakes. There are about ten
true bogs in Lake and the adjoining
countv of McHenry, representing prob-
ably the only stations in the state tor
certain plants of far northern range, as
the tamarack, mountain ash, Andromeda.
Chamaedaphne and dwarf birch {Bct^iia
pumila). Verv abundant here are the
sundew (Drosera), pitcher and cran-

H. C. Cowles. r. .-, J c

Tamarack Swamps. South end ot
Pistakee Lake, Lake County. About
one square mile, including lakes, shrub
covered swamp, and three tamarack

^\Tn?Lake,IU.,C.M.&St.P.R.R.,
3 mi. southwest.-T^ E. Shelford.

' *Cedar Swamp of Kane County. Prob-
ably nowhere else in Illinois can_ there
be found a swamp of northern white
cedar or "arbor vitae (Thuja). Fortu-
nately a large part of the swamp area
has been acquired by the city of Elgin

and is preserved a.s a natural park, under
tlic auspices of the ElRin Chapter of
the Wild Flower Proservation Society.
Known as "Trout Park."
City cars run to park. — //. C. Cowlen.

C. OUTSIDK THE CHIC.\<JO AND NOIITII-
KASTKHN TIER COUNTV DISTRICT

/. Prairie

Bondville Prairie. Mcsopliytic prairio,
much of the best of whicli li:us recently
been destroyed by plowing.

Located in Chaini>aign County.
Boudville, 111., one mi. ca.st, III. Trac-
tion System.— ^K. B. McDougall.

2. Deciduous forests

pBald Knob Hardwood Forest. (Union
County.) This is an upland oak-hick-
ory forest, culminating in Bald Knob,
a cleared area, with an elevation of W2'>
ft., in the Ozark Highlands of Union
Countv. It would be possible to ."set
aside here for a state forest about 30
sections of wooded area, of which Kl.tiOO
acres could be classed as upland timber.
(For description, species present and
probable yields by types, see "First
Report on a Forestry Survey of Illinois,
Bulletin of the Illinois Natural History
Survev, Vol. XIV, Article VIII, .March,
1923.)' In the ravines are found beech,
tulip tree, white oak, cucumber, mul-
berry and butternut. As to the fauna,
there are the opossum, raccoon, pray
fox. skunk, mink, weasel, gray squirrel
and cottontail rabbit, and among the
snakes, the rattler and the copperhead
(Agkistrodon 7nokasen). Wild turkey
were at one time abundant and deer were
present not over 15 years ago. (Juail
are common and an otter was killed by
one of the topographic sur\-eyors not
over three years ago. '

Bald Knob is about 3 mi. southwest of
\lto Pass, on the Mobile and Ohio Rail-
way (h). -Vlso easily reached from ( ob-
den main line Illinois Central R. H.
(a).— fl. B. Miller.

pFounlain Bluff. (Jackson County.^
This consists of 3297 acres of upland oak
forest In a part of it the lM?st of the
merchantable timber has been removed
but portions still contain about •JtKH)
board ft. per acre. . , , ,

Fountain BlulT is an isolated area of
.rrcat ruggodnc.ss and beauty, separated
bv manv miles of ilood plain from the
main bodv of the Ozarks, witli which it
was once' connected. 'Plus rock i.-^ .-md
stands up like a mountain from the Ilood
plain exten.ling on every side, roachinR
a height of three or four hundred feet

476

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

at its highest point. At the southwest
portion the Mississippi River washes its
banks and from the top of the bluff the
"Father of Waters" forms an impressive
feature of the landscape. The bluff is
composed of massive sandstone inter-
spersed with peculiar iron layers, except
at the south where it is limestone.
There is a fine display of hickory, oak
and beech and in the spring the flowering
display of the serviceberry and dogwood
beggars description.

Fountain Bluff is about | mi. (w) from
Gorham and also on the main highway
running from Chicago to Cairo. — Henry
C. Cowles.

pFern Cliff. (Johnson County.) This
is a tract of only about 36 acres but
remarkable for its fern-covered boulders,
water-falls framed by high cliffs, sand
caves of magnificent proportions, talus
slopes with immense fragments broken
from the cliffs and perpendicular cliffs
200 ft. in height. There is a stream bor-
dered by fine hardwoods, beech, hickory
and maple, with fine springs and numer-
ous waterfalls.

Reached (w) from Goreville, I mi.;
Illinois Central, Carbondale to Marion
and C. and E. I. R. R. Marion to Gore-
ville. Train connections just right for a
day's trip from Carbondale, returning
the same night. — R. B. Miller.

Strip Mine Land. (Vermilion
County.) About 50 acres of deciduous
forest which is slowly being converted
into "spoil banks" by the process of
strip mining where the surface soil is
removed down to several feet in depth
by steam shovels, exposing the coal.
Where the forests are coming in after
"stripping" the land, they are in danger
of being partially destroyed by grazing.
These lands offer a valuable opportunity
to study the re-establishment by suc-
cession of the original bottomland
forests.

Located two mi. east of Oakwood,
on the cement road Champaign to Dan-
ville, or take local cars on the Illinois
Traction Line; also Peoria Division of
the Big Four to Oakwood. — W. B.
McDougall.

Equality Quadrangle Forest. (Pope
County.) 720 to 1000 acres of hilly
cut-over land lying on the south slope
of the Mountains of Hepsidam, with a
fair stand of young post oak and other
timber which will easily reproduce itself.
There lies on these slopes one of the
famous springs of Pope County, the Blue
Hole Spring. This tract could be con-
nected with a similar tract on the top of
Cave Hill, in Saline County, by a road
which would give a magnificent view of
the country. This tract would make an

ideal bird sanctuary, as the mocking bird
nests here.

Reached from Route 13 State road with
a 3 mi. road. Also from Equality, on
the L. and N. R. R. between Harrisburg
and Shawneetown. — L. W. Gordon.

pBroionjield Woods. (Champaign
County.) A tract of about 60 acres of
deciduous forest which should be made
part of a forest preserve district for the
county embracing scattered tracts along
a branch of the Salt Fork from Urbana
to St. Joseph. It falls in the class of
forest running about 4000 board ft. per
acre and contains good specimens of red
and white oak, sugar maple, elm, hack-
berry and other bottom-land species.
Rich in bird life, some small mammals,
numerous moUusca and many insects.

About 3 mi. northeast of Urbana-
Champaign; (a) or Kankakee-Urbana
traction line. — W. B. McDougall.

*University of Illinois Forest Pre-
serve. Thirty or 40 acres of deciduous
forest characteristic of the groves of
central Illinois; used for scientific pur-
poses. Characteristic mesophytic trees.
Some cutting has taken place in recent
years removing the walnut and other
valuable species. Has been badly dam-
aged by continuous grazing but has
recovered rapidly from the harmful
effects since it has been under Univer-
sity control.

3j mi. northeast of Urbana. (a) or
from Cottonwood Stop, Danville-Cham-
paign branch of Illinois Traction Sys-
tem.— W. B. McDougall.

pTunnell Hill. (Johnson County.)
This is a region of much scenic interest
and botanists are impressed by the
marked differences of its flora from that
of any other portion of the state. No-
where else in the United States have I
seen a more varied fern growth, the many
shaded clifTs forming veritable fern
gardens. Here is the northernmost
range of Vaccinium arboreum, V. glau-
cescens, V. tenellum, Seduni pulchellum,
Magnolia acuminata, and many other
plants.

10 mi. south of Parker, crossing of
Illinois Central and C. C. C. & St. L.
Railroads. — T. E. Savage.

*West Woods. (McLean County.)
An area of about 40 acres located in
McLean County typical of the deciduous
forests of the region. A monument in

NATURAL AREAS AM J RliGIONS

477

the tract states that the area was be-
queathed to the county by Mr. West,
to be a reserve of original natvire dedi-
cated to the interests of nature lovers,
(a) from Leroy, HI. — /. IK. Brown.

Cedar Glen. (Hancock County.) 100
acres deciduous forest, with ravine and
bluff, known as Cedar Glen. The glen
is in an essentially primeval condition,
and the tract should extend over the
bottomland to the river.

Located in Hancock County, 3 mi.
from Warsaw, III. — IF. K. Hill.

Wild Cat Springs. (Hancock County.)
50 acres deciduous forest, flood plain
forest, talus slope, ravine, bluff, shore,
lake, river, and spring. This place,
known as Wild Cat Springs, includes
a ravine into which the water from
the Koekuk Power Dam extends for h
mi. The tract is in a nearly primeval
state.

Located in Hancock County, 111., one
mi. from Hamilton. — W. K. Hill.

Sangamon Bottoms. (Piatt County.)
40 acres of flood plain forest, with tem-
porary ponds and a stream with sandy
bottom. Shows very well the stages
taking place in the flood plain forest.

Located in Piatt County, along the
Sangamon River, U mi. west of White
Heath, 111. White Heath is on a new
cement road, Champaign to Springfield;
also on the Illinois Central R. R^ be-
tween Champaign and Clinton. — V. E.
Shelf or d.

*Deer Park and Deer Park Camjon.
(La Salle County.) One sq. mi. of
deciduous forest, with river, canyons,
waterfalls and springs. Is maintained
by two towns at the present time but
should pass into state control and be
linked up with Starved Rock Park.
The main canyon rivals any of the
canyons in Starved Rock Park.

Located near Oglesby, La Salle
County.— (?. D. Fuller.

*Slarved Rock State Park. (La Salle
County.) Comprises about 1000 acres
on the south bank of the Illinois River,
extending along the bluff for about 5
mi. Conditions range from dry rocky
bluffs, where the northern white cedar
is found, to mesophytic ravines. An
extension of the area is planned to in-
clude Deer Park Canyon. For further
description see Ridgley's Geography of

IllinoiH, University of ChicaKO I'rcsa,
page 327.

.\Mi])Ie hotel ucroinnKjdationB in the
park. Reached by C. R. I. A: V. R. IL
from Utica, intcrurlmn line Utica to La
Salle or (a) on Route 7.—li. B. Miller.

Morton Arboretum. .\n area of about
500 acres or more being developed as a
private arboretnin by Mr. Morton. To
be later endowed for public use.

Located at Morton (Jrove, about 00
mi. west of Chicago. — //. C Cowlea.

*Matheson Park. (La Salle County.)
Two Si\. mi. of deciduous forest with
ravines, marshy shore and a portion of
the valley of the Little Vermillion
River. It is just on the outskirts of
the city of La Salle and is named after
the owner. It is being used as a i)leasnre
resort to some extent and should be
preserved by the city.

La Salle, III.— G. D. Fuller.

*Wi7ineshiek Bottoms. An extensive
area along the Mississippi River border-
ing four states, namely, Iowa, Illinois,
Wisconsin and Minnesota. Congress
has authorized the acquisition of this
territory as a Federal Reservation for
the protection of migrator}' birds and
fish. It is considered that it will be an
important factor in contributing to the
perpetuation of the migratory wild-
fowl for which the Mississippi Valley
is an especially important highway.—
W. L. McAtce.

Valley of the East Fork of Fox River.
(Richland County.) This area is desig-
nated for two reasons: (1) It probably
contains a larger proportion of woodland
and a greater variety of surface than any
other near Olney; and y'2} it is contiguous
to Bird Haven, a preserve already pri-
vately established, tiiough eventually
to be" for the l)enelit of the public.

The nooii-l)lain of K:u>t Fork, averag-
ing between i and 1 mi. wide, is l)ordire.l
on each side by bluffs elevated about 3(i
ft. above the stream level, and broken bv
freciuent lateral narrow valley.-^. Both
bottomland and uplantl are well woodeil
in many places, and the growth, in cer-
tain parts, i)robablv approximates jw
nearly to the original type a-s any wit Inn
the county. , . .

The special interest con '• ! »''!>

478

NATURALIST'S CUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

this area consists in the fact that the
variety of tree growth probably is not
exceeded by that of any section of North
America.

The area lies 2§ mi. north of the center
of Olney, and is reached by several good
roads. — Robert Ridgway.

The Valley of the Little Wabash River.
(Junction of Richland, Clay and Wagner
Counties.) Apart from its historical
interest, including, as it does, the place
where General George Rogers Clark
crossed the Little Wabash with his little
army undergoing almost insurmount-
able difficulties during his memorable
march from Kaskaskia to Vincennes,
this area is an important one from a
biological standpoint, on account of the
large number of distinctively southern
plants which here reach the northern
limit of their natural range.

Although the great part, both bottoms
and uplands, has been cleared and the
remaining woodland for the most part
heavily culled, there remain limited
areas of practically virgin forest, while
extensive tracts have grown up with
dense young forest. — Robert Ridgway.

The region adjacent to the mouth of
White River in Indiana and Illinois.
This area is of very special ecological
interest, and in my opinion is decidedly
the most important of any that I have
in mind. The cypress swamps, occupy-
ing a considerable portion of ' 'The Neck' '
immediately above the mouth of White
River, represent a "survival pocket"
of the flora of the ancient Gulf Embay-
ment. A number of distinctly southern
species occur or did occur here that
seem to have disappeared from the area
lying between White River and the
mouth of the Wabash. Here the cypress
reached its northern limit in the Missis-
sippi Valley and attained a development
comparable to that of the extreme south.

I do not know how much of this re-
markable association is left, but I fear
a large part of it has disappeared through
clearing, drainage, and cultivation.
There might still be found a fairly repre-
sentative remnant. — Robert Ridgway.

"Bird Haven." (Richland County.)
"A large variety of trees may be found
within the limits of this small native
woodland. The plants of "Bird Haven,"
a tract of 18 acres near Olney, Richland
County, have been listed by the owner,
Mr. Robert Ridgway, America's noted
ornithologist. The list given shows how
well the term "mixed hardwood forest"
applies even to a small tract of the native
forests of the Central States.

"Twenty-two families are represented
and in addition, the white mulberry is

growing spontaneously as an exotic in
Bird Haven; it is thoroughly naturalized
in Richland County.

"While Bird Haven is so well supplied
with trees growing naturally these do
not constitute all the native plant life
of this small area. Probably no other
forest area of Hlinois has had all its vege-
tation so carefully and accurately listed
as Bird Haven. Mr. Ridgway's detailed
lists show the great variety of plant life
to be found there. Of woody species
growing naturally there were 60 trees,
17 shrubs and 12 climbers, a total of 89
native plants. In addition, other woody
species native to Illinois have been
planted at Bird Haven as follows: 13
trees, 6 shrubs, 3 climbers, or 22 in all
making a total of woody plants of 111
species. To this number must be added
a list of 227 herbaceous plants, growing
naturally, making a grand total of 338
plant species accurately determined." —
Fro7n Ridgleij's "The Geography of
Illinois."

3. Coniferous forests

pUpland Shortleaf Pine Forest.
(Union County.) About 200 acres ex-
tending in a lengthwise direction along
the bluffs facing the Mississippi River,
known locally as the "Pine Hills."
Elevation in places 800 ft. At one time
these hills furnished some merchantable
pine timber and the pine is likely capable
of extension if fires are kept out. Fauna
very much the same as that of the upland
oak-hickory forests of that region. The
wild Azalea is characteristic of these
chert hills.

14 mi. south of Gorham, Missouri
Pacific or Illinois Central R. R.; j
mi. east from (w) Wolf Lake Station. —
R. B. Miller.

pWhite Pine Grove. (Ogle County.)
The largest of the remaining native
stands of white pine characteristic of the
Rock River region, situated on Pine
Creek. It has an area of 240 acres which
might be extended by thinnings in the
hardwoods and by natural regeneration
to! 300 acres. Forest conditions are
similar to those found in the New Eng-
land white pine forests. Trees are
about 75 years old, many of them being
two ft. in diameter at breast _ height.
Natural reproduction is now being pre-
vented by the grazing of cattle. Pine
Creek is a beautiful little stream with
high bluffs fringed with juniper and its
more level lands covered with black
walnut.

5 mi. east of Polo (a); on the C. B.&
Q. and the Illinois Central railroads. —
R. B. Miller.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

470

4. Inland sand areas

pHavana area. Close to Huvana in
Mason County on the eastern side of the
Illinois River lies an extensive sand area.
Several reports have been published
concerning the biota of this region. The
original vegetation was of three types,
namely, prairie of the level Hats merging
into swamps, the sand prairie occupying
the more or less pure sand ridges and
dunes, and the comparatively recent
forest types. The first of these original
vegetative areas has now been mostly
placed under cultivation by resort to
drainage, but much of the two latter types
remain almost in their original condi-
tion. In this region are still to be found
most of the Illinois plants and animals
living originally in sandy situations.
The plant and insect life exhibits strong
western affinities. These areas should
be preserved.

Havana, about two mi. east, Devil's
Hole.

Havana, about 10 mi. northeast,
Devil's Neck.— T. H. Prison.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baker, F. C.

1910 The Ecology of the Skokie
Marsh Area, with Special
Reference to the Mollusca.
Bull. III. State Lab. Nat.
Hist., Vol. VIII, Art. 4.

Cory, C. B.
1909 The Birds of Illinois and Wis-
consin. Field Mus. of Nat.
Hist., Publ. 131.

1912 The Mammals of Illinois and

Wisconsin. Field IMus. of
Nat. Hist., Publ. 153.

Cowles, H. C.
1901 The Plant Societies of Chicago
and Vicinity. Bull. Geog.
Soc. Chicago, No. 2 (also,
Bot. Gaz., Vol. XXXI).

Forbes, S. A.

1913 The Midsummer Bird Life of

Illinois; a Statistical Study.

Bull. 111. State Lab. Nat.

Hist., Vol. IX, Art. 6.
Forbes, S. A., and Richardson, R. E.
1908 The Fishes of Illinois. Final

Report 111. State Lab. Nat.

Hist., Vol. III.
1913 Studies on the Biology of the

Upper Illinois River. Bull.

111. State Lab. Nat. Hist.,

Vol. IX, No. 10.
Forbes, S. A., and Gross, A. O. .

1921 The Orchard Birds of an Illinois

Summer. Bull. 111. State

Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. XIV,

Art. 1.

Garman, H.

1S02 A Synop.sis of the RcptiicH and
.\ni|)liibiati8 of Illinois. Hull.
III. Slate Lab. Nat. Hist.,
Vol. Ill, Art. 13.
Gates, F. C.

1912 The Vegetation of the Beach
Area in Northfustern lilinuis
and Southeastern Wiscuiisiii.
Bull. 111. State Lub. Nat.
Hist., Vol. IX, Art. 5.
(ileason, II. A.

1910 Tlie Vegetation of the Inland
Sand Deposits of lllinoia.
Bull. 111. State Lab. Nat.
Hist., Vol. IX, Art. 3.
Hall, R. C, and Ingall, O. D.

19il Forest Conditions in Illinois.
Bull. 111. State Lab. Nat.
Hist., Vol. IX, Art. 4.
Hart, C. II., and Gleason, II. A.
1907 On the Biology of the Sand
Areas of Illinois. Bull. III.
State Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol.
VI [, Art. 7.
Miller, R. A.
1923 First Report on a Forest Survey
of Illinois. Bull. III. State
Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. XIV,
Art. 8.
Hosier, J. G.

1918 The Climate of Illinois. Bull.
111. Agr. Exp. Station. No.
208.
Ridgley, D. C.
1921 The Geography of Illinois.
Univ. of Chicago Press.
Chicago.
Ridgway, R.
1889-1895 The Ornithology of
Illinois. Final Report 111.
State Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol.
I and II.
Sampson. H. C.

1921 An Ecological Survey of the
Prairies of Illinois. Bull. III.
State. Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol.
XIII, No. 16.
Shelford. V. E.

1913 .\ninial Communities in Tein-
jierate .\nicrica, as illustrated
in the Chicago region; a study
in animal ecology. Vniv. of
Chicago Press, ChicaRo.
Sherff, E. E.

1913 Vegetation of Skokie .Marsh.
Bull. III. State Lab. Nat.
Hist., Vol. IX. Art. 11.
Vestal, A. G.

1913 An Associationnl Study of
Illinois Sand Prairie. Bull.
III. State Lab. Nat Ili^f ,
Vol. X, Art. I.
Wood, F. E.
1910 A Study of the Mammal.'^ "f
Champaign Count v. Ill:::
Bull. III. State Lab.» .\ . •
Hbt., Vol. VIII, Art. 5.

480

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

2. IOWA

By L. H. Pammel

i. physiographic conditions and
original biota

Iowa was originally an oak grove
savanna state intersected by streams.
The lowlands, bottoms, and adjacent
hill slopes were in great part covered
with deciduous trees. In order to
understand its flora and fauna we must
take into account the various drift
sheets which covered most of Iowa.

The Kansas drift sheet covered the
entire state with the exception of a
little portion in northeastern Iowa and
Dr. Kay now tells us that even this
area did not escape the ice. The typi-
cal Kansas topography is well shown in
southern Iowa in Henry and Monroe
counties. The topography is much
dissected, the surface features conform-
ing to the drainage lines. There are
large flat areas which before the advent
of man were prairies. These areas
conform to the original plane before
erosion occurred. The soil consists of
a blue boulder clay which is often quite
compact. A clayej^ silt, loessial in
character, veneers the surface. A sec-
ond drift sheet, the Iowa, occurs in
northeastern Iowa. This in Linn, Buch-
anan and adjacent counties is charac-
terized by the numerous very large
boulders. One of the largest of these in
Floyd County near Nashua is perhaps
the largest boulder in the Mississippi
valley. There are many peat patches
and the lakes, if any, are reduced to
small ponds. The streams are shallow
and the flood plain as well as the ad-
jacent uplands were covered with a
deciduous forest. There is little of
topographic form. The hills are gentle
and rise but little above the flood plain
of the streams. There is very little
erosion. The soil is a yellow calcareous
clay veneered with sand and humus.
The Illinoian drift covers only a small
part of the state in the region of Bur-
lington. The Wisconsin drift, the most
recent of the drift sheets is charac-

terized by its rolling hills. It extended
into Iowa in the form of a great lobe
entering the state in a southeastern
direction in the western part on the
Iowa Minnesota boundary a little west
of the lake region in Osceola County,
and on the east, at Clear Lake Cerro
Gordo County, in a southwesterly
direction to Polk County. This area
abounded in lakes. Many of these
have been drained. Some 50 of them
still remain. Lake Okoboji, Spirit Lake,
Storm Lake, Clear Lake, Silver Lake,
Twin Lakes and Wall Lake are in the
Wisconsin drift sheet. It is in this
area that peat bogs are most numerous,
some of them covering 300 to 400 acres.
In such bogs occur typical northern
bog plants like the swamp thistle {Cir-
sium muticum), bog willow (Salix
pech'cellaris), and beaked willow (S.
rostrata). The state was dissected by
the following streams; the Des Moines,
Little Sioux, Iowa, Cedar, Oneota and
Skunk, all of which have their source in
the lake region of the Wisconsin drift.
The Little Sioux drains to the Missouri
and has its source in the lake region of
Dickinson County.

II. BIOTA

The greater part of the state was
prairie and before extensive drainage
began there were many sloughs espe-
cially in the Wisconsin drift sheet. In
this area there is also much morainic
material. On the shores of most of the
lakes was a narrow fringe of deciduous
trees and shrubs and the red cedar.
(Juniperus virginiana). The timbered
area around most of these lakes has
been much reduced in size.

There are very few evergreens in the
state. The red cedar has the widest
distribution. This species extends all
the way across the state, especially in
the north. Not so far west in the south
half of the state. White pine {Pinus
strobns) occurred originally in small
belts and isolated groves. Isolated
areas of white pine occurred in Alla-
makee, Winneshiek, Clayton and Dub-
uque counties with a few isolated groves

NATURAL AREAS AND RF.r.IONS

•181

in Muscatine, Delaware and Hardin
counties. The paper birch (Bchda pn-
■pyrijera) has a similar distribution.
The cherry or gray birch {Betula lutea)
is less abundant but with nearly the
same distribution. The balsam fir
{Ahies balsaviea) also occurs; there are
a few groves in Allamakee and Winne-
shiek counties. The dwarf juniper
(Juniperus commnnis) occurs in north-
eastern Iowa covering limestone rocks,
Savin juniper (J. horizontalis) the
rarest conifer on a little knoll near
Rockford, the Canadian yew {Taxua
canadensis) chiefly in northeastern Iowa,
to Linn County.

There are no strictly alpine plants
in the state though such boreal plants
as the white violet {Viola blanda),
buck thorn (Rhamnus alnifolia) and
aconite (Aconitum noveboracense) arc
associated with the balsam fir. South-
ern plants creep up into the state and
occur at Muscatine and in Fremont
County. Papaw (Asimina triloba),
meadow beauty {Rhexiavirginica), beech
fern (Phegopteris hexagonoptera), redbud
{Cercis canadenis) and sassafras are not
common, only occurring in southeastern
Iowa.

Western Iowa along the Missouri
contains the Missouri loess with its
typical Nebraskan flora like the western
blazing star (Liatris squarrosa), woolly
thistle Cirsium caneseus, Aplopappus
spinulosus, Yucca glauca and Gaura
coccinea. Of the important prairie
plants mention may be made of the Iowa
thistle {Cirsium iorvense), prairie roses
{Rosa seligera and R. pralincola),
prairie clover {Petalostemum), wild lic-
orice (Glycyrrhiza lepidota), Turk's-cap
lily {Lilium superbum, L. Farlomi)
slough grass {Spartina michauxii), and
needle grass {Stipa comata). The allu-
vial lakes of the Missouri and Mississippi
abound with the American lotus {Ne-
lumbo lutea), also an abundance of the
white lily {Castnlia) and spatter dock
{Nijmphaea advena). The white lily and
spatter dock as well as occasionally the
water shield {Brasenia Sclireberi) also
occur in the inland lakes, the latter
rarely as in Little Wall Lake,

The s( roams of the Htalo as well an
the border streams, the .MiR.siR.sip[)i
and .Mi.ssouri abounded in cntfi.sh,
jMckorel, sunfish and ba.'w. The curp
is an invasion and occurs in all of our
lakes and streams. The strcam.s for
the most part are very much y)oIlutcd.
There are some trout in a few of the
streams like the Maquokcta Itiver.
Wild geese and ducks of varifius kinds
still abound, the former in migratifins
becoming rare. Dticks still breed in
quantities. At one time wild turkey,
prairie chicken, rufTed grouse and quail
occurred in great (plant i ties. The prai-
rie chickens are now largely migratory.
Red fox is still common in soiitheastorn
and northeastern Iowa. There are
some wolves, probably mostly coyote.
The cotton-tail rabbit was and is com-
mon everj'where. The western jack
rabbit has moved eastward to central
Iowa just as has the western meadow-
lark. The raccoon, opossum, and .sev-
eral species of squirrel, chipmunk,
flying-squirrel and pocket-gopher, are
some of the other animals. Virginia
deer were once common but have become
extinct. There is a naturalized species
in Pottawattamie County. Heaver oc-
curred in this state as late as the early
seventies but are now exterminated.
Elk occurred in all parts of the state
but are also now extinct. Bison were
once common on the prairies of north-
western Iowa. They were shot as far
east as Dallas County as late as 1857
and also at Clear Lake, and in Ko-ssJith
County. Fine skulls have been found
in Story and Clayton Counties. Black
bear also occurred in Iowa at one time.
The turtle dove is common and the wild
pigeon was common in the late seven-
ties. Vultures are not uncommon in
southern Iowa. .Many song birds like
the meadowlark, eastern and western
brown thrasher occur in abundance.

III. .V.\TrR.\I- AKKAS (I,. H. P.)

Gitchic Mnnito Park. In the area
(40 acres^ is a pool of clear water known
as Jasper Pool. There are a few trees
like the green ash, bnsswood, elm, box
elder, ami on the Big Sioux river, cot-

482

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

tonwood, almond-leaved willow, black
willow, soft maple, rare plants for
Iowa like buffalo grass, mesquite, prickly
pear, flameflower, common prairie plants
as woolly thistle, blazing star, purple
flowered onion, asters and goldenrods.
Sioux Falls, 12 mi. southwest, 0. R.
I. & P. C. M. & St. P.

*Iotva River. (C3.) The meandering
portion of the stream with its islands
are a part of the park system of the
state. Cottonwood, sycamore, soft
maple, swamp white, bur and pin oaks,
black, sandbar and almond-leaved wil-
lows, green ash, box elder, black walnut,
mockernut hickory lower part of stream,
American elm, cardinal flower, aster
and goldenrod. American lotus, water
lilly, spatter dock, wild rice, arrow head,
rice cut grass, reed grass.

Iowa City, C. R. I. & P., Cedar Rapids
& Iowa City Interurban.

*Cedar River. (C3.) The meandering
part of the stream a part of the park
system. The meandered portion ex-
tends to Waterloo; cottonwood, Ameri-
can elm, almond-leaved, black and
sandbar willows; green ash, soft maple,
black birch, pin oak, swamp white oak,
bur oak, honey locust, big or mockernut
hickory, cardinal flower, rice cut grass,
blue or greater lobelia, monkey flower,
asters, goldenrods, etc.

C. & Gt. W., 111. Cent. Waterloo, C.
R. I. & P. Iowa City.

*Wapsipinicon River. (C3.) The
meandered part of the stream extends
into Jones County beyond Anamosa.
Cottonwood, almond-leaved, sandbar
and black willow, yellow birch, syca-
more, pin oak, swamp white, bur and red
oaks, American elm, black birch, dog-
wood, button bush, greater lobelia,
cardinal flower, monkej'^ flower, asters,
goldenrods, rice cut grass, Spanish
needles, iris, wild rice, American lotus,
spatter dock, Potamogeton, etc.

Anamosa, C. M. & St. P. Ry., C. &
N. W. Ry.

*Wapsipinicon Park. (B2.) On the
Wapsipinicon River; 168 acres adjacent
to the City of Anamosa, limestone bluffs,
caves and an abundance of fine springs.

Dutch creek flows through the tract;
limestone bluffs rising 60 to 100 ft. from
the flood plain of the stream; lowan
drift sheet. Raccoon, gray squirrel,
quail, hawks, brown thrasher. Morning
dove, humming bird, etc. Trees; white,
black, red and bur oaks, sycamore,
sugar maple, soft maple, hickory, blue
beech, ironwood, yew, red cedar; Dutch-
mans breeches, Indian pipe, Virginia
creeper, wild grape, poison ivy, bitter
sweet, Solomon's seal, bladder fern,
maiden hair fern, blood root, etc.

C. M. & St. P. Ry., Anamosa.

*Iowa Lake. (C4.) Emmet County,
native grove, bathing, banks high and
well timbered; bur oak, slippery and
American elms, basswood, pignut hick-
ory, red osier, shiny leaved willow, red
cedar, cottonwood, sand bar, beaked
and almond-leaved willows, hepatica,
blood root, wild rice, vallisneria, pond
weeds (Potamogeton), arrowhead, skull
cap, etc. Fishing.

Area 832 acres. Area in Minn. 478
acres, meander 433; in Iowa 354 acres,
meander 308.

Armstrong C. R. I. & P. Ry.

Dolliver C. R. I. & P. Ry. Roads
9-43.

*Medium Lake. (C4.) Palo Alto
County, area 991 acres, meander 945
acres.

Narrow fringe of trees, bur oak,
green ash, cotton-wood, pignut, sand
bar, almond-leaved willow, pond weeds,
wild rice, water lily, spatter dock, etc.

Large variety of birds.

Emmetsburg adjacent C. M. & St.

P. Ry.

Highways 17-19.

*Twin Lakes, Calhoun County. (C4.)
Two small lakes in Calhoun County,
North Twin Lake with an area of 509
acres, meander encloses 569 acres.

Narrow fringe of timber of basswood,
American and slippery elm, bur oak,
box elder and red haws, acquatic
plants ' like Potamogeton and marsh
plants like Carex and Scirpus.

South Twin lake connected with
the North Lake, a narrow strip of
timber.

NATURAL AREAS AND RKGIONS

483

Area of lake 596 acres, meander
encloses 600 acres.

Adjacent prairie rich in prairie species,
Iowa thistle, blazing star, gentians,
goldenrods.

Rockwell City 4 mi. south. 111.
Cent. Ry. C. M. & St. P. Ry.

*Farmington. (C3.) About 100 acres
bank of Des Moines river, \ mi. south
of Farmington.

Natural lake of 40 acres, covered with
American lotus. Nearly all native spe-
cies of oak; post, red, white, black, bur,
chestnut, swamp, pin, black jack.

Farmington \ mi. north, C. B. & Q.
Ry. or C. R. I. & P.

*Lacey-Keosaiiqua Park. (C3.) Van
Buren County in the great horseshoe
bend country of the Des Moines river.

Native wild animals red fox, quail,
ruffled grouse, gray squirrel, cedar wax
wing, whippoorwill, etc.

Trees; white ash, redbud, quaking
aspen, sycamore, red cedar, shellbark
hickory, pignut, almond-leaved, black
and sand bar willows, red, white, swamp
white, chestnut, post, shingle and bur
oaks, Cottonwood, soft maple, green
and white ash, hackberry, basswood,
slippery and American elm, red mul-
berry; shrubs; wild grape, black haws,
sumach, bladder nut, dogwoods; of
herbaceous plants, purple trilliam, col-
umbine, dutchman's breeches, l)lood
root, hepatica, mandrake, blue cohosh.
In prairie opening blazing stars, gen-
tians, goldenrods and asters.

Fine Indian mounds.

Altitude 600 ft.

Keosauqua adjacent S. C. R. I. it

P. Ry.

Highway 11.

*Eldora, Steamboat Rock and Pine
Creek Area. (C3.) This area of some
200 acres lies in Hardin County. The
most remarkable feature of the region
is the peculiar island flora; the plants
on the ledges or the talus at the base
of the hills are of the boreal type. White
pine, paper birch, gray birch, polypody,
beech and marginal ferns.

Eldora adjacent, M. & St. L. Ry.,
branch of C. & N. W. Ry.

*Iiorhbonc Park. (C3.) Northwest-
ern Delaware County, Kichland town-
ship, enibracing tlio flood plain of tho
Muiiuokcta River and hill.s adjacent,
surrounded by a gentle roilinR prairie,
but park itself extremely ruRKcd. The
Backl)onc proper is a narrow ridRf"
lying witiiin a hook of the Maqiioketa
River. Limestone rocks risinR 80 to
100 ft. above the river. Troe.s such as
conunonlj- found in northca-stern Iowa
with the exception of the white pine
and the sycamore. The fauna is typical
for northeastern Iowa. Richnioiui
springs on the spring br.mcli, n trout
stream.

Strawberry Point, Clayton County
4 mi. northeast. C. M. <fc St. P. Ry.

* Palisades, Linn County. (B2.)
Some 140 acres of flood plain of the
Cedar River and upland; meaophytic
upland woods, vertical cliffs of lime-
stone 30 to 50 ft. rising from the Cedar
River. Rugged walls l)order this river
for a distance of two mi. in the upper
part on the east bank and the lower
part on the west bank. Back of the
Palisades are gently sloping hills. In
places, however deep gullies slope
toward the river.

Yellow moccasin flower, showy orchis,
polypody, Woodsia, walking leaf fern,
narrow leaved spleenwort, cancer root,
cliff brake, Indian pipe are common
herbaceous plants.

Animals; badger, opossum, raccoon,
skunk, mink, fox and wolf, turkey vul-
ture, ruffed grouse, quail, Acadian
flj^catcher, cardinal, phocbe.

15 mi. southeast of Cedar Ra|>iiis,
C. it N. W. Ry. C. R. I. it P. Ry.
111. Central. C. M. it St. P.

Lcpley Park. (C4.) Area about '.»
acres. Mature flood plain forest.

Station M. it St. D. Ry. \\ mi. north
at Union.

Branch of the C it \. W. C. mi. north
at Eldora.

*Tlicodorc F. Clark Park. (04.) 25
acres ju.st above a typical flood plain of
Wolf Creek, a tril)Utary of Cedar River,
most of it not subject to overflow.

Typical mature incsophytic flora

484

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

4 mi. northeast of Traer, C. R. I. &

P. Ry.

*Ledges Park, Boone County. (B3.)
644 acres, partly in flood plain of Des
Moines River and the adjacent clay
uplands. Pease creek flow through
the area exposing the Carboniferous
sandstone, that rises to a height of
100 to 150 ft. Flood plain trees; Rein-
deer lichen, Juniper moss, pale vetch,
pink lady slipper and moosewood.

Boone, 5 mi. east, main line C. & N.
W. Ry. Ft. Dodge Des M. & So. Inter-
urban Ry.

* Yellow River. (B3.) The whole val-
ley from its source north of Postville
has steep bluffs are covered with a
mantle of trees. The most interesting
are near springs about 80 acres. The
plants belong to the boreal type. Bal-
sum fir, white pine, small white violet,
highbush cranberry, aconite and beech
fern.

Large springs.

Postville 7 mi. south, C. M. & St. P.
R. R. C. R. I. & P. Ry.

* Spirit Lake. (B2.) Largest lake in
Iowa, in Dickinson County. 20 to 25
ft. deep, area 5660 acres, meander en-
closes 5884 acres, connects with Marble,
Hottes and Little Spirit Lakes. Shores
in part covered with bur oak, green ash,
Cottonwood, basswood, slippery and
American elms, beaked, sand bar and
almond-leaved willows. Morainic hills;
prairie formation of asters, goldenrods,
Iowa and woolly thistle, blazing star;
in woods hepatica, blood root, prickly
gooseberry, prickly ash.

Town of Spirit Lake one mi. south,
C. M. & St. P. Ry.

Orleans adjacent, C. R. I. & P.

*West Okoboji Lake. (B3.) West
Okoboji Lake is situated in Dickinson
County. It is the deepest lake in Iowa,
40 to 129 ft., glacial origin, drainage
to the Missouri river.

3788 acres, meander encloses 3939
acres.

Shores in part covered with trees,
in part typical prairie plants. Outline
of lake very irregular. Numerous
marshes with many aquatic plants and

birds. Lakeside Laboratory on Miller's
Bay.

Milford 3 mi., C. M. & St. P. Ry.

Arnold's Park adjacent, C. M. & St.

P. Ry.

*East Okoboji Lake. (B2.) Glacial
shallow lake, 5 to 12 ft. deep, connecting
Spirit and West Okoboji, in Dickinson
County.

Area 1875 acres.

Narrow fringe of timber; many aqua-
tic plants like Potamogeton, Elodea,
Vallisneria, wild rice, and pond lilies;
small indentation marshes with Carex,
manna grass, rice cut grass, greater
lobelia and gentians. Fish hatchery
grounds about 11 acres, on north end of
lake.

Okoboji on south end of lake, C. M.
& St. P. Ry.

Orleans north end of lake, C. R. I.
& P. Ry.

Spirit Lake, C. M. & St. P. Ry, C. R.
I. & P. Ry.

*Petersen. (B2.) About 200 acres in
Clay County on the north slope of the
Little Sioux River, some virgin oaks
and black walnut, upland woods with
canyons covered with spring beauty,
blood root, blue cohosh, practically
virgin, not pastured. The wooded
slopes open out on the prairie with the
usual prairie plants, a glacial valley.

Petersen one mi. north, C. & N. W.

Ry.

Highway No. 10.

*Natural Bridge and Morehead Caves.
(B.) One of the interesting wonders of
Iowa, in Jackson County. Vertical
limestone cliffs 50 to 100 ft. high, area
35 acres. The ancient stream has worn
a channel through the massive limestone
rock leaving a natural bridge covered
with white, red and bur oaks. The
shady slopes covered with Sullivantia
of ferns maiden hair and spleenwort.
The Morehead caves can be reached by
a path leading from the bridge. The
narrow valley extends to the Morehead
caves about a mile away to the south.

Maquoketa 8 mi. southwest, C. M. &
St. P. Ry. C. & N. W. Ry.

*Pilot Knob. Some 235 acres located

NATURAL AREAS AND RKGIONS

485

in Hancock County, forming a part
of a low range of hills standing out
conspicuously from the surrounding
country, an immense glacial moraine,
the Altamont.

Knob 300 ft. above the valley of
Lime Creek.

A small glacial lake near the top of
the knob, Dead Man's lake with rare
Brasenia.

Trees like the basswood, pignut
hickory, black and green ash, bur oak,
Cottonwood, slippery and white elm,
quaking aspen. Of shrubs hazel, wild
grape, cornel.

Altitude 1500 ft.

Forest City 8 mi. west, M. & St. L.
Ry. C. R. I. & P. Ry.

Garner 8 mi. south, C. M. & St. P.
Ry. C. R. I. & P. Ry.

3. MISSOURI

By a. C. Burrill

i. general features and original

BIOTA

The State is divisible into three
distinct regions, (a) the northwestern
upland plain or prairie region, (6) the
Missouri portion of the Ozark uplift,
and (c) the southeast lowlands, some
20 mi. wide and with an area of over
1000 sq. mi., part of an old flood plain
of the Mississippi River and made up of
alluvial deposits.

a. The prairie region embraces most
of the state north of the Missouri River
known as Northern Missouri, and a
large tongue south of the river on the
west side. This was originally covered
with rolling plains of mesoi)hytic prai-
rie, with deciduous trees in groves along
the countless "branches," creeks and
rivers. The large streams have wide
valleys, two to 10 mi. in breadth, which
were originally occupied by rich flood
plain forest. The valleys are cvit
through thick limestone and sandstone
in the Missouri River section, and are
steepest where the Burlington limestone
outcrops— from Clark County in the
northeast, south to Lincoln and western

St. Charles counties on tlie Misaouri
River and then west to Cooijcr County-
forming (he Mi.s.soiiri River ijJiifTH, then
soutliwest to I'oik and Cedur, whore it
divides soutlipa«tward to Taney County
and southwest to Jasper and .McDonald
Counties.

This region originally supported the
bison {Bison biiion), elk (Cervua cann-
densis), Virginia and mule deer {Udocoil-
eus virginianus and O. hcmionus), wolf
(Canis sp.), coyote (Canis lalrana),
l)rairie chicken, and other species char-
acteristic of such regions in the Missis-
sipi)i Valley.

h. The Ozark region crosses the
Missouri northward at the center of the
state and again crosses into Illinois
below St. Louis in the Cape Girardeau
County region. It is characterized by
broad smooth valleys, well degraded
hills with smooth summits and rough,
tree-clad slopes, sharp deep canyons
occasionally and rocky knobs in spots.
Few localities have an elevation exceed-
ing 1400 ft., but abound in water power,
rai)id mountain streams, rivers and
springs clear to the south border, "The
Shepherd of the Hills" country. The
greater part of the Ozark region was
originally forested with oak, hickory,
cherry, tupelo black gum, red cedar,
walnut, and shortleaf i)ine; little sugar
maple.

Here the black bear (Ursus ameri-
canus), bison, \'irginia and mule deer,
opossum (DiJelpliis virginiaua), raccoon
{Procyon lotor), woodchuck (Marniota
inonax), red fox {\'ulpes fulva), gray
squirrel (Sciurus curolinensis), fox squir-
rel [Sciurus nigcr rnjivcuter), wolf, and
wild turkey were once coninion.

c. The southeast lowlands were once
wooded, chiefly, with cottonwood (I'opu-
lus dclluidc-s), oak, soft niajde (Acer
snccharimim), cypress (Taxodium tli»-
lichian), tupelo gum {\ysaa aylratica)
and red or sweet gum (Ltquidamhar
tilyracijluti). These trees are fjist dis-
appearing. Here, also wore niagnulia
{M. virgini(inti), tulij) tree i l.iriodttuiroti
tulipijcra), porsinuuon (Diospyros vir-
giniaua), sassafras (H. variifolium), luid

486

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

catalpa (C. speciosa), which overlapped
the northern hardwoods.

1. The southeastern swamp regions
inhabited by deer, bear, wolf, numerous
turtles, frogs, muskrat, herons, and
water birds. This is the only water
moccasin {Agkistrodon piscivorus) coun-
try; fish were once abundant in all
rivers and alligators rarely occur.

2. The Mississippi bluffs and bottoms
north of this region needspecial mention;
as important for their variety of nut,
trees; for big game and fur animals;
and for immense locust, willow, ash;
sycamore, elm and other trees. Catfish
five feet long are still caught in the main
rivers and pearl-bearing mussels in
clear stream beds, as in upper Missis-
sippi and White Rivers.

II. PRESENT CONDITIONS

a. The prairie region is now the
principal agricultural district and the
most important blue grass region of the
world. Th3 original prairie vegetation
may be seen in many localities along
the railroads. Such timber as origi-
nally existed has been removed except
for very small scattered holdings of
black walnut. South and west the
prairie broom sedge {Andropogon vir-
ginicus), marsh grasses, big and little
blue stem {Andropogon furcatus and A.
scoparius) are most characteristic of a
winter landscape not touched by the
plow.

The bison, elk, wolf, and deer have
long since disappeared from this region.
The prairie chicken is found only in a
few remote localities where protected,
e.g., Linn and Macon Counties. The
raccoon, gray squirrel, and many quail
still occur.

b. In ths Ozark hardwood area, the
merchantable timber has been largely
removed leaving oak brush and park-
like red cedar groves of small stature,
but considerable areas of oaks, butter-
nut, hickories, and persimmon remain
in a natural state in the remote parts
of the Ozarks; and in the southwest,
pecans. Deer, wolves, and turkeys
still occur. The region least modified

is in the south central counties of the
Missouri Ozarks where "prairie schoon-
ers" are commonly seen along roads and
in the big towns, like Neosho. In the
streams will be found bass, goggle-eyed
perch, redhorse, and other game fish,
and in the spring "branches," trout.

c. The southeastern portion of the
state has lost most of its original timber
and has even lost its recent small in-
dustry for dealers in frogs, turtles,
water birds, snakes, etc.

d. Pollution of th3 larger streams is
inevitable with the large cities along
their banks. The Missouri is famed for
its turbid water, which permeates the
Mississippi some miles below their
junction. The Mississippi is clear above
the junction, yet the Missouri is said
to be better cleared of disease germs by
action of the muddy water. Unpol-
luted waters are Cedar Creek, Flat
Creek, Crane Creek, Spring River,
Mt. Vernon Spring Branch, Bennets
Spring Branch, Lake Hahatonka, Blue
Spring Creek, Paydown Creek, Current
River, Merimec Spring, Little Piney,
Big Piney, Roaring River, Sugar Creek,
Greer Spring Branch, and part of Eleven
Point River.

III. NATURAL AREAS

1. Fish and game and bird preserves

just starting — 1924

Conservation has been largely at a
standstill, but the laws now provide
for buying state parks from game De-
partment funds and four will soon open.

a. No game preserves are on leased
second growth. The St. Louis game
park in Taney County, 20 mi. south of
Forsythe, Mo.; and the Van Cleave
Park in Henry County, near Clinton,
Mo.

b. Fish preserves are set aside at
hatcheries in St. Louis, Springfield, and
Neosho, Mo.

c. The areas set aside primarily as
bird sanctuaries are very lirnited. There
is a prairie chicken reserve in Baker and
Locust Creek Townships, Linn County.

2. Available areas representative of the
prairie section {altitude 700 to 1100 ft.)

of the state

Prairie chicken prairies. fB4) 2. Sev-
eral thou.=iand acres of heavily grazed

NATURAL AIIEAS AND RMGIONS

4H7

prairie, prairie chickens rare, occur on
the watershed followed by the Waljash
Ry. in Macon and Adair Counties.
Grasses are tall red-top, Indian {jirass,
slough-grass and blunt spike grass.

Atlantal, and La PlataJ.— IF. T.
Robinson.

(C3 and D4.) Again, Baker and
Locust Creek townships in northern
Linn County have thousands of prairie
chickens due to a twenty-years clo.se-
season experiment. The prairie is
mostly Kentucky blue grass and timothy
now, the original grasses (Andropogon
spp.) being rare.

Brookfieldt, Linn County, Mo., C. B.
& Q. R. R., HannibalJ to St. Joseph
Div.— TF. B. McGregor.

Caldivell County forest and prairie.
(A3.) 100 to 200 acres of land including
a number of small tracts of original
forests of the usual deciduous type of the
region. Original prairie now rapidly
vanishing. Some flood plain forest 6
to 10 mi. southwest of Hamilton, Mo.,
C. B. & Q. R. R.—H. M. Fart.

Bottoms and brakes of the Missouri
River. (C3.) Bluffs carved with lime-
stone canyons of "branches" running
6 to 10 mi. up into the prairie back from
the river; and among the rocks, rock
lizards, ant-lion pit communities,
snakes, quail, etc. Here occur oak,
sycamore, bottom willows, ash, ridge-
side persimmon and pawpaw.

9 to 10 mi. southwest of Columbia,
Mo., on M. K. & T. R. R.—A. C. Burrill.

S. Available areas representative of the
hardwoods areas, or Ozarks

Forested north slopes of the Ozarks
near Onandaga Cave. Altitude 1100 ft.
(A2.) Oak hardwoods with red cedar
surround this large cave which is
reached on the Frisco Ry. in Crawford
County to the depot of Bourbon, then
3 mi. "East; but detrain at Leasburgj
for auto service. Onandaga Park of
10,000 acres has a famous Blue Spring,
a Bat Cave and a Cane Bottom where
bears abounded.— A. C. Burrill.

pHa-Ha-Tonka Park and Cave. (A3 or
C3.) Several thousand acres of forested
hill-tops with red cedar on the blulTs.
Mountain ravines, lakes, hills, and
springs, semi-natural shrubbery along
roadsides. Wild turkeys, deer, opossum,
gray and fox squirrels, gray and red
foxes. Ha-ha-tonka Cave in Camden
County is a chief show-place with
interesting fauna; lakes, springs, and
rivers including bats, crawfish and
cavefish. Follow the Big Xiangua River
in Dallas Countv from Lebanon or
Marshfield on the Frisco Ry.— Altitude
900 to 1000 ft.

Versaillos C. R. I. .t I'. I{. R.; ro 40

mi. south (a) to it.

liObanon I'ri.sro Ry.; ro 30 nii. iKirth
(a) to Ila-ha-tonku||.

tWocl Tract (cove fauna nntl earliest
Indian cavc-<lu-ellers). (C3) and (C4)
or (D3). Several thou.sand acres of
lightly forested hilLs and wonderfully
carved limestone biufTs with earliest
of Indian remains in middle United
States, to include the lately discovered
and perhaps largest Mi.ssouri cavern,
Elk Springs Cave. Short leaf pine is
common among liardwood.s. Various
spp. wood molds, cave myriapods and
isopods, wasps, etc,, in these small
caves.

Noel, Mo. K. C. S. R. R .;(a) or (w)
one mi. northwest on Cowskin River.

pScquiota Tract and Cave. (Cave now
preserved.) (Cl and D3.) The State
Fish Hatchery and a (juarry with the
famous Sequiota Cave which is entered
by wading or in flat boats with flash
lights. The cave entrances swarm with
mud dauber wasp nests and colonies.
Close to the fish hatchery, a sizable
stream gradually disapi)ears in sink-
holes in the curiously carved river-bed;
accompanying fauna and flora interest-
ing, as the many nests and trails of ants
(Cremaslogastcr lincolatn and Campono-
tus spp.). Altitude 1300 ft.

SpringfieldJ, Mo., on Frisco and Mo.
P. R. R. (Auto service) 9 mi. south by
daily auto stage to fish hatchery, Green
County, a good camping sj^ot all sum-
mer.— .1. C. Burrill.

M or eau River trad (C3, D4) : Terminal
moraine remnants . Cole to .Morgan
Counties. (C3.) (Available.) Several
thousand acres of second growth wood-
lands and remarkably carved steep
limestone bluffs along the Moreau
River will make an excellent elk, deer
and bird preserve, and now has an
occasional coyote. The hilltops and
river ridge tops are covered many feet
deep with wind-blown loess from the
Missouri River Valley bottoms many
miles away. Excellent bird i>rotection
in winter "and a prime migration study
resort. Altitude «)0 to 1100 ft.

Still higher elevations of similar
formations can be studied t<i the west in
Morgan County, for although the north-
east part of the county is natural i>rairie.
the rest to the southwest is natural fore.st
of oak (bur and white). luTsimnion. paw-
liaw, and along thestiv , oamores.

Skunks and, wolves are : :,' numer-

ous. Squirrels, j^rairic ehukous, foxes
and fur-l)earers are numerous. Uoyler's
Mill south of Stover, Mo.— F. Diinlap
and 11. K. Welpmnn.

JelTerson City{ lx>st center, auto

488

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

service, and electric cars to cross the
Missouri River bridge: reach by Mo. P.
and M. K. & T. R. R. main lines and
C. & A. branch line. — A. C. Burrill and
T. Lueker.

Creve Coeur Lake Area. (A2.)
Thousands of red-winged blackbirds,
bronzed grackles, and a few rusty black-
birds join every evening in large flocks
near Creve Coeur Lake, on sandy land
overgrown with scouring rushes (Equise-
tum hiemale), broken over in autumn
into a matted mass under which the red-
wings spend the coldest, windiest nights
in perfect comfort, while the sand ab-
sorbs all rains. Altitude 460 ft. plus.
Interurban from St. Louis or 17 mi. on
C. R. I. & P. R. R. to Vigua, Mo.—
A. C. Burrill and Otto Widman.

Caveland: Stone County Great Marvel
and Little Fairy Caves: Lake Taneycomo.
(A3 or B2.) (Partly proposed, partly
available.) Stone County has two
known andvery beautiful caves only 2 mi.
apart, steeply intersected topography.

Some virgin timber yet remains, of
cedar, hickory and elm chiefly, but also
black walnut, persimmon, pawpaw,
hackberry, red-bud, buckbrush, ash,
common dogwood, sumac, and black
gum, while shortleaf pine occurs near
Fairy Cave and mistletoe is rare. Deer,
wolf, red and gray foxes, bobcat, opos-
sum, and all fur-bearers occur along this
grand White River country; wild turkey,
great white heron and egrets, great blue
heron, bittern, bald eagle and rarely the
Golden eagle.

Great Marvel Cave (C4) is easy of
access, charmingly located, and varied in
structure; its Auditorium the largest
cave room in the world, with the largest
unsupported dome and with fine accous-
tic properties; its Gulf of Doom, awful
and forbidding; its battery with a 100,000
bats; its great white throne of mammoth
onyx stalagmite 8 ft. high; and the cave
fauna of its Mystic River, Lost River,
No-Name River, Lake Genevieve and a
waterfall 90 ft. high- blind fish, spiders,
flies and wasps. Entered through a
tangle of vines.

Fairy Cave (A2) is a smaller cave,
almost as easy of access, but famed
for the beautiful scenery in it, a jewel in
varied colors and formations, in vaults
125 ft. high. Animal life in it is confined
to three species of salamander and two or
three of bats — -one salamander with
tinj'^ specks, another dark green with like
specks, five inches long, shy, fairly
good eyes; and the famous white blind
salamander (Typhlotriton spelaeus) are
quite common, though found only in
this region; the small brown bat, the
large white species, and the long-eared

species in less numbers. Centipedes,
scorpions, an occasional diamond rattler,
are reported in this region. Altitude
1000 to 1425 ft. — Leulla Owen and Waldo
Powell.

Lake Taneycomo (B2, A3) 24 mi. long,
formed by big power site dam on the wild
White River scenery of rough hillsides
and canyons. At the town of Branson
on the lake, can be seen the magnificent
curves of the beautiful White River
walled in by steep cliffs and high bluffs,
with kingfishers, spotted sandpipers,
and green heron, etc., and all the rarer
birds of the Ozarks mentioned under
"The Wild Tracts of Pineries of the Cur-
rent River." Of insectivorous birds,
the nighthawk, chimney swift and six
kinds of swallows abound; 5 wood-
peckers including the red-bellied and
six of flycatchers including the great-
crested and Acadian; 10 sparrows includ-
ing the larkfinch; and in May a great
variety of warblers (18), as the sycamore
warbler and Louisiana water-thrush.
The details of the distribution of the
nearly 90 birds to be seen here of a May
day are given by Widman {Trans. Acad.
Sci. St. Louis, XXIV, no. 8: 70-77).
Altitude 750 ft. and less.

Reach Fairy Cave on Mo. P. Branch
to Reeds' Spring, Stone County, and (a)
5 mi. south to R. Waldo E. Powell Park
and farm to cave; Gerber is one depot
south of this and (a) or (w) 3 mi. S.W. ;
2 depots southeast is Branson, Taney
County, Mo., and (a) to Forsythe, Mo.,
at dam. — A. C. Burrill and Waldo Powell.

Roaring River and Chinquapin Forma-
tion. (A3 and B2.) River boils out of
the base of a mountain and contains
bass, and the yellow, blue and channel
catfish. The trees include chinquapin
oak.

Cassville on Frisco R. R. from
MonettI, Mo. Altitude 1300 t9 1550 ft.

pMeramec State Park and virgin timber.
(A3.) On the Burlington Escarpment
foothills of the northern Ozarks 4700
acres for a park, 4050 being timber, the
greater part virgin forest with 12 caves:
Bat Cave has bats; Fisher cave; Bear
Cave. Altitude 850 to 1100 ft.

Sullivan on Frisco R. R., Franklin
County, is two hours by rail and three
(a) from St. Louis. (W) 2| mi. east
(hotel; or farm houses in the park). —
E. T. Grether.

Greer Springs Area. (A3.) Heavily
wooded southeast upper slope of Ozarks
shows shortleaf pine, oak and much
underbrush in mixture; black walnut,
and hickories in the bottoms. Here
gushes a large spring from the base of a
small limestone ledge. Altitude 500
to 900 ft.

NATURAL AREAS AND RKO ION'S

480

Greer, Oregon Countj% Mo., by auto
stage 15 mi. south from Winona .Inc.,
or 20 mi. NNE. from Thayer, both on the
Frisco R. R., Springfield to Memphis
Div. Go one mi. east of Greer. — //. .1.
Buehler.

Wild tracts of Current River. (B3 and
B4andC2.) (Available.) The best and
most healthful of Missouri's shortleaf
pineries. Many birds and mammals.
Altitude 1200 to 600 ft.

Eminencel, Shannon County, Mo.,
on the Salem, Winona & So. R. R. from
Winona Jnc. on the Frisco R. R. (Mem-
phis Div.); or Van Buren, Carter
County, on the Frisco; or (a) to Montauk
Spgs. IG mi. from Salem on a branch of
the Frisco (Springfield-St. Louis Div.)
and 4 mi. west to cave; or Rolla on main
line of Frisco, auto taxi to Licking, and
7^ mi. southeast to cave. — D. L. Bales,
S. A. Cunningham and Jasper N.
Williams.

Jf. Available overflow lands; available

areas representative of the Southern

lowland type

Overflow lands (C4 and H8) used to
teem with ducks attracted to the giant-
leaved water plant or "Yorkapin,"
which furnished the ducks a sweetish
edible nut. Altitude 290 ft.

Hornersvillet on the Deermg South-
western R. R. from Caruthersville (on
the Mississippi Div. of the Frisco R.R.)
and auto service.

Canada goose feeding grounds. (118.)
(Available.) In the flat overflow lands
near Charleston, Mississippi County,
there is some major attraction causing
great flocks of Canada Geese to halt for
weeks in their fall and spring migrations.
Miles of willow lowlands and overflow
mud flats. Altitude 327 ft. and less

Charleston!, Mo. on Mo. P. branch of
Iron Mt. Biy.—R. Q. Brown.

Cypress swamps. (G7.) The tew
remnants of the cypress formation are
available. „, , ,, „

(A4.) The best is one at Cardwell, /
mi W of Hornersville is on the bt.
Francois River. Catalpa, American
holly and mistletoe on gum trees border
cypress formations. ^ ^ . ^ ^„^„
Frisco R. R. from St. Louis to Caru-
thersvillet-C- M. Edwards.

Sand Ridge. (D4.) Two heal hfu
ridges, called East Prairie and \\cht
Prairie and Crowley's Ridges, penetrate
in a southerly direction the former welter
of swamps. Turtles are exceeding >
numerous east and west of. Dexter in
flood bottoms. Numerous vines sassa-
fras, beetles, and red-backed bill hugs
are epidemic in abundance.

Mo. P. and Frisco R. R- from bt.

Loui.s, Charleston, Sikeston, Dexter,
and Poplar HlulT.— .1. C. liurrill.

Ridgr. (Dt and KO.) ( AviiiUble.)
Wlicrc liie clay ridges left from li:
blutT edges and hills mcc-l the \»>
sharp transition often orcMirs. CJaj)e
Girardeaul on Frisco R. R. — A. C.
Burrill and W. E. Foard.

5. Available areas in Miaaiaaippi bluffa
and botloma

Mark Twain Cave Tract. (G7 and
C3.) Little is left intact in the northern
reaches of tlie Mi.ssi.ssippi in .Mi.s.s<)iiri
save wooded islands changing with
floods. The woods occur on most of the
bluff line and become roughest along
Cape Girardeau County where the
Ozarks cro.ss the river; and vicinity
along the river is proposed as near a.
terminal city, with characteristic l)lufT3
and blulT woods, willow, sycamore, ash,
elm and soft maple.

Two mi. south of Hannibal, Marion
County, Mo., reached by C. B. & Q.
R li.— Madison Nelson and A. C. Burrill.

Flood Plain Forest. (CS.) Altitude
380 ft.

Frisco R. R. Ste. Louis to Perryville
Jnc. (Perrvville or at Ste. Genevieve,
Mo.).— .1. C. Burrill.

Red cedar dominant Ozark forest type
and in open groves at altitude 700 to .')0()
ft. ; heavier woods are on Negro Fork or
Big River.

De Soto, Mo. P. R. R., or auto stage
from St. Louis direct to Hillsboro.—
A. C. Burrill. . ., , , v

Ten-mile Lake. (C3.) (Available.)
Above lake 2 by 10 mi., is a resort of
pelicans, water turkeys, white and blue
cranes (herons) many turtles, and a
great many species of water plants in tlie

shallows. ^ ,

The cypress brake once natural cypress

lake now largely drained, is near at

hand. Altitude 307 ft. and less.
Cotton Belt from St. Louis to Last

Prairie, Mississippi County, Mo.: 4 mi.

southeast to 10-mi. Lake: J» '">• '^/v |°

cypress hrakc-Rcpr. Carl D. Mitchdl,

E. Prairie, Mo.

LI.ST OF REFERENCES

Daniels, F. P. 1007 The flora of
Columbia, Mi.-^.souri and vicinity. An
ecological and systematic studv of a
local flora. I'niv of Mo. Studies
Science Ser. Vol. I and 2, p.^ 1 319.

Uphof. J. C. Th. V^•2■2 Lcological
relations of plants m southea.su-rn
Missouri. Amrr. Jour. Bot. U: 1 IS.

Robbins.W..). 1921 Proc.p.tation and
the growth of oaks at rolumbia.
Missouri Vniv. of Mo. Agr. Kxp. Ma.
lies. Bui. 44: 1-21.

490

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Owen, LeuUa. Caves of the Ozarks and
Black Hills (Notes on Missouri cave
fauna). Out of print.

Widman, O. Ecological relations and
distribution of birds (flocks and
migrations). Trans. Acad. Sci., St.
Louis, xxiv. No. 8, 70-77.

Moore, Geo. T. May, 1923 Missouri
Botanical Garden Bulletin, Vol. XI, 5
(gives distribution of the 108 species
of Crataegus).

Missouri Forest Trees. Mo. Agr. E.Kp.
Sta. Bui. 98.

4. OKLAHOMA

By H. H. Lane

The state of Oklahoma has an area of
70,470 sq. mi. lying between the Red
River on the south (at approximately
34° north latitude) and the 37th parallel
on the north. The main part of the
state, roughly a rectangle, extends
from 94° 30' west longitude westward to
the 100th meridian; to which the "Pan-
handle" adds a narrow e.xtension,
between latitudes 36° 30' and 37°, west-
ward to the 103rd meridian. The north-
ern boundary is about 470 mi. long, while
the main portion of the state has a total
length of 320 mi. and a maximum breadth
(eastern boundary) of about 225 mi.

I. TOPOGRAPHY

The general surface of Oklahoma is a
plain sloping gently toward the south-
east, with the greatest elevation of a
little over 4500 ft. near the northwest
corner of the Panhandle and a minimum
elevation of a little less than 400 ft. at
the extreme southeastern corner of the
state.

Four mountainous uplifts occur wholly
or in part within the state, viz., (1) the
Ozarks in the northern third of the
eastern portion; (2) the Ouachita Moun-
tains to the southeast; (3) the Arbuckle
Mountains extending in an east-to-west
direction for about 30 mi. in the south-
central part; and (4) in the southwest at
a d stance of about 30 mi. from both the
Red River on the south and the Texas
line on the west, the Wichita Moun-
tains, which extend southeastward for
about 60 mi.

The Ozarks are an elevated plain
through which the streams have cut
deep, narrow V-shaped valleys. The
broad, flat-topped hills standing between
these valleys are treeless, and for that
reason are locally termed "prairies,"
some of them so extensive as to have
been given distinctive names. At the
northeastern corner of the Oklahoma
Ozarks the ridges attain their greatest
elevation, 1150 ft.; while in their south-
eastern portion they do not rise more
than about 400 ft. a ove sea level. The
individual hills in no case rise more than
400 ft. above their bases, and their
average height is certainly not over
250 ft. The streams are characterized
by the clearness of their waters and the
rapidity of their flow; their bottoms are
gravelly and they carry practica ly no
mud. This region was formerly covered
with deciduous forests, principally oak,
with some pine in the southern part.
The large timber has now been practi-
cally all cut off, leaving only the scrub,
chiefly blackjack and post oak. The
region is but sparsely settled.

The Ouachita uplift comprises the
roughest surface in the state. Irregular
weathering of the rock strata has re-
sulted in the formation of many hills or
mountains, of which Rich Mountain is
the highest peak, reaching over 3000 ft.
above sea-level and almost 2000 ft.
above the streams which skirt its base.
The whole Ouachita area is covered with
a thick growth of timber, mostly pine
and cedar. It is the most sparsely
settled portion of the state, and the
roads are mere trails, with few bridges
over the streams. The majority of the
inhabitants outside of the villages are
Choctaw Indians. There are no rail-
roads and life there now is as primitive
as it was 60 years ago. Though there
has been an invasion of lumbermen who
have devastated the forests. Congress
reserved nearly a million and a half
acres of this timber land from allotment,
and this portion remains a virgin wilder-
ness and a welcome place of refuge for
wild life of all kinds. This region is
extremely rugged and along its in-

NATURAL AREA8 AND IlKGIONS

101

numerable mountain streams are numer-
ous cliffs which rise sheer from tho
water's edge to a height of 200 or 300
ft., forming deep canyons through which
the swift streams go dashing and plung-
ing and foaming among the boulders.

The Arhuckle Mountains occupy an
area of about 860 sq. mi. roughly in the
form of a triangle, the base of which is
toward the southeast. The surface of
this region is in general a plateau sloping
from an elevation of 1350 ft. in the west
to 750 ft. in the east. It was originally
a group of mountains which nuist have
rivalled the highest of the Rockies in
elevation and ruggedness, but weather-
ing and erosion through the ages have
worn away the peaks until only their
bases are left to form the plateau.
This surface in turn has been consider-
ably dissected by erosion so that the
streams flow through valleys of con-
siderable depth. The most notable
stream of this region is the Washita
River which has cut a channel in a
north-to-south direction, and in its
lower course plunges through a narrow
gorge in the limestone hills which rise
300 ft. above the water level. All the
streams of this region are clear and
rapid, while many of them have numer-
ous beautiful waterfalls. Sink-holes are
frequent and some caves have been
discovered and explored; none of the
latter, however, possess the interest
common to limestone caves in other
states. The soil in this region is gener-
ally thin, sufficing for agriculture only
in the valleys, though the hills afford
pasture for stock. Transportation facil-
ities are poor; the roads are mere trails
and the population is sparse.

The Wichita Mountains extend in two
parallel ranges a few miles apart from
Fort Sill slightly northwest to Coop-
erton, a distance of about 60 mi.
They are composed chiefly of a pink
granite, except a rather extensive por-
tion to the southeast which is largely
made up of porphyry. Some of the
peaks are rugged and rise to a height of
700 to 900 ft. above their Ijases. Their
tops an 1 sides are generally washed

alnio.st or (|uito free of soil, thoUKh some
of tlinir valleys have sufricient soil to l>e
fariKMl. TIk' iowpr hili-fojis nre oithor
bare or support a scant growth of trees.
The greater part of this uplift is in-
cluded in the Wichita Nationnl Forcst<
and flame Reserve, coinprisinR 01,014
acres, including a fenced-in bison rnnKo
of 0700 acres.

The remainder of the state is ro'linR
country. A strip 15 to 45 mi. wide,
extending from the southeastern corner
westward for about 170 mi., is a portion
of the Gulf ConHdil Plain and comp'
all the state lying between the k .
River and ihe Ouachita and Arbuckle
Mountains. This is a rich fanning area
and is mostly under cultivation. The
naive biota here is distinctly southern
in character.

In the east central part of the - tate
is th Lower Arkansas River Valley
Region, a narrow triangular be't with
its base at the Arkansas state line and its
apex at the eastern end of the Arlnickle
.Mountains. This is a highland plain
through which the streaTns have cut
rather broad, deep valleys, leaving the
hill-tops broad and flat. .\ few isolated
peaks ri.se above this plain to an eleva-
tion of 1500 ft. or more. Most of the
hills are covered with scrubby tinil)er
and a good growth of native grass. The
greater part of this region is too broken
for agriculture, so that grazing anil coal
mining are the principal industries.

The Pniiric Plains Rc(jion is a triangu-
lar belt running north of the Lower
Arkansas River Valley to the west of the
Ozarks. In general the Oith parallel
forms its western boundary; the Kansas
sta e line its base; while its apex is on
Muddy Boggy Creek about 20 mi. east
of Ada. Tlie surface slopes to the s >uth-
cast in a series of escarpnients with tho
gentler slopes to the westwaril. The
soils are fairly deep and of moderate
fertility, the native grasses fiirnshini;
a line grade hay crop.

The Sandstone Hills Region is an
elongated, fairly rectangular area
lioundcd on the south by the .\rbuckle

» "\nttorml Foreate of the I^lerii District."

492

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Mountains, and extending in a general
northerly direction to the Kansas line.
Its boundaries are not everywhere
sharply defined. The surface of this
region is rough and the hill-tops are
frequently capped with sandstone ledges
some 300 to 400 ft. above the lowlands.
The slopes are covered by sandstone
boulders which render them unfit for
farming. The valleys are rich and
thickly populated, while the hills are
sparsely settled.

The Redbeds Plains Region comprises
the greater part of the central portion
of the state from the Kansas line to the
Red River and extending thence west-
ward to surround entirely the Wichita
Mountains. This is in general a slightly
rolling plain sloping to the southeast.
The streams are of the type common on
the plains, where the shallow current
flows in a small meandering channel
back and forth across the broad shallow
valley, deeply choked with sand. Dur-
ing most of the year the larger rivers,
like the South Canadian and the Cimar-
ron, are mere creeks with beds of deep
and treacherous quicksand, though in
early summer after the spring rains and
the melting of the snow in the Colorado
mountains, they become raging torrents
often two miles in width which sweep
every obstruction away in the mad rush
of the water down-stream. The banks
are formed by considerable areas of sand-
dunes, among which, here and there,
occur ox-bow bayous (locally called
"lakes") which mark abandoned por-
tions of previous river-beds after the
streams have cut new channels across
the bends. Over most of this region the
surrounding country never reaches an
elevation of more than a hundred feet
above the water level, and usually much
less, wide areas being subject to over-
flow during times of high water. While
over most of the Redbeds Plains timber,
principally elm and cottonwood, occurs
only along the streams, the extreme
eastern portion supports a growth of
scrubby blackjack oak. This was the
first portion of the state thrown open to
settlement, and the population is fairly

dense and well established. Railroad
facilities are good and the roads, while
often mere trails, are in the main well
graded and satisfactory for motor
travel, especially in pleasant weather.

The Gypsum Hills Region is an irregu-
lar area lying to the west of the Redbeds
Plains, and extending from the Kansas
line to the Red River, including the
southwest corner of the state. In
general characteristics these two regions
are similar. Among the "gyp" hills,
however, the streams have generally cut
deeper channels which, in the northern
portion particularly, have the form of
narrow canyons 200 to 400 ft. deep. The
surface as a whole slopes rather rapidly
to the southeast. Numerous ledges of
gypsum (calcium sulphate) occur in the
hills and the water in the streams is often
so impregnated by the "gyp" in solution
as to be most unpalatable. These
streams, except the Washita, are typical
plains streams with sand-choked chan-
nels and broad belts of sand dunes along
their courses. The Washita carries
much less sand and as a rule has steep
mud banks. Agriculture depends upon
the so-called "dry-farming" method and
the kaffirs and other sorghums constitute
the chief grain crops. In several locali-
ties there are large springs of salt water
which emerge from the red rocks below
the gypsum ledges, and, especially in the
neighborhood of the Cimarron River,
several salt plains occur, which in the
dry season have the appearance of a
heavy fall of snow owing to the white-
ness of the salt which covers the surface
to the depth of several inches, over 100
sq. mi. of territory.

The Sand Desert Region covers an area
of 3000 to 4000 sq. mi. in the extreme
western part of the state from the
Texas line eastward between the Cimar-
ron and South Canadian Rivers. This
is region of dry shifting sand and sand
dunes almost wholly devoid of trees or
other prominent vegetation. It is ut-
terly useless for any sort of agriculture
and as barren as the Sahara.

The High Plains Region comprises
all the rest of the state, including the

NATURAL AREAS AND REGfOVq

493

northwest corner of the main portion
and all of the Panhandle. The surface
is a sloping plain which descends from
an elevation of over 4500 ft. in the north-
west corner, and has its surface cut here
and there by the streams into narrow
V-shaped canyons lying between the
broad, flatr-topped hills. While the soil
is sufficiently fertile for excellent farm-
ing, the scant rainfall, which averages
only 15 in. per year and is often much
less, greatly restricts agricultural opera-
tions; hence the greater part of the
region is in pasture and is but thinly
settled. The north side of the Cimarron
River in the Panhandle is bounded by
the Black Mesa, a bed of volcanic lava,
now standing high above the level of
surrounding elevations and giving to the
landscape a characteristic appearance
not found elsewhere in the state.

II. CLIMATE

While in general the climate of Okla-
homa is regarded as temperate it is
characterized by many extremes of
weather both of hot and cold, wet and
dry. The usual seasonal changes in
temperature, like those on the Great
Plains in general, are great, ranging
from at least 25° below zero to 116°,
or even more, above. Killing frosts
may be expected in the northwestern
part of the state in the first half of
October, while they may be a month
later in the southeastern portion. The
latest frost in the spring may occur in
February in the southern part, or as
late as the last of April in the higher
western and northern portions; one
degree of difference in temperature,
where conditions otherwise are the same,
may be noted for each 65 ft. of difference
in elevation. However, the heat of
summer is very greatly modified, espe-
cially in the southern half of the state,
by the influence of the Gulf of Mexico,
and the nights are usually comfortably
cool even in the hottest summer months.
The average annual precipitation varies
from 15 in. or less in the Panhandle and
the High Plains Region generally to
45 in., or occasionally more, in the

southeastorn corner of the state. The
niiiiy soiuson inciiides the montha of
April to Scptonibcr, thoURh July and
August arc frofpientiy very dry, and
occasionally the fall and winter months
arc marked liy coii.sidoruble preci|)ita-
tion. Snow-falls of u foot or more on
the level sometimes are experienced in
the northern sections, while the soiith-
ern half of the state frequently piuy^ea
th' entire year without the fall of a
single snow-flake.

The percentage of actual hours of
sunshine out of the number po-^ible
averages about 50 in winter and nl)out
65 in summer, while in July, .\ugust and
September, it is usually .SO to 85 per cent
of the po.ssible hours. The prevailing
winds are from the south. The tables of
the United States Weather Bureau
Station at Oklahoma City show, for a
period of ten years, "a total of 132
months, that south winds prevailed for
94 months, southeast for 10 months,
north for 25 months, northwest 2 months,
and northeast 1 month."

A never-to-be-forgotten characteristic
of the climate in Oklahoma is the great
and sudden drop in temperature which
occurs upon the approach of a so-called
"norther'' in the late fall and winter
months. After a period of warm
weather when the thermometer registers
80° or more, say in November, with a
light warm south wind, a leaden haze
may usually be seen rising gradually
above the northern horizon. After
several hours the wind changes direction
almost instantaneously and comes from
the north with a velocity sometimes
reaching GO mi. or more per hour, bring-
ing with it a drop in temperature of
50° to 00° within a very few hours. In
fact, the present writer has seen the
mercury drop 00° in ninety minutes on
such occasions, after which a further
drop of several degrees may occur but
more slowly. Woe unto num or bojust
caught out unprepared for the "north-
er!" There is usually little or no
snow-fall in connection with these
storms, though when such d<x?a occur
it is apt to be esiwcially severe, and the

494

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

cold wind of high velocity together with
the densely falling snow constitues the
so-called "blizzard" which brings con-
sternation to the stockmen and the
traveller far from shelter. The writer
has found stock frozen to death in such
a storm within a hundred yards of
shelter which it was unable to find
through the blinding blizzard.

Destructive tornadoes are frequent in
the spring and early summer months,
though they may occur at any time of
the year, and often appear to "play
pranks" that are not usually credited
by those who have not experienced their
vagaries. In Oklahoma, a "still day"
is so unusual as to be remarkable;
any breeze that blows less than 10 mi.
per hour is a "gentle zephyr"; on a
"windy day" its velocity may be any-
thing between 20 and 50 mi. per hour,
while a destructive storm moves at a
rate of 60 to 100 mi. per hour.

The months of October, November,
December and frequently January, have
usually the finest weather of the year;
the spring months are frequently too
wet for comfort; and the summer and
early fall months too hot and dusty to
be thoroughly enjoyable. Over the
Great Plains Region sand-storms and
dust-storms are frequent and most
annoying during the dry season.

In short, the climate of Oklahoma has
the charm of novelty — it is characterized
by frequent changes — so that one does
not have time to grow weary of a given
variety of weather before a change
ushers in something different.

III. THE ORIGINAL BIOTA

Ecologically speaking, the state of
Oklahoma comprises at least four chief
zones, to which possibly should be
added a fifth to include that portion of
the Gulf Coastal Plain that lies along
the Red River south of the Arbuckle
and Ouachita Mountains. This region
is characterized by the presence of
southern types of biota not occurring
elsewhere in the state. Aside from this
there are:

1. The Southern Coniferous Forest

Region of the Ouachita Mountains.

2. The Deciduous Forest Region of
the Ozarks and the northeastern part
of the state generally.

3. The Oak Grove Savanna Region
extending thence westward across the
entire state to the Redbeds Plains.

4. The Desert Grassland Region, which
comprises the rest of the state. Local
variations in these general regions are
numerous and some of them of notable
interest.

In the Southern Coniferous Forest
Region of the Ouachita Mountain ; is
to be found most of the still existing
virgin forest land of the state. Here the
.original biota occurs in greatest abun-
dance though several of the larger forms
have been reduced by continual (and
often illegal) hunting almost or quite to
extinction. Among the larger carni-
vores were the cougar (Felis concolor
group), black bear (Ursus americanus),
gray wolf (Canis spp.), and bobcat
(Lynx spp.). The smaller carnivores,
such as the raccoon {Procyon lotor),
skunk (Mephitis mesomelas), "civet-cat"
(Spilogale interrupta) , otter {Lutra cana-
densis subsp.), mink (Mustela vison
subsp.), and weasel {Mustela sp.) were
also common, preying upon the still
more numerous cottontail and swamp
rabbits (Sylvilagus Jloridanus alacer
and S. aquaticus), gray and fox squirrels
{Sciurus carolinensis and S. niger rufi-
venler), and various other rodents.
Here too the beaver (Castor canadensis)
and muskrat (Ondatra zibethica cin-
namomina), as well as the otter, were
once abundant, as was also the stupid
opossum (Didelphis virginiana). The
Virginia deer (Odocoileus virginianus
subsp.) was probably the only native
ungulate found in this region and it
occurred in numbers that cannot now be
estimated; it is barely possible that the
mule-deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and
elk (Cervus canadensis) originally in-
cluded this area within their respective
ranges. Among the birds, the wild
turkey was present in almost unbeliev-
able numbers, if we may trust the stories
of old hunters, and they grew unusually

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

405

large and fat on a diet of mast and grass-
hoppers. The passenger pigeon and
Carolina paroquet are also worthy of
special mention, while nearly or quite
all the other species which were found in
the Mississippi Valley were here either
as migrants, or winter or summer resi-
dents. The reptilian life included al-
ligator {Alligator mississippierisis which
occasionally ascended the Arkansas
and Red rivers; alligator-snapper (Mac-
rochelijs tcmminckii) and soft-shelled
turtles (Amyda emoryi) which grew to
large size and were probably com-
mon. Living in the streams with these
was the cotton-mouth moccasin {Agkis-
trodon piscivorus), whose cousins, the
copperhead (A. mokasen) and the timber
rattler {Crotalus horridus) found suitable
habitats among the rock crevices of the
mountain sides. Under boulders and
fallen logs, the coral snake secured
satisfactory retirement and completed
the list of venomous forms. Several
species of harmless snakes also occurred
here on land and in the water, in which
also lived the bullfrog {Rana calesbeiana)
and leopard-frog {Rana pipiens).
Toads hopped over the rough gound
and treefrogs sang in the water or
from the tree-tops. A few species of
ground lizards darted here and there
from shelter to shelter or basked in the
sunshine on boulder-top or log. In
the streams large-mouthed black bass,
various catfishes, the spoonbill, the
garpike and the alligator-gar pursued
their prey in comparative safety. The
southern pines and cedar made up most
of the timber growth, though there was
a liberal sprinkling of oaks and hick-
ories, the former producing the acorns
relished by deer and turkey, the latter
nuts for the bear, which also found an
abundance of service-berries, wild
huckleberries, and muscadines {Viiis
rotundifolia) . In general, the flora
was the same as that of southwestern

Arkansas.

The Deciduous Forest Region marked
the western limits of many species
both plant and animal, common in the
more eastern sections of the United

States. Here were the sycamore, sev-
eral si)ccies of hickory, the hacklH!rry,
several kiiid.s of oaks, ft.sh, papaw,
pcrsiiiiiiioM and doRwood. I^otw abun-
diiit, jJiTlKips, were the cnibappic,
liazcliiut. beecli, cucumber tree, Hinooth
alder, chin<|uapi(i, water- and willow-
oaks. .More alcmdanl were the service-
berry, redl)ud and holly, the last often
reaching extraordinary size. The origi-
nal fauna iiirhided the ijlack bear, the
puma or cougar, bol)-cat, gray or timber
wolf, and the white-tailed and mule
deer, as well as the wapiti or elk.
Among the smaller forms were the
opossum, raccoon, skunk, otter, beaver,
woodchuck (Marmnln monnx), mink,
weasel, muskrat, gray fo.\ {L'rocyon
cinereoargcnteiis\ and red fo.x {VulpcH
sp.). The rodents also comprised the
cotton-tail rabbit, Hying squirrel
{Ghiucomys volnits sdlnvdlus), fo.x and
gray squirrel and numerous smaller
species. Among the birds, besides all the
species common inland to the ea.stward.
here was one of the last stands of the
now extinct passenger pigeon, and, aside
from Florida, this was perhaps the hist
stronghold abandoned by the Carolina
paroquet. The wild turkey and the
bob-white were exceedingly abundant,
and waterfowl of all kinds were at least
migrant visitors to its waters. The
golden and bald eagles competed here
for a livelihood with a dozen or more
species of hawks and owls. Snipe and
woodcock were common. The reptiles
and fishes were species common to the
eastern states and the .Mi.ssissippi
Valley.

The Oak Grove Savatiua Rcginn \\i\s
remarkable largely because in it a few
straggling eastern species found their
western limits in competition witii si>n e
western plains forms which Imil extended
their range eastward. Mide «leer were
more abundant, the whitetail
less so and the elk was not uii
The cougar ami bob-cat. the pray wolf
and the coyote, and the black bear ccui-
stitutcd the list of larger carnr ■
The smaller carnivores and r.
were as common as to the ea»twar<l with

496

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE A^IERICAS

the striking exception of the woodchuck,
which was probably never to be found
here, and the flying squirrel was at least
less common, occurring only in the larger
timber which was confined to the vicinity
of the water courses. The bird-life
differed little from that of the regions
previously noted, except that here the
prairie chicken should be added to the
list and the paroquet was absent. Wild
turkeys and bob-whites were countless
in number, hunters reporting tha' the
former could frequently be found in
winter covering the ground as thickly
as they could stand in flocks acres in
extent. Omitting the alligator and
other distinctly southern reptiles, the
cold-blooded fauna was the same as that
in the other regions already discussed.
The most characteristic plant form was
the scrubby blackjack oak, together with
the native grasses and wild flowers.
The Dry Grassland (or Steppe) Region
with local exceptions, comprised the
remainder of the state, and on account
of its extent constituted the most
characteristic ecological feature of the
area under discussion. Here roamed
the bison {Bison bison) in herds that
numbered millions of head, moving
northward or southward with the season;
here too the pronghorn antelope (Anti-
locapra americana) flashed his signals
in numbers too great to be counted,
but thought by Nelson and others to
have been no fewer than the bison;
here also was the elk in many places only
less numerous than these other two;
while the mule deer probably out-
numbered the white-tailed deer, both
species were abundant. It seems almost
impossible to exaggerate the numbers
of all these animals. Indian traders
still living maintain that as late as the
middle 70's as many as 700 deer were
actually counted by one man in the
Osage country in less than a week's
time! The carnivores were propor-
tionally numerous. The cougar was so
common even as late as the early 90's
that as many as two or three might be
seen in a half day's drive from Norman
to Oklahoma City. This is the exact

spot where a century ago Washington
Irving enjoyed the bison hunt familiar
to readers of his "Tour of the Prairies."
The gray wolf and the coyotes, in the
poetic language of the native Indian,
"were as the leaves of the forest,"
while the bob-cat constituted a by no
means unimportant element of this
fauna. The black bear was fully as
common, and none of these species
confined themselves to regions where
cover was abundant; on the contrary
they were as apt to be met with on the
treeless plains as in the timber along the
streams or in the rocky ravines and
among the hills. The smaller carni-
vores, including those already mentioned
as occurring in other portions of the
state, were present here also, but re-
inforced by the badger (Taxidea taxus)
whose holes punctured every hill-top;
by the swift-fox {Vulpes velox), one of
the swiftest and most graceful but least
cunning of his tribe; and by the black-
footed ferret {Mustela nigripes), a blood-
thirsty musteline which restricted itself
almost wholly to the neighborhood of
prairie-dog villages where it could
secure an abundant and easy living.
Among the rodents, additional forms
worth mentioning include the prairie-
dog (Cynomys ludovicianus), just re-
ferred to, whose extensive villages or
cities often covered miles of country,
and the blacktailed jackrabbit (Lepus
californicus melanotis) still to be reckoned
among the conspicuous and characteristic
elements of this particular fauna. The
pocket-gopher {Geomys latescens) and
the kangaroo-rat {Dipodomys sp.), the
woodrat {Neotoma sp.) and the thirteen-
lined ground-squirrel {Citellus tridecem-
lineatus ssp.) were other rodents not
hitherto noted. Beaver, otter, mink,
muskrat, and other fur-bearers were
numerous, especially along the streams.
The wild turkey, two species of the
prairie chicken, and the bob-white
occurred in great numbers. Flocks
of turkeys numbering fully 3000 each
were seen by hunters here as late as
1877, and General Sheridan in 1869 one
night visited a turkey roost on the north

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

407

side of the Canadian River in a grove of
cottonwoods about three miles long,
where thousands of turkej^s were in the
trees when the hunters arrived. This
party killed over 200 and only desisted
then because they already had far more
than they needed or could take care of!
Both the greater and the lesser prairie
chickens were present not only in count-
less numbers, but were so tame that
they could literally be "killed with a
stick." On many of the "lakes" and
streams waterfowl "darkened the sky"
as thej' came and went. Plover and
curlew, sandpipers, stilts and avocets
were hardly less abundant. Sandhill
and whooping cranes, swans, herons
and ibises were too numerous to be taken
account of. Among the rapacious birds
were bald and golden eagles, Cooper's
hawk, the sharp-shinned haw-k, goshawk,
red-shouldered, Swainson's, American
rough-legged, ferruginous rough-legged,
marsh, sparrow and red-tailed hawks,
the Mississippi kite, and a number of
owls. Among the latter the most strik-
ing species was the burrowing owl, that
characteristic dweller in abandoned
prairie-dog holes. Flickers of both
sorts, including hybrid forms, the
mockingbird, meadowdark, and scissor-
tailed flycatcher were abundant. Vul-
tures, both the black and the turkey,
fed on every carcass. Crows, jaj's and
ravens were everywhere. The ground-
loving sparrows and finches, the horned
larks and other plains forms swarmed
over the country, and here the now
infamous cowbird undoubtedly adopted
its parasitic habit of dropping its eggs
in the nests of other birds, in order that,
freed from the care of rearing a family,
it might accompany the bison on its
migrations. The reptiles included an
occasional alligator in the Red River or
the South Canadian, but the cotton
mouth did not go far westward. Rattle-
snakes of various kinds were plentiful,
notoriously so among the prairie-dog
villages. The most characteristic ser-
pent of this region, however, was prob-
ably the bullsnake {Pituophis sayi)
which grew to large size on the fat of the

land. The interesting little horned
lizard (I'hrynoaoma cornutum) shared
the ground witli Ihc ccntipcdea, scor-
pions and taranluhw, and feasted on tlie
abundance of in.-^ect life, while in the
hillier parts of this region the collared
lizard (Crotnphytus c. collarii\ or
"mountain boomer," pursued liis way
in peace or basked in the sunshine on a
rock ledge or boulder. Bullfrogs and
leopard frogs vied in chorus with the
palustrine treefrogs, while on the dry
uplands the cognate toad {Bitfo c.
cognatus) relied for safety from its foes
upon the camouflage afforded by the
large splotches of color on its warty
back. Tall grasses and weeds filled the
river vallejs, while the uplands were
covered with bunchgrass and other
native tj^pes; j-ucca and prickly pear
were common, especially in the more
arid places. Along the streams the
elm with the large conspicuous bunches
of mistletoe among its branches com-
peted with the Cottonwood and willow,
while along the outer margins of the
river valleys persimmons and pecans
occurred in smaller numbers. The bod-
arke or Osage orange (Meulura pomifi ra)
was widely distributed and every swale
harbored clumps of plum bushes. Wild
grapes wound their rope-like stems
over bush and tree. In the spring the
uplands were a variegated patchwork
of prairie flowers, while later dwarf
roses, lupines, evening primroses, and
many other species too numerous to
mention, dotted the landscape in every
direction. No less than fifteen hundred
species of flowering plants had their
home in this region.

Such in brief were the conditions in
Oklahoma before its settlement by the
whites.

IV. THE PRESE.NT BIOTA

But with settlement most of this was
changed. In the words of one of the
"Sooner" nature lovers, the late Krod-
erick S. Barde:

The opening of Oklahoma to home-
stead settlement W!ia 11.S though the light-
nings of heaven had fallen upon its wild

498

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

life. Fires swept the country in all
directions; armies of horsemen pene-
trated to remote places; wagons rumbled
over the hills and down the valleys;
there was a tumult of shouting and the
roar of guns, and violence reigned, where
until that day had been the peace of a
primeval solitude. The slaughter had
been begun.

Save for three or four small herds in
captivity the bison had been extermi-
nated at least fifteen years before "The
Run;" the elk had disappeared at about
the same time. The shameful story of
the wanton slaughter of these animals,
particularly of the bison, has been told
too often and too well to merit repeti-
tion here. After 1889, the deer and
pronghorn antelope, the black bear and
cougar, the beaver and the otter, the
wild turkey and the prairie chicken,
and many other less conspicuous forms
faded away. The last pronghorns were
killed in the western part of the state
in 1910. In 1917, Cross estimated the
number of native wild deer (all white-
tails) still in the state at not more than
one hundred fifty and these were in the
Ouachitas. Today the black bear can
be found only in the Ouachita and the
Wichita Mountains, and even in the
latter may already have vanished. The
cougar is now rare even in the mountain
refuges, though occasionally one, or
even a pair, impelled by hunger or the
wanderlust, may revisit other parts of
the state, as was the case in Cleveland
County in 1917, when a pair of these
fine cats spent a season there. The
beaver exists now only in one or two
private preserves in the western part of
the state; the otter is gone; the mink
is rare. The gray wolf is no longer
common and is doomed to extinction
since the farmers and ranchmen wage
constant warfare upon him in revenge
for the destruction he occasions in their
herds and flocks. The coyote is prob-
ably holding its own, if not actually
increasing in numbers. During the
first few years that brought contact
with the white settlers, the coyotes
became acquainted with cultivated
fields, domestic animals, traps, guns

and poison bait. Their number de-
creased until the survivors learned
caution and came to understand the
ways of man. Now they are frequently
considered more cunning than the fox.
The present generation is well able to
cope with the problems presented by a
settled country; are graduates in the
mastery of traps and guns; have a nose
keen to detect poison; hence, combining
boldness with cunning, are now some-
times observed within the environs of
even large towns or cities. There is
little probability of their eventual
extermination. Bob-cats, though rarely
seen, are still common in the timber
along water courses and in the ravines
and canyons oi the more rugged sections.
The badger has become rare and will
soon disappear forever; raccoons and
skunks of several species seem to have
adapted themselves fairly well to the
new conditions. The opossum, for all
its apparent stupidity and helplessness,
is still abundant where conditions are
favorable, and the writer has counted as
many as eighteen in one persimmon tree
when that fruit was ripe. The prairie-
dog, despite constant persecution, or
possibly because of it, is extending its
range slightly eastward, forming small
isolated villages at least as far as Cleve-
land County. The burrowing owl is
following it in this recent extension of
its range. The rabbits — cottontail,
swamprabbit, and jackrabbit — all seem
to survive in plentiful numbers, perhaps
partly because of the diminution of the
carnivores. Other rodents do not ap-
pear to have suffered any loss in popula-
tion, and some like the pocket gophers
and ground squirrels are really serious
pests in alfalfa fields.

The larger prairie chicken is probably
extinct; while the lesser maintains a
precarious hold only in the High Plains
Region. Where formerly pelicans could
be seen in flocks of 150 (South Canadian
River, Cleveland County, 1907), now
only occasional stragglers occur; the
whooping crane no longer is to be found,
and the sandhill crane is rare. Where
once flocks of wild geese belonging to

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

499

several species not rarely extended even
for miles across the sky, it is now so
unusual for the hunter to bag a roosc
that the event is likely to be chronicled
in the local newspaper. Ducks, except
on preserves, form only a pitiful remnant
of the great flocks that were formerly
common, though where given absolute
protection, as in the Wichita Reserve,
become numerous, tame, and even breed.
The wild turkey is still fairly common
only in the Ouachitas and a few other
of the wilder sections of the state,
though in flocks greatly reduced in size.
The bob-white fluctuates from year to
year, but is certainly gradually growing
scarcer. The pileated w-oodpecker, the
most regal bird of its family, is approach-
ing extinction. The woodcock is a
sparse denizen of the eastern part of the
state, most of them occurring in the
Ouachitas. The golden plover still
passes through Oklahoma in its long
spring flight from Patagonia to the Arc-
tic, though it rarely tarries long enough
to be observed. The curlew, once very
common, is now rare, or in the case of
one species gone altogether. The coot
is very common, the loon and grebes
rare, while the herons and ibises are
only occasionally seen where formerly
they were abundant. The robin and
the dove are more numerous now than
they were fifteen years ago, and the
same is true of the brown thrasher,
Bewick's wren and the bluebird. The
Baltimore and orchard orioles are
probably increasing, and the dickcissel
vies with the lark sparrow for first place
in numbers among the native sparrows.
The western meadowlark and both the
yellow- and red-shafted flickers are
abundant, the latter two hybridizing
generally throughout the central part
of the state. Yellow-headed blackbirds
are common migrants occurring in flocks
often of a thousand or more individuals.
Red-wings are abundant in river valleys
and grackles and cowbirds arc numerous
enough to be real nuisances in many
places. The cardinal and rose-breasted
grosbeaks are common winter residents;
the bobolink a rare migrant. The

mockingbird jind KciHsor-tniled fly-
catcher arc oonHpicuouM Hummcr res-
idents. 'I'lie roiifl-runncr, or ground
cuckoo, is ft common rcHidcnt in the
western and southern piirtH of the utate
as far east ns Cleveland County. Wliitc-
nocked ravens are residents in the HiRh
Plains Region, where in winter the
Pinyon jay also occurs. The birdu of
prey are still to be found, though only a
few species, like the marsh hawk, the
sparrow hawk and the screech owl, can
be called really common. The logger-
head shrike finds ft plentiful supply of
grasshoi)pers, sjjarrows and other smnl'
birds, and small rodents to impale
upon the barbs of wire fences or the
thorns of the bodarke or locust, and so
is increasing. The vireos and warblers
are abundant during the spring migra-
tion wherever there is sufficient foliage
of trees to conceal them and to furnish
a supply of insect food. The whip-
poor-will gives its mournful cry very
commonly in the eastern timbered
section of the state, while the western
nighthawk, finding the roofs of city
buildings safe nesting places, is very
numerous on the plains. The chimney
swift is increasing as more chimneys
become available for nesting purposes,
and the ruby-throat hums merrily
about the great host of native and culti-
vated flowers. A bird that deserves
especial notice in the leart tern (Sterna
anlillarum) that is now rarely found in-
land, being mostly confine<l to the coasts
of the south .Atlantic and Gulf states
and southern California, yet which nests
in Oklahoma upon the Great Salt Plain
of Alfalfa County as well as on the Hig
and Little .Salt Plains of the Cimarron.
Reptilian life was never so abundant
as that of the mammals and birds, yet
proportionately it has suffered just as
great a diminution in many cases, except
in the wilder j)ortions of the state.
Throughout the whole area under cul-
tivation the rattlesnake, once common,
has now become exceedingly rare.
Harmless species, like the hognosed
snake {Hctrrodon nasicus and //. contor-
trix), often inapproj>riately termed

500

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

the spreading adder or viper, the
buUsnake, the black snake {Coluber
c. constrictor), the pilot snake (Elaphe
laeta), the coach whip (C /. fla-
gellum), and the kingsnake {Lam-
propeltis), all suffer from the senseless
fear which leads most people to kill a
snake on sight. The most interesting
species of snake in the state is one which
is rarely seen even by professional zoolo-
gists. This is the Texas blind snake
(Leptotyphlops dulcis) taken by the writer
at Norman. It is a small worm-like
burrowing species much resembling in
size and general appearance a large
angle-worm. Among the lizards, swifts
(Cnemidophorus) and skinks (Lumeces)
are common, the horned lizard is abun-
dant, and the so-called "glass-snake"
{Ophisaurus vcntralis) not rarely seen.
The collared lizard, locally called the
"mountain boomer" and erroneously
considered dangerously venomous, is
characteristic of the rocky hills of the
western half of the state. The alligator,
which rarely ascends the South Canadian
as far as Norman, is somewhat more fre-
quently seen in the southeastern part of
the state, though always as an occasional
straggler. Turtles of a dozen species
are common, ranging from the alligator-
snapper that may attain a length of shell
of fully 4 ft. and a weight of 200 pounds,
down to some of the terrapins and box-
tortoises only 4 or 5 in. long. Bullfrogs
are common and attain a maximum size
in Oklahoma waters, which they share
with the leopard-frog and treefrogs. In
the eastern part of the state the arboreal
hyla occurs, while on the plains only the
palustrine species are found. The most
common toad throughout most of the
state is the cognate toad which with its
larger size and bigger blotches of color
is notably different in appearance from
the more common species of the eastern
states.

The Fish and Game Warden has re-
corded the following species of fish from
the streams and "lakes" of Oklahoma,
but the list is far from complete since
almost no systematic search by ichthyol-

ogists has yet been made. He names:
large-mouth black bass, small-mouth
black bass, rock bass, white crappie,
black crappie (also known as calico or
strawberry bass), pumpkinseed, green
sunfish, bluegill, and "between 30 and
40 {sic.) other species or varieties of the
sunfishes," yellow cat, black bullhead,
brown bullhead, blue cat, big muddy cat,
shovel-nose cat or spoonbill, the jack-
salmon or pike-perch, the garpike and
alligator-gar (the record specimen of
the last named species for the state hav-
ing measured 7 ft. 10 in. in length with a
weight of 196 pounds), and finally vari-
ous minnows and suckers, not to speak
of the introduced German carp.

The Ouachita Mountains are covered
largely with longleaf, shortleaf, lob-
lolly, and slash pine, with an occasional
sweet gum and Hercules club. The
Ozarks carrj^ a growth of oak, hickory,
walnut, elm and maple, with an occa-
sional specimen of papaw and witch-
hazel, while yellow pine occurs on their
southern peaks. In the western half of
the state along the streams occur cotton-
wood, elm, hackberry, chinaberry, wal-
nut, willow, dogwood, redbud, soap-
berrj^, boxelder and mulberrJ^ In the
far western part of the state the thorny
mesquite is found both on the prairies
and along some of the streams. On the
sandhills blackjack, barren- and post-
oak, hackberry, hickory and sumac are
to be found. Barde, writing in the game
warden's report for 1912, says:

The flowers of eastern Oklahoma, from
the Red River to Kansas, are astonishing
in their variety and luxuriance. The
violet, columbine, and Dutchman's
breeches grow there, and the serviceberry
whitens rocky hillsides with its early
bloom. The dogwood, linden and red-
biid expand their dream-like clouds of
pink and white from lowland to upland.
Here are growths of holly a hundred
acres in extent, with their perennial
green. Some of these holly trees are of
extraordinary size, being 40 ft. in height,
with trunks as thick as a man's body.

. . . The Kiamitia [a portion of
the Ouachitas] is an unknown land to the
scientific botanist. [The wild huckle-
berry] grows everywhere in the Kiamitia;

NATURAL ARKAS AND RIXJIONS

."iOl

the mountain sides are covered with
muscadines, tlic juicy fruit often bcinj;
as large as a Chickasaw plum.

The plains country throughout the
spring, summer and fall, is a constantly
changing panorama of flowering forms,
too numerous to catalog here. The
prairie rose crawls about over the
ground; sensitive mimosas with their
delicate lavender-pink flowers and finely
compound leaves responding quickly to
any touch, are attractive and curious:
evening primroses, yellow or white, large
or small, occur everywhere in season:
buffalo beans, purple or yellow, are
conspicuously attractive plants. When
the wheat fields have been cut, the stub-
ble is soon hidden by a luxuriant growth
of coreopsis that m:ikes them beautiful
to behold. The tall spikes of the creamy
white bell-like flo^vers of the yucca stand
out here and there in the arid regions,
while the rosy blossoms of the prickly
pear that sprawls ungracefully over the
ground are worthy a far better setting.
In the fall the composites in all shades
and colors and shapes cover the land-
scape.

The gypsum hills and the margins of
the salt plains have each their own
peculiar flora. Over most of the state
ferns and other low types are conspicu-
ous for their absence, though aquatic
algae occur in all bayous and quiet
waters.

In short, the observant eye will find
much to interest and the imagination
much to regret when contemplating the
present biota of Oklahoma. Many of
the changes have come about as the
result of wanton destruction at the hand
of civilized man; much with a little
foresight could have been preserved,
which is now gone forever, but by far
the most farreaching changes are due to
the inevitable effects of settlement, and
could not have been avoided.

V. NATURAL AREAS

There are few legal preserves in Okla-
homa. The Piatt National Park, at
Sulphur, has been "developed" as a

"health roHort," iirid very little of the
natural rcmain«. The Wichitii Nntional
I'orest and (^amo Kc«ervc in moHtly in
its i)ristine condition. Al«>ut l.TiOO.OOO
acres in the (hiachita MoiuitaiiiH wom
reserved from "allotment" and Htill
remains the wildest and mo»t natural
l)art of the state. Other nrcnn not
reserved still comprise portions here
and there in their uriKinal condition
or nearly so.

1. The Southern donifcrtnu Forenl
Region. fOuachita Mountains. *Tali-
hina (population less than KKM)), on St.
Louis and San Francisco R. R., in Lc
Flore County, is in the midst of tins
region; go south or east (h)*".

2. The Dcci'hiou-i Forest Region.
Ozark Mountains. JTahlequah (popu-
lation 2271), on the St. I>ouis and San
Francisco R. R.. is in the southwc^itcrn
part of this region; go east or north <h;
or (a) if weather be dry*i.

S. The Oak Grove Savannah Region.
tOkmulgee (population 17,430) is situ-
ated within a tyi>ical part of this region,
on the St. Louis and San Francisco R. R.
Go in any direction (a).

4. The' Dry Grassland Region, (a)
F'or tvpical plains: tl'-nid (^population
16,576), on Chicago, Rock Island and
Pacific R. R. Co in any direction la).
(b) For tArbuckle Mountains: go to
tDavis (])opulation KAY.)\ vi.i Oklahoma
Citv, on the Atchison, Tojwka and
Santa Fe R. R., then fa) about 12 mi.
southeast to Crusher (village); then east
or west (w), (h), or fai§.

5. ^Wichita Xalio-nal Forest and Gome
Reserve. Go through JLawton (popu-
lation 8930) on St. Louis and San Fran-
cisco R. R. about 15 mi. to Cache: take
(a) to Reserve §.

6. Giipsum Hills. Go to tWeather-
ford (population 1029). via Oklahoma
City, on the Chicago, Rock I.-^land and
Pacific R. R., then 5 mi. northwest.

7. Sand Desert. From Kiowa, Kansas,
go through t Woodward '|>opulation
3849) to Shattuck (population LIimi,
on the Atchison, To|-)eka an«l Santa Fc
R R., then west (a) 10 to 1.') ini.§.

8. Salt Plains. fCreat Salt Plains
on the Cimmarron River: ki> to M'- ■
(jjopulation 3913 1 on tlie .\tct
Topekaaiid Santa Fe R. R. from Ki.nsa,^
Kansas, then a' ".•loro.-vs country"
west by north for about 4<1 mi.*": a
smaller' ssdt nlain, in Hl-in'' Cunty,
is more accessible: go to JW il-
lation 167S), on the ("Chicago, i^.H k iM.iiid
and Pacific R. R., from Knid, or Okla-

502

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

homa City via Geary, and drive 5 mi. or
more (a).

9. Black Mesa. Go to tGuymon
(population 1507), in "Panhandle," on
the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific
R. R., and then (a) overland nearly 103
mi. northwest If. — H. H. L.

10. Arbuckle Mountains. (B3.) 860
sq. mi., 550,003 acres. A much dissected
plateau, showins; striking effects of
erosion; a pre-Cambrian granite core
surrounded by the later formations in
series at various angles; prairie ridges
and timbered valleys; clear, Tapid-
flowing streams, with many beautiful
waterfalls and springs, travertine de-
posited by algae; artesian wells and
springs, charged with minerals. Eleva-
tion, 750 to 1350 ft. Arbuckle, Murray

County, Santa Fe R. R. — Chas. 0.
Chambers.

A rendezvous and camp-ground of
many geological students from the
State University and elsewhere.

11. Kiamichi Mountains. (B3.) In
Leflore County. About 100 sq. mi. or
64,000 acres, of rugged hills or mountains
in the Ouachitas. Deciduous and conif-
erous forests, bluffs and rocky situations,
full of clear, rapid-flowing streams and
wild rugged mountain scenery, very little
disturbed by cultivation or lumbering;
wild flowers more abundant than in any
other part of the state; wild turkey
common and wild deer occasionally seen.
500 ft. general elevation. Talihina,
Frisco R. R. (h) 24 mi. east. — Chas.O.
Chambers.

E. States Chiefly Grassland or Desert Grassland

The grassland and great plains area
of North America extends from cen-
tral Saskachewan to southwestern Texas
with transitions from grassland to desert
reaching westward into New Mexico
and southward into Mexico in the valley
of the Concias river and in western
Chihuahua. Large areas occur in the
Canadian provinces of Alberta, Sas-
kachewan and Manitoba. The Dakotas
are very largely of this type. It includes
a small portion of western Minnesota
and of Northwestern Iowa, and large
areas in western Nebraska, Kansas,
Oklahoma and Texas. Montana, Wj'om-
ing and Colorado have large areas of
coniferous forest in their central or
western parts but since this was largely
treated under the various forest districts
these states are included here.

1. TEXAS!

By Alvin R. Cahn

i. general conditions

1. Topography

Because of the great area of the state,
together with its unique geographical
position, Texas presents a region of great

1 I wish to express my appreciation to Drs. W. L.
Bray, V. Bailey, and D. H. Wright for reading the
original manuscript and for many constructive
criticisms which have been embodied in the present
article; to Dr. V. E. Shelford I am indebted for
many suggestions which acted as guide lines in
working up a great deal of material.

topographic diversity. For the most
part there is a general and steady rise
from the gulf coast northwestward, a
rise which reaches its culmination in
the great staked plains region of west
Texas, an elevation of 4000 ft. A break
occurs in this region, represented by the
valley of the Pecos River, and the high-
lands, encircling this valley in the south-
eastern corner of New Mexico, reenter
the state again as the mountain region of
the trans-Pecos country. Here the
highest altitude in the state is reached
in the Guadaloupe mountains, where
Guadaloupe Peak attains a height of
9500 ft. The slope is, therefore, from
the northwest to the south and south-
east. As would be expected in a large
region containing such a diversity of
elevation, surface conditions are exceed-
ingly varied: Mountains occupy the
trans-Pecos region; the Llano Estacado
or "staked plains" are high, treeless
grassland plains, extending into New
Mexico from northwestern Texas; there
is a great expanse of central hilly coun-
try, great prairie regions ; forest ; hot arid
desert: low swampy country, such as
that along the gulf. Soil conditions
vary as well, ranging from pure sand
through gray and red clays to the harder
limestones and great masses of igneous
rock. In the desert and semi-desert
country erosion plays and has played a
most important role, and is responsible

NATURAL ARHAS AND RKGIONS

603

for much of the topography of the rcKion,
while in the sand areas, as the sand (hincs
of Padre island, the wind is all itnp<n--
tant, keeping the sands so constantly
in motion that vegetation is nearly
impossible.

2. Climate

As the topography is varied, so is the
climate. Over most of the state the
climate is mild, healthful and pleasant.
The summers are very long, and, near the
coast, at least, considerably tempered by
the gulf winds. The winters are not
severe except in the high northern por-
tions, where the cold becomes intense.
Thus at Brownsville, according to Gree-
ley, a light frost (but a serious one!)
occurs about once in four years, while at
Amarillo, on the Staked Plains, a severe
winter brings a biting cold and a drop to
the neighborhood of— 20°. The entire
state, except the extreme western por-
tion, is affected during the winter
months by severe and extremely sudden
drops of temperature, known locally as
"northers," during which spells a drop of
50° or more within a very few minutes
is common. Rainfall varies greatly,
and is of great importance to the distri-
bution of plants and animals, both be-
cause of its presence and because of its
absence. There is a general decrease in
rainfall from the east to the west. Thus
the forests of the eastern limits of the
state have an annual rainfall exceeding
50 in., while on the staked plains 15 in.
is about normal. This decreases still
more to the southwest, where from 7 to
10 in. is considered a "wet" year. Fur-
thermore, it must be remembered that in
some regions this precipitation is peri-
odic, and this periodicity is again of
importance. In Kinney County, in
southwestern Texas, March, April and
May have a total mean i)recipitation
of only 1.1 in. out of a total of 23.4 in.
for the year; Crosby County, in tlic
northwest, has 1.9 in. during Deceinl)er,
January, February and March; El Paso,
in the extreme southwestern corner, has
but 0.9 in. during March, April and ^May.
It can be seen at once that such varied

jirecipitation nniMt have n. profound in-
fluence on tlio biota, and we find, there-
fore, a gradation in tlio (lorn an<l fauna
ranging fnun tlie h' icrn conifer

forest type to arid <:

II. ouiginai, iiio

From an ecological vicwixjint, ]i\:i«,
the largest .state in the I'nion, i.>( of
primary interest. Within the 2i\h,%Wi
s(|. mi. of territory which compOKc it
lie conditions of great diversity. This
diversity is due not so inurh to the size
of the state as to its gcogra|)iiic!il {kibi-
tion, its varietl climate and flivcrsified
topography. Witiiin its boundaries
faunistic and floristic elements of east
and west, of north and south meet and
overlap, producing a biotic comj)lcx
probably exceeded b.v no other state.
This complexity is further increased by
the extension of the major floristic divi-
sions— encroachments one upon another
— producing a great variety of local con-
ditions that are certain to confuse the
ecologist unless he is aware tiiat such
conditions arc mere local aspects of a
larger unit. Such local conditions are
well illustrated in the mcsquite semi-
desert of southern Texas, and in the
Rio Grande succulent desert, where Jocal
aspects of other larger units are found as
extensions up river valleys. Through-
out the state there is a beautiful transi-
tion from the southeastern coniferous
forest with its rainfall of over 50 in.
annually to the desert conditions of the
trans-Pecos, with an annual rainfall of
less than 7 in., and a similar transition
from the low marshes of the gulf coast to
the mountains of igneous rock in the
Guadaloupe range. Due to the fact
that Texas has such a large area, coupled
with a population that is scatterecl. there
once was much big game within its
limits, and a considerable anmunt -•ill
remains, though in constantly i\v>
ing at)un>Iance.

In tlie folluwii '■ ■ •■■ i.ijM

has been nia<lc '" >t»

natural ecological areas, based on floris-
tic conipo-sition as outlined 1 -.0
and by liray, and to correlate w. .

504

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

areas the animal distribution as out-
lined by Bailey. This latter part of
the task has been particularly difficult,
because of the lack of exact and sufficient
information as to the limits of distribu-
tion of the animal life of the state, but
such data do not exist.

1. Southeastern coniferous forest

This is an area of some GOOO or more
sq. mi. of territory in eastern Texas,
which is the western limit of a great
band of forest that extends westward
into Texas from the Atlantic coastline
of South Carolina. In Texas it is
separated from the coast by the coastal
prairies, which are the western limits of
a similar area following eastward
through Louisiana along the gulf coast.
The western limit of the area is approxi-
mately at the Trinity River, while to
the north and northwest it blends off
into a transition area, the Oak Grove
Savanna. It is the region of greatest
rainfall in the state, the precipitation
exceeding 50 in. annually. Topograph-
ically, it is a region of rolling sandy
ridges, the Fayette sands, which in
itself is an imjjortant ecological factor
in the floral distribution. The charac-
teristic tree of this forest is the long-
leaved pine (Pinus paliistris), whose
deep, penetrating tap root is best suited
to such soil. This tree is found in pure
stand where abnormal conditions (such
as fire and lumbering) have not over-
thrown the balance. The undisturbed
forest is one of open formation with
practically no woody undergrowth, car-
peted with grass and low herbs, as the
conditions are xerophytic for shallow
rooted plants. The region is transected
by local Bottomland forests (Bray)
which follow the wide channels formed
by the Sulphur Fork of the Red River,
the Sabine, Neches, Trinity and the
San Jacinto river systems. It also
includes a part of the loblolly pine
{Pinus taeda) forest (of Bray) which
reaches its climax in the Big Thicket of
Hardin County. In the Bottomland
forests we find hickories, oaks (white,

post, bur, red, Quercus alba, Q. stellata,
macrocarpa, rubra) elms, bays, gum,
haws, holly and ash, while in the Lob-
lolly forests we find as dominants the
loblolly pine, gum, magnolia, with sub-
dominants of holly, waterbeech {Car-
pinus caroliniana) , hornbeam (Ostrya
virginiana) , dogwood {Cornus jlorida),
witch-hazel {Hamarnelis virginiana) and
others.

The animal life is typically that of the
coniferous forest of the Mississippi val-
ley. Here we find the eastern rattle-
snake (Crotalus horridus) at the extreme
western edge of its range, and barely
extending over the limits of the conifer
forest into the transition area to the
deciduous forest. Among the squirrels,
the western fox squirrel {Sciurus niger
rufiventer) and the gray squirrel {Sciurus
carolinensis) are here in abundance,
overstepping into the aforesaid transi-
tion area in eastern Texas as the red and
white oak and hickory extend into this
area. The same may be said of the
Florida flying-squirrel {Glaucomys vo-
lans texensis) and the pine-woods deer
mouse {Peromyscus gossypinus mega-
cephalus) . The Louisiana harvest mouse
{Reithrodontomys fulvescens aurantius)
covers eastern Texas and is also typical
of this region, pushing its range toward
the coast, where it enters the coastal
prairies, living in the tall grass at the
edge of the woods — a local extension of
its range. To this region belong also
the raccoon {Procyon lotor) ,Yirginisi deer
(Odocoileus virginianus texanus), black
bear {Ursus americanus) and bob-cat
{Lynx rufus texensis), these species have
a range considerably outside of the coni-
fer forest, due to extensions up the river
bottoms where the wooded conditions
and the presence of abundant water
make these extensions possible.

Local conditions. As local conditions
we have within the coniferous forest
areas of cane breaks on bottomlands,
within which black bears are to be found.
The longleaf area is dotted with low
patches of hardwoods, known as "ham-
mocks," characterized by holly, etc.

NATUBAL AIIEAS AND REGIONS

505

2. Temperate deciduous forest

The deciduous forest, which is charac-
teristic of the Mississippi valley region,
extends into Texas from the northeast
corner of the state, and continues soutli-
westward in a constantly narrowing
band as it grades into the savanna of
live and post oak which separates the
typical deciduous forest from the mes-
quite semi-desert region farther to the
south. The northeastern half of the
deciduous forest must be considered as
a transition area between the southeast-
ern coniferous forest and the oak grove
savanna. In this transition area the
longleaf pine gives place to the short-
leaf pine {Pimis echinata) which, how-
ever, has been largely cut over, replace-
ment being for the most part by post oak,
which extends westward into the pure
deciduous forest and oak grove savanna.
Throughout the region the pine occurs
in conjunction with various species of
oak (post, red, white) together with
hickorj', maple, beech, ash and elm.
The rainfall of the region is somewhat
less than in the coniferous forest, being
between 35 and 45 in., while the soils
are essentially extensions of the more
eastern lignitic formations, though these
soils extend beyond the western limits
of the pine, the latter being held down
by the deficiency in rainfall.

The animal life is represented by the
remnants of the main body of the decidu-
ous forest species to the north and east,
this arm of the forest bringing these
species down into Texas. Most of the
species are, however, represented by
more southern varieties of the northern
animals. Here we have the Virginia
deer, gray fox {Urocyon cinereoargen-
teus subsp.), cottontail rabbit {Sijlvila-
gus floridanus alacer) and the opossum
(Didclphis virginiana). The region is
further populated by the western exten-
sion of the range of many of the species
common to the coniferous forest, as
already mentioned. Thus we get also
the red fox (Vulpes fulva) which, though
not native to Texas, has been success-
fully introduced into the conifer forest

region and lia« nprffid Un ranRo into the
deciduou.s forohi

Local cojuHtion. . llw Wfhlwur<l iitid
soutliwestward cxtcnflions of ihc decid-
uous forcHt is broken by oak Rrovc
savanna on tlic sandy soils of the lig-
nitic belt. The U|)land8 of the lignitic
belt originally tended to run to short
leaf pine, but with its (artificial) re-
moval, place was given to the oak grove
savanna.

3. Oak grove savanna

The oak grove savanna is, like the
deciduous forest, a southern arm of a
more extensive northern area, which
reaches southward into Texas from the
lied River region in a con.stantly nar-
rowing wedge. (This is true particu-
larly in the case of the upper and lower
cross timber; locally, as in Llano County
(granite area) broad stretches of oak
grove savanna are found.) The region
is in reality practically split by the tip
end of the deciduous forest projection
where soil conditions have rendered
the extension of this type of forest pos-
sible. Thus we have an area of oak
grove savanna lying entirely along the
western border of the deciduous fi>rest,
and a second area separating the forest
from the coast, as the Fayette sands
extension of the region. The oak grove
savanna must, within Texas at lea.st. be
looked upon as a sort of transition area
between the deciduous forest and the
grassland regions, and is the region in
which the various forests of the .\t Ian-
tic woodland type open out into the
steppe country. Again the rainfall is
less than in the preceding forest types,
being api)roximatcly 30 in. in both «li vi-
sions of the grove. On its western l>or-
der the oak grove savanna thins out. and
much grassland apiKjars within the
grove, while on the ea.'^tern border it
merges with the deciduous forest. The
domiiuint trees are the post oak ' ' v

rninor), and the black hack ',
iltnidictt), with wl.ito an<l black oak
(Q. velutina) as Mib-domin:mts. West
of approximately the i'7th nieritlian the
areas of gra.-^sland incrca.'^c both in

506

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

number and in proportions, and one finds
a good carpet of grass with xerophytic
annuals replacing the scrub under-
growth.

This region marks the western limit
in Texas of the Virginia deer, but the
species is not abundant in the savanna.
The prairie spotted skunk {Spilogale
interrupta) comes into Texas from the
savanna to the north and it is found
pushing its way westward into the grass-
lands where local conditions of countrj^
and vegetation permit. Here also ends
the range of several cottontail rabbits,
the raccoon (following up local aspects
of the heavier forest regions) and the
squirrels, previously mentioned, of the
Atlantic woodlands. One animal can
be cited as characteristic of that part
of the oak grove savanna which we
have mentioned as being cut off by the
deciduous forest. In that portion of the
savanna lying along the coast we find
the gulf spotted skunk (Spilogale india-
nola) whose range is entirely within
the savanna, being cut off and isolated
here by the heavy timber to the north
and the mesquite semi-desert to the
south.

4. Coastal Prairie

This is a relatively narrow band of
territory projecting southward along the
coast of Texas, wedging itself in between
the coniferous forest and the Gulf of
Mexico. Geologically, it is new land.
It is the westward extension of the region
of the Mississippi delta, and reaches
southwestward into Texas approxi-
mately to Matagorda Bay and the mouth
of the San Antonio River. It is a region
of little drainage and considerable rain-
fall (from 35 to 50 in.) and is so low that a
considerable part of it is practically a
brackish water meadow. Along the
coastline itself this merges into marsh
conditions, which are scattered all along
the gulf. The region is practically tree-
less except for a narrow strip of transi-
tion between the prairies and the forest
to the north and west, and is character-
ized by the presence of a rich, grassy

vegetation composed of moisture-loving
species. This is particularly true over
the eastern two-thirds of the area, where
the rainfall is in excess of 40 in., while
the western third is marked by the
dominance of species demanding less
moisture as the area pushes southward
toward the semi-desert country. The
dominant species are the water grasses,
broom sedges (Andropogon spp.) panic
grasses and emersed aquatic plants.
Marsh grass (Spartinasp.) is abundant,
as is, locally, the dropseed (Sporobolus
sp.).

It is not surprising to find within this

isolated and cut off region a number of

species of animals whose range does not

extend beyond the very limited confines

of this highly differentiated area. The

Florida opossum (Didelphis virginiana

pigra) is typical of the region, and is

closely confined to it. It is unknown

south of Matagorda Bay, and its range

extends north and east following the

coastal prairies along the coast. The

small mouse {Peromyscus taijlorx subater)

a very dark race, is confined to the dry

coastal prairies north of Matagorda

Bay, and is unknown from any other

region. Here it lives under the rich

carpet of grasses in the open country,

with habits that remind one of those of

a meadow vole (Microtus) . Associated

with it is the Louisiana vole {Microtus

ludovicianus), also confined to the dry

prairies. The rice rat {Oryzomys palus-

tris texensis) is confined to the marshes

of the coast region, and is very common

throughout the wet areas, as is the

swamp woodrat {Neotoma floridana

rtibida) whose range, however, has an

extension northward into the "big

thicket" of Hardin County. Closely

confined to these marshes one finds also

the coast swamp rabbit {Sylvilagtis

aquations litllralis) which extend out

only to enter the big thicket where local

conditions are similar to those of the

coastal marshes. The typical swamp

rabbit {S. a. aquaticus) inhabit the

bottomlands of all streams of eastern

Texas.

NATURAL AllEAS AND RKGIONS

607

5. Grassland

The great plains region, referred to
locally as the "cattle country" because
it is the great grazing range of the state,
is a region of grassland. It is the south-
ern extension of the vast temperate
grassland country lying to the north
between the JMississippi valley anil
the eastern slope of the rocky moun-
tains, and occupies a vast area in nortli
central Texas. To the eastward it is
met by the diminishing oak grove
savanna which merges imperceptibly
into it; to the south it meets the Rio
Grande succulent desert to which it is
bound by the northward extension of
the great mesquite country of southern
Texas, while its western boundar}^ is
the great Llano Estacado. It is a region
of perennial sod grassland with a mes-
quite {Prosopis glandulosa) overgrowth.
It is a region of greater elevation than
any of the country to the east, rising
from approximately 1200 ft. to nearly
3000 ft. The latter figure is the eleva-
tion at the western extremity of the
region, from which the semi-desert
broken steppe (the staked plains) rise
to an elevation of 400 ft. The annual
rainfall averages about 20 to 25 in., but
this rain is periodic: ordinarily a wet
spring and early summer, followed by a
dry late summer and fall, and a cold,
dry winter. Ecologically, the mes-
quite element is important as it must be
regarded as an invasion from the Rio
Grande desert, and its extension is fol-
lowed by floral changes which pro-
foundly alter the typical grassland con-
ditions. The mesquite invasion is
followed by conspicuous changes in
the grass composition, the so-called
"bearded mesquite grass" eventually
excluding the plains grasses because of
its greater shade tolerance. This is
followed by the appearance of otlicr
woody species, as the lotebush {Zizn-
phus) until the open country is covered
by a dense growth that proves of serious
economic importance. From the faunal
viewpoint, the mesquite is also of
importance, as we find a number of

animaia, audi ati the liuird wood rat
{Ncotoiua niicropus) and the Tcxoii dia-
mond rattlesnake (CrolnluH a. atroz)
extending thtir range from the typical
mes(iuitc semi-desert of the south clear
up into the northern imrtion of the
plains region, following very exactly
the distribution of the me»(juJto. Such
invasions are confusing until one recoR-
nizcs the fact that again tlicy simply
represent local conditions.

Tills is the region of the once great
herds of bison. Today it is the haunt of
the gray wolf {Cani.s (jri.-i.s(:uN) or "lobo"
of tlie cattlemen. Tiie kit fox (Vulpcs
velox) is found here, as is the coyote
{Canis spp.). It is the home of the
prairie-dog (C'l/nomi/s ! ' 'inus)
which formerly inhabited i jon in

countless millions, but which is now
rapidly on the decline. Here they dug
their "towns" over great areas of sandy
soil. The black-tailed jackrabbit
(Lepus californicus subspp.) is abundant
over the plains, and is found in local
extensions of the grassland on every
side. Of particular interest is the dis-
tribution of the Richardson kangaroo-
rat (Dipodomijs ordii richard.'iuni) in
this region. This species enters Texas
from the plains to the north, and in its
distribution it completely and exactly
encircles the staked plains, and by so
doing the species marks very well the
western limit of the grassland. It in-
habits only sandy country, and extends
its range down river valleys when the
type of soil is suitable.

6. Temperate desert grassland

This is the region known throughout
Texas as the Llano Estacado — the staked
plains. It is a region of considerable
elevation averaging around lii)00 ft. hut
reaching 4000 ft. in places. It is a liigli,
arid, open stepj)e, that is characterized
at once by the almost total absence of
trees. Rainfall is never in excess of 20
in. and often fails to reach 15 in. The
conditions arc, therefore, much more
xcrophytic than in any of the series of
regions which leail up to the plain.s- from
the east. The area lies west of the lOlst

508

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

meridian, and is bounded on the east by
the extensive grassland country just
discussed, while the western boundary is
the Rio Grande succulent desert repre-
sented by the valley of the Pecos River.
This valley pushes up a considerable
distance into New Mexico, but eventu-
ally the staked plains encompass it on
the north and reenter Texas again as a
long, slender arc extending into the
desert of the trans-Pecos region, then
recognized as the trans-Pecos plateau.
It is conspicuously a "short grass" coun-
try both in realit}^ and from a compara-
tive point of view. Here we find such
plants as Bouleloua, Hilaria, Muhlen-
bergia, Bulbilis, etc. The grasses are
dwarfed because of the xerophytic con-
ditions, and are of the type composed of
short, narrow leaves which show a
marked inclination to curl, due to the
excessive transpiration. These grasses
are fine as compared to the much coarser
grasses of the lower steppes and grass-
lands and, whereas the latter is so luxuri-
ant as to completely hide grazing cattle
(where over-grazing has not been prac-
ticed), the grasses of the staked plains
are rarely knee high. The landscape is
therefore a monotonously rolling one.
When this formation reenters Texas
in the trans-Pecos region, the same
unbroken fields of short grass character-
ize it. Thus the Davis mountains pre-
sent a picture of unbroken grass vegeta-
tion up to approximately 5000 ft., with
some xerophytic oak forest in some
places above this altitude, with occa-
sional western yellow pine and limber
pine, while the upper slopes and summits
— especially the upper canyons — must
be considered as islands of forests,
largely of Rocky mountain type.

The animal life is typically steppe
species, and we find here extensions of
the prairie dog towns, and the western
boundary of the former range of the
bison. The Pronghorn antelope (Antilo-
capra americana) was formerly common
here, but is now nearly gone. Several
animals show an interesting distribution
in this area. A map of the distribution
of the pale ground-squirrel {Citellus

tridecemlineaius pallidus) shows it to be
confined absolutely to the top of the
staked plains, and there is no evidence of
the species coming down below the gen-
eral topmost elevation of the region.
This is quite different from the distribu-
tion of the Richardson kangaroo-rat
which is characteristic of a position just
intermediate between the staked plains
and the grassland at its feet : the species
completely encircles the plains, giving a
good intermediate contour of the region.
Here likewise, closely confined to the
dwarf grasses, is the rattlesnake (CVo-
tahis molossus), found only in the Gua-
daloupe and Davis mountains at the
topmost margin of the plains at 6800 ft.

7. Mesquite semi-desert

This is the region characteristic of
the lower Rio Grande valley in southern
Texas. To the eastward it extends to
the coast, and to the west it follows in a
general way the broad valley of the Rio
Grande, reaching approximately the
mouth of the Devils river, where it
encroaches upon the succulent desert of
the Pecos and trans-Pecos region. It
is a low area, reaching its highest eleva-
tion about 1000 ft. near the mouth of
the Pecos. The rainfall is light over the
entire region, being normally about 20
in. Formerly this region was mostly
open grassland and mesquite, but now
it is overgrown with succulent plants of
the prickly pear {Opuntia) type, and
the grasses have been largely replaced
by shade-enduring species. Where the
open grassland prevails we find the plains
type of grasses represented by such
genera as Bulbilis, Bouteloua, Muhlen-
bergia and Aristida, with a relatively
limited assortment of sand-loving an-
nuals. Throughout the region the domi-
nant tree is the mesquite (Prosopis
glandulosa) and associated with it are
such typical species as the black per-
simmon {Brmjodendron texanum) hul-
sache, lechuquilla {Agave lechuguilla)
and the creosote bush, though it must
be recognized that both the mesquite
and the creosote bush extend their range
far beyond the limits of the semi-desert.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

800

The mesquite has a wide range through-
out southern Texas, and extends west
as well as north beyond the region of
typical semi-desert country. The north-
ern extension takes the mesquite a long
way into the grassland country, but
here it is no longer associated with the
other dominant semi-desert species. To
the westward, however, the situation is
somewhat different. The semi-desert
tends to invade the succulent desert for
a considerable distance up the valley of
the Devils and Pecos rivers, and up the
valley of the Rio Grande a short distance
beyond the mouths of the Pecos and
Devils rivers. Plotting the distribution
of the trees above mentioned as asso-
ciates of the mesquite, together with the
mesquite, we find these typical semi-
desert forms carrying the formation well
into the realm of the succulent desert
as two arms : one short Rio Grande arm
around the mouth of the Pecos River,
and a longer arm reaching up the valley
of the Pecos. Beyond this they give
place to the true succulent desert
dominants.

Among the animal forms we find here
several reptiles that are typical : the
long-tailed holbrookia {Hulbrookia pro-
pinqua) is confined verj^ closely to this
region, and is also an inhabitant of
Padre Island, the sand dune region
across the tidal flat from the mainland.
The horned toad {Phrynosoma cornu-
tum), is abundant here, though this is
probably an extension of range from
the succulent desert. The western dia-
mond rattler is confined to the region
and is typical of it. A map of its dis-
tribution shows that it follows out the
extensions of the mesquite-persimmon-
cresote-bush country both northward
and up the valley of the Pecos and Rio
Grande. The same may be said of the
Texas armadillo {Dasypus novemcinclus
texanuf>) though its range exceeds the
limits of the region. The Texas opos-
sum {Didelphis marsupialis lexensis)
likewise is found here, following up
the Rio Grande as far as the mouth
of the Pecos, but to the north it
oversteps the limits of the area. Here

also are the Toxtui Krasflhoppcr-mouiic
{OntjcliDtnya li in) and tbd

Texas <lcor-mw.i-. ' i'- iumji u» l< ■ -

U'xanus). The ocelot (Fdia j .
ahlcsccns) and tlie Rio Grande B|K)ttcd
skunk [Spilogitlc Iciicopariaj follow very

closely the distributi' f ''"• Mn'scjuitc

in the region.

8. Rio Grande {Eastern) Sxtceulcnt
Desert

This is the real desert region of Texa«,
a great expanse made up mostly of the
valley of the upper Rio Grande, Pecos
and Devils rivers. The vegetation Im
scanty, and occurs most typically not
in these valleys but on tiie ariil plateau,
the bolson basins and the foothills or
the slopes of isolated mountain groups.
It is an area of loose sandy soil extending
to the base of the mountainij, where the
debris of erosion is so loose and mobile
that anything like a close plant forma-
tion is impossible. The vegetation is
conspicuously open with no crowding
of species nor comjjetition for light and
space. The landscape is typically a
gray-white color due to the soil cover of
eroded limestone. The white glare of
this soil as one traverses the region on
the Southern Pacific is most trying.
The rainfall is very scant, from 7 to 10
in. and often less. During an exces-
sively wet season the grass tends to
increase, but never does it approach a
grassland formation. The characteris-
tic desert species of plants may be
grouped into four gene.al types:

1. The cactus type: represented by
approximately 90 species.

2. The yucca-agave type: represented
by about 15 species.

3. The dwarf shrub type: represented
by approximately oO siwcios (grease-
woods, mimosae, etc.).

4. Miscellaneous: such as the rock
ferns, resurrection plant '" ' Ua
IvpidophiiU'i), dry plains gnu-., ::uch-
lid) and a number of desert comi>ositae.

These may be grouped into two cl.'issea
from the point of view of .-i ' • .'..^n:

1. "Those in which a mark<' .>p-

raent of storage tissue results in unuiiuul

510

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

forms of plants' ' (Bray ) . This embraces
the cactus-yucca-agave types.

2. The absence of storage (succulent)
tissue, and the assumption of a dwarfed
condition as a defense against the ex-
treme arid environment.

The animal life of the region is replete
with forms typical of the desert, and
there are many forms which are closely
confined within the limits of the area.
Among the reptiles we find the Texas
holbrookia [Holbrookia texana) as a
very typical desert lizard, its range
extending only into the Pecos arm of
the mesquite desert. The horned toad
(P. cornutum) is abundant in the arid
regions, but this species is at the present
time showing marked tendencies to
extend its distribution northward,
exhibiting a wide range of adaptability.
In the very arid regions the whip-tailed
lizard {Cnemidophorus t. tessellatus) is
characteristic and abundant. Among
the mammals, the gray mule deer {Odo-
coileus hemionus canus) is closely con-
fined to the area, and the black-tailed
deer is common. The Texas antelope
squirrel {Ammosperimophilus interpres)
shows an interesting distribution, being
typical of the succulent desert; the east-
ern limit of the region marks the limit
of the squirrel, and the species does not
encroach at all upon the extensions of
the mesquite desert. It is confined to
the Rio Grande valley and is barred to
the eastward bj'' the Pecos. The Pecos
River muskrat (Ondatra zibethica ripen-
sis) is found in the local extensions of
the mesquite of the semi-desert, while
the broad-tailed beaver (Castor canaden-
sis Jrondator) is found, though not com-
monly, from the Devils river and the
Pecos down the Rio Grande as far as
Brownsville. The desert cottontail rab-
bit (Sijlvilagus audubonii subspp.) is a
common animal of the open country,
and the range of the species extends
northward into the grassland and steppe
region, where the species frequently
uses the holes of the prairie-dog for its
habitation. Among the canyons of the
Rio Grande and its tributaries an occa-
sional cougar (Felts concolor group)

is found, and these animals cause serious
loss to stock breeders. The "civet cat"
(Bassariscus astutus fiavus) is very com-
mon over most of the region, and is a
characteristic form in the area.

9. Xerophytic coniferous forest

This region, the country of the juni-
pers and the pinion, is best represented
in the state by a series of "islands"
isolated from one another as the tops of
the mountains of the trans-Pecos region.
Thus we find in the extension of the semi-
desert broken steppe country that
injects itself into the heart of the succu-
lent desert, three distinct areas of semi-
desert coniferous forest, represented
by the Guadaloupe, Davis and Chisos
mountains. A comparison of the flora
of these three regions shows that, while
each has a flora characteristic of itself to
a certain extent, there are certain forms
that are common to all of them. Of
these we can list the following: bull
pine (Pinus ponderosa), mountain sugar
maple (Acer grandidentatum), Quercus
grisea, Prunus (serotina?), Rhamnus
purshiana and Symphoricarpos (longi-
florusf). Comparing in a similar man-
ner the mammalian fauna of the three
regions, we find again certain species in
common, namely : the Mexican wood rat
(Neotoma mexicana), the mountain
cottontail (Sylvilagus robusius) and the
black bear (C/rsi^s americanus) . Among
the birds we can list a dove (Columba
fasciata), a woodpecker (Melanerpcs
formicivorus), a hummingbird (Trochilus
alexandri), a vireo (Vireo solitarius), a
tanager (Piranga hepatica), and a nut-
hatch (Sitta carolinensis neisoni) . These
species are all co-inhabitants of the
regions above 6000 ft. at which level the
short grasses of the broken steppe give
place to the vegetation of the semi-
desert forest type.

Among the other animal forms that
must be considered as characteristic of
the region we can call attention to the
Sonora deer, which ranges in the moun-
tains at an elevation of 5000 to 9000 ft.,
usually in close association with the oaks
and junipers, as the species depends on

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

ill

the timber for cover. Therefore the
species is isolated within a rehitively
narrow range. Here also is the bisliorn
sheep {Ovis mexicana) found locally in
the Guadaloupe and Chisos mountains
where it is confined to the high altitudes.
The gray-footed chipmunk {Eulamina
cinereicollis canipes) an inhabitant of
the Guadaloupe mountains above GOOO
ft., is found ranging upward from this
elevation along with the western yellow
pine and the Douglas spruce.

III. PRESENT BIOTA

The original biota of the state has
been profoundly modified by many agen-
cies, many of which are directly due to
man, and it is doubtful if any region has
entirely escaped this human interference
either directly or indirectly. Agricul-
tural development has led to a great
modification of both prairie and wood-
lands. Lumbering in eastern Texas has
caused profound changes in the forest
aspect, and these changes are all of them
bound to increase. Fires have swept the
original timberland, and the effects of
this on the undergrowth and the natural
re-forestation and succession has been
profound. Over-grazing has greatly in-
fluenced the prairie grassland conditions,
and the luxuriant growths of former
days is no longer present in many of the
regions, leaving practically denuded
ranges. These factors and others of a
similar nature have greatly altered con-
ditions, and have led to the introduc-
tion of vegetation types not native to
the region originally. With the advance
of civilization has come of course pro-
found changes in the wild animal species
of the state. Many species have l)ecn
exterminated, others have been reduced
to a pitiful remnant of once great herds.
As would be expected, the big game has
suffered most. The great herds of bison
are gone ; the gray mule deer of the trans-
Pecos countrv is on the decline; the
pronghorn antelope still clings uncer-
tainly to isolated regions in the great
plains, but is practically gone; the elk,
which ^^ straggled over the northern
region, is gone, and the bighorn sheep is

Htill holding out in rcRtonn amoiiK the
Guad:ilnui>c mountninfl, but is almost
oxtorminat('<l. The jiiKUtir, onrc com-
mon in cast and south Tcxju«, i« Ronc
except for a very rare individual; the
ocelot clings to the wooded arcaa of
south central Texas, but is nearly Rone.
licars of various species arc still locally
fairly common, but it is a qucslion of
time only until tliey too will be reduced
to hopeless remnants. Deer, raccoon,
opossum, otter, mink, skunks, and rab-
bits are still plentiful in their native
haunts. Among the birds a similar con-
dition exists. The wild turkey is nearly
gone — entirely gone over most of its
former range — and the same may be said
of the heath hen, roseate spoonbill,
egret, cranes, etc. Thesouthcrn pilcatcd
woodpecker is going — along with its
native forests, and the ivory-billed
woodpecker has preceded it into the
past. Quail— both Mexican and bob-
white— are still abundant, but the
slaughter of these birds is such that it
can only be a question of time before
they too are brought to a serious
condition.

IV. ARE.\S AVAILABLE FOR PRESERVATION
AND STUDY

As has just been pointed out, man has
wrought great changes in Texas, these
changes being coincident with the prog-
ress of civilization and of course were
inevitable. Yet the changes that have
occurred are only a beginning, and
greater changes still must come. Noth-
ing we can do will bring former condi-
tions back again, but it i\x in our power
to preserve for future study certain
typical areas within which the chnng.-s
have been minimal. All of the region.s
listed herewith under the heading "f
Texas are still practicallti untouched-
untouched except for such ■ '
must invariably accompany i
of railroads through the wilderness,
etc. Native animals are still present,
fine timber still stands if timber was
present, and may still be said to bo in
essentially a primitive condition. Then-

512

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

areas are, then, still in a natural state,
and are likely to remain so for some years
to come.

V. NATURAL AREAS AND STATE PARKS

a. State parks

1. Washington Park. (C4). At the
old city of Washington on the Brazos
River, formerly capital of Texas. This
park was established by an act of the
Texas legislature in 1916, and with the
$10,000 that was appropriated, 50 acres
of land on the river was purchased. The
park commemorates the signing of the
Texas Declaration of Independence at
Washington on March 2, 1836.

At present the park is inaccessible,
but good roads are in project, and will
open the park to travelers in the near
future. Mr. R. E. Pennington, of Bren-
ham, Texas, will gladly furnish informa-
tion concerning the park, as Mr. Penning-
ton is one of the commissioners.

2. Goliad State Park. (C4.) Estab-
lished in memory of the Texas hero
James Fannin, and commemorate the
massacre of Fannin and some three
hundred Anglo-Americans by the Mexi-
cans near Goliad on March 27, 1835.

Information may be obtained from
Mr. William Seeligson, Goliad, Texas,
one of the park commissioners.

3. San Jacinto State Park. (04.)
Commemorates the battle of San Jacinto
on April 21, 1836. It is the largest and
best developed park in the State, com-
prising 275 acres. The roads through
the park are in good condition, of shell,
and markers point out where different
incidents in the course of the battle
occurred. Part of the park is on very
low ground, sloping to the Chocolate
Bayou and San Jacinto River.

Information may be obtained from the
keeper, Mr. W. C. Day, at Deer Park,
Texas.

4. Gonzales Park. (C4.) Forty acres
at Gonzales, Texas. In very fine con-
dition, and is one of the most beautiful
spots in Texas.

Mr. J. W. Rainboldt of Gonzales will
-furnish information.

5. King's Park. (C4.) Is situated
just in front of the court house in the
historic city of Refugio. It is in beauti-
ful shape. The park commemorates the
loss of a party of Texans under Captain
King in 1836 at the hands of Mexican
soldiers under Unea.

Mr. J. T. Vance, one of the commis-
sioners, will furnish any information.

6. Wild life preserves

1. Laguna Madre Islands. At present
Texas has only one wild life preserve,
that being a group of islands known as
Three Islands, and North and South
Bird Island and adjacent flats and reefs
in the Laguna Madre on the Texas coast.
These islands have been leased for a
term not to exceed fifty years to the
National Association of Audobon Socie-
ties. These islands are the abundant
breeding grounds for the following
species of birds: laughing gulls; terns:
royal, Caspian, Cabot, gull-billed, com-
mon, black, least, Forster; black skim-
mer, Mexican cormorant, brown and
white pelicans, reddish egret, Louisiana
heron, ward heron, black-crowned night
heron, white heron, etc.

c. Available and proposed areas

1. The Lake Caddo Region. (A2.)
An immense swamp association, located
in Marion and Harrison counties, on
the Texas-Louisiana line. Includes the
west half of Lake Caddo, and Cypress
Bayou which enters it. About 25 mi.
long (from east to west) and from 3 to
10 mi. wide. A mixture of eastern
and western forms. One of the wildest
and most natural areas in the entire
state. Abundant aquatic life of every
description. Reptiles and amphibians
abundant; a perfect, natural bird sanc-
tuary, sheltering egrets, wood ducks,
ibis, wild turkeys, pileated woodpeckers,
and other interesting forms. Contains
deer, various cats, and other large
mammals. Alligators abundant. May
be reached from the City of Jefferson.
No one should attempt this region
without local assistance, as getting lost
in the vast swamp might well be fatal.
One of the most ideal game preserves
in the United States, and the first region
in Texas that should be set aside for
a National preserve. Elevation: about
175 ft.

NATURAL A111<;AS AND RKCIONS

.M.!

Jefferson, near Caddo Lake. M. K. Sc
T. Ry. to Jefferson.— A. 72. C.

2. A smaller swamp association that is
easily accessible from the City of Palcstinr.
(A2.) Lyino; in Freestone and Anderson
counties. It has a typical swamp flora
and fauna; ideal location for avifauna!
studies. Abundant blackbird colonies
and very large crow roost. Elevation:
about 500 ft.

L & G. N. to Palestine.— A. 72. C.

3. Big Thicket Swamp Association.
A large area of swamp association. A
place of considerable interest as it
contains fresh water as well as brackish
and salt water associations. Land very
low, with abundant plant and animal
life. An interesting locality for the
study of fishes. A wonderful breeding
ground for birds and the winter home of
hundreds of thousands of ducks and
geese that are now subjected to an
unmerciful slaughter. Elevation: very
little above sea level.

Lies in Chambers County and is
accessible from either Liberty or Galves-
ton. Big Thicket, near Liberty. T. &
N. O. Ry. from Houston.

4-. Another ideal swamp association,
quite similar to No. 3, lying in Brazoria
County, just north of the mouth of the
Brazos River. If the mouth of the
Brazos River be included, then all three
types of aquatic environments will be
found. A fine location for an ecological
study of fish and aquatic insects. The
preserve should include the mouth of
the Brazos River, and extend some S mi.
northward along the coast, to a depth
of about 3 mi. At this point the Brazos
River forms an impassible barrier to
many species. Elevation: little above
sea level to 30 ft.

Easily accessible from Freeport at the
mouth of the river.

5 A coastal region, lying in Nueces
and Kleberg counties. (B2.) This re-
gion should include, Mustang, Bird,
and the northern half of Padre Islands,
which form a low, natural breakwater
about 6 to 8 mi. off the coast. Bird
Island, a shell reef, is the breeding
ground of hundreds of pairs of bro\yn
and white pelicans, thousands of pairs
of laughing gulls, great blue herons:
royal, Caspian, common and black terns,
black skimmers, boat-tailed grack es,
cormorants, etc. Mustang is similar.
Padre Island is a low sand-dune region,
whereon is found desert forms of insects
and reptiles, as well as thousands ot
shore birds. Nueces Bay is a paradise
for ducks and geese of all species, i his
region, which is unique, should be pre-
served at once as a National Park, ana
wild life sanctuary, and placed under the

control of II Hf>eciiil wjirtlcn. an tho bird

colonies :
fi.shing ct'

holding tlioir own. A wonderful |
for tho study of rIihUow wiiter (...:
fishes, as well na tho life histories of bini.s
and ecological .•us.socijition.H. I'lidro Is-
land, particularly, i.s a mixture of Nfoxi-
can :ind semi-tropirul
Elevation: from a few inch- ' r..

above sea level.

Accessible from either KinRsvillo or
Corpus Christi. St. L. B. M. 11. R.

0. A typical chaparral fj.s.socjdMVm,
which is practicallv unlimited in Hize.
(B2.) Might well 'contain 200 8(j. mi.
or more. An ideal locality for the study
from an ecological standpoint of life of
this type of country typical of Tcx.ih.
Material for ecological Hucces.sion j.s
unlimited. Very little water supply.
Elevation: about 7.50 ft.

Lies in Zavalla, Frio, Dimmit ami La
Salle counties, and easily accessible from
Hondo, Uvalde and other towns.

8. A high plateau. This is a mo.st
interesting region for ecological siuily,
consisting of a very high plateau —
Edward's Escarpment (A3), which at
places reaches 3000 ft. and more —
together with much timbcrland. In-
teresting floral zonation. Might well
contain .50 sq. mi. or more. Elevation:
about 2000 ft.

Reached from Fredericksburg S. .\.
F. & N., and lying in the southeast
corner of Gillespie County.

9. A region of considrrahlc geologic
interest lies in Llano and Burnet coun-
ties. (A3.) This mark.s tho line of
contact between the lime and granite
countries. A very rough, ragged
country, known as the Granite Moun-
tains, through which flows the Colorado
River. A wide variety of both plant
and animal life. Elevation: averages
about 1000 ft.

Accessible from Kingland and Llano
H. T. C. Ry. . . ^^^^

10. A sagebru,'<h a.<>soctation. (.\3.)
Lies in Wilbarger County, on the Red
River. .V very wild and primitive
country, with atvpical sagebrush biota.
The Red River affords interostinj: iu\\Xii-
tic studies which arc in • ' ' ' ^
with those of the sum.

Elevation: about 12(M)ft.

Accessible from Cliiliicotho or \ ornon.

//. .An intcrc.-iling (Uscrt rrgion lies

at the northern union of Cr.^ ' '\

Dickens counties. (A.'?/* 'I'ln'
able region here would ' :

mi. Interesting more f: d

point of view, having a good gnnvth of

de.-^crt flora. Considerable ero- ' •<«

worn a fair canyon through tl. >.

514

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

giving interesting contrasts 'in both
fauna and flora. Elevation: about
2500 ft.

Reached from Spur, M. K. & T. R. K.

12. A southern mountain association,
lying at the intersection of Jeff Davis,
Brewster, Reeves, and Pecos counties.
(A2.) This region contains ,the Davis
mountains, and could well contain 250
sq. mi. or more. Very rough and wild
country, having a great deal of typical
western flora and fauna. Abundant big
game. Should be preserved as a national
preserve. Most interesting bird and
mammal region. Local assistance is al-
most necessary to anyone going into this
country, as it is entirely untouched by
civilization. Elevation: about 4000 ft.

Can be reached from Fort Davis, but is
very inaccessible at present.

13. Another southern mountain associa-
tion, including the Sierra Vieja moun-
tains. (A2.) A region about as in
No. 12, but even less accessible. These
last two regions — 12 and 13 — will be,
probably, the last stand oftypical Texas
big game, as deer, cats, bear, etc., and
either (or better still, both) should be set
aside as game preserves in the very near
future. Elevation: between 4000 and
5000 ft.

Reached from Valentine with
difficulty.

IJ).. A small region in the center of
Ochiltree County, the extreme north
end of tne Pan-handle (B4), should be set
aside at once as a State Park, as it con-
tains the site of an unexcavated Pueblo
village of considerable interest. It lies
in the heart of a typical Prairie forma-
tion, and could include about 20 sq. mi.
Elevation: about 3000 ft.

Reached from Ochiltree.

15. A small region in central Cameron
County is an interesting valley with
dominant Mexican type of biota. (A4.)
About 20 sq. mi. would cover it and make
a most interesting State Park. Eleva-
tion: about 200 ft. or less.

Reached very easily from Harlington.

16. A tropical association is found on
the lower Rio. Grande. (A3.) A large
game preserve, under national protection
(as it is on the Mexican line) should be
set aside at once somewhere on the Rio
Grande. This is about the most tropical
of the associations found in the United
States. Both Mexican and more north-
ei'n biotic forms abound. Deer are still
very abundant, as are the larger mam-
mals of other species which characterize
the Mexican line. Many birds are found
here that are to be found in no other
region in the United States. From''an
ecological point of view there are simply
endless problems to be solved in both

plant and animal life. Area: from 200
sq. mi., up. Elevation: less than 200 ft.,
for the most part.
Brownsville St. L. & B. R. R.

17. A steppe and semi-desert associa-
tion, that lies in central Randall and
Armstrong counties, comprising about
200 sq. mi. Characterized by sand
areas, flood plains, waterfalls, ravines,
bluffs, gypsum caves, and calcophytes.
(A3.) Known as the Paladura canyon,
and is typical of a very large region.
Canyon walls 850 ft. high cut through
Triasic, Tertiary and Permean beds.
Many fine fossils, mostly reptilian.
A bill jointly establishing White Moun-
tain National Park and Paladura Na-
tional Park has been introduced into
Congress several times since 1907, but
is not reported back from the committee.
Should be preserved by the nation.
Elevation: about 3000 ft.

Reached from Amarilla.

18. A bay association. (A3.) The
coastal region of Calhoun, Jackson and
Matagorda counties is one of the largest
winter feeding grounds of ducks and
geese in Texas, and hundreds of thou-
sands of ducks of many species, together
with the Canada goose, brandt, snow
goose and blue goose, winter here.
Fresh, brackish and salt water. Islands,
mostly sand, afford ideal retreats for
water fowl. By protecting this region,
a big step would be taken in the conser-
vation of our water fowl. Elevation:
little above sea level.

Reached from Port Lavaca.

REFERENCES

Bailey, V. Biological Survey of Texas.

N. A. Fauna, 25. 1905.
Bartlett, J. R. Explorations and Inci-
dents in Texas, New Mexico, Cal-
ifornia, Sonora, and Chihuahua.
London, 1854.
Bray, W. L. Distribution and Adap-
tation of the Vegetation of Texas.
Bull. 82 Univ. Texas (Sci. Ser. No.
10). 1906.

Vegetation of the Sotol Country of
Texas. Bull. Univ. Texas, No. 60.
1905.

Ecological Relations of the Vegetation
of Western Texas. Bot. Gaz., 32:
99-123; 195-217; 262-291. 1901.
Cahn, A. R. Summer Birds in the Vicin-
ity of Lake Caddo, Harrison County,
Texas. Wils. Bull., xxxiii, pp. 165-
176, 1921.

Brown Pelicans at Home. Nat. Hist.,
xxii, pp. 416-429, 1922.

Louisiana Hevons and Reddish Egrets
at Home. Nat. Hist., xxiii, pp. 470-
489, 1923.

NATURAL AiiEAS AND REGIONS

615

Coulter, J. M. Botany of West Texas.
Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 11. 18'.)1-
1894.

Hill, R. T. Physical Geography of the
Texas Region. ... U. S. Geol. Surv.
Top. Atlas of the U. S. 1900.

Evermann & Kendall: The Fishes of
Texas. Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. for
1892. Washington, 1894.

Small, J. K. Flora of the Southeastern
United States. 1903.

Lewis, I. M. The Trees of Texas. Bull.
Univ. Te.xas No. 22. 1915.

Rlearns, E. A. Mammals of the Mexican
Boundary of the United States.
U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 5G. 1907.

Winkler, C. H. The Botany of Texas.
Bull. Univ. Texas. No. 18. 1915.
(Complete bibliography of Texas
botany to date.)

Singley, J. A. Texas jMoUusca. A Pre-
liminary List of the Land, Fresh
Water, and Marine Mollusca of
Texas. Geol. Survey Texas, Con-
tributions to the Natural History of
Texas, Fourth Ann. Rep., 1892,
pp. 299-343.
Strecker, J. K. Reptiles and Am-
phibians of Texas. Bull. Baylor
Univ., Vol. 18, No. 4. 1915.
The Birds of Texas. Bull. Baylor
Univ.

2. KANSAS
By J. W. McCoLLOCH

I. OKIGIXAL BIOTA AND GEXEllAL
CONDITIONS

1. Topography

Three physiographic regions (fig. D
are recognized in the state: (1) the
Ozark uplift in the extreme southeastern
corner, (2) the Prairie plains comprising
the eastern one third, and (3) the Great
Plains which include the remainder of
the state. The transition to the latter
is gradual. The entire state is practi-
cally an undulating plain which slopes
gently from east to west at an average
rise of about 7 ft. per mi. There is a
difference of 3175 ft. in the altitude,
the lowest being 725 ft. in Montgomery
County and the highest 3900 ft. in
Wallace County. The gently rolling
prairies are diversified by an endless
succession of broad, level plains, isolated
hills and ridges and moderate valleys.

Much of the difTcrcncc in the topoRraphy
is due to erosion und wind action.

2. Climate

The climate of KunBoa is typically
continental, being characterized by wide
extremes of temperature, great varia-
tions in the .seasonal rainfall, niurh
sunshine, and dry, bracing air, with
good wind movement. The tenipcrattire
of the various sections of the state is
fairly uniform, the average tcnifwrature
ranging from 58° in the southeastern
counties to 51° in the northwest, with a
mean of 54° for the state as a whole.
The highest temperature recorded is
110° and the lowest -40°.

The distribution of the rainfall over
the state and the time of its occurrence
are the chief limiting factors. Precipi-
tation decreases with remarkable regu-
larity from 42 in the southeastern
counties to 15 on the Colorado line
(fig. 1). From 71 to 78% of this amount
falls during the growing months— April
to September. Droughts frequently oc-
cur, usually during July and August,
due to the high rate of evaporation
caused by the excessive amount of
sunshine and hot, dry winds.

There is also a great difference in the
velocity of the wind in the various parts
of the state. In the eastern part the
winds are not noticeably higher than
those of the states to the cast, while
the western third of Kansas is one of
the windiest inland localities in the
country. Excessive evaporation occurs
in the western half of the state. M
Hays, the evaporation from an oi>en
tank during the six growing month.s was
45 and at Garden City it was nearly CO.

5. Fauna and flora

Mammals in the hardwood forests of
the valleys in the eastern part of the
state were found— such mammals as the
opossum {Didclphis virginiana), short-
tailed shrew (lilarirui brevicaiida), Mis-
souri Valley mole {Scahpus aquaticua
viachrinoidcs), timber wolf {Canis sp.),
coyote (Canis lalrans), red fox O'ulpca

516

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

fulva), gray fox {Urocyon cinereoar-
genteus suhsp.), raccoon {Procyon lotor),
eastern deer-mouse {Peromyscus leucopus
moveboracensis), jumping-mouse {Zapus
hudsonius campestris), gray squirrel
{Sciurus carolinensis), fox squirrel {Sciu-
rus niger rufiventer), flying-squirrel Glau-
comys volans), cottontail rabbit {Sylvi-
lagus floridanus mearnsii) and Virginia
deer {Odocoileus virginianus macrourus) .
Along the streams occurred such forms
as the muskrat (Ondatra zibetJiica
cinnamomina) , beaver (Castor cana-
densis), mink (Mustela vison letifera),
and otter (Lutra canadensis subsp.).
Many of these timber and stream forms
follow westward in the state for a long
distance along the stream valleys. On
the grassy prairies of the eastern part
of the state occurred such forms as the
badger (Taxidea taxus), prairie deer-
mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii),
prairie vole (Microtus ochrogasier),
pocket-gopher {Geomys bursarius),
striped ground-squirrel (Citellus tri-
decemlineatus badius), white-tailed jack-
rabbit (Lepus townsendii campanius),
and bison (Bison bison).

On the more arid grassland of the
western part of the state some charac-
teristic forms were the prairie wolf
{jCanis sp.)> coyote (Canis nebracensis) ,
swift fox (Vulpes velox), black-footed
ferret (Mustela nigripes), badger,
pocket-mouse (Perognathus subsp.),
kangaroo-rat (Dipodomys subsp.), prai-
rie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) , white-
tailed jackrabbit, black-tailed jack-
rabbit (Lepus californicus melanotis) ,
western cottontail rabbit (Sylvilagus
audubonii suhsp.) , mule deer (Odocoileus
hemionus), pronghorn antelope (Anti-
locarpa americana) , and bison.

Entering the southeastern part of the
state are a few species characteristic
of the southern hardwood forests, such
as the rice rat (Oryzomys palustris
texensis), and swamp rabbit (Sylvilagus
aguaticus) .

Likewise several forms characteristic
of the southwestern arid lands and
deserts are found in the southwestern
part of the state, such as the spotted

ground-squirrel (Citellus spilosoma
subsp.).

Kansas had no forests and the prin-
cipal wooded tracts fringe the rivers
and streams. Throughout the eastern
part of the state such trees as elm
(Ulnius americana), hackberry (Celtis
occidentalis) , walnut (Juglans nigra),
linden (Tilia americana), white ash
(Fraxinus americana), oak, sycamore
(Platanus occidentalis), and willows
thrive . Further west the predominating
trees are cottonwood (Populus del-
toides), and boxelder (Acer negundo).
Sage brush {Artemisia tridentata) is
an important shrub in the west.

The original grasses were principally
bluestem (Andropogon furcatus), bunch,
buffalo (Buchloe dactyloides) , and grama
(Bouteloua), grasses. Cactus and yucca
(Y. glauca) occur abundantly in western
Kansas and on sandy areas elsewhere.
Sunflowers (Helianthus annuus) abound
everywhere and the Russian thistle
(Salsola Kali var. tenuifeolia) is fast
becoming established. Wild flowers are
numerous and varied and form an im-
portant part of the flora. The develop-
ment of large agricultural areas has
added numerous cultivated species of
plants to the state.

II. NATURAL AREAS

*Fort Leavenworth Military Reserva-
tion. (A4-C3-F6.) Leavenworth County.
River valley hills and native timber
have an area of 1900 acres lying along
the Missouri river in Leavenworth
County, Kansas, which is used as a
military reservation. Altitude: 770 to
790. Topography: Varies from river
bottom to very hilly deep ravines.
There is a large area of native timber,
undisturbed.

Two mi. north to Fort Leavenworth.
M. P. R. R., K. C. L. & W. Elec. R. R.

^Wildcat Creek Park. (B4.) Riley
County. About 80 acres of woodland,
scrub and grassland on western slope
of Wildcat Creek. Deciduous woodland
along the stream and on the slope, with
a strip of scrub above, and the top of
the hill covered with grassland.

NATURAL ARI:AS AND RKGION8

117

Two mi. west from Manhattan,
Kansas. U. P. R. R., and C. R. 1.
& P. — Lee R. Dice.

\Manhatlan Prairie Preserve. (3.)
Riley County. Altitude: about 1300
ft. Typical prairie grassland.

Manhattan, Kansas. U. P. R. R.
and C. R. I. & P. R. R.—Lee It. Dice.

*Fort Riley Reservation. (A4-C3.)
Riley County. River valley, hills and
native prairies has 29 sq. mi. in Riley
County (military reservation). Native
prairies interspersed with wooded and
barren hills. Sand area formations
along the Kansas river.

Fort Riley, Kansas. U. P. R. R.

*Fort Hays Branch Experiment Station.
(C3-H8.) Ellis County. This is a tract
of native prairies, timber and cultivated
fields of 3600 acres of the original Fort
Hays Military Reservation which was
donated to the state by Congress. It
consists mainly of high, rolling prairie,
with a limited area of rich alluvium
bordering on a creek, and is situated on
the edge of the semi-arid region. A
fair sized stream, Big Creek, flows along
the north side.

Hays, Kansas. U. P. R. R.

*Fort Hays Normal School Reservation.
(C3-D5-H6.) Ellis County. This is a
tract of native prairies and cultivated
fields of about 4000 acres of the original
Fort Hays Military Reservation which
was donated by Congress to the state,
similar to the Fort Hays Branch Experi-
ment Station area.

One mi. southwest of Hays. U. P.

R. R.

Pawnee Rock State Park. (B4-1IS.)
Barton County. This is a small tract
of only a few acres near Pawnee Rock,
Kansas.

One-half mi. north of Pawnee Rock,
Kansas. A. T. & S. F. R. R. Santa Fe
Trail.

Areas which should be preserved

Valley floor, bluffs and hills. Cherokee
County. About 100 acres along Spring
River (B3-D5-F6), a branch of the
Neosho River. Alluvial valley floor,
river bluffs, hills, deciduous woodlands
of elm, walnut and sycamore, and prairie.

One mi. Houllioiuit of Itaxtcr SprinifH.
St. L. and S. F. K. K. Smithw.
Kouri I Electric Line. JufFrrhon II
Kansa.s.— /'. /•'. Walker.

Sand mil Park. (A4.) Riley County.
.\bout 040 acreu of Tiver»idc flood i)lain
and Hand dunes ::' '' • I^ ' is R'vcr.

Siigiitly rolling ml dune

area of Hood plain lurmuUoii, w ilh Handy
sliorcs, pools, swamp and prairie. The
principal trees arc cotton wood, willow,
and sand plum. Tlie plants and untmuld
are typical of the semi-arid rcgionu
lying some 300 to 5<XJ mi. to the weat.
The low vegetation is typical of western
Kansas and eaateru Colorado, cousistinc
of cacti, yucca, and other semi-arid
plants. Of particular interest because
of the excellent opportunity afforded
near the Kansas State Agricultural
College to investigate the plant and
animal succession of the plains region of
western Kansas, and for the recreational
facilities furnished by the tract. Should
be reserved by the state.

4 mi. south of Manhattan, Kansas.
U. P. R. R. and C. R. 1. »!c 1'. R. R.
Midland Auto Route. CJolden Belt
Auto Road. Victory Highway.— 7. H'.
McColloch.

Prospect Heights Park. (A4-C4-FG.)
Riley County. About 100 acres of rocky
upland on Prospect Heights. Rocky
heights with southwestern and north-
western exposures and ridge between
and a brushy and timbered slope towards
the Kansas River \ alley. About two
mi. southeast of Manhattan, Kansas.
U. S. R. R. and C. R. 1. A: P. R. R.—
Lee R. Dice.

Stag Hill Prairie Park. (A4.) Riley
County. About 100 acres of prairie with
some scrub and woodland on top of
Stag Hill with southwestern sloi)e and
ravine (in part at least). One of the
best native prairie areas of this neigh-
borhood.

About 4 mi. west of ^Llnhattan, Kan-
sas. U. P. R. R. and C. R. L ^ P. R. R.
Manhattan-Junction City Interurban.
— Lee R. Dice.

Upland and flood plain woodland.
Riley County. About 20 acres at the
"cut-oiT" of the Kansas River. Several
sloughs, hill (or portion of it) to south-
west, and edge of river. U-v.-l Hood
plain and blull's. Deciduous v 1.

with scrub and grassland areaii. ;..

^Llnhattan, Kansas. U. P. K. K.
and C. R. i. cV P. H- R -^*«- «• ^'«-

Rock ('il<l /''"-A.-. (A4.) Ottawa
County. About 4() acres of -^ 'o

rocks and saiuly rolling area. • »

about 40 rods wide aiiil J mi. long ai ttio
iMlge of the S.ilomon Valley an. I al..»ul }
mi. from Salt Creek.

518

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Minneapolis, Kansas. Union Pacific
R. R. Santa Fe R. R. — Jessie G. Adee.
Castle Rock Park. (A3.) Gove
County. Chalk cliffs and bluffs. Plains
or prairie vegetation. Grainfield,
Kansas.

Gove, on the Smoky Hill River, about
10 mi. distant. Plains Auto Road at
Coin to southeast. — Frank U. G.
Agreluis.

Low prairie meadow and stream in
McPherson County. (A4.) About 40
acres along an unnamed stream. The
tract is cut by a tortuous, sluggish
stream that is bordered by thickets and
marsh grasses. A grove extends along
a part of the stream at the southern end
of the tract. A typical stand of native
Kansas grasses in the virgin condition.
Two mi. southeast of McPherson,
Kansas.

Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe R. R.
Chicago, Rock Island Pacific R. R.
Missouri Pacific R. R. Union Pacific
R. R. — Warren Knaus.

Salt Marsh Area. (A3.) Stafford
County. This is an area of about 25
sq. mi. of salt marshes, plains and sand
dunes on Rattlesnake Creek in the
Northeast part of Stafford County,
Kansas. Much of the area is salt and
undrained. Consists of marshy alkali
flats and stream valleys. There are
accumulations of alkali in many places
and salt is generally present in the waters
of the marshes. Vegetation of coarse
grasses.

EUinwood, Kansas, A. T. & S. F.
R. R. Sante Fe Trail. 10 mi. south to
salt marshes.

Belvidere Area. (A3.) Kiowa County.
An area of bad lands about 10 mi. square
with the town of Belvidere as the center.
It consists of rough broken country (bad-
lands) which has many rock outcrops
and deep erosions. Vegetation is a
thin growth of buffalo grass.

Belvidere, Kansas. A. T. & S. F.
R. R.

Prairie dog town. Prairie Dog Reser-
vation (A3) in Western Kansas.

Stevens or Morton County. Several
prairie dog towns should be preserved in
Kansas. The Prairie dog is fast dis-
appearing. The largest town in the
state, which occupies about 2000 acres in
Morton County, is now being eradicated.
Elkhart, Kansas. A. T. & S. F. R. R.
— F. L. Hisaw.

Areas which do not need to he preserved
{Kansas, Finney, Kearny, Hamilton,
Morton, Clark, Stafford, and Reno
Counties).

Dunes and Areas. (A3.) Sand dunes
and hills.

Along the south side of the Arkansas
River extending from the Kansas-
Colorado line to Garden City, Kansas.
This is one of the largest areas in the
state. It varies from one to 20 mi. in
width, being widest at Garden City.
Most of this area is devoted to grazing.
About 3500 acres of this area in Finney
County were ceded to the state by the
Federal Government to be used as a
game reserve. Garden City, Kansas.
A. T. & S. F. R. R., Santa Fe Trail.
Finney, Kearny and Hamilton counties.

Along the Cimarron River in Morton
County, Kansas. This is a strip of
sand hills averaging about 2 miles in
width which extends across the county.
Elkhart, Kansas. A. T. & S. F. R. R.

Along the Cimarron River across the
south end of Clark County. This is a
strip of sand hills of varying width lying
on both sides of the river. Two types of
sand occur here — dune and Amarillo
sand. Englewood, Kansas. A. T. &
S. F. R. R. 3 mi. southeast of Englewood.

Northeast corner of Stafford County,
Kansas. This is a large area of sand
hills lying adjacent to the Salt Marsh.
EUinwood, Kansas. A. T. & S. F. R. R.
Santa Fe Trail. 10 mi. south to sand hills.

Northeast corner of Reno County,
Kansas. This is a range of sand hills
running parallel to and about 8 mi.
north of the Arkansas River. Medora,
Kansas. C. R. I. & P. R. R. two mi.
southwest to the sand hills.

LITERATURE

Kansas State Agricultural Experiment
Station, Bulletins 1-227.

Useful in tracing the agricultural
development. Many bulletins are de-
voted to the grasses, weeds, mammals,
birds, rodents, insects, etc., of the
state. Others deal with crops and
soils.

Transactions of the Kansas Academy of
Science, Volumes I-XXX.

A valuable source of reference. Con-
tains catalogues of the various groups
of plants and animals of the state.
Many local areas, geological surveys,
meteorological summaries and other
data pertaining to ecological work.

Kansas State Board of Agriculture,
Biennial Reports, Volumes 1-22.

Useful in tracing the agricultural
development in the state and the
modifications which have resulted.
Contain numerous papers relating
to the fauna and flora of the state.

U. S. War Department. Pacific Rail-
roads— Explorations and Surveys.
Report of Explorations and Surveys.
12 volumes. 1855-1860.

NATURAL AltEAS AND RKGIONS

Contains a great deal of information
of conditions as they occurred at tliat
time. Discusses geolosv, meteorology.
mammals, birds, reptiles, fishes, mol-
lusks, insects and plants.
Kansas University Quarlerlij, ^'olunics

Contain many valuable papers on
Kansas animals and plants. State
lists of many groups are given and
many groups are monographed. Kan-
sas Univ. Geol. Swv. of Kans., Vols.

Of geological interest.
Inman, Henry. The Old Santa Fe Trail.
Crane & Co., Topeka, 1899. Also,
The Great Salt Lake Trail. Crane &
Co., Topeka, 1899.

Of historical interest. Descriptions
are given of many local areas. The
habits and distribution of many of
the early animals and plants are dis-
cussed.

3. NEBRASKA

By Robert H. Wolcoti

i. general coxdition.s

The altitude of Nebraska increases
from 810 ft. in the southeast corner to
53G0 ft. at the Wyoming line in Banner
County. The state as a whole may be
likened to a great inclined plane, rising
at the rate of 6 ft. per mile for the first
hundred miles, and faster and faster as
one proceeds westward until for the last
50 mi. the rise is 18 to 20 ft. to the mile.
The mean elevation is 3085 ft.

The soils and physiographic features
are varied. Three soil regions have been
recognized: (1) The loess region, cor-
responding to the rolling i)rairies of the
eastern portion, includes loessplains and
hills, with various types of silt loams,
drift hills with drift, clay and sand,
alluvial plains, bluffs, canyons, very
little stony land, and very few rock
outcrops. (2) The sand-hill region, in
the central portion, is mostly dune sand
with sandy loams in the valleys, which
may be dry or wet, with hay flats,
marshes or lakes. (3) The high plains
in the western portion, the soils of wiiicli
vary from those of fine texture to those
of rough stony land, with frequent
rock outcroppings, includes broad pla-

teaus, deep and Htecp-wullcci i • -

l)old f.soarpiiic>nf.M, butt«-«, nixl ! l

there ureuH of "bad land.'-

.\1I of tlic drainaKi" of I In- .slaU- im into
the .\Ii>.souri HivcT, liltlr din-clly but
through IribiilarieH, such an the Ni-
oi)rar:«. (he IMat(«-, th«' two Nemnhan.
and tlic I'lhic and l{«"publiran l»y way oi
the Kiin.sa.s River.

Tlie diinute i.s u typical ifdand rlimato,
witli hot summerp, mild dry wintcrH, and
sudden atui severe changes. The moan
annual temi)erature varies from over
")2- in the soutliea.st to less than 45°
in the northwest. The nights insuminer
are generally eof)l especially in the more
elevated western |)ortion. The mean
annual rainfall decreases from over 33
in. in the southea.st to le.'^s than 15 in.
in the west ; moreover, run-ofl and evapo-
ration both increase greatly as one goes
westward. Seven-tenths of the rainfall
comes in the growing season, from .\pril
to .\ugust, and during the middle of this
period the climate of southeastern
Nebraska can almost be called humid.
The mean annual humidity varies from
about G7 to GO'/r. The mean wind
velocity is al)OUt 10 nn. per hour; being
somewhat greater in the west than in
the east.

Five biotic regions may be dis-
tinguished:

1. The Mi.ssouri-river blulT region.
Includes the iiottomlands and woodetl
bluffs of the Missouri river and the lower
portions of its trilnitaries. Ch.
terized by liroadleaf forest and tin
communities. Conspicuous habii
the rivers, with their shifting sand-bars;
the flood-plain thickets of willow .-uid
young cottonwoods and the tall bottom-
land timber in which cottonwoods are
prominent; cut-off pon<ls. nmrshes. and
SWiiinps; (he cool woodetl r

springs !ind clear, ra|iid i

i)lulTs with more open woodland.-* in

wiiich arc oaks, ash, walnut. Ii

linden, ;ind other siH>cies of il<. ...

trees; and steep loc-^s l>!»nks, the r<

of erosion; together with cleared areiw

and cultivated fields.

2. The prairie region lull gra-o*

520

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

prairie) of the eastern and southern
portions. Includes rolling hills, mostly
low, but rising to an extreme height
of 100 ft. or more and originally
covered with a dense sod, the grass
cover reaching a height of one to 3 ft.,
and with broad valleys through which
meandered creeks and rivers both for-
merly with sandy or gravelly beds,
fringed with timber and shrubbery.
Characterized by grass communities in
which blue-stems (Andropogon), prai-
rie-grasses (Koeleria) and spear-grasses
{Stipa) are prominent. Conspicuous
habitats, aside from the prairie itself,
are the sand-bedded larger streams with
shallow shifting channels and sand-
bars; and the smaller creeks with their
now-muddy banks and fringe of timber
and thicket, which may run back into
the draws; prairie sloughs, ponds and
marshes, with here and there mud flats,
sometimes alkaline; weed patches and
plum thickets; and the artificial features
created by cultivation.

3. The sand-hill region, an area of
18,000 sq. mi., in the central portion, to
which may be added 2000 sq. mi. in out-
lying smaller tracts. A very rough
area with hills rising 200 ft. or more.
Characterized by bunch-grass communi-
ties with Redfieldia, Calamovilfa, certain
blue-stems, and black grama (Bouteloua
hirsuta) the dominant grasses. Yucca is
a conspicuous plant and there are some
cacti. Conspicuous habitats: the open
sand-hills, mostly fixed and with a
grassy cover, but here and there with
"blow-outs" and shifting areas of sand;
a little shrubbery in the pockets in the
hills, with an occasional hackberry or
hackberry thickets; wet valleys, with
hay flats, sloughs, marshes or lakes, the
latter with sandy, marshy, or boggy
shores; and with willow thickets, tree
claims, and groves around the ranches.
There are few streams and these around
the eastern margin, soon entering
tongues of prairie which follow back
into the hills.

4. The plains region including the
western portions of the state and
extending eastward along the north-

ern boundary and, to a less degree,
along the southern. Characterized by
short-grass communities, dominated by
grama grass, buffalo-grass, and certain
grass-like sedges, and with straggling
western yellow pines (Pinus scopulorum)
scattered over the canyon sides, the
buttes, ridges and talus slopes. Con-
spicuous habitats: the broad slightly
uneven, grassy plains; streams running
generally in canyons, frequently deep
and rock-walled; also dry "sand-draw"
canyons carrying water only after rain
or from melting snow; irrigating ponds
and ditches, rarely with small marshy
tracts; rocky escarpments, ridges and
buttes with scattering pines; deciduous
trees and shrubbery in the bottoms of
the canyons, along the streams, or about
the ranches; and an increasing amount
of cultivated land.

5. The coniferous woodland region,
including the Pine ridge in the north-
western part of the state and smaller
areas south and east of it, where, on the
walls and talus slopes of extensive
canyons, rising sometimes to a height of
500 or 600 ft., a coniferous woodland has
developed. Conspicuous habitats: the
pine-clad slopes; deciduous timber and
shrubbery at the bottom of the canyons ;
with springs and cool, clear brooks, and
occasional small ponds and marshes,
due to the work of beavers.

To these might be added the bad lands,
due to excessive erosion, which, because
they exist as small scattered areas, we
have preferred to reckon as a habitat
in the plains region, characterized by
their sparse flora and fauna, restricted
to only those forms which can with-
stand the severe conditions.

The boundaries between these areas
were more sharply defined before the
state was settled, cultivation having
tended to obliterate them. In the maj or
areas the vegetation has been but
little changed, but the disappearance of
the prairie sloughs and marshes and the
other changes due to the settling up of
the state have led to the disappearance
of many animals, especially among the
higher vertebrates.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

521

Original faunal cnndilions

Mammals.'^ Characteristic mammals
of the Missouri-river bluff region were
the opossum {Didelphis virginiana),
spotted skunk {Spiiogale iiiterrupla),
woodland vole {Microtus ncmoralis),
woodchuek {Marmota monax), fox squir-
rel {Sciurus niger rufiventer), and flj'ing-
squirrel {Glaucomys volans). Of these all
but the opossum and skunk are prac-
tically confined to the JMissouri region.

In the prairie region were found
originallj' great herds of bison; while
other characteristic forms were probably
the coj^ote, badger, prairie vole {Micro-
tus ochrogaster), pocket-gopher, striped
ground-squirrel, Franklin ground-squir-
rel {Citellus franhlinii), and white-
tailed jackrabbit.

Among the mammals known to occur
natively in the sand hill region are the
sand-hill ground-squirrel [CilcUus obso-
leius), grasshopper-mouse {Onychomys
leucogaster arcticeps), deer-mouse, har-
vest-mouse, Hayden vole (Microtits
ochrogaster haydeni), plains pocket-
gopher (Geomys lutescens), Richardson
kangaroo-rat {Dipodomys ordii richard-
soni), and Kansas pocket-mouse (Pcrog-
nathus hispid us paradoxus).

The plains region has as characteristic
forms the bison, pronghorn antelope,
coyote, black-footed ferret {Mustela
nigripes), swift fox, badger, striped
ground-squirrel, prairie-dog, Hayden
vole, pocket-mouse (Perognalhus spp.),
and white-tailed jackrabbit.

In the coniferous woodland of the
northwestern part of the state are found
such species as the yellow-haired por-
cupine (Erethizonepixanlhum), woodrat,
wolverine {Gulo luscus), northern plains
skunk {Mephitis hudsonica), pale chip
munk {Eutamias pallidus), and red
squirrel {Sciurus hudsonicus dahotcnsis).

Present faunal conditions

The Missouri River bluffs and prairie
regions of the state are characterized
by the mammals: the opossum, gray

> Scientific names of mammals occurrinc i" the
South Dakota account do not occur here.

sq)iirrel, WDodchuek, flying-fl«niirrel,
woodland vole, red fox, and spoiled
skunk, and all but the opoBSUin and
skunk arc practically confined to ihc
Missouri region. The rest of the Btatc is
characterized by the pockcl-niousc,
kangaroo-rat, i)ruiric-dog, lunK-tailod
weasel, sand-hill ground-scjuirrcl and
black-footed ferret, except in the conif-
erous woodland of the northwest where
the long-cared bat, yellow-haired por-
cupine, mountain rat, northern i)ockct-
gopher, wolverine, northern plains
skunk, and subarctic deer-mouse ore
characteristic.

The Missouri region has more than u
score of woodland birds which as sum-
mer residents and breeders arc peculiar
to it, including the woodchuek, ruffed
grouse, broad-winged liawk, bald eagle,
least flycatcher, nuiny warblers, and the
brown creeper. There are no birds
peculiar to the prairie region, which
shares with the Missouri region some
GO savanna and prairie forms, but many
of them, as the prairie horned lark,
bobolink, lark sparrow, and Hell vireo,
find here the most favorable environ-
ment. As steppe birds may be men-
tioned the long-billed curlew, sharp-
tailed grouse, Sennett nighthuwk, desert
horned lark, several western sparrows,
arctic towhce and black-headed gros-
beak, with about 10 other species.
Conspicuous birds of this region in the
state, though not confined to it, are the
sharp-tailed grouse, i)rairie chicken,
.sparrow hawk, burrowing owl, Arkansaij
kingbird, and lark bunting. The sand
hill lakes harl)or a numerous water-
bird population, fourteen spe. : ' -ig
confined to this region during t i-

ing season. The characteristic birds of
the i^lains are the nu)Untain pUivor.
poor-will, western night hawk. Say
phocbe, magiue, HuUock oriole. Hrewer
blackbird, chestnut-collared and
McCown longspurs. Hrewer sparrow,
rock wren, aiul others. I'mally, in the
coniferous woodland arc '-'5 spcciea
pecidiar to it as sununer residents,
including the sharp-shinned and Krider
hawks, golden eagle, prairie falcon.

522

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

duck hawk, Lewis woodpecker, white-
throated swift, alder flycatcher, pinion
jay, white-winged junco, western tana-
ger, Audubon warbler, Townsend soli-
taire and mountain bluebird.

Less definite statements can be made
in regard to other animal groups, but
salient features may be noted. Snakes
are in much greater variety in the
Missouri region than westward and
several species are confined to it. The
prairie rattler {Crotalus conjluentus) is
found in this, the eastern part, the
plains rattler only in the west. Two
species of sand lizards swarm in the
sand hills, but the striped lizard {Cnemi-
dophorus sexlineatus) is common only
in the Missouri region. Box turtles
{Terrapene ornata) are abundant in the
sand hills. A horned toad {Phrynosoma
douglassii lemandsi) is rare in the plains
region of the southwest. Bvfo cognatus
is the common toad of the state, B.
americanus being rare in the Missouri
region, and B. woodhousii found only
in the west. Rana pipiens is found
throughout the state; the bullfrog {R.
calesbeiana) is rare and, except where
artificially introduced, confined to the
southeastern portion. Axolotls (Am-
bysioma tigrinum) are common in the
more alkaline sand-hill lakes. The
insect faunas of the two ends of the
state are decidedly different. In the
southern plains region in the west are
found soJpugids and a large centipede.
Terrestrial molluscs are largely confined
to the Missouri region. Earthworms
are very rare except in the Missouri
and prairie regions. The cut-off lakes
and bayous in the Missouri region are
rich in aquatic formis, and so are the
freshest of the sand-hill lakes, but
the alkali lakes have a very limited
fauna, though at certain seasons the
few species present may appear in
enormous numbers. The prairie ponds
and sloughs have a relatively poor
fauna, consisting largely of insects and
Crustacea, unless spring-fed and per-
manent, when a rich fauna develops.

II. NATURAL AREAS

Preserves

1. *Arbor Lodge. (H8.) The former
home of J. Sterling Morton, just outside
the limits of Nebraska City, which is on
the Missouri, 45 mi. south of Omaha
by the Missouri Pacific Ry. It has
been recently deeded to the state and
is now being administered as a state
park. Represents the southern portion
of the Missouri region and consists of
about 1000 acres of deciduous forest,
open ground, and ravines with springs
and small streams. Rich in trees,
possessing about 200 species of native
and introduced trees. Altitude 905
to 1060 ft.

A fine avenue from the town.

2. *Child's Point area. (D3.) About
6 mi. from the center of Omaha, con-
sisting of several tracts: 75 acres, held
by the Y. W. C. A. as a camp tract;
103 acres given to the Boy Scouts for a
camp by Dr. Gifford of Omaha; 700
acres in the Fontenelle Forest, held by
Dr. H. Gifford and Mrs. S. Joslyn of
Omaha; and about 1600 acres, the Wiley
Point Game Preserve, held by Dr.
Gifford. The whole forms a continuous
tract of nearly 2400 acres, representing
every type of habitat in the Missouri
region and with a very rich fauna and
flora. It is hoped that this will all
ultimately become a state park and the
natural features preserved. Altituds
960 to 1165 ft.

Trolley line from Omaha.

3. *Belmont prairie. (C3.) Two mi.
north of Lincoln; 160 acres of virgin
prairie, including upland and lowlands.
Now used constantly by University
classes, but under private control and
liable to exploitation. Altitude 1160
to 1240 ft.

4. Salt basin and lake. If mi. west of
Lincoln, containing about 700 acres.
Should be a city park and game refuge.
Now under private control, subject to
exploitation, and in part used as an
amusement park. Saline lake, artificial

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

628

in origin, saline mud flats, some scat-
tered trees and shrubs, resort of water-
birds in migration. Altitude 1110 ft.
Street car from Lincoln.

5. *Nebraska National Fora^t, Loup
Division. (C3.) About in the center
of the state, and two mi. from Halsey,
which is 225 mi. from Lincoln on the
Chicago Burlington, and (^uinc}' R. R.
containing about 90,000 acres of sand
hills and Ij^ing between the middle
Loup and Dismal rivers. No lakes,
but some marsh along the streams.
Little deciduous timber and shrubberj'
along Loup and about 7000 acres of
planted pine, a small part old enough
to have developed forest conditions. A
few deer. Altitude 2710 to 2940 ft.

Drive out from Halsey. (See page
237, in account of D2 National Forest.)

6. *Neb7-aska National Forest, Ni-
obrara Division. (C3.) 20 mi. from
Nenzil, a station 329 mi. northwest of
Omaha, on the Chicago and North-
western Ry., containing 120,000 acres of
sand-hills, bordering on the Niobrara
river. Some deciduous timber and
thickets, but mostly sand-hills; few
small lakes. Altitude 2700 to 3100 ft.

Drive out from Nenzil.

7. *United States Game Preserve.
Containing about 16,200 acres, one mi.
east of Valentine which is also on the
Chicago and Northwestern R. R., 299
mi. from Omaha. Small flood-plain,
bluffs, canyons, river, deciduous timber
and some thickets. Bison, elk and
deer in captivity. Altitude 2480 to
2600 ft.

Drive from Valentine.

8. Lake region oj Cherry County. (A4.)
An area about 8 mi. square directly
south of Valentine, with a dozen lakes
varying from fresh to strongly alkaline,
in size from h mi. across to 4 mi. long
and one mi. wide. Should be a state
park and contain game preserves.
Sand-hills, lakes, with varied shores,
marshes, hay flats, blow-outs, shifting
sand areas, the center of breeding
grounds for water birds. Altitude 26S0
to 2785 ft.

Drive out from Wood I.ako or Valen-
tino, 20 (i) 25 mi.

D. *Sl„le I'ark. (A4.) DiiwcB County.
Containing <'»40 acres, H mi. from
Cliadron, wliich is in tho northwest
corner of (he State, 4-17 mi. from Ornahn
and reachetl by tho C. & N. \V. U. R.
Under state control. In pinins rfjjion,
representing u portion of tho Pino ridRc
coniferous woodland. Cliffs, talus
slopes, canyons, pine, streams with
deciduous timber and shrubbery, .\lti-
tude 34S5 to 3720 ft.

Drive from Chadron.

10. *\\'oofi ami limher rcKcrve. (A-\.)
Near Fort Robin.son, 20 mi. west of
Chadron and reached by the C. & N.
\V. R. R., and also 420 mi. from Lincoln
by way of the C. B. <k Q. R. H., con-
taining 12J sq. mi. Under national
government control. This is part of a
tract, 20 mi. east and west, 4 north
and south, containing al>out SO sq. mi.
and lying along the Pine Ridge, which
should be a state park. Rock cliffs,
talus slopes, high plains, canyons,
valley, bad lands, pine forest, deciduous
forest in canyons, springs, streams,
valley canyons, sage brush, a few deer,
beaver, and all forms referred to pre-
viously as in coniferous forest region.
Altitude 3735 to 4000 ft.

Drive out from Crawford, 10 mi., or
Harrison, 4 mi.

11. Scott's Blu,IT. (A4.) Two mi.
from Coring, on the Union Pacific R. R.,
426 mi. from Onuiha, and reached al.so
by the C. B. & Q. R. R. It contain.s
about 400 acres, in part now doedoii. A
proposed state park. In plains region.
Cliffs, talus slopes, canyons, scattering
pine, sage brush, bad lands. .Mtitudo
3SS0to4662 ft.

Drive from Coring.

nini.iofiiiAPHY

Anderson, Iv N., and Walker, \'.. U. .\n
Ecological Study of the Algae of some
Sandliill Lakes. Trans. Amor. .Mic.

Soc, x.x.xix. 51 S.5, pis. IV xn.

l'»-0- . ^ ..

Bcssev, C. E. Plant Migration Stuihoa,

Uni". Neb. Studies, V, 1-27. 1905.

524

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Bruner, L., Wolcott, R. H., and Swenk,
M. H. A Preliminary Review of the
Birds of Nebraska. Ann. Rept. Neb.
State Bd. Agric. for 1903. Also
separate. 125 pp. 1904.

Condra, G. F. Geography of Nebraska.
192 pp. Lincoln, 1906.

Petersen, N. F. The Flora of Nebraska.
220 pp. Lincoln, 1912.

Pool, R. J. A Studv of the Vegetation
of the Sandhills of Nebraska. Minn.
Bot. Studies, IV, 189-312, pis. XXVI-
XL, and map. 1914.

Pool, R. J., Weaver, J. E., and Jean,
F. C. Further Studies in the Ecotone
between Prairie and Woodland. Uni.
Neb. Studies, XVIII, 1-47, figs. 1918.

Pound, R., and Clements, F. C. The
Phytogeography of Nebraska. 443
pp., 4 maps. Lincoln, Nebr., 1st ed.,
1897; 2ded., 1900.

Swenk, M. H. A Preliminary Review
of the Mammals of Nebraska. Stud.
Zool. Lab. Uni. Neb., No. 89. 88 pp.
Lincoln, 1908.

Thornber, J. J. Studies in the Vegeta-
tion of the State. I. The Prairie-
grass Formation in Region I. Rept.
Bot. Surv. Nebr., V, 29-143. 1901.

Weaver, J. E., and Thiel, A. F. Ecologi-
cal Studies in the Tension Zone
between Prairie and Woodland. Bot.
Surv. Neb.; N. S., No. 1, 1-59, figs.
1917.

Wolcott, R. H. Biological Conditions
in Nebraska. Publ. Neb. Acad. Sci.,
VIII, 23-34, map. 1906.

Wolcott, R. H. An Analysis of
Nebraska's Bird Fauna. Proc. Neb.
Orn. Union, IV, 25-55, 6 pis. 1909.

4. COLORADO
By Francis Ramaley and W. W.

ROBBINS
I. GENEKAL

Colorado is a state with many differ-
ent environments. One may travel
from the Great Plains of the eastern
part of the state or from the warm
valleys of the Western Slope to the
crest of the Continental divide and pass
through as many distinct climates as in
journeying from Virginia to arctic
Greenland. The lowest point in Colo-
rado has an elevation of 3386 ft. and the
highest 14,402 ft.; the altitudinal range
is therefore 11,016 ft., and it is this great
variation in altitude which determines
the differences in climate.

Topographically the state consists
of three main parts: the Great Plains,
the mountains, and the western plateau.
The principal rivers are the South
Platte, Arkansas, Rio Grande, Colorado,
Grand, and White. All streams in the
densely populated areas are more or
less polluted and in periods of active
mining may contain objectionable mill
tailings which, however, seldom destroy
aquatic life.

The Great Plains, comprising the
eastern two-fifths of the state, are
covered chiefly with short grass. This
association is almost uninterrupted
except for fringes of cottonwoods and
willows along water courses. In a few
favored places there is a prairie-grass
vegetation. On the divide between the
Platte and Republican rivers there are
some areas of sand hills with their
peculiar plant growth. The two chief
grasses of the plains are buffalo grass
{Buchloe dactyloides) and grama grass
(Bouteloua gracilis). In the early days
there were large herds of bison {Bison
bison) and prong-horn antelope (Anii-
locapra americana). The bison is no
longer found in the wild state and
antelopes are few in number. Of
small mammals, mention may be made
of the black-tailed prairie-dog (Cynomys
ludovicianus) , yellow pocket gopher
{Geomys lutescens), Richardson kan-
garoo rat (Dipodomys ordii richardsoni),
white-tailed jackrabbit {Lepus town-
sendii campanius), plains cottontail
{Sylvilagus audobonii baileyi), and plains
coyote {Canis nebracensis) .

The high mountains of Colorado trend
north and south, occupying the entire
central portion of the state. The
eastern slope of the mountains has a
chaparral belt between the grassland
and the forests of rock pine {Pinus
scopuloriim) on the foothills. To the
north, this narrow interrupted belt of
shrubs and small trees is mainly choke-
cherry and thornapple in the moister
places with three-leaved sumac {Rhus
trilobata) and mountain mahogany {Cer-
cocarpus parvifolius) in drier situations.
In southern Colorado the chaparr^,!

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

525

is chiefly scrub oak. On the Western
Slope the sagebrush plains arc separated
from the foothill forests by a scrub
growth of oaks and buckbrush (Sym-
phoricarpos) .

The lower foothills of the eastern
slope are dominated from an altitude
of 6000 to 8000 ft. by a more or less open
forest of rock pine, with Douglas fir
replacing the pine on moist, cool slopes.
Along streams in the canyons there is a
mixed growth of narrowleaf Cottonwood,
willow, boxelder, thornapple, wild plum,
and chokecherry. The chief mammals
of the foothill zone are the white-tailed
deer {Odocoileus virginianus macrovrus),
chipmunk (Eutamias sp.), rock squirrel
(Otospermophilus gramrnurus) , yellow-
haired porcupine (Erethizon epixan-
thum), Rocky Mountain cottontail rab-
bit (Sylvilagus nuttallii pinetis), and
mountain coyote (Canis lestes). Birds
are numerous here and in the other life
zones. (The reader may consult Mrs.
Bailey's Handbook of the Birds of the
Western United States or Sclater's
History of the Birds of Colorado. For
an account of the mammals, see War-
ren's Mammals of Colorado.)

The Montane (Lower Mountain) Zone
is next above the Foothill Zone and
includes altitudes from about SOOO to
10,000 ft. The forest here is either a
mixture of pines, spruce, Douglas fir,
and aspen or it may be an almost
pure stand of lodgepole pine (Pinus
murrayana). Mammals present in this
zone are the beaver, various squirrels,
chipmunks {Eutamias spp.), yellow-
haired porcupine, mule deer, mountain
coyote, timber wolf, and red fox {Vulpes
macrourn). The species of birds are
almost as numerous here as in the
Foothill Zone.

The Subalpine (Upper Mountain)
Zone forms the highest timbered belt,
extending from the Montane Zone at
about 10,000 ft. on up to the limit of
timber. The principal tree is the
Engelmann spruce (Picea engehnanni),
with the alpine fir ( Abies In.nocarpa),
lodgepole pine, and limber pine (Pinus
jlexilis) as secondary species. Engel-

mann Hprucc is found on nil the higher
mountain ranges and isolntcd pcakii.
In the drier, more windHWcpt localities
the spruce is largely rcplarod l)y linil>€r
pine, lodgepole pine, and the brJHtlc-
cone pine (Pinus ariatala). Nfammnlji
present in limited number arc the mule
deer, Fremont sfiuirrel, mountain
pocket-gopher {Thnmomyn foanor),
cougar, Rocky Mountain anowshoe hare
(Lepus bairdii), and bighorn sheep
(Ovis cayiadcnsia).

The average elevation of timber line
in Colorado is 11,500 ft.; above this
altitude is the Alpine Zone. All of the
higher peaks have extensive alpine
meadows and boulder fields with their
mat and cushion plants so typical of
alpine regions. Nearly all the plants
are perennials. A common mammal is
the pika, or cony {Ochoiona saiatilit).
The ptarmigan is a well-known bird.
Many of the common birds of moderate
altitudes are frequent or occasional
above timberline, as certain jays, moun-
tain bluebird, western robin, western
violet-green swallow, and others.

All of western Colorado is a high
plateau broken by mountain ranges
and cut into deep gulches and canyons,
with high and dry mesas between.
Extensive areas are covered by sage-
brush (Artemisia tridcntala), the most
typical sagebrush country being in the
northwestern counties. In parts of
western Colorado one may travel for
miles through sagebrush, then through
pinyon pine and cedar, then tiirough
sagebrush again; these two plant com-
munities alternating. Common mam-
mals of the sagebrush are the least chip-
munk (Euttiniitis niiriiruus), white-tailed
prairie-dog (Cynomya Icuctirus), Groon
River pocket gopher {Thomomya o.
Colorado cottontail rabbit (>' '
nudohntiii t/v/rrrrii), and mount:,
ote. Because of the slight rainfall the
growth of timber on south slopes is
sparse and there is often a. sharp contrast
in appearance between north-faring and
south-facing mountain sides. In west-
ern Colorado the life Eonea are not
clearly and sharply limited.

526

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

The mountain parks of Colorado are
elevated valleys clothed chiefly with a
dry grassland and surrounded by forest-
clad hills. The largest are North Park,
South Park, Middle Park, and San Luis
Park. There are many smaller parks
scattered along water courses chiefly
in the Foothill and Montane zones of
the eastern slope. The Rocky Moun-
tain National Park contains a number
of mountain parks of great interest.
(See various publications of the National
Park Service, U. S. Department of the
Interior.)

About one-fifth of the entire area of
Colorado is in National Forests. These
forests are chiefly protection forests
and do not furnish at present any great
amount of timber. (See various publi-
cations of the U. S. Forest Service,
especially those dealing with recrea-
tional possibilities.)

The state tree of Colorado is the blue
spruce (Picea pungens), occurring locally
along streams in the upper foothills.
The blue columbine {Aquilegia coerulea)
is the state flower. It grows sparingly
in the foothills and more abundantly
in the Montane and Subalpine zones.

Colorado is well known for its trout.
There are native mountain trout in the
streams from the foothill country almost
to timber line; various species also have
been introduced. (For an account of
Colorado fishes, see Ellis: "Fishes of
Colorado," in University of Colorado
Studies, Vol. XI, pp. 1-136, 1914. For
reptiles and amphibia see Ellis and
Henderson: "Amphibia and Reptilia
of Colorado," in University of Colorado
Studies, Vol. X, pp. 39-129; Vol. XI,
pp. 253-263, 1915.)

Following are some selected titles
of papers dealing with vegetation of
Colorado.

Cockerell, T. D. A._ Alpine Flora of

Colorado. American Naturalist, 40:

861-873. 1906.
Cooper, W. S. Alpine Vegetation in the

Vicinity of Long's Peak, Colorado.

Botanical Gazette, 45: 319-337.

1908.
Ramaley, Francis. Plants of the Floris-

sant Region of Colorado. Univ. of
Colo. Studies, 3: 178-185. 1906.

Plant Zones in the Rocky Mountains
of Colorado. Science, N.S., 26:
642-643. 1907.

Botany of Northeastern Larimer
Countv, Colorado. Univ. of Colo.
Studies, 5: 119-131. 1908.

Dry Grassland of a High Mountain
Park in Northern Colorado. Plant
World, 19: 249-270. 1916.

Xerophytic Grasslands at Different
Altitudes in Colorado. Bull. Torr.
Bot. Club, 46: 37-52. 1919.

Some Mountain Plant Communities
of Sandy Soil. Plant World, 22:
313-328. 1919.

Subalpine Lake-shore Vegetation in
North-Central Colorado. Amer.
Jour. Bot., 7: 57-74. 1920.
Ramaley, Francis, and Robbins, W. W.
Studies in Lake and Streamside
Vegetation. Univ. of Colo. Studies,
6: 133-168. 1909.
Robbins, W. W. Climatology and Vege-
tation in Colorado. Botanical
Gazette, 49: 256-280. 1910.

Successions of Vegetation in Boulder
Park, Colorado. Botanical Gazette,
65: 493-525. 1918.
Shantz, Homer L. Study of the Vege-
tation East of Pikes Peak; the
Bouteloua formation. Botanical
Gazttle, 42: 16-47, 179-207. 1906.
Vestal, Arthur G. Prairie Vegetation
of a Mountain-front Area in
Colorado. Botanical Gazette, 58:
377-400. 1914.

Foothills Vegetation in the Colorado
Front Range. Botanical Gazette,
64: 353-385. 1917.

Although it has not been possible in
the space allowed to consider the in-
vertebrate animals of Colorado the
reader may wish to know of two papers
on invertebrates in which ecological
as well as taxonomic matters are
considered.

Dodds, Gideon S. Altitudinal Distribu-
tion of Entomostraca in Colorado.
Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 54: 58-87.
1917.

Henderson, Junius. MoUusca of Colo-
rado, Utah, Montana, Idaho, and
Wyoming. Univ. of Colo. Studies,
13: 65-223. 1924.

II. NATURAL AREAS

*Wheeler National Monument. Three
hundred acres; of much interest from a
geological standpoint, as an example of

NATURAL AREAS AND ULUIUNS

527

eccentric erosion and extinct volcanic
action. Elevation 11,700 to 12,-100 ft.

It is reached by horseback trail from
Wagonwheel Gap or from Creede. —
Roger W. Toll.

*Mesa Verde National Park. Is lo-
cated in the southwestern part of Colo-
rado, in Montezuma County. It has an
area of 77 sq. mi. The highest elevation
is that of Park Point, 8574 ft. The
average elevation of the mesa is perhaps
500 or 1000 ft. less than this.

The nearest railroad point to Mesa
Verde National Park is Mancos, on the
D. & R. G. W. It is connected with that
point by automobile stage line making
daily scheduled trips throughout the
summer season. The park is accessible
by automobile, but of course most of the
ruins are reached either on foot or on
horseback. — Roger W. Toll.

Literature:

Antiquities of Mesa Verde National
Park: Spruce Tree House. J. W.
Fewkes. Bureau Amer. Ethnology,
Bull. 41, 1909.

Antiquities of the Mesa Verde
National Park: Cliff Palace. J. W.
Fewkes. Bureau Amer. Ethnology,
Bull. 51, 1911.

Excavation and Repair of Sun Tem-
ple. J. W. Fewkes. Gov. Pr. Office.

*The Colorado National Monument

The Colorado National Monument
(13,883 acres) is located in western
Colorado, Mesa County. It is a few
hundred feet higher than the town of
Fruita, whose elevation is 4510 ft. Its
special characteristics are many lofty
monoliths, and it forms a wonderful
example of erosion, as well as possessing
great scenic beauty and interest.

The entrance to this monument may
be reached by automobile from Grand
Junction or Fruita, but in order to
explore the area one must go on foot.—
Roger W. Toll.

^Estes Park. Few sq. mi. of mountain
coniferous and aspen forest, and -xcro-
phvtic mountain grassland (some Bou-
teioua), with lakes, springs, and river
lying in mountain park topography;
beaver present and usual small mam-

mals. Small areiLS uloiiK Hlroani* and
near lakes in the open park have iiicao-
pliytic vegetation. The park is 7000
ft. altitude, located in the open yellow
I)ine forest area. Tlie Rocky Mountain
National Park is but a few mi. to the
west but at higher altitude. Estes
Park is an important tourist resort
with manj- excellent hotels. For many
years there will be plenty of unoccupied
land where the natural vegetation can
be observed.

Located in Larimer County; village
of Estes Park, Colo. Auto stage from
Loveland, Longmont, Boulder, or Den-
ver.—F. R.

*Rocky Mountain National Park.
Many square miles of coniferous moun-
tain forest, alpine and sub-alpine
meadow, talus slopes, gravel slides,
bogs, mountains, ravines, canyons,
marshes, ponds, springs, glaciers; with
beaver, bear, deer, and wild mountain
sheep. Includes all the climatic and
edaphic situations belonging to mon-
tane, sub-alpine and alpine life zones
of the neighborhood.

For the higher altitudes the distances
from hotels are considerable. Auto-
mobile roads and government camp-
sites with usual regulations of National
Parks. Located in Boulder, Larimer,
and Grand Counties, Colo., a few mi.
from Estes Park village and postotTice.
See account of Estes Park, preceding.
IMay also be reached from Grand Lake,
Colo., on the western slope but roads
across the Continental Divide open only
from mid-July to September l.—F. R.
Tolland Area. Few sq. mi. of moun-
tain coniferous and Jispen forest with
pine, spruce, fir, and Douglas fir; .\ero-
phytic grassland, meadow, flood plain,
talus slopes, gravel slides, bogs, water-
falls, ravine.'^, canyons, glacial deposit,
swamps, marshes, murainal and rock-
basin lakes, swift ami mcandcrinR
streams; deer, beaver, small ■ '«.

many l.irtl.s. Every kind •• ...on

that may bi- expected fron. 1 l.OOO

ft. altitude. Most of the area is in the
Colorado National Forest. .\ summer
laboratory was conducted by the Uni-

528

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

versity of Colorado for ten years and
numerous publications issued. See
Univ. of Colo. Studies, 17: 53-64, 1917,
for bibliography.

Located in vicinity of Tolland, Colo.,
in Gilpin County. Denver & Salt
Lake R. R. passes through Tolland and
up over the Continental Divide so that
all life zones are easily reached. Hotel
accommodations. — F. R.

Owl Canyon. Few sq. mi. of foothill
coniferous forest, with rocky ridges and
a very interesting association dominated
by Cercocarpus shrubs (Chaparral).
See Univ. of Colo. Studies, 5: 119-131,
1908.

Located in Larimer County, 15 mi.
n.w. from Ft. Collins, Colo., on high-
way to Cheyenne, Wyo. — F. R.

Black Forest of Colorado. Many sq.
mi. of coniferous forest {Pinus scopulo-
rum) extending many mi. southeast
from Palmer Lake at which point it
merges with the mountain forest of the
foothills. Very interesting here and
even more of interest where it meets the
plains near Colorado Springs. The
forest extends along a sandstone spur
projecting out from the mountains, the
ridge gradually becoming submerged
in the plains soil of shale origin and the
forest disappearing with the changed
edaphic conditions. Some Rocky Moun-
tain red cedar {Juniperus scopularum)
present in the forest. Chief ecological
interest is in the tension between forest
and plain as controlled by soil type.
The area is covered with claims and
private titles but is very little settled
and is used chiefly for grazing. There is
still plenty of open ground for study.

The southeast part of the forest is
reached from Colorado Springs by
automobile, distance of about 12 mi.,
or from Monument, 5 mi. Both these
places and also Palmer Lake are on the
D. & R. G. and Santa Fe Railroads.
Hotel accommodations at all three towns.
—C. G. Bates.

*Colorado Springs Water Preserve.
About 100 sq. mi. of mountain forest
comprising most of the typical trees
of the eastern Rockies except lodgepole
pine, extends from an elevation of 6500
ft. at Manitou to 11,500 ft. (timberline)
on Pikes Peak. The soil is derived
wholly from a coarse-grained granite
and shows all ages from loose gravel-
slides to stable gravelly loams. Points

of ecological interest are the several
forest types accessible within a short
range, and the rather poor development
of all forests owing, probably, to severe
winter drought. Uniformity of soil
type causes marked merging of different
associations; decided contrasts resulting
from topography and exposure are,
however, available.

The area is within the Pike National
Forest, largely owned and controlled
by the city of Colorado Springs for
water-supply purposes. Regulations
exclude all stock from the area. Tour-
ists are not encouraged on property
owned by the city but scientific workers
receive due consideration. The Car-
negie Alpine Laboratory (Dr. F. E.
Clements, Manitou, Colo., June-August)
and the Fremont Forest Experiment
Station (C. G. Bates, Box 1068 Colorado
Springs) are located within the area of
interest. Arrangements might be made
in advance by writing either station.
Reached from Manitou or Colorado
Springs; hotel accommodations year
around. A cog railway penetrates the
area, starting at Manitou. — C. G. Bates.

*Garden of the Gods and adjacent
territory. Few sq. mi. of xerophytic
grassland, pinyon-cedar association, and
scrub oak thickets (chaparral) lying
in the district about Manitou and
Colorado Springs. Mesa vegetation de-
scribed by Shantz in Botanical Gazette,
42: 16-47, 1906.

Electric cars between Colorado
Springs and Manitou pass near to the
area. — F. R.

Florissa7it Lake Beds. Few sq. mi. of
mountain coniferous forest and xerophy-
tic grassland in a chiefly grazing and
sparsely populated area. Some aspen
forest; mesophytic areas along streams,
large lake; general open country, rolling,
with few narrow canyons. Remarkable
locality for Miocene fossils, both plant
and animal. For accounts of geology,
botany and paleontology see Univ. of
Colo. Studies, 3: 177-185, 1906. Numer-
ous later articles by Prof. T. D. A.
Cockerell give descriptions of fossil
plants and insects.

Located in Teller County in Floris-
sant, Colorado. Hotel accommodations.

NATURAL AREAS AND RIXJIONS

520

As to best method of reachinj; Florissant
inquiry should be made at Colorado
Springs or at Cripple Creek.

Shawnee Area. Few sq. mi. of moun-
tain coniferous forest, coniferous
savanna, xerophytic grassland, stream-
side mesophytic forest, mountain i)ark
topography. A beautiful examjjle of
low-altitude mountain park, although
not greatly different from others in the
vicinity.

On the Platte Canyon line of the C. &
S. R. R. Hotel during summer. — F. R.

*Rcd Rock Lake Area. Manj' sq.
mi. mountain coniferous forest located
in the Colorado National Forest; trout
streams and sub-alpine lakes; among
these is Red Rock Lake which furnishes
beautiful illustration of zonation of
vegetation at a high elevation (10,000
ft. altitude). Beaver, deer, porcupine,
small mammals, numerous birds. Op-
portunities to study effect in the various
forest types of timber cutting, fires,
landslides, high winds. Vegetation of
Red Rock Lake and circum-areas de-
scribed in Univ. of Colo. Studies, 6:
33-167, 1909.

About 2^ mi. from Ward, Boulder,
County. Hotel at Ward. Reached by
auto stage from Boulder.

Boulder Mountain Park. About 4000
acres of foothills including coniferous
forests of yellow pine and Douglas fir
with aspen groves, excellent examples
of canyon forest, rugged topography;
beaver, porcupine, and small mammals,
such as chipmunks and ground squirrels.
Preserved by the city of Boulder as a
part of its park system. Includes the
usually associated habitats found at
altitudes of 5500 to 8500 ft. The Uni-
versity of Colorado is located at Boulder.
Various publications on the plants and
animals of the district, especially A. G.
Vestal in Bot. Gazelle, 64: 353-385, 1917;
also (for lists of animals, especially
invertebrates) see Cockerell in Univ.
of Colo. Studies, 12: 5-20, 1917, and
previous writings; for birds see numer-
ous contributions by Junius Henderson
in the various ornithological journals.

The University museum is oi)cn
throughout the year. Boulder is on the
C. & S. R. R. and Interurban Line

(Kite l{outc) m mi. n.w. of Denver.
I fotol accoiniiKHlntionfl.

II hilv Rnck^. Few iicrca of Band Htcpt>e
witli piiie-ridne forest ji- -'■ ' • ' |
It is an outcrop of whit^ i

many plants not found ■ .•

vicinity. ( iood (•xninpl. t

grass association. l-,!irly vernal llor.i
especially iiiterestinn: larKcly charac-
teristic sand dwelling plants.

In liouldcr Countv. S mi. hv ri. ' r

(U. V. R. R.) fromtlic city of ; .

—F. R.

Saml Hills of EasUrn Colorado. Lar^e
areas of saml hill country occur in
eastern Colorado especially along the
line of the Burlington Railway. VcRcta-
tion similar to that of the Ncbra.ska
sandhills described by Pool in .Nlinn.
Botanical Studies, 4: ISO ct 8e(|., 1914.

The sand hills of Colorado may be
conveniently reached at RogKcn or at
Wrav on the C. B. it Q. R. R. east of
Denver.— F. R.

The Colorado Antelope Rcfxige. Cre-
ated in 1023, embraces about 100 sq. mi.
of grazing land in the northeast corner
of Larimer County. Toward the west-
ern boundary of the Refuge there are a
few pines and cedars, otherwise the land
is covered chiefly with gra.s.s. A few
springs and small streams afford suffi-
cient water. Some well-marked buttes
and mesas exist but, on the whole, the
Refuge may be described as rather level.
A few antelope have always been present
in the region. Pasturage of domestic
animals is not prohibited by the law
establishing the Refuge. — F. Ramaley.

5. WYOMING

By John W. Scott

i. genkr.m. fkatukks a.nu oiugi\.\l

HI OTA

Wyoming is especially charactcriri'd
by its extensive plains, its lofty moun-
tain ranges, and its numerous river
valley.s. The elevation varies from
about 3100 ft. at one place on the eastern
border to 13,7,s5 ft. in the Wind River
Mountains, 'i'he rainfall varies f
less than ti in., in the Big Horn \';;... ..
and in parts of the Red Desert, to 15 to
20 in. in eastern portions of the State:

530

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

the precipitation on some mountain
ranges is probably well above 20 to 25
in. Under these conditions the climate
is varied, though predominantly cool
and mainly arid. The vast treeless
plains are level or rolling and are located
for the most part in the southern half
and in the eastern portions of the state;
in the eastern portions the rainfall is
sufficient to give the plains the character
of grassland steppe, but the plains of
the central and western regions are
characterized by sagebrush desert which
gives place on the foothills and lower
mountain slopes to juniper and semi-
desert coniferous forest. The mountain
ranges are found chiefly in the northwest
part of the state. Their middle slopes
are usually covered with mountain
coniferous forest and these merge into
the treeless crests and peaks above
timberline where alpine conditions pre-
vail. Three great river systems have
their sources in the mountains of Wyom-
ing and the heavy snowfall of the moun-
tains helps to make a well watered state,
considering prevailing arid conditions.
The life zones in Wyoming as out-
lined by Gary include the following:
(1) A zone occuping the low plains and
most of the valleys in which the yucca
(Yucca glauca), rabbit brush {Chryso-
thamnus), salt-bush (Atriplex spp.),
juniper, broad leaved Cottonwood {Popu-
lus occidentalis) and willows are charac-
teristic {Upper Sonoran). (2) A zone,
comprising fully half of the state,
embracing the high sagebrush and
grassy plains, the basal slopes of the
mountains and most of the foothills, and
characterized by sagebrush {Artemisia
tridentata) , the narrow-leaved cotton-
wood {Popuhis anguslifolia), and west-
ern yellow pine {Pinus scopulorum)
{Transition) . (3) A zone covering the
middle mountain slopes (Montane Belt)
and the highest foothill ranges and
characterized by forests of lodgepole
pine {Pinus murrayana), aspen {Populus
tremuloides), and, higher up, spruce
{Picea engelmanni) and alpine fir {Abies
lasiocarpa). A rich fauna and flora
is present {Canadian). (4) A compara-

tively narrow zone in the timberline
region (subalpine), characterized by
dwarf Engelmann spruce, alpine fir
and white-barked pine {Pinus albicaulis)
{Hudsonian). (5) A zone consisting of
the mountain peaks and crests above
timberline with no trees, but where soil
is present and alpine grasses and flowers
flourish {Arctic-Alpine). For lists of
animals see references below.

II. PRESENT BIOTIC CONDITIONS

At one time the large game animals
and game birds were very abundant.
Gountless herds of bison and pronghorn
antelope roamed the plains. Now,
bison are found only in Yellowstone
Park and in one or two private herds.
Antelope and elk in spite of protection
are being rapidly decimated; bear, deer
and bighorn sheep are growing scarce;
mountain goats and moose are nearing
extinction; hawks, eagles and all kinds
of game birds are much less abundant
than formerly; prairie-dogs, ground-
squirrels, wolves and coyotes are being
exterminated by the U. S. Biological
Survey. Great flocks of sheep and
herds of cattle graze on the plains and
in the foothills, and in parts of the
National Forests, and many natural
areas are being altered by too close
grazing. Some areas, principally bor-
dering Yellowstone National Park, are
still largely in a primitive condition
except for diminishing large game and
the introduction of trout. Remote
open deserts are also almost untouched.
For present distribution of life at various
altitudes see Gary's Life Zone Investiga-
tions in Wyoming. In nearly all sec-
tions, close grazing and in the valleys,
agriculture are changing natural con-
ditions. Timber cutting under re-
stricted conditions is allowed in some
of the National Forests.

III. BIRD RESERVATIONS

Three are known to the writer. The
Shoshone Bird Reservation, located in
Park Gounty, on the Shoshone River,
above the Shoshone dam; water fowl

NATURAL ARKAS AND REGIONS

:.31

here find a refuge. Loch Katrine Hird
Reservation, located in the same county
with a similar purpose. The Path-
finder Bird Reservation, located in
Natrona and Carbon Counties, along
the North Platte River above the
Pathfinder dam. This is also a refuge
for water birds.

IV. POLLUTION

The mountain streams and in fact,
nearly all streams in their upper courses
are still unpolluted. In their lower
courses, nearly all streams are more or
less polluted by sewage from towns,
waste from factories or refineries, or by
unsanitary conditions of farmyards
and ranches on their banks. Water
in the desert, arid interior is frequently
alkaline and unfit for use.

V. NATURAL AREAS

Wyoming State Preserves. There are
twelve State game preserves, and two
hot springs preserves in the State of
Wyoming. The State game preserves
embrace a total of about 6,900,000 acres.
The game laws provide that the open
season allowed for certain game animals
and game birds does not apply within
the limits of these game preserves.
The game animals receiving this pro-
tection include elk, deer, bighorn sheep,
Rocky Mountain goats, pronghorn ante-
lope and moose. Elk are also protected
outside of the game preserves in Fremont
County; this area includes all of Fremont
County north of Wind River; the region
of the Wind River Mountains between
Popo Agie and Bridger State game
preserves; and all of Fremont County
south of Sweetwater R. and east of Big
Sandy Creek. The birds specifically
protected include four families, Gal-
linae, Anatidae, Limicolae and Rallidae
(grouse, sage-chickens, ducks, geese,
plover, snipe, and coots). The Montane
Belt in which a large portion of these
preserves is located, is quite uniformly
characterized by forests of spruce, fir,
lodgepole pine and aspen as well as by

a lafRp vHriofy of lower phrulw and

J)lant.s.

The hot .sj)ni rvm arc sot aaidc

for the trcatrm..: i caro of disc-aao,

for sanitary, recreational and other
jnirposcs. Both have points of remark-
able interest, but the Rroup of sprinpB
at Thermopoiis is the Imtiw r ,.i ,| niorc
widely known.

Several additional large arena and
numerous small ones should be set
aside as State preserves. For example:

(1) All of the region drained by the
John Day River lying between the
crests of the Salt River Range and the
Wyoming Range; all lying within the
Wyoming National Forest. It Ls .said
that no wheeled vehicle has ever trav-
elled over most of this region.

(2) All of the Wind River Range in-
cluded in what is now "elk protected
territory." Besides including the high-
est mountains in Wyoming and the
headwaters of Green River, it embraces
a number of large lakes on the western
slope of this range. Lies within the
Bridger National Forest. See page
237.)

(3) All of Sweetwater County lying
north of the 5th Standard Parallel
North and west of 109° W. Longitude.
This area includes the continental
divide, the Great Divide Basin, and a
part of the Red Desert; here is to be
found probably the most barren part
of Wyoming.

(4) All of Medicine Bow NaiiDual
Forest in Wyoming, lying cast of Bjhilt
81 West. Deer, grouse, ptnrmigm

(5) Many other small regions in-
cluding desert : lakes suitable for migra-
tory birds, mountains, etc., too numer-
ous to mention.

References:
Cary, M. Life Zones of Wyoming.

Bu. of Biol. Survey, North American

Fauna No. 42, 1917.
tlrave, B. H., and Walker, K. V.

Wyoming Birds. rnivcr»ity of

Wyoming Bulletin, Vol. 12, No. 0,

1913.

532

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Knight, W. C. The Birds of Wyom-
ing. Bull, No. 55, Wyoming Experi-
ment Station, 1902. (Out of print.)
The Yellowstone National Park. The
Yellowstone National Park is rapidly
becoming our best known park. It
was created by act of Congress, March
1, 1872, and is under the supervision o^"
the National Park Service of the De-
partment of the Interior. The Park
was established for the preservation of
natural features and curiosities and is a
sanctuary of wild life of every sort.
The Park Service issues each year a
bulletin containing descriptive material,
information of various kinds, and the
rules and regulations governing visitors
and tourists in the park.

I. General features: The Yellowstone
National Park is about 62 mi. long and
54 mi. wide; its area is 3348 sq. mi., or
2,142,720 acres. The greater part of
the park area, 3114 sq. mi., is located in
northwestern Wyoming, 198 sq. mi. in
Montana and 36 sq. mi. in Idaho. The
elevation varies from near 5300 ft. at
Gardiner, Montana, the north entrance
to 11,155 ft. at Electric Peak. The
principal area consists of a broad,
elevated, volcanic plateau extensively
covered with western coniferous forest.
This plateau ranges from 7000 to 8500 ft.
in elevation. The continental divide
passes through the southwestern part
of the park. On one side are headwaters
of the Snake River and on the other the
Madison and Yellowstone Rivers. Men-
tionshouldbe made of several large lakes,
especially Yellowstone which has over 100
mi. of shore line. The most remarkable
natural features are the great number,
variety and size of the geysers, the hot
springs, the Falls and the vivid coloring
of the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone,
the fossil forests, and less evident to the
passing tourist, the rich fauna and flora
which are here undisturbed.

II. Original biota: The vast area of
the park is probably the greatest and
most successfully handled wild bird and
wild animal preserve in the world.
Firearms must be left outside or carried

sealed through the park. Dogs must
be confined or under leash at all times.
Mining, and grazing of live stock, is
prohibited. No herds or domestic ani-
mals are allowed to run free in the park.
No trees are cut down except to make
way for roads, trails, or camp sites.
Campers must use only dead or fallen
timber. The destruction, injury, de-
facement, or disturbance in any way of
trees, flowers, vegetation, rocks, min-
erals, animal or bird or other life is
prohibited. As the park is a sanctuary
of wild life of all sorts, hunting, killing,
trapping, capturing or frightening any
bird or wild animal is prohibited. A
few flowers may be picked unless the
superintendent decides this is harmful.
Fishing with hook and line is permitted.
Under these conditions, except for roads,
trails, hotels and camps this vast pre-
serve is in a very nearly natural con-
dition. Visitors, as a rule, keep to the
beaten road, and Avith the exception of
black bears do not often see wild animals
which in summer are generally found in
the more remote portions of the park.
The park contains a great many deer, a
good many antelope, a few hundred
moose, several thousand elk, and a large
herd of bison. Two hundred and five
species of birds here live undisturbed
lives. Ducks, geese, and other water
birds are numerous, and many remain all
winter on streams fed by hot springs.
Hawks and eagles are common, and
swans and pelicans may be seen on
Yellowstone Lake. For lists of other
birds and numerous other mammals,
see bulletins issued by the Park Service.
The extensive, undulating, coniferous
forest is characterized by lodgepole
pine, Englemann spruce, Douglas fir,
and a large variety of boreal shrubs and
plants. At the higher altitudes alpine
fir and white-bark pine are found near
the timberline. At the lower altitudes
are sagebrush, narrow-leafed cotton-
wood, aspen and western red cedar.
The open grassy meadows and sagebrush
slopes give way higher up to aspen and
coniferous forest.

NATURAL ARKAS AND RFGION'S

M3

Bears are seen dailj- at the Rarl)an('
dumps of all the hotels and camps.
Most of the other wild animals have
their summer hal)itat hi^hor up in the
mountains or in more remote regions of
the park. Tourists occasionally, but
not frequently, see deer, coyotes, ante-
lope, or elk. In winter, elk, antelope,
mule deer, white-tailed deer, and big-
horn sheep may be scon at the lower
levels near Gardiner. Part of the
tame herd of bison is kept in summer
in an enclosure near Mammoth Hot
Springs. Birds are most abundant
around the lakes or in open spaces.

III. Present biotic conditions: There
is probably no species of animal or plant
entirely missing from the original biota.
The chief modification of the original
biota has been the introduction in the
streams of a number of game fishes. A
pamphlet by William C. Kendall,
entitled "Fishes of the Yellowstone
National Park," and published by the
United States Bureau of Fisheries, gives
information on this subject.

IV. Pollution: Wilh thousands of visi-
tors each 3-ear at each camp site, the
water in adjacent creeks and streams
is not safe to drink. Otherwise the
water supply provided is pure and
wholesome, and excellent regulations
are provided to keep it so. Rules for
the disposal of combustible rubbish,
garbage and refuse and for providing
other sanitary conditions are as strictly
enforced as is possible under present
management methods.

V. Transportation, lodging, supplies:
The park has four entrances. It is
reached on the north at Gardiner,
Mont., by the Northern Pacific Railroad ;
on the west at West Yellowstone, Mont.,
by the Union Pacific Railroad; on the
east by auto-stage (55.4 mi.) from Cody,
Wyo., connecting with the Chicago,
Burlington and Quincy Railroad; and,
on the south by daily automobile service
(178.7 mi.) from Lander, Wyoming,
which connects with the Chicago North-
western Railroad. Any one of the
entrances may be reached by motorists
over good automobile roads connecting

witli Komo of the main continental
aulomoliilc hiRhways. A license fee in
charged. There are four hotein, five
permanent cnnij>s, and nn automobile
transjiorlation line, operated in the
park. However, every person may
provide his own means of transportation
and moals, subjert to pivrn reRuIations.
In (he free camp Rnivinds pure water is
supplied and wood is available. Auto-
mobile siipiilies may be olitnined from
several authorized places in the park.
N'arious kinds of snjiplics may be ob-
tained at the general stores. Trans-
portation facilities in tlie park includes,
besides the regular automobiles on the
main park highways, saddle-horses, or
horses and guides from all hotels and
permanent camps.

I
References:

(1) Rules and Regulations of Yellow-
stone National Park. .Annual pam-
phlet of the National Park Service
of the Department of the Interior.
Gives much useful and interesting
information in regard to animals
and plants and includes a full
bibliograi)hy of the park.

(2) Fishes of the Yellowstone Nat u>nai
Park. By W. C. Kendall. Bureau
of Fisheries Document No. 818,
Department of Commerce.

(3) Life Zone Investigation in Wyom-
ing. By Mcrritt Cary. North
American Fauna No. 42, Bureau
of Biological Survey, I'nited States
Department of Agriculture.

(4) The Birds of Yellowstone Na-
tional Park. By M. P. Skinner.
Roosevelt Wild Life Bull., 1025,
Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 1-192.

(5) The Big Game Animals of Yellow-
stone National Park. Ldmund Hel-
ler. Roosevelt Wild I.ife '" " ' '>.
11VJ5, Vol. 2, No. 4. pp •*>.

-J. W. s.

National Monuments in Wyoming

*Dinl's Tourr National Monutncnt.
The Devil's Tower is an :i' rticnl

shaft of igneous rock ab*-..> , .: ft. in

534

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

height. It is one of the most conspicu-
ous features of the Black Hills region,
and since it rises above a rounded ridge
of sedimentary rocks that is about 600
ft. high, it may be seen in some directions
for nearly 100 mi. Except near the top
and near the base the sides are nearly
perpendicular and are strongly fluted
by great columns of igneous rock, which
are usually five-sided and average about
6 ft. in diameter. The top is elliptical
in outline, nearly flat, and varies from
60 to 100 ft. across. The tower has been
scaled by means of special apparatus,
but only at considerable risk. The
general public can ascend to near the
top of the base (a).

Devil's Tower is located in Crook
Count}', Wyo., on the west bank of the
Belle Fourche River 9 mi. from the
Custer Battlefield Highway. The near-
est settlement is Tower, which may be
reached by stage or auto, 32 mi. from
Moorcroft, Wyo., a station on the
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railway.

*Shoshone Cavern National Monument.
The Shoshone Cavern National Monu-
ment includes 210 acres of rough moun-
tainous land lying on the north
face of Cedar Mountain about 3 mi.
east of the great Shoshone Dam in Park
County, Wyo. The cavern entrance is
located at the summit of the reef of rocks
at the head of a canyon, about 4 mi.
southwesterly from Codj% Wyo. The
passages are very intricate, so that a
trip through the cave should not be
undertaken without a competent guide,
with a supply of ropes and lamps.

Guides can be employed at Cody,
Wyo., a station on the Chicago, Burling-
ton & Quincy Railway. One may go by
automobile or team to the foot of the
mountain, about two mi. from Cody,
and continue by the same means on a
graded road about one-third the way
up the mountain; from the end of this
road by foot or on horseback to within
100 ft. of the entrance to the cave.

Reference:
General Information regarding the
National Monuments. Dept. of the
Interior, Washington, D. C.

*Teton State Game Preserve^. (A2;
A3; B2; B3; C3.) Over 500,000 acres.
Part of the Teton National Forest, just
south of Yellowstone Park, extending
from the crest of Teton Mountains on the
west, to the Continental Divide south-
east of the Park. Chiefly mountain
coniferous forest, including grasslands,
sage brush, lakes and streams. Gently
rolling to rugged hills and precipitous
canyons and mountain sides. Chiefly
pine and spruce forests (Canadian zone),
but ranging from grassland and sage-
brush (Transition) along southern
border, to alpine meadows (Arctic
Alpine zone) near east and west ends.
Elk, deer, moose, bear, otter, game
fish and water birds. Altitude, 6500 to
13,700 ft.

JacksonI; 40 mi. north to (a) (h)
Moran||, which is located just inside of
preserve on Jackson Lake; pack-horse,
camp outfit**, for remote portions; (a)
and (w) easily accessible regions. Teton
County, Wyo.

*Shoshone State Game Preserve't. (A2;
A3; B2; B3; C3.) Over 400,000 acres.
Part of the Shoshone National Forest,
east of the Yellowstone National Park
and south of North Fork Shoshone
River; otherwise bounded roughly by
east edge of Shoshone National Forest,
South Fork of Shoshone River, Deer
Creek, Absaraka Divide to Yount's
Pk., to Hawk's Rest Mountain, south
and west edge of Bridger Lake following
outlet to Yellowstone River, thence to
southern boundary of the Park. Moun-
tain coniferous forest, several ranges,
and mountains extending above timber
line; sagebrush and grasslands; Bridger
Lake, numerous small streams; head-
waters of S. fork of Shoshone R. Roll-
ing to sharply rough and precipitous.
Chiefly pine and spruce forests (Cana-
dian zone), but considerable areas of
subalpine coniferous forest and alpine
summits (Hudsonian, and Arctic-Al-
pine zone) ; borders on grassland and
sagebrush (Transition zone) to the east.
7000 to 13,000 ft.

CodyJ is the nearest P. O., 25 mi.
N.E.; north and east edge by auto or

NATURAL AIIKAS AND RKOIONS

535

central part b}' pack-horse**; 25 mi.
S.W. from (a) (h) Cody, Park Coiintv,
Wyo.

*Hoodoo State Game Preserve. (A2;
A3; B2; B3; C3.) 200,000 acres. Part
of the Shoshone National Forest, east of
the Yellowstone National Park and
north of the Absaraka Divide. Moun-
tain coniferous forest, some ranges and
peaks above timber line; meadows,
parks; headwaters of N. fork Shoshone
and Lamar Rivers. Rolling to rough,
rocky, precipitous situations. Chiefly
pine and spruce forests (Canadian Zone),
but alpine region (Arctic-Alpine Zone)
well represented. Altitude, 7000 to
12,000 ft.

CodyJ, 50 (?) mi. N.W.; north edge
accessible by auto from Cody, the near-
est P. O.; wagon, or pack-horse**.
Park County, Wyo.

*Carter Mountain State Game Preserve.
(A3; B2; B3; C3.) 150,000 acres. Part
of the Shoshone National Forest, located
east and southeast of the Shoshone State
Game Preserve. Mountain coniferous
forest, sagebrush, steppe and grassland;
bordered by South fork of Shoshone
River and includes all of the watershed
of Boulder Creek and part of the water-
shed of the Grey Bull River. Rolling,
hilly, mountainous. Chiefly pine and
spruce forests (Canadian Zone), bor-
dered in part by grassland and sagebrush
(Transition Zone) part of the area e.x-
tends some distance above timber line.
0000 to 11,000 ft.

Codyl; 20 to GO mi. N.E.; 20 mi.
to nearest P. O., (a) (h) Ishawooa, or
40 mi. to (a) (h) Valley, S.W. of
Cody. Most of area**. Park County,
Wyo.

*Popo Agie Stale Game Preserve.
(A3; B2; B3; C3.) 375,000 acres. In-
clude the southern end of the Washakie
National Forest and a small part of the
south end of the Bridger National
Forest. Embraces the southern end
of the Wind River Mountain Range;
watersheds of Popo Agie and Sweetwater
rivers and of the east fork of Green
River. Mountain conifer forest, witli

fre(iueiit ojmju 8loi>cn, Ijordered by dry
rolling Htcppo mid arid HiiKC-bnish plain;
nearly one-third is subalpine coniferous
forest iHudfloniaii) or alpine meadow
(Arctic-Alpine Zcmo, the retiiainder in
pine and spnirc forc«t (Canadian).
0500 to 12.')(K)ft.

LanderJ i.s 15 to .'W mi. N.i:.; for most
of area**, nearest P. (>. is (a) (h) Lander;
for S.IO. section, Atlantic City, 30 mi.,
S. of Lander.

*B{g Horn Slate Game Prcncrve. (\2\
H2; 1«; C3.) About 900,000 acrra.
Comprises the whole of the BIr Horn
National Forest, except a strip 4 mi.
wide along the eastern border, and a
strip 3 mi. wide on the western border
from the Montana line to a point 14 mi.
north of the 13th standard parallel.
Mountain coniferous forest, rugged
hills, open, sage-brush or grassy, slopes.
Headwaters of Little Big Horn River
and of numerous small streams emptying
into Bighorn, Powder and Tongue
Rivers. Traversed by the Big Horn
Mountains, chiefly in pine-spruce forest
belt; crest of range largely in subalpine
belt, but considerable area toward
southern end above timl:>er line. G500
to 13,000 ft.

Eastern slope reached best from
SheridanJ (20 mi.) or BuffaloJ (15 mi.);
western slope reached from WorlandJ
(35 mi.), Manderson (30 mi.), GreybullJ
(30 mi.), or Kane (18 mi.). Nearest
postoffice, Eaton's Ranch, Buffalo, Ten-
sleep, Hyattsville, Shell and Kane.
Worland-ButTalo road crosses southern
end. Remote regions accessible only
by pack-horse**. In Sheridan, Johnson,
Hig Horn and Wiushakic counties, W\.i

*Da!/s h'ivcr Stale Game Prt
(A2; C3.) .\ri irregular tract inchuiinR
SO, (MM) acres or more; boU!>ded by the
Snake River, l»y the boundary iK'Uvecn
(he Teton and Wyoming National
Forests, by the Little John Day.s ami
.John Days rivers, and by the w«>.«<iern
hoiiiidary of the Wyoming N«ti«inal
Forest. .Mi within the Wyoming
National Fore.st. Mountain <■ i.h

forest, sagebrush, grassland; .• •<

536

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

rugged hills and low mountains, and one
side of the Grand Canyon of the Snake
River. Embraces types of vegetation
from grassland and sagebrush through
coniferous forest to timber line. 6000
to 10,000 ft.

AftonJ, about 40 mi. north by pack-
horse to preserve**. Or, Jackson|,
about 25 south by pack-horse**. Lin-
coln County, Wyo.

(This preserve should be extended
about 45 mi. southward to include all
the drainage basin and watershed of the
John Days River; this would add about
380,000 acres, including some lakes;
none of this proposed region is suitable
for agriculture.)

*Wind River State Game Preserve.
(B3; C3.) 2920 acres. Lying chiefly
within the Shoshone Indian reservation.
This area is 3^ mi. long, If to IJ mi.
wide, and embraces the most important
portion of the Wind River Canyon. A
narrow gorge, traversed by the Burling-
ton R. R., with semi-desert grassland
and sagebrush (Upper Sonoran); the
precipices on either side merge into high
rolling, arid hills with sagebrush, scat-
tered conifers (Transition). 5000 to
6500 ft.

ThermopolisI, the nearest (a) and (w)
P. O. is 15 mi. north; from nearest R. R.
station, (w) Dornick, | mi. south.

*Careyhurst State Game Preserve. (B3;
C3; D4.) 70,400 acres, embracing all of
Converse County in Township 33 N.,
Range 74, 75, 76 W. together with sec-
tions 7 and 18 in Township 33 N., Range
73 W. North border includes flood plain
of North Platte River; undulating hills,
desert grassland, yucca, sagebrush,
rabbit brush; traversed by two small
streams which have sources in low moun-
tains farther southwest. Antelope, jack-
rabbit, prairie-dog, sage-hens. 5000 to
6000 ft.

Glenrockt, also Careyhurst, at north-
ern border; C. & N. W. R. R. ; (a) and (h).
Converse County, Wyo.

*Bridgcr State Game Preserve. (A3;
B2; B3; C3.) About 98,000 acres, in-
cluding all of the Bridger National

Forest in Lincoln County; located
principally in Townships 37, 38 and 39 N.
and Ranges 111 and 112 W. Includes
slopes from eastern end of Gros Ventre
Range and small streams leading into
upper Green River. Mountain conifer-
ous forest, sagebrush, grassland; rolling,
hilly with mixed forest and open
country. All types from sagebrush,
through coniferous forest to alpine
meadows represented. 7000 to 12,000 ft.

Pinedalel may be reached by auto
stage from Rock Springs, 102 mi. north;
40 mi. N.W. to nearest P. O. (a) Kendall,
which is about 5 mi. from southern border
of preserve**.

*Kendall State Game Preserve. (A4;
C3.) About 150,000 acres. Bounded
by the north boundary of Township 13 N.
by the eastern boundary of Range 105 W.,
by the Wyoming state line, and by the
western boundary of Range 108 W.,
traversed by the Green River; eastern
end includes high hills or mountains that
rise to about 9000 ft. Yucca, sagebrush,
coniferous forest. 5500 to near 9000 ft.

May be reached** by wagon or auto
(?) from Green River| or from Rock
Springsl, Wyo., 30 to 35 mi. north.
Sweetwater County, Wyo.

*Splitrock Special Game Animal Pre-
serve. (A3; A4; B3; C3.) 3,800,000
acres. Bounded by the right of way of
the Chicago and N. Western Ry., the
North Platte R., the 6th Standard Paral-
lel N., the 12th Guide Meridian West,
Beaver Creek and the Popo Agie River.
Extensive barren, arid and sandy plains;
soil frequently alkaline, desert shrub-
bery and vegetation; several low ranges
of mountains, with barren or sagebrush
southern slopes, but with coniferous
forest on top and on northern slopes;
sagebrush, rabbit brush, yucca, cactus,
Cottonwood and willow; huge, bare
granite domes, or ledges; ravines,
canyons. Bordered in part by narrow
flood plains of Popo Agie and N. Platte
Rivers. Drainage chiefly by small
creeks; traversed by Sweetwater River;
no perennial streams; large artificial
lake above Pathfinder dam in N. Platte

NATURAL ARKAS AND IlIOCilONS

:>37

River, Pathfinder Bird Reservation \v:i3
located here, favorable to ncstinR and mi-
gratory birds. ShoiiKl be re-establislie.l.

Principal stations accessible on C. it
X. W. R. R. are Caspor|, Powder Riverjl,
Shoshonil, and Rivertonf. Rawlinst
on U. P. R. R., 22 mi. S. Auto roads
traverse in part, Casper to Riverton,
Rawlins to Casper, Rawlins to Riverton;
(a) and (h), camp outfit necessary for
remote regions. Fremont, Natrona,
Carbon and Sweetwater counties, Wyo.

*Big Horn Hot Springs State Preserve.
(B3; B4.) 6-10 acres. Located just
east and adjoining the town of Thermo])-
olis and includes the Big Horn Hot
Springs. Under complete control of the
State Board of Charities and Reforms.
Free bath house and free camping
grounds maintained by the state on the
Preserve. A part of the water is leased
or rented to private bath houses. Good
hotels, apartment houses, amusement
parks, swimming pools, tennis courts,
and dance pavilions are on the grounds.
Tourists find this an almost ideal stop-
ping point on the Yellowstone Highwa}\
The town of (w) Thermopolis+ also main-
tains a free camping site. For further
information address Sui)erintendent, Big
Horn Hot Springs Preserve, Hot Springs,
County, Wyo.

^Saratoga Hot Springs Preserve. (B4;
C3.) 420 acres, more or less. A tract
containing hot medicinal and mineral
springs recently purchased by the State
of Wyoming and "forever set aside for
the treatment and care of diseases and
for sanitary, charitable, and such other
purposes as shall be from time to time
determined by the Board" (of Charities
and Reforms).

Near (w) SaratogaJ, located on the
Saratoga and Encampment R. R.,
Carbon County, Wyo.

El'c Refuge. An area of 2760 acres in
Teton Co. Protects elk in winter, ducks
and sage grouse. Fstablished 1915.

Flat Creek Refuge. An area of 40
acres established in 1922 for proteclion
of waterfowl.

Five additional State Refuges have
been created in recent years.

6. MONTANA
BvM.J.Kutou

I. QKN'EBAL COVDITION8

The state of Montana includcM ap-
proximately 117,(XK) M(). mi. It may Iks
• livided into three ' *!io

western or mount:i; t-

ern or plains area, continuous with the
Dakotas; and the central and much
lirokcn .section, containing many small
mountain ranges, connecting tlie plainH
region with the main range of the Rocky
Mountains.

Tiic western part, approximately one-
third of the area, contains the most of
the forested portion. The eastern part
is i)rairie, except for narro ' '* ' ng
the water courses, and occ dl

areas of scattered coniferous trees in
the highlands. No hardwoods occur
except a few scattered scrub oak (Qucr-
cus macrocarpa) along the Missouri
near the Dakota line. Small ;ish trees
occur quite generally along the streams
flowing toward the tributaries of the
Missouri. The extensive forests are
coniferous, with occasional stands of
Cottonwood, aspen and alder.

The higher summits aro in the section
adjacent to the Yellowstone National
Park. A few summits northward rise
slightly above 10,000 ft.; many reach
9000, and hundreds rise 8000 ft. Snow
banks and glaciers continue from year
to year in the higher ranges tl " ut

the state. Glacier National 1 . n-

tains the largest number in a rather
limited area, many of comparatively
easy access. Summits are numerous
but generally of small extent. There
are exposed, treeless, and generally dry
and comparatively lifeless mountain
faces and broken talus, sloj-tcs.

Inchuled in tlie state's large aren arc
rivers and creeks both turbulent in the
west ami slower and ni ' '
There are few lakes on :..■. ,
Medicine Lake in the extreme
is little but a niarsh. Bo
Pliiili|)s county in the ' i

shallow depression in ■ . t-

538

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

head Lake in the northwest covers 190
sq. mi. There are hundreds of mountain
lakes covering areas from a few acres
to many sq. mi.

II. ORIGINAL BIOTA

1. Forests region

The Northern Coniferous Forest
(Canadian and Hudsonian Zones of
Merriam) includes the larger portion of
the western forested area.

It is dense on the slopes of the western
mountains, the timber line at about
9500 in the south, 6000 to 7000 ft. in the
north with alpine slopes and meadows,
or snow banks, above this elevation.
The central portion may be included in
the arid Coniferous Forest, the moun-
tain slopes, small ranges, and foothills
having dry climate and scant forest.

a. Montane and suhal-pine forest. The
number of species of animals is relatively
large in view of the fact that coniferous
forests in general have little animal life.
One may travel for a day in almost silent
dense woods where the sun scarcely
reaches the earth.

The montane forests are inhabited by
the grizzly bear {Ursus sp.), black bear,
marten {Martes americana abietinoides),
weasel (Mustela sp.), striped skunk
{Mephitis hudsonica), chipmunk {Euta-
mias sp.), pine squirrel, flying-squirrel
{Glaucomys sabrinus subspp.), sagebrush
deer-mouse, wood-rat (Neotoma cinerea
subspp.), bog-lemming {Phenacomys oro-
philus), red-backed vole {Evotomys ida-
hoensis), Merriam vole {Microtus m.
mordax), Rocky Mountain jumping-
mouse {Zapus p. princeps), snowshoe
hare {Lepus b. bairdii), and deer. —
L. R. D.

The subalpine forest region is the
habitat of the navigator shrew {Neosorex
n. navigator) , grizzly bear, hoary marmot
{Marmota caligata nivaria), Columbian
ground-squirrel, chipmunk {Eutamia
sp.), sagebrush deer-mouse, red-backed
vole, pika {Ochotona princeps subspp.),
snowshoe hare, deer, bighorn sheep
{Ovis c. canadensis), and Rocky Moun-

tain goat {Oreamnos montanus mis-
soulae). — L. R. D.

b. Arid Coniferous Forest. In the
yellow pine forests occur the black bear
{Ursus americanus), coyote {Canis sp.),
cougar {Felis oregonensis hippolestes),
yellow-bellied marmot {Marmota jlavi-
ventris nosophora), Columbian ground-
squirrel, chipmunk {Eutamias sp.), pine
squirrel {Sciurus hudsonicus richard-
sonii), sagebrush deer-mouse, and deer
{Odocoileus sp.). — L. R. D.

2. Alpine tundra

For list of plants see British Co-
lumbia account (page 150).

The alpine summits have apparently
few characteristic mammals, but the
hoary marmot, pika, deer, bighorn
sheep, and Rocky Mountain goat live
close to timberline or at times wander
above it. — L. R. D.

S. The grassland

The grassland characteristic of the
Great Plains extends far into the state
on the east and southeast.

Mammals. In the mixed prairie of
eastern Montana are presumed to have
occurred originally such mammals as the
weasel {Mustela sp.), badger {Taxidea
taxus subsp.), coyote {Canis n. nebra-
scensis), gray wolf {Canis nubihis),
striped ground-squirrel {Citellus iride-
cemlineatus pallidus), prairie dog {Cyno-
mys I. ludovicianus) , sage pocket-gopher
{Thomomys talpoides bullatus), pocket-
mouse {Perognathus sp.), Osgood deer-
mouse {Peromyscus Tnaniculatus osgoodi),
white-tailed jackrabbit {Lepus toivn-
sendii campanius), cottontail rabbits
{Sylvilagus nuttallii grangeri and *S'.
audubonii baileiji). The bison {Bison
b. bison), formerly abundant, is now
extinct in the wild state.

The bunchgrass prairies of western
Montana are known to be the home of
the coyote {Canis lestes), Columbian
ground-squirrel {Citellus c. columbianus)
brown pocket-gopher {Thomomys fuscus
fuscus), sagebrush deer-mouse {Pero-
myscus maniculaius artemisiae), gray

NATURAL ARMAS AXD REGIONS

530

vole {Microlus cancsccns), and wliitc-
tailed jackrabbit.

III. PRESENT BIOTA

In the National Forests and Parks
(see page 214) much of the timber is as
yet untouched, except by fire. Plants
and animals here live as they have lived
for ages past, scarcely influenced by
man, except where sought as game or
for sport.

The pronghorn antelope, grizzly bear,
bighorn sheep, deer, moose, and elk,
have been driven to the fastnesses of the
hills. The antelope is nearly gone, and
may be saved only by heroic efforts.
The bison, once roaming the plains in
millions, is gone. The National Bison
range in the west has some 700 head,
fenced in a 20,000 acre range. The
grizzly bear and bighorn sheep, seen by
Lewis and Clark along the Missouri
near Dakota, now live a precarious life
among the highest and most difficult
mountains. Beaver are to be found in
localities near the mountains and in
the parks. Wolves are confined to the
northern woods. The same thing iias
happened to game birds. Rapid settle-
ment along the rivers and water courses
has depleted their numbers until "rare"
may now be written where formerly
"abundant" would be applicable. The
sage hen and prairie hen are rare. Their
range has been turned by the plow, and
flax or grain has replaced the sage. In
1900 there were few ]<:nglish sparrows in
the state ; now they are in nearly every
town. Mississippi river fish ascend
the Missouri to the Great Falls, and u])
the Yellowstone to the falls. Above
these are only a few landlocked or
introduced species. In the Pacific
drainage migration is prohilnted by
falls in Clark Fork river in Idaho near
the Montana line. About a dozen
landlocked native species remain in
the headwaters.

All of these higher summits support
an alpine fauna and flora. On these
mountain summits, natural conditions
are unaffected by man except where

Hhccp and caltlo nre Krazod. Many are
in primitive or natural state.

I'rpcipitation in the utato varieM
cxccediiiKly in difTcrcnl loralilioH, nixl
is, of courHc, heaviest in the niuuntains.
Here most of the atrcains have their
origin. Litth* pollution iin« occiirrcil
except in Htrcamu l)clow mines and
smelters, or as a result of natural wash
sediment. The hcaclwaters of the Mis-
souri are generally clear an<i ruHhinK,
the lower |)ortion riiu<idy. 'l"lic- nume
is true of the Yellowstone which rises
in the higher portions of the Yellow-
stone National I'ark. The debris from
the mines of Butte and the tuilin^^ from
the smelter at Anaconda have badly
polluted the streams of that .srction,
forming part of the headwaters of
Clark Fork. The smelter at Kast
Helena on a tributary of the Missouri,
and the one at CJreat Falls, on the bank
of the same river, the coal field.** of Belt,
Stockett, Roundup, and Red Ix)dge, all
turn more or less undesirable material
into the streams. A thin iKJpulation,
with no large cities, makes human
pollution of the waters much less than
that in most states. In general, waters
of the main streams are more or less
polluted, while the headwaters in the
mountains are quite free. None or few
of the waters of the National forests
are polluted and one may drink freely
from any of the thousands of small
streams.

IV. NATURAL AREAS

Eighteen National Forests are in-
cluiled in the state of .Montana. In
addition to the National Forests anil
Parks, with their millions of acres and
thousand of areas yet in natural con-
dition, a number of a»lditional areas
have been set apart or will be |>erma-
nently preserveil. — M. J. E.

'Glacier .Xndonul l\irk. (A2.) This
park is located in the northwestern
part of .Montana, embracinfc the main
range of the Rocky .Mountains, from
the Canadian 1! '' 'h and

east, including "f the

east face and the timbered area of the

640

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

western ridges. Its area of about
1450 sq. mi. embraces 250 lakes of various
sizes, 80 glaciers, from a few acres to
several sq. mi. in area; the South Fork of
Flathead River on the west and the
middle Fork on the south, many large
creeks and small rushing streams. The
elevations are from 3144 ft. at Lake
McDonald on the west and 4472 ft. at
St. Mary Lake on the east to the summit
of Mt. Cleveland, 10,438 ft. The lakes
are from a few feet in depth to 387,
Lake McDonald, and 244, Lake Ellen
Wilson. The vegetation includes moun-
tain prairies and coniferous forests,
alpine meadows, steppes, deciduous
softwood forest, with local communities
of swamps, bogs, ponds, lakes, rivers,
mountains, ravines and canyons, bluffs,
and cliffs, rocks and glacial deposits.
A great opportunity will always be
offered here for study of a variety of
animal and plant communities from
hydrophytic to xerophytic, and from
plains to alpine mountain summits.

There are both pure and mixed stands
of timber: including yellow, western
white, lodgepole, white-bark, and timber
pines {Pinus ponderosa, P. monticola,
P. murrayana, P. albiculis, P. flexilis)
Engelmann spruce {Picea Engelmanni),
Douglas fir {Pseudotsuga mucronata),
western hemlock (Tsugaheterophylla),
Lyall's larch {Larix lyallii), western
tamarack {Larix occidentalis), western
red cedar {Thuya plicata), cottonwood
{Populus Irichocarpa) and aspen (P.
tremuloides) . Nearly a thousand species
of flowering plants occur in the Park
limits, according to Standley. This
systematic study completed, the work
of the ecologist is facilitated. The
same is true of the mammals and birds.
Mrs. Bailey has listed the latter, Mr.
Bailey the former. 186 species of birds
and 60 of mammals have been recorded.
All other fields are open. The mam-
mals include bighorn sheep, goat,
moose, elk, white-tailed and mule deer,
pine squirrel, flying-squirrel, three spe-
cies of chipmunks, three of ground
squirrels, hoary marmot and brown
woodchuck, woodrat, mice, muskrat,

beaver, porcupine, two species of pocket-
gophers, two of rabbits, cougar, Canada
lynx, bob-cat, gray wolf, coyote, red fox,
otter, mink, fisher, weasels, marten,
skunk, badger, brown and grizzly bears,
three species of shrews, and four of bats.

Of the mountains, Cleveland, Stimp-
son, Kintla, Jackson and Siyeh rise
above 10,000 ft. Triple Divide Peak
is the only mountain on the continent
sending water to three oceans. There
are many mountains above 9000 ft.,
many even unnamed, and hundreds of
square miles of unexplored territory.
The Lewis overtrust, extending beyond
the Park limits north and south, the
chief cause of the Park's scenery, has
brought about remarkable geological
results which have greatly modified
and influenced the biota. Some of the
glaciers are quite accessible, affording
opportunity for study of adjacent life,
and of their effect on growth and
distribution.

Trails lead to every section, from
which those who know mountains may
go to the highest or remotest sections.
None of the streams are polluted. In
summer, headquarters may be made at
the park hotels and chalets, although a
camp outfit is quite desirable if not
essential for remoter parts.

Belton (the Park Line is just across the
river), 2^ mi. to Lake McDonald (a)
or (W) N., 8 mi. further to Glacier
hotel 11 (boat), 8 mi. additional to
Sperry glacier (w) or (h) E.; Glacier
Park, 10 mi. to Two Medicine (a) or
(w), 30 mi. to St. Mary, (a), 55 mi.
to Many Glacier (a) . Additional chalets
"easily accessible."

Indian Reservations. Crow Reserva-
tion (B3.), 5475 sq. mi. in Yellowstone
and Bighorn Counties. (See reference
to Custer Battlefield Military Reser-
vation.)

North Cheyenne Reservation (B3.),
765 sq. mi. in Rosebud and Bighorn
counties. This and the preceding in-
clude large stretches of the Great Plains
of the southeastern portion of the state
which are as yet uninfluenced by
farming.

NATURAL AltEAfc) AAD UI^JGIONS

Ml

Fort Belknap Reservation (B3.), 840
sq. mi., in Blaine and Phillips counties,
between the Milk River and the Little
Rockies. See "Isolated Forest." This
reservation is in the northern portion,
near the Canadian border, and in the
prairie and plains country.

Blackfeet Reservation (B3.), occupy-
ing large part of Glacier County and
small part of Bondera County. It is
just east of Glacier National Park,
which was formerly a part of the reser-
vation. It covers about 2000 sq. mi.
and contains many plant and animal,
associational regions, water, swamp,
prairie, aspen forest, coniferous forest,
glacial areas, mountains, and upland.
The western border line runs between
Upper and Lower St. Alary lakes, and
about three-fourths of the Glacier Park-
McDermott Lake road of 55 mi. i.s in
this reservation. See Glacier Park.

Fori Keugh Military Reserve. (B3.)
Extending for 3 mi. from the Yellow-
stone river to the bluffs, from the Tongue
River at Miles City to the fort buildings.
About 3 sq. mi., level prairie, partly
in hay, mostly unaffected except for
grazing. Patches of old cottonwood
trees, a fringe of river vegetation, semi-
arid and alkaline sections with cor-
responding growth. Typical of the
river bottom flora and fauna.

Miles Cityl, across Tongue River (w),
and 3 mi. south.— M. J. E.

Fort Missoula Military Reservation^.
(B3.) Located on the bank of the
Bitterroot River. About one sq. mi.
of level prairie, with the usual fringe of
brush and trees along the river. Vege-
tation of the reservation is chiefly
spring bulbous and root species, with
summer grasses. National reservation,
fenced. River almost unpolluted, flows
about a thousand second feet at low
water. 3200 ft.

Missoulat, 4 mi. southwest, Missoula
Electric— M. J. E.

*Bigholc Ballleficld Monument. (B3.)
On the headwaters of the Bigholc river.
This Monument is a few mi. from Wis-
dom|, on the western Park to Park
highway, and is typical of large conifer-

ous arca.s of the e.'tHtorn or Gulf driiinaKC
near tiie coritincntiil iJivid<

'Natural Ctwr. (H2.) Ixjculed in the
limestone clifTH and liiili) nlong the
JelTer.s(»n river. About 40 ucrcM, with
vegetation of limestone cliffs and ra-
vines. Cave willi remarkable hIjiIiik-
niitcs and slaiactitca, lift- '!<■• -.f.. lii-d.
Federal |)re.serve.

Wliitchallt, 5 mi. east, north Hide of
river (a).— .U. J. E.

*Cuslfr lialtlrfivid Military Reserva-
tion. (J{3.) Located at the top of the
bluffs of the Little I'.igt.orn river, wliere
the battle was f(jught in 1870. This
square mile of military reservation,
besides forming the military cemeterj'
for the dead of this battle, retains
untouched and unaffected a small por-
tion of the characteristic flora of the
plains region, as well us a few of the
mammals and invertebrates. Rolling
prairie, 500 ft. above the Little Bighorn
valley, continuous with the great tree-
less plains e.vtending into Wyoming.

Crow Agency;, 2 mi. S.E. (a) or (w). —
M. J. E.

*\Villow Creek Bird Reservation. (B3.)
Near Augustat, Montana. About one
sq. mi., level, gr:issy, marsiiy, for
protection of shore and marsh birds. —
M. J. E.

*Pislikun Bird Reservation. (Ii3.)
About half way between AugustaJ
and ChoteauJ, and 5 or G mi. west of the
main road. A few sq. mi. of marshy
land on the level border of the Sun
river, and on the opposite (north) side
of the river from the Willow Creek
bird jireserve. — M. J. E.

*Bird Islands. (03.) In Flathead
Lake. About 10 acres, comprising two
small islands, forming the Flathead
Lake Bird Reserve. Mountain forma-
tion and vegetation, rock shore and
ledges with coarse gravel Ijcnoh.
Twenty to 30 s|)ccie.s of song birds m-st
on the island: wiM geese formerly
nested in large numbers ; sandpipers, and
golden-eye now present. Scattering
western yellow pine, nouglas fir, and
cedar comprise the Hcant forest. Main
land half mile away, 20 acre island clone

542

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

by. Main lake, to 50 ft. depth, all
around. Lake fauna same as given for
Shore Plain at Biological Station and
other places. Lake, 2900 ft.; highest
island point 50 ft. above lake. State
preserve, shooting prohibited.

Polsont, 9 mi. northeast by boat.—
M. J. E.

*Montana National Bison Range.
(B2.) In western Montana, along the
Northern Pacific railroad between Ra-
valli and Dixon. Nearly 20,000 acres,
including several mi. of Post creek,
about one mi. of the Jocko river, with
a mountain in the center about 2500 ft.
above the river, or 5000 ft. above sea
level; open prairie and mountain sides,
and thinly timbered areas, with rock
slides and cliffs, ravines, wind swept
and exposed ridges, and with disap-
pearing small streams heading in springs.
Forests of western yellow pine and
Douglas fir, scant undergrowth of
shrubbery. Fully described in Senate
Report No. 467 and Report American
Bison Society, 1908. Range established
by Congress in May, 1908. Fenced
as a preserve. The 37 bison placed in
the range have increased to 460 in 1923,
with 325 elk, several hundred deer, 14
Rocky mountain goats, and several
species of game birds. Mesophytic to
xerophj'tic conditions. Jocko river
flows about 600 sec. ft., contains several
species of fish, and is unpolluted. Post
creek heads in the Mission mountains
20 mi. distant and is little polluted.
The mountains and valleys are greatly
modified by glacial action. There are
alkaline areas.

Ravallil, | mi. N. (w) or (h); Dixon|,
one mi. E. (w) or (h).— M. /. E.

*Lake Shore Plain Forest. (B2.) This
comprises part of the ground of the
University of Montana Biological Sta-
tion on the east shore of Flathead Lake.
About 90 acres with IJ mi. of lake shore;
glacial and lake gravel fioor, with forest
of yellow pine, Douglas fir, Engelmann
spruce, western tamarack (larch), low-
land fir {Abies grandis), birch, alder, and
occasional cottonwood and western
white pine, with characteristic under-

growth and forest floor litter; shows
succession of forest, young trees to those
some 400 years old. A shore prominence
rises 150 ft., with young growth. No
cuttings, except around Station build-
ings, have yet been made. Some an-
nuals and perennials, little or no grass.
A small swift creek, with hard water,
flows through one corner. A large
spring flows from an old creek bed.
Typical mesophytic forest; general as-
pect, of large areas of lake bordered
forest. The fauna includes the pine
squirrel, chipmunk, weasel, flying squir-
rel, mountain woodrat, bats, mice,
with incursions from the adjacent forest
of bear, deer, coyote, and others; many
song birds, the pheasant and blue grouse,
Richardson's grouse, and many species
of tree loving birds. The lake here
forms Yellow Bay, to depth of 150 ft.
West of the area the main lake goes down
quickly to 290 ft. Lake fauna includes
the native and introduced fishes, per-
manent and migrating water birds, and
interesting plankton. Beach 50 to 100
ft. wide, sandy to gravelly and rocky.
Lake rising 9 to 17 ft. during spring
high water.

Lake level 2900 ft. Lake little pol-
luted. State preserve, shooting pro-
hibited. PolsonJ, 16 mi. northeast by
boat, or 21 mi. by automobile; SomersJ,
20 mi. by boat, or 24 mi. (a) southwest. —
M. J. E.

*Open Island Forest. (B2.) On Idle-
wilde Island in Flathead Lake. 34
acres, belonging to the University of
Montana Biological Station. The open
woods consist of western yellow pine,
Douglas (red) fir, cedar and cotton-
wood; mesophytic forest, general aspect
of large areas of western mountain
woods. Shore rocky and coarse gravel.
Lake deep to shallow, little polluted.
Nearly level, a few feet above lake.
State preserve, shooting prohibited.

Poison}, 6 mi. north by boat. — M. J. E.

Open Yelloio Pine Forest and Prairie.
(B2.) On Wild Horse Island in Flathead
Lake. 36 acres on the lake shore, facing
north; typical open forest of young to
mature trees, with shore border of cedar

NATURAL ARKAS AND UKGIONS

648

and scattered cottonwood and Douplna
fir. Forest merges into grassv mountain
slope, typical merginp; of mcsophvtic into
xerophytic in short distance, (loncral as-
pect characteristic of forested plain adja-
cent to treeless mountain side in Mon-
tana. Fauna includes pine squirrel, and
chipmunk. The lake was wide, coars(>ly
graveled beach. Water rises in May and
June from 9 to 17 ft., receding in summer
to low level in late August. Lake 50-
70 ft. deep, clear, little polluted. Lake
fauna includes a dozen species of fish,
entomostraca, protozoa, and other
plankton 2900 ft., level, rising in three
directions. State preserve, shooting
prohibited.

Poison J, 20 mi. northwest, auto-stage
line to Dayton, and two mi. by boat, or
18 mi_. by boat from Poison. " Somerst,
25 mi. southwest, auto-stage line to
Dayton, and two mi. by boat, or 20 mi.
by boat from Somers Montana. — M.J .E.

Flathead River Islands.']' (B2.) In the
river between Poison and Dixon. Ten
islands, comprising about 2000 acres,
mostly flood area, largelj' of deciduous
forest, mountainous vegetation, trees
mainly cotton wood. These islands and
the river adjacent are great resting
places for migrant water birds, are the
home for many native birds, and exhibit
flood-plain development in various
stages from early to mature. They
should be made a permanent preserv^e.
Flathead river, also called Pend d'-
Oreille, is the outlet of Flathead Lake,
has much beautiful scenery is swift,
little polluted, with the fish and in-
vertebrates of the lake. About 2G00 ft.

Dixon** 5 to 15 mi. N. (a) or (h).—
M. J. E.

*Isolaied Forest**. (B2.) In the Jef-
ferson National Forest, also in the Fort
Belknap Indian Reservation. About
CO sq. mi., with deciduous and conifer-
ous forest, mountainous vegetation, and
vegetation of talus slopes and gravel
slides, glacial topography with moun-
tainous formation, the Little Rocky
Mountains. Isolated mountains near
the Missouri river, but reached from
MaltaJ, DodsonI, or HarlemJ. Valu-
able as showing tree growth in a semi-
arid section, removed from other moun-
tain ranges or groups. Springs and
creeks. Headquarters may be made at
Zortman or Landusky.

MaltaJ, Harlemt, DodsonJ, on the
G. N. Ry., 50 to 60 mi. S.W. (a).—
F. A. Cobb.

*I'itfilo firsrrvnir Site^ . On former
I'l.ithead Indiiin RoHcrvdtion ncrvr Pol-
son, Mont. Alxjut 3000 ncrca, level
plain, prairie, partly filled with storogo
wafer several ft. deep, from rW-ar and
unpolluted RtroamH from the nearby
Mission Mountains. BrecdinR jilncc for
water birds, resting place for miRrnnti).
I'enced, used only for storaRc nitc.
About 3200 ft. Glacial formation.

PolsonJ, two mi. Kouth, over and
lieyond a morainal hill 4.7) ft. above
Flathead lake (a) or {h).—M. J. E.

Nine-Pipe Reservoir Site. In the
former Flathead Indian Reservation
near Ronan, Montana. Alx»ut 2000
acres of former level plain prairie, in
part covered with water, a permanent
water reservoir, a great resting place
for migratory birds ami breeding range
for water fowl, with aquatic vegetation
and natural prairie adjacent to the
water. Water several feet deep, from
clear mountain streams, fdling in spring,
lowering in summer. About 3000 ft.;
level.

RonanJ, about 5 mi. S. (a); RavalliJ,
past St. Ignatius G mi., then about 12
mi. N. (a).—M. J. E.

Soidhforh Rangcl fB2.) A short
spur from the main range of the Rocky
Mountains, containing large glaciers,
tremendous cliffs several summits 9500
ft. elevation across the .Middlefork river
from Glacier National Park. About :VM
sq. mi. almost wholly mountains, of the
same general character as (Uacicr Park:
glaciers, lakes, waterfalls, clifTs, ami
general coloring effect as beautiful,
striking, and interesting as that of the
Park; should be ad<led to the Park.
Approach from the west side, from South
fork river is through dense forests of
untouched coniferous timber with pro-
tected stands of large and niature tama-
rack I western larclO v.; >«,
andupaL'DOdft. talus t- ^t,
or up almost vertical rliiis of .iOtXi ft.
Approach from the c-' f--""' ''r.at
Northern railwav and ^ r
is Jiast Stanton lake, uji a i
with vew, along exposed at s
to extensive snow and ire lieKi with
alpine meadows and lake.-*. There is
much glaciated cotintry: talus h'

canyons, ravines, lak- ' *" f-;

streams are common. ' ''■

faces north and is n large Ucia. ^'a the

544

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

northeastern face is a long and wide
field of snow and ice. Both are unex-
plored.

As yet there are no trails, hence travel
is of exploratory nature, on foot or on
horseback, carrying all necessities.
Moose, elk, deer, bighorn sheep and.
Rocky Mountain goats, black and
grizzly bear, beaver, and smaller ani-
mals, are common. Both sides of the
ranges and all ravines well timbered.
Vegetation doubtless similar to that of
Glacier Park, of which the region is a
continuation. Drainage is entirely into
the Pacific. Extremes of elevation, val-
leys to summits, about 7000 ft. All
life communities from aquatic to semi-
arid, from prairie to timber, and lowland
to alpine, may be had within short dis-
tances. Ideal unexplored and almost
unknown country.

Nyackll, on the Great Northern Rail-
way, back track about 5 mi. to first
bridge, up ravine to Stanton lake, up
southern ridge as far as desired; Coram ||,
about 15 mi. south (a), then eastward
toward the high summits as one may con-
jecture.**

*Little St. Joe Game Preserve. In
Mineral County, between the Missoula
and St. Regis rivers and the Bitter Root
mountains. Between 150 and 200 sq.
mi., mountainous, with coniferous for-
ests, unpolluted streams, and unmodi-
fied. Set aside in 1923 as a state game
and bird preserve. Best reached from
St. Regis §.—M. /. E.

*River Valley and Deciduous Forest.
(B2.) Along the Rattlesnake creek.
About 25 acres, called Greenough Park,
on both sides of the creek; typical of
mountain ravine — -plains forest of Cot-
tonwood, alder, birch, and pine — shows
middle age to mature stage, and chang-
ing. Forest with characteristic under-
growth, young to mature trees. Normal
boulder-strewn swift stream, little pol-
luted, 10 to 20 ft. wide, i to 5 ft. deep,
depending on season. The fauna in-
cludes pine squirrel, chipmunk, and
many species of nesting birds. 3235
ft., level.

Missoula J, ^ mi. N.E {w).—M. J. E.

*Spotted Bear Game Preserve. In
parts of Powell and Flathead counties,
between the Southfork of Flathead
river and the main range of the Rockies.
Several hundred sq. mi. with Spotted
Bear creek as northern boundary; set
apart in 1923 as a state game and bird

preserve; reached from Missoula§, about
10 mi. N.W. ; coniferous forests, moun-
tains above 9500, rushing streams, open
prairies. — M. J. E.

Wolf Creek Game Preserve. In Lincoln
County. Two townships at the head-
waters of Wolf creek, in the Kootenai
river drainage; mountains, with forests;
reached from Libby§, about 40 or 50
mi. E., or from Jennings§, over the
mountains some 20 mi.; coniferous
forests, open glades, rushing streams.
Set apart in 1923 as a state game
preserve.

*Snow Creek State Game Preserve.
In bad lands, or breaks, bordering the
Missouri river on south bank, and ex-
tending back from 10 to 15 mi. About
300 sq. mi., containing deciduous forest,
coniferous forest, semi-desert and arid
vegetation, with sand areas, talus slopes,
gravel slides, ravines, canyons, hills
and bluffs, and much glacial soil. Valu-
able, aside from a game preserve mainly
for deer, for its tree growth of coniferous
and deciduous forests, in semi-arid
section. Eastern limits of Douglas
fir. Generally below the prairie level,
from 50 to 250 ft. Townships 20, 21,
22, Ranges, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, E. Mont,
Merid.

Miles Cityt, 92 mi. N.W. (a); JordanJ
12 to 25 mi. N.W. (a).— F. B. Cobb.

7. NORTH DAKOTA

By J. T. Sarvis and J. E. Switzer

I. GENERAL CONDITIONS (j. E. S.)

North Dakota is located near the
center of the North American Con-
tinent, in the grass land of the great
central lowland between latitudes 45°
56' and 49° N.

1. Topography

The state is characterized by the low
level Lake Agassiz plain in the eastern
part, bordered by a gently rolling prairie
belt stretching to the westward which is
crossed by occasional morainic belts

NATURAL ARKAS AND RKGIONS

M5

of hills, dotted by many lakes, and
gashed by a few deep valleys. Yet
farther to the westward the land rises
abruptly to the Missouri Plateau,
crowned near its eastward marfiin by
the Coteaus of the Missouri. On the
northern boundary, about midway of
the state, is an old "outlier" of the
Plateau, separated from it by the Lake
Souris plain, known as the Turtle Moun-
tains. At the base of the western slope
of the Coteaus and following their
general course is the broad valley of the
Missouri. It is joined from the west
by the valleys of the Little Missouri,
Knife, Heart and Cannon liaW rivers.
The general topography west of the
Missouri River is a combination of
broad valleys, gentle slopes, and abrupt
buttes. Along the Little Missouri
River, extending from 10 to 15 mi. on
either side is the well known Bad Lands,
but these give way again to the more
gentle slope and butte topography
before the western boundary of the state
is reached.

3. Climate

Because of its latitude and continental
location the temperatures of North
Dakota are very extreme. Summer
temperatures of 100°F. are experienced,
and winter temperatures of — 40°F.
may be expected each j'ear. Long
periods in which the temperature reaches
several degrees below zero each night
are common. The summers are char-
acterized by warm days and cool nights.
Winter passes quickly into summer with
little interim of spring. Rainfall varies
from about 12 in. for the mean annual
in the western part of the state to
slightly more than 20 in. in the south-
eastern part. The precipitation is dom-
inantly of the summer type. During
the spring months, the corresponding
figures are 6 and 10 in. respectively.
The season normally free from frost
varies from a little under 110 days to a
little more than 120 days. The snowfall
reaches about 30 in. and occasionally
comes in the form of the disagreeable
"Blizzard."

."J. 'J'hr orif/inal binln

North Dakota lies in the general dry
gras.'^K'UKl aroa and liiw hut little diver-
sity ill vegetation. However, difTercnt
areas have more or leHH distinct char-
acteristics, due chiefly to the unequal
distribution of rainfall and to differ-
ences in soil and drainanc. 'I'iml>crcd
areas were confined to narrow margins
along the stream cour.«es and the north
facing slopes of their vallevH, to the
slopes Ijordering Devil's Lake, ond to the
Turtle Mountains. West of the Mis-
souri River the forests were almost
lacking even in the stream valleys.
The typical dominants of the wood-
lands were the elm, oak, ash, maple,
and box-elder. The aspen particularly
dominated large areas in the Turtle
Mountains, and the birch, hackberry,
and ironwood grew along the Sheyenne
valley. A'arious shrubs and plants
formed a secondary layer under the
trees and many herbaceous plants
occurred, but disappeared where the
trees were removed.

In the mixed prairie type of vegeta-
tion of the eastern part of the state the
Andropogon grasses dominated. To the
westward, with the decrease in moisture
the Andropogons surrendered the domi-
nance to the grama grass of the short
grass country. In the closed drainage
areas, rather extensive in the northeast
third of the state, marsh plants found a
favorable habitat. Anion ' -, the

manna and meadow gra- in to

have been the most abundant.

Wild ducks, geese, and other aquatic
birds nested in large numbers in the
marsh and lake areas. Prairie chicken
and grouse vied with the white-tailed
jackrabbit (Lf/Ji/.s/i mimjj)

in populating the ' . ;;.o red

Sf|uirrcl (•S'cj'iiri/,s / nml cot-

tontail rabbit {Stjlvtlaf/ujs
sijnilis) thrived in the " ;;

the stream courses. I ; ~o

the coyote {Cants lalrans and C nebra-
ccnsin) and rcil fox (I'tW/K-a regalia)

preyed, and the bison '/■'■ '■■■»>)

ami pronghorn antelojx) . a

546

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

americana) reigned as kings on the
prairies. Along the lower Missouri
Valley the deer {Odocoileus virginianus
subsp. and 0. hemionus) were found.

4. Present biota

The effect of agriculture has been to
reduce much of the original prairie to
crop land. Yet in the rougher western
part of the state, in the Coteaus of the
Missouri, and in the lowland areas too
wet to cultivate, little change has been
made. Timber has been at such a
premium that it not only occupies its
original area almost entirely, but has
had added to it in the eastern part of
the state many fine groves as wind
breaks about the buildings of the farm-
ers, which tend to break up the monot-
ony of broad expanse of prairie. The
area lying east of Devil's Lake and the
Turtle Mountains is capable of foresta-
tion but the trees have been kept out
by the frequency of prairie fires. In
the Bad Lands the short grass prairie
occurs on the tops of the buttes, but in
many valleys little but sagebrush is
found.

The wild geese have ceased to nest
in the marshes, the coyote and red fox
are still seen occasionally in the eastern
part of the state but are more numerous
to the westward. An open season for
deer was granted for ten daj^s in 1921.
Sully's Hill National Park, on the
southern margin of Devil's Lake, con-
stitutes a preserve for both the plant
and animal life of the state. Here a
few bison graze as a reminder of the
great herds which roamed the plains.
The proposed national park in the heart
of the Bad Lands near Medora should
have the generous encouragement of
every one who is interested in the preser-
vation of the native life of the state.

II. NATURAL AREAS (j. T. S.)

*Prairie, Missouri River terrace.
(C3.) Part of the Ft. Berthold Indian
Reservation, site of Indian village called
"Fishhook Village;" last occupied by
the Mandans in their freedom before
being reduced to the status of reserva-

tion Indians. Also includes the Indian
Scout's Cemetery where are buried men
of the Mandan, Hidatsa and Arikara
tribes who were enlisted in the United
States Army in the 1870's, some of whom
served under Custer, and some perished
with him in the Battle of the Little
Bighorn. A part of this tract is virgin
prairie, part is the old village site which
is reverting to the native prairie vege-
tation. About 400 acres should be
further preserved by U. S. Government.
This place is about 30 mi. west of the
nearest railway station, Garrison, on
Soo R. R. ; 18 mi. from Elbowoods,
McLean County, N. D. — Melvin R.
Gilmore.

*Prairie. Lies on a terrace (first)
of the Missouri River. Site of Military
Post of Ft. Rice. (A4.) Mostly native
prairie sod; partly planted with cotton-
wood and box-elder trees. Purchase
of State Historical Society of North
Dakota as trustee for the State. About
3| acres, 3 mi. from Ft. Rice, Morton
County, N. D. Preserved by the
State. — Melvin R. Gilmore.

* Plains Area. (A4.) Prairie.
Mostly short-grass formation. Boutel-
oua gracilis and Stipa comata, dominate.
Part of the area is used for a Cooperative
Grazing Experiment by the U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture, Bureau of
Plant Industry, Office of Dry-Land
Agriculture Investigations and the
North Dakota State Experiment Station.
Of value to anyone interested in grazing
problems as it affords an opportunity
to observe the effects of different systems
and intensities of grazing upon the
native vegetation. 1729 ft.; level: 640
acres, part grazed and part hayland.
Preserved by U. S. Department of
Agriculture. Anyone wishing to visit
this area should first call at the Northern
Great Plains Field Station, U. S. De-
partment of Agriculture at this point.
Mandan, Morton County, N. D. (1).
(a) Field Station, two mi. S.W. Grazing
area 3.5 mi. S. of Mandan. N. P. R.
R.— /. T. S.

Antelope Lake. (F6.) Shore and sur-
rounding hillsides. About 10 sq. mi. of

NATURAL AREAS AND RKGIONS

M7

deciduous forest with nood plains, sand
areas, glacial topography around an
alkaline lake, part of which is dry durinc
drought periods. Valuable as contain-
ing many tree species growing at or
near their range limits. This area also
contains two hybrid poplar trees of
undetermined parentage, which are
hardier than poplars among which they
grow when taken to prairie situations,
ine forest area contains bur oak, green
ash American elm, boxelder, balsam
poplar, and trembling aspen— showing
advancement from hillside situations to
lake shore. Area should be preserved by
the State. 1600 ft., on north border of
the Coteau du Missouri. N Sec 6
Twp. 151, R. 73 W. ■ ■ ■

(a) Harvey, Wells Countv, N. D.
18 mi, N.W. Soo R. R.

(a) Anamoose, AlcPIenry Countv, N.
D., 8 mi., N.E. Soo R.R.— F. E. Cobb.

* Stump Lake Bird Reservation. An
island in Stump Lake reserved as a
refuge for birds of all kinds. 1500 ft.
Twp. 161; R 61.

(a) Lakota, Nelson County, N. D.,
20 mi., S. G. N. R. R.

* Verendrye National Monument. (A4. )
A Federal monument covering a high
butte known as Croxhigh Butte over-
looking the Missouri River to the west
above the Old Crossing of the early
voj^ageurs from Canada, used after
1740. The high butte was the site of an
Hidatsa village at one time. The name
of the Chief of the village was Crow-
that-flies-high. From this the butte
has been named Crohigh Butte. .\
prairie tj'pical to this northern section
of the Great Plains. 2000 ft. ; Twp. 152;
R. 92 W. Federal Reserve.

(w) Sanish, Mountrail County, N.D.
Soo R. R.—F. E. Cobb and M. R. Gilmore.

*S'ully's Hill National Park. (A4.)
A Federal Park preserving the site of an
early exploring camp on the south shore
of Devil's Lake. This area consists
of hills, meadows, and forest; forest
surrounds a high prairie hill containing
practically a museum of the entire flora
of the state. The U. S. Biological
Survey maintains a preserve for elk,
bison, and antelope. 1500 ft. ; Twj). 102,
R. 65. Preserved by the U. S. Gov-
ernment.

Devil's Lake, Ramsey County, 15 mi.,

S. G. N. ftiid Soo. K. R. F. E. Cobb
and M. U. Gilmore.

*('hanc Lake liird li- n. A

State Preserve for birds : .... kind*.
IMK) ft.; Twp. 141, K. m. Lnke in
Slut.smun County. PrcHcrved by the
state.

Steele (1), Kidder Countv. N. D.,
•■{'■-mi., N.K. N. P. R. R.

Crystal Springs (1), Kidder Countv,
12 mi., N. N. P. R. \i. F. E. Cobb.
*l'rairie on a High Terrace. (F6.)
Situated above the current of the Mis-
souri. Part of the .site of an old Indian
village site, probably Miindan. Kn-
tirely reverted to native vegetation by
long passage of time since its last occu-
pation by the Mandans. Purchase by
the State Historical Society of North
Dakota, as trustee for the State. Al>out
1600 ft. 0.15 acres. Preserved by the
State.

(a) Huff, Morton County, N. D., two
mi. N. P. R. R.

(a) Mandan (1), Morton County,
N. D., about 25 mi., S.K. X. P. R.
R.—M. R. Gilmore.

*Dcciduou!i Forest and Flood Plain.
(FO.) Alluvium. Located at con-
fluence of Pembina River witli the Red
River of the north. Historic sit« of an
old Briti.sh fur trading post. Kxcept for
native trees of the river course and some
native shrubs, most of the original
vegetation has been exterminated
by long human occupation. Gift from
the City of Pembina to the State His-
torical Society as trustee for the State.
About SOO ft. ; about 3 acres. Preserved
by the State.

(w) Pembina (1), Pembina County,
N. D., i mi. X. P. R. R.—. U. R. Gilmore.
*I)tciduous Forest. (1'6.) Stoop hill-
side from margin of Pembina River to
the summit of the first terrace of the
Pembina Mountain. Natural growth of
native forest of f' ' !' ihina

Mountain.side, auii

siirubs. Gift to the State Historical
Society of Nortli Dakota as tru-stcc for
tiie State. .\l)out 950 ft. Preserved
by the Stale.

(w) (a) Wftlhalla (1), Cavalier County,

5iS

NATUEALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AAIERIOAS

X. D., one mi. G. N. R. R.—M. R.
Gilmore.

*Xatii'e Prairie. (A4.) Hillside and
valley. This is an excellent specimen
of undisturbed and unspoiled native
prairie. Gift to the State Historical
Society of North Dakota. About 1600
ft.; 5 acres. Preserved by the State.

(a) Jamestown (1), Stutsman County,
N. D. 5 mi. X. P. R. R.—M. k.
Gilmore.

*Deciduoits Forest and Prairie. (HS.)
Flood plain. Alluviima. Site of old
Ft. Abercrombie is nearby. Not much
trace of original vegetation is left.
Gift to the State Historical Society of
North Dakota for historical park.
935 ft.; 6.25 acres. Preserved by the
State.

(w) (a) Abercrombie (1), Richland
County, one mi. C. M. & St. P. R.
R.—M. R. Gilmore.

Petrified Forest. Area of 25 to 100
sq. mi. Arid grassland on Bad Lands.
Many fossil tree stumps. 15 mi. north-
west of Medora, Xorth Dakota. In-
quire Mr. Carl Olsen, Peaceful Valley
Ranch, Medora. Reached by wagon. —
Crystal Thompson.

Reference:
Bergman, Herbert F. Flora of North
Dakota. 1917. 6th Biennial Report,
N. D. Soil and Geol. Surv.

8. SOUTH DAKOTA
Bt E. J. Petrt axd S. S. Visher

I. GENERAL COXDITIOXS (E. J. P.)

South Dakota, 400 mi. (east and west),
is a part of the Great Plains and prairie
which stretch from the foothills of the
Rocky Mountains almost to the Missis-
sippi River. The state contains lakes,
small canj-ons, buttes, badlands and
moimtains of great interest to the
traveler and scientist. The Missouri
River divides the state into two nearly
equal eastern and western parts, which
differ widely in their soils, geologic
and biologic features.

The eastern half, except a small area

in the southeast, is underlain by Creta-
ceous strata, while its soils consist of a
fertile dark brown loam of glacial origin,
which originally constituted a great
prairie, but which is at present almost
entirely taken up bj- farms.

Throughout the northeastern part of
this section are found manj- small lakes
surroimded bj' deciduous groves, while
in the southeast, where outcrops of
Proterozoic age (Sioux quartzite) occur,
there are several streams, notablj' the
Big Sioux River, whose banks are
picturesque palisades and cliffs of
unexpected height and beauty. From
50 to 75 mi. west of the Big Siovix and
running parallel with it is the James,
or Dakota River, which meanders
through an unbroken plain about 1200
ft. above sea-level at the south and 1500
ft. at the north. ^ Like the Big Sioux,
its banks and flood plains are parth'
wooded.

The western half of the state, begin-
ning at the Missouri River, may be
di^^ded conveniently into four general
regions. It consists essentially of a dry
plain rising gradually from an elevation
of about 1400 ft. in the east to 3500 ft.
near the western boundarj*. This plain
is traversed by five nearly parallel
rivers which meander eastward and
empty into the Missouri River.

a. The northwest quarter- of this
plain is interspersed with stony buttes
several hundred ft. high, and shows
rugged outcrops of Tertiary and Creta-
ceous formations (Laramie and Fox
Hills), including clays, lignite, and sand-
stone of from 200 to 400 ft. aggregate
thickness.

h. The second and largest area is
mostly of Cretaceoiis (Pierre Shale)
origin and stretches across the state
along the Missouri River, but narrows
abruptly toward the west till it occupies
the middle third of the plain and finally
divides, one arm passing to the north
of the Black Hills area, the other to the

1 Darton, X. H. Geology and Underground
Waters of South Dakota. U. S. Geol. Suri-., Water
Supply Paper 227, 1909, 156 pp., 15 plates, incl. maps.

5 Visher, S. S. The Biology of Harding County
Northwestern South Dakota. S. D. Geol. Surv.,
BulL 6, 126 pp., 1914.

NATURAL .UlEAS AND REGIONS

S4'J

southwest. The tough gumbo soils
of this arid region are much eroded in
some places and support only a small
range of plant and animal life. Trees,
such as cottonwoods, and hackberries
are found chiefly along th'

most of which often go dry. .,...

areas supply pasture only, when suffi-
cient moist uTv \s.

c. The souii.t-. ~' ~ comprises

the big Bad Lan . • hite River

and their southern uplands, the sandy
loams and clays of which afford fine
pasture-land and many fine agricultural
tracts. This region consists mostly
of Miocene (Arikaree; — verj- little Plio-
cene and Pleistocene — while its greatly
eroded northern and northwestern parts,
known as the Big Bad Lands of the
White River, are e.xposures, on a grand
scale, of Oligocene CBrule and Chadron)'
age and support little plant life.

These Bad Lands (Mauvaises Terres^,
about 50 by 75 mi. in extent, are among
the most picturesque erosional regions
in the world and their many varieties of
fossils are world famous. Here are
canyons, spires, walls, and many gro-
tesque formations, which yield remains
of prehistoric animal life of astonishing
variet}-, some of which are related to
modern animals such as turtles, camels,
and horses. This area is practically
unchanged except where an occasional
settlement on the lower flat ground has
resulted in cultivation of limited areas.
d. The fourth area, the Black Hills,
with their partly pine-clad sides, rising
above the plain to an altitude of 6000
to 7000 ft. above sea level, present the
most wonderful part of South Dakota.
In certain respects they are unsurpassed
in beauty and g interest by any

other mountainous region in the world.
They intercept much moisture and on
this account plant* and animal life is
much more abundant than on the plains.
Bear, de- ' n, and antelope ''origi-
nally wil- 'W mostly in parks) arc

3 0'Harra, C. C. The \Vh:t(> Rivor R-i'i T-anHv
S D. School of Mi:,
plates, 1920. (This

''''''o^^Vc. C. 0-Harra-s Handbook of the
Black Hills. lo9 pp., 1913.

among the larger mammal«. The plant
life partly ]> 'of tli-

c' .Ijcr-

ing and by hre. I 'OO by

shaped uplift of Pro'

and Mesozoic ' '

with va' ■ ' '-

dykes be.

ful metals and minerals. The whole

region is in* ' "

cany'- "•'■-.. .... .

tific ■ and in .

The rocky formations varj' from the
red and yell ' ' ' *"

the white liii.- - - , . . "'

at the outer borders of the Red V..
while the more somber colors ■ ■>

and ore-bearing str * '' • ' e

pines and wide var. f

the interior in a way which one may
never forget.

II. BIOT.\ (e. j. p.)

A. Grassland

a. Tall grass prairie {True p-
Clemenls). The t:;"

pogon prairie occuj . f'

of the state,* except that part in which

IS forest growth is i

11 .1 111.'

stre:j.m ■-

This is u . 2

which the blue steins {Ai

furcatus and A. =

. I . / , . .

are i:
Many other herbaceous plants bearing

bea " "

yi^i - s prairie

of eastern South Dakota arc pr-
found such raa- '

Plains

badger (Turithd tasus subsp

covote

gopher {Gfotni/a

550

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

pocket-gopher (Thomomys talpoides ru-
fescens), Kansas pocket-mouse (Perog-
nathus hispidus paradoxus), harvest-
mouse {Reithrodontomys megalotis
dychei), prairie deer-mouse (Peromyscus
maniculatus hairdii), and white-tailed
jackrabbit {Lepus toivnsendii campa-
nius). The bison (Bison b. bison), elk
(Cervus c. canadensis) and pronghorn
antelope (Antilocapra americana) for-
merly occured. — L. R. D.

b. Short grass plains or steppe. The
dry plains of the western part of the
state were covered by a short grass sod
in which grama grass {Bouteloua oligo-
stachTja) and buffalo grass {Bulbilis
dactyloides) are dominant. Many xero-
phytic herbaceous plants as loco {Ara-
gallus lambertii), Artemisia frigida and
Chrysopsis villosa are mingled with the
short grass sod. Small remnants of the
short grass vegetation persist in the
badlands.

The western mixed prairie or steppe
is probably the home of the long-tailed
weasel, black-footed ferret {Mustelani-
gripes), badger, swift fox {Vulpes velox),
plains coyote (Canis n. nebracensis),
prairie-dog (Cynomtjs I. ludoviciamis),
striped ground-squirrel {Citellus tri-
decemlineatus subsp.), sage pocket-
gopher (Thomomys talpoides bullatus),
pocket-mice (Perognathus spp.), kan-
garoo-rat (Dipodomys ordii subsp.),
white-tailed jackrabbit, Wyoming cot-
tontail rabbit (Sylvilagus audubonii
baileiji), and others. The gray wolf,
bison, mule deer (Odocoileus h. hemionus)
and pronghorn antelope formerly oc-
curred, but are now rare or extinct in
the region. — L. R. D.

The flora of the Bad Lands and the
uplands to the south includes about
200 flowering plants consisting mostly
of grasses, sedges, and weeds. Few
trees are found in this area. The fauna
includes about a score of mammals, of
which the largest are the wolf, coyote,
fox, porcupine and panther (deer and
antelope are rare); while the birds
number over 150 species.^

'Over, W. H., and Thorns, C. S. Birds of South
Dakota. S. D. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv.. Bull no
9, 142 pp., 1921.

B. Partially wooded areas

a. Fringing forest. Strips of decidu-
ous forest follow all the streams of
eastern South Dakota and thin out
westwardly until only scattered decidu-
ous trees follow stream courses. Silver
maple and box-elder (Acer saccharinum
and A. negundo), elm (Ulmus ameri-
cana), white ash (Fraxinus americana),
hackberry (Celtis occidentalis), and
willows are most important in the
fringing forest.

The southeastern wooded river bot-
toms were likely originally inhabited
by the prairie spotted skunk (Spilogale
interrupta), striped skunk (Mephitis
sp.), red fox (Vulpes fulva), fox squirrel
(Sci■ur^ls niger rufiventer), eastern chip-
munk (Tamias striatus griseus), eastern
deer-mouse (Peromyscus leucopus novebo-
racensis), Nebraska cottontail rabbit
(Sylvilagus floridanus similis), black-
tailed deer and others. The black bear
(Ursus americanus subsp.) probably
occurred here natively. — L. R. D.

h. Black Hills Forest. The plant life
of the Black Hills'^ is a combination of
eastern and western — deciduous trees
from the eastern forest and coniferous
trees from the west — western yellow
pine (Pinus scopulorum) and red cedar
(Jimiperus scopulorum). Many plants
with beautiful flowers and foliage and
useful fruits abound.

In the coniferous forests of the Black
Hills are found the Black Hills marmot
(Marmota flaviventris dacota), a western
chipmunk (Eutamias sp.), red squirrel
(Sciurus hudsonicus dakotensis), Black
Hills pocket-gopher (Thomomys tal-
poides nebulosus), woodrat (Neotoma
cinerea rupicola). Black Hills cottontail
rabbit (Sylvilagus nuttallii grangeri),
and other species. — L. R. D.

III. ANIMAL ECOLOGY OF THE NORTHERN
GREAT PLAINS (s. S. V.)

The Northern Great Plains extend
from the High Plains of Kansas to
central Alberta and from the prairies of

' Harvey, L. H. Floral Succession in the Prairie-
grass Formation of southeastern South Dakota.
Bot. Qaz., 46: 81-108; 277-298. 1908.

NATURAL AliKAS AM:> KIOGIONS

551

eastern Nebraska, the Dakotas and
Manitoba to the foothills of the Rockies.
Western South Dakota is rather cen-
trally located in this vast, rather uni-
form region, and the following account
is serviceable for considerable peripheral
areas.

Conspicuous animals of (he short grass
formation of South Dakota^

Birds. Among the birds^ the oidy
permanent resident represented by many
individuals is the desert horned lark.'
Longspurs of some si)ecics are found in
all seasons, the chestnut-collared and
McCown's longspurs nesting here abun-
dantly and the Lapland longspur winter-
ing. Two other members of the sparrow
family, the lark bunting and the western
vesper sparrow are verj' numerous; tlie
former is quite characteristic, as is also
the desert horned lark. Other prom-
inent nesting birds are the Brewer
blackbird, burrowing owl, Sennett's
nighthawk and upland plover. For-
merly the long-billed curlew and the
prairie sharp-tailed grouse were com-
mon. Several kinds of birds nest in
the groves of scattered trees along the
streams (considered here under wood-
land), but often feed along the steppe
far from their nests. Examples are:
the ferruginous rough-legged Swainson's
and sparrow hawks. The cliff and barn
sw^allows, nesting on cliffs or about
buildings, are also seen often.

Mammals. No conspicuous species
appears to be confined in its range to
the steppe of South Dakota, though
several varieties are. Of these the
plains coyote (Canis nebracensis),
pocket-gopher (Geomys bursarius and

8 Based on "The BioKeography," Chapt. vi. pp.
80-108 of "The Geographv of Soutli Dakota, Hull.
8 S D Geol. Surv., Vermillion, .S.D. 1918. Soo also
The Biooraphy of the Northern Great Plains, Geocr.
Rev vol 11, pp. 89-11.5, AuRUst, 1916, The Geocra-
phv' Geology and Biology of south-central tvmth
Dakota. Bull 5. 1912, and The Biology o I ^.r.hng
County, south we-stern Soutli Dakota, Hull u, ol.
the South Dakota Geol. Surv., 1911.

9 Scientific names are given in the papers men-
tioned in the preceding footnote, where phinU and
environmental conditions are also discusse<l.

Thomnmiin Bpp.), and certain mice und
vole.s may l)o mentioned. Other mum-
inals alxindtintly roprcBcntcd on the
.'<lo|)|K' are the prairi" ' '" i

biiliivtriiiuiis), biiiJKcr '' ,

jackraliliit (Lcpua totcnaendii cam-
])(niju.s), Ktrii^cd and Hjiottcd Hkunk«
{^ff])hili.'i hwlnonica and Sjnlogalc infrr-
rupld), gray wolf {Cania occidenlnlin),
kit-fox iVul-pcs vclox), lonR-tailcd wea-sol
(Mustrln longicaudn), Btripcd ground
squirrel {('ilcUus triilcccm litifatua
sub.sp.), an<l formerly the antelope
{Andlocapra amcricana) and hison
(Bison liison).

Other animals. The most common
snake is the plain bull-snake iPituophia
sayi), with the plains blue racer (Cohihrr
con.slrictor flavivcntris) next and the
prairie rattlesnake {Crotahis conflucntua)
third in most places and seasons. The
horned-lizard (Phryiiosovia) is numeroiiH
in many localities. The common toad
(Bufo uootlhousii) is seen frequently.
The Great Plains toad (Bufo cognatxut)
is characteristic but not abundant.

Invertebrates aside from the insects
are unimportant in this group of asso-
ciations. It appears that only three of
the numerous phyla are represented,
the protozoa relatively sparsely, mol-
lusca chiefly by only one species of land
snail (Succinca grosvcnorii) and the
arthropoda by a few spiders and centi-
pedes, and by numerous insects of six
of the eight orders: Orthoptera (gr i~^-
hopiiers and locusts), Diptcra '^gniit:',
mosquitoes, flics), Ix'pidoptera (butter-
flies and moths), Coleoptera (beetles)
and Hymenoptera (bees, wasps, ant,H
Ichneumons) and Hemiptera (buKS).
The locusts and grasshoi»i>ers are the
most conspicuous insects and most
injurioiis.

The IIymenoi)tera of several families
(digger wasyis, ants, wooly Ix'es) are
al)undant. Blow flies, hot flie.<
lihihisniui) and robber flies are p.. i. ;.....
Le|)idoptera are few upon the stepjH'.
The beetles are mostly ground beetles.
Bugs are very rare u|K»n the «t«ppe.

552

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Some "adaptations" of the life of

the grassland to geographic

conditions (S. S. V.)

Birds. The birds of the grassland
possess two or more of the following
characteristics :

1. Nests are necessarily built on the
ground.

2. Many kinds sing while on the wing.
Examples are the lark bunting, long-
spur, Sprague's pipit, and frequently
the western meadowlark and horned lark.

3. The songs and calls are loud com-
pared with those of birds of woodland
or prairie. Because of the climatic con-
ditions of the grassland, representatives
of species in many cases are farther
apart than in most other areas. Calls
and songs fulfill their chief purpose
only when they are heard by other
individuals of the species, and there-
fore need to be relatively loud in the
steppe.

4. Social flocking'" is less prominent
than among the birds of the woods,
water, or prairies, where not only do
various species migrate in large flocks,
but troops wander socially about in
other seasons, especially in winter, and
several abundant species nest in colo-
nies. The grackle, crow, swift, swal-
lows, night herons, blackbirds, marsh
wrens, numerous water-birds, and the
bobolink and dickcissel are examples.
If the cliff swallow v/hich nests here and
there in the badlands, be excepted, none
of the abundant birds of the steppe nest
in colonies. The scattered distribution
of life on the steppe, noted in the preced-
ing paragraph, is exemplified in the dis-
tribution of the nests of the steppe
birds. The lark bunting and longspurs,
and occasionally the Swainson's hawk
migrate in flocks which, however, soon
break up. Flocking in the winter is
largely accidental. Birds gather where
food is available, in areas swept by the
wind or in patches of taller vegetation
which are not snow-covered. Weedy

"> Statements made by Craig, Wallace: "North
Dakota Life," Bull. Am. Geog. Soc. XL, pp. 401-
415, 1908, have led to the erroneous generalization by
a few animal ecologists unfamiliar with birds that
gregariousness is a characteristic of grassland birds

fields, where seeds are abundant, often
are the site of such gatherings.

5. Many have the ability to withstand
strong wind. For example, seed-eaters
feed during the winter in apparent
comfort on wind-swept hills.

6. Females and nestlings are almost
all protectively colored. This seems
required by the exposure of the nesting
sites.

7. Most species are highly migratory.
Few individuals remain dtiring winter,
and these are of species different from
those of summer, e.xcept in the case of
the desert horned lark. Even this
species migrates somewhat. The aridity
and the inactivity of other life combine
with the cold to encourage the desertion
of the steppe during the winter season.

8. Most birds have the ability to
withstand the intense heat of the sun.
This is especially notable in the nestlings
which are often on dark ground.

9. The birds of the grassland of neces-
sity must require but little drinking
water. Heavy dews are rare.

10. The power of acute long-range
vision appears to be possessed by a much
larger number of birds of the steppe
than by those inhabiting woodlands.
Clearness of atmosphere, slightness of
relief over large areas, and the widely
scattered distribution of life all probably
have encouraged the development of
acute long-range vision.

Mammals. The mammals of the
grassland have all acquired two or more
of the following characteristics:

1. Ability to run swiftly. Examples
are the antelope (32 mi. an hour), jack-
rabbit (28 mi. an hour), coyote (24 mi.
an hour), kit fox or swift (20 mi. an
hour), and gray wolf (20 mi. an hour).n

It is possible to run more swiftly upon
dry grassy plains than through woods or
brush, in marshes or across rugged
tracts. For this reason the inhabitants
of such plains have come to be the
fleetest runners. Long distance run-
ning was developed among some of the

"Velocities are those attained by the normal,
healthy adult when pursued by greyhounds, and
are quoted from Seton, E. T.: Life Histories of
Northern Animals. (New York, 1909 )

NATURAL AREAS AND RIOGIONS

653

larger mammals, apparently because
of the relative scarcity of places of
retreat.

2. Ability to burrow. Examples are
the pocket-gopher, ground-squirrel,
badger, prairie-dog, mice, vole. About
70S^ of the species rear their young in
burrows and nearly 50% of the species
spend much of their time underground.
Burrows are retreats from heat, cold,
wind, and some enemies, and for the
prairie-dog, at least in some cases,
furnish access to the underground water
supply.

3. Manj^ have acute long-range vision;
the fleet runners all have. This appears
to have been developed by the same
factors mentioned in the discussion of
the vision of birds.

4. A gray or tawny type of coloration
which harmonizes well with dead leaves
is possessed by nearly ail. The skunk,
an exception, is less in need of protective
coloration than are the other mammals
of the plains.

5. Ability to do without much drink-
ing water. Water for physiological
activity and for cooling by perspiration
is secured mainly from the food eaten.
Footprints of most steppe animals are
seldom seen in mud about water holes.
This is especially true in regard to the
rodents, including the jackrabbit.

6. The daily period of activity is
chiefly in the early morning, in the
evening, and to a lesser degree at night.

Voluntary activity of almost all
abundant mammals of the grassland is
very limited during the heat of the
summer day, when as many as may be
are in the shade. Activity generates
heat which must be eliminated by
perspiration, which in turn requires
water, an article which often is i)recious.

7. Ability to hibernate. Tlie long-
distance runners and the carnivorous
do not hibernate, but, with tlie exception
of the rabbits, the rodents, the nio.-^t
numerous mammals on the plains, ilo,
and for longer periods than related
species in other formations. llil)crna-
tion is a resjjonse to the unfavorable
conditions which prevail during the
winter months.

8. The larKor hcrbivorcii, tbo bi«on
and antelope, iniKnilcd chiefly in re-

spoii.se to irrcKuliirity of ruin nml snow.
Wolves, wliich preyed ii'.'i i1<t.»,
accompanied them in their

0. A few of the miimniiilit oi ilic k'"-'^-
land arc - - ■' >

lope cohL _ ij

from wolves and IwjarH. and in rc«tx)ni«e
to the lack of nunier

but also in winter f«., ;,„ ,,. ,ii .i. , ,,i, di-
lated in a clo.sely packed herd. Prairie-
dogs are grouped in towns* for protection
against coyotes and certain liawk^,
and possibly by the .somewhat restricted
soil and ground water conditions which
they appear to re<}uire.

Rcplilrs. The reptili ' ' " *<• f<jr
nearly half the year, or ■ : ; can

get along without drinking water; and
are of small size as compared with
related forms in more Iiumid aresuj.
Although the vast majority of reptiles
lay eggs, three of the five al)undant
steppe reptiles (the rattler, plains
garter-snake, and horned-lizard) bring
forth their j-oung alive. This may be
in response to the "hard" conditions
imposed by the climate.

//(.sfc^*-. Concerning the insects of the
grassland, the following statements may
be made :

1. The diurnal jMiriod of greatest
activity is in the forenoon from 7 to 11
o'clock, after the chill of the early
morning is gone but before '' ' t
becomes oppressive. Coition i ■!
on chiefly between 11 o'clock and one.
During the rest of tiie twenty-four hours
most of the insects are (juic'^ccnt except
when ilisturbed.

2. Seasonal activity is limited nearly
to the warmer aiul more n

four months of the year, ».

July and August. There is n
conqjlcte inactivity diirinR tlie .
anil drier months of ' vr. .M'M

species are ilormaiit ^ ton or

eleven months of the year, when many
arc reiirc-ented chiefly by ckkh.

3. Many foii ' - • ' >'

mammalian but ■■A

retreats from wind, heat, cold and »ome
enemies, lirasaland siHJcics in many

554

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

cases burrow to much greater depths than
related species of other communities.
4. There is a predominance of hoppers
or fast walkers. The development of
hopping as a chief mode of progression
is not so much discouraged on the grass-
land as in several other formations by
frequent collisions with tall vegetation.
The habit of running is favored by bare
soil and is more marked among insects
of the drier than of the moister parts
of the grassland and still more among
those of the desert.

Subdivisions of the grassland formation

1. The Buffalo-grama grass or climax
grassland association. Nearly all the birds
of the i-egion nest usually or occasion-
ally in this association. The Sprague's
Pipit is here characteristic. The bison
and the pronghorned antelope appear
to have been at home here. The striped
gopher is most abundant here, but
reptiles and toads are less abundant.

B. The Wheat Grass or Clay Grassland
Association. Few birds nest in the
wheat grass associations. The relative
barrenness of the upland areas and the
frequency of flooding of the other
portions are doubtless major deterrent
influences. The sharp-tailed grouse,
however, is more numerous in the flood-
plain phase of this association than
elsewhere, possibly because the taller
vegetation affords more protection than
the upland associations. Each prairie-
dog town has one or more broods of
burrowing owls. The prairie-dog is
the most conspicuous mammal. In
parts of this association, notably in
Custer and Fall River counties, nearly
every low terrace along the valleys is
occupied along much of its extent by
prairie-dog towns. The danger of being
drowned out by the flood waters is
greatly decreased by piling up around
each hole much of the dirt brought up
from below. Many entrances are as
much as 12 or 15 in. above the general
level of the "flat." This piling up is not
accidental, as is shown by the repeated
repairing by scraping dirt in from the
periphery of the mound, and by the fact

that in areas not subject to frequent
flooding the detritus brought up from
below is scattered widely. The long-
tailed weasel and the black footed
ferret, which prey upon the prairie-
dog, are numerous, though not often
seen. Gophers and other burrowing
mammals are lacking in most of the
flood-plain areas in the gumbo region,
probably because of the floods.

3. Bunch-grass or Dry-soil Steppe
Association (sand hills). Most of the
animal life of sandy regions is associated
with the springs and streams. The
areas occupied by the typical sandhill
vegetation have a sparse and not dis-
tinctive fauna so far as the larger ani-
mals are concerned. Of such typical
portions, the birds most abundant are
the western vesper sparrow, lark bunting
and the western meadowlark. Sandy
areas within the prairie region of San-
born County, eastern South Dakota
form eastern outliers of the breeding
range of the prairie sharp-tailed grouse.
The mammals most frequently seen are
the jackrabbit, the cottontail rabbit,
the plains chipmunk and the pocket-
gopher {Geomys lutescens). Because of
the relative wildness of rough, sandy
areas, they form retreats for wide
ranging mammals such as wolves and
coyotes. Of the reptiles, the most
abundant snake is the hog-nosed snake
{Heterodon nasicus). The yellow striped
swift (Cnemidophorus) is plentiful in
the more southern sandhills and another
lizard occurs, as does a land turtle
{Terrapene ornata). Several insects are
abundant in sandy areas, including
certain tiger beetles and the ant lion.

4. Buckhush Association. There are
no large animals restricted to these
patches though there are many nests of
birds. In the grassland region, the
prairie sharp-tailed grouse, long-billed
curlew, upland plover, marsh and Swain-
son hawks and other large birds, as well
as western meadow-larks and Brewer
black birds often nest here. Cotton-tail
rabbits and ground-squirrel. {Citellus
tridecemlineatus, C. franklinii), and the
prairie vole {Microtus ochrogaster) are

NATURAL AllKAS AND lUOGlONS

555

at home here. Spiders are esi)ecially
abundant.

5. Sagebrush Associdtion. The mo.st
conspicuous bird characteristic of the
sagebrush of this state is the sage hen,
which was numerous here until a few
years ago. It is being exterminated
rapidly.

The most notaI)le insect is tlie large
black and white sage-moth, which i.s
very cons])icuous for a few days in July
or August. The larvae feed upon sage
leaves.

6. Badlands. The badlands, because
of their relative inaccessibility, are the
home of several carnivores. Gray
wolves and coyotes are more frequently
met here than elsewhere. Bobcats are
plentiful. The puma or mountain lion
was formerly not rare. A few antelope
still feed on some of the "flats." Big-
horn sheep, and mule deer formerly were
common and the bighorn may not yet
be extinct in the White River ]?ad Lands.
The mammals now most frequently seen
in badlands are the striped chipmunk
and cottontail rabbit. The porcupine,
of nocturnal habit, is also found here.
The chief birds are the rock wren, Say's
phoebe, cliff swallow, violet-green swal-
low, western lark sparrow, turkey
vulture, and prairie falcon. Rattle-
snakes are not lacking, though far from
common. The horned-lizards ("toads")
are seen occasionally.

The animals are grayish in color with
the exception of the bats, swallows and
swifts. The crevices and cavelcts fur-
nish homes for the chipmunk, bat, bob-
cat, Say's phoebe, prairie falcon, and
rock wren. The cliff swallow and white-
throated swift find cliffs suitable for
nesting sites. Several of the larger
mammals, notably the bighorn sheep
and mule or black-tailed deer, are power-
ful jumpers.

IV. NATURAL AREAS

All areas save one "The DelLs," noted
south of a line from lirooking.s, South
Dakota to Pierre, South Dakota, have
been found to be either too artificial
(e.g., dams), or too highly modified

friitii the oriKiniil Htiito (iIcforc«t45<l; to
l)e con.sidorod in i\m work.

* W'intI Cave Xnlional Park. In the
Black IlilLs, the "Hcono of Cui^tor'H firMt
stand, famou.s for many yciirf; f'.r Imliun
fight.s and frontier liiw!cHHn« It in
culled Wind Cave l>friiUHC of the htmnK
currents of air which alternate in and out
of its mouth. The park Ih also a game
l)reserve of unusual merit" (From Na-
tional I'.irk.s Portfolio). The strata in
which the cave occurfl are known oh
Pahasiipa limestone. 10, SW acres; 3700
to 4000 ft. 4 ICO acres set aside for a bison
preserve, which cnclo.se.s deer, elk and
antelope.

Hot Springs, 12 mi. by bus.— ^. J. /'.
RcfcrcTiccs:
Wind Cave National Park Rules and

Regulations, Supt. Documents,

Govt. Printing Office.
South Dakota School of Mines, Book of

Views, 1920. The I'ahasapa Quar-

lerbj, June, 1021.

* Crystal Cave. Within the northeast
side of the Black Hills National Forest,
halfway between Roubaix and Tilford;
a most interesting and beautiful spot.
This cave differs greatly in formation,
crystals etc. from Wind Cave. It is to be
reached l)y road from Piedmont, on the
Chicago and Northwestern Railroad,
lying about 10 mi. northwest of this city,
along north side of KIk Creek,
Reference:

Pahasapa Qnnrtvrly, June, 1021.

* Prairie and Parlhj Ltiul Plain. In
the United States grazing e.\|)criinent
tract, leased for 10 years. About 400
acres near southern edge of Fall River
county, South Dakota; partly level
plain and prairie. Slightly cliangcil by
grazing. Plants characteristic of sur-
rounding areas, showing a ivw succes-
sions. The fauna inclu<les pniiric-dog
and coyote. I'llevation 3.'»05 ft. ; HliRhtly
undulating.

Ardmoret, 2i mi. N.W., C. W. A tj.
R. R.; about 30 mi. S. of Hot SprinirB.
S. D.- /;:. J. P.

Black Hills Xational Forest. Sec U. 8.
G(«m1 Surv., lOth Rept. Vol .1, p. 07,
IS'JS.

556

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

"The Dells." A deep rocky (red
Sioux quartzite) gorge lying about J mi.
to 1§ mi. southeast of Dell Rapids. The
northeast half is within the city limits
and protected from spoliation, but the
southeast half (i mi. by | mi.) is still
in danger of exploitation for building
stone, etc. There is plenty of such stone
in less scenic areas all about.

The interesting natural flora and part
of the fauna are still intact, and the
charm of this deep canyon-like gorge
(100 to 150 ft.) is very surprising and re-
freshing after the traveler has gazed on
hundreds of miles of continuous prairie.

Dell Rapids, on several improved auto
trails, and Chi., Mil., & St. Paul R. R.
— E. J. P.

Warren's Woods: About 50 acres of
upland deciduous forest of oak, elm,
linden, and ash, with a score of under-
brush, and several hundred herbaceous
forms, lies 7 mi. northeast of White,
South Dakota, and f mi. southwest of
Lake Hendricks, Minn.

The fauna is much reduced from the
original. Soil consists of clays and
gravels. Consists largely of a branching
ravine, 50 to 75 ft. deep, with small
stream.

White, by auto east 6 mi., north 1 mi.;
Chi., Rock Is. & Pacific R. R.—E. J. P.

Waubay, Blue Dog, and Pickerel Lakes.
A series (8) of marshy lakes, about 40
sq. mi., with some deciduous forest.
Breeding haunts of many waterfowl and
birds of prey.

Waubay, Chi. Mil. & St. Paul R. R.,
thru lower third of area. Auto trails,
east, west, north, and south. — E. J. P.

Buffalo Lakes. Similar to Waubay,
etc., but about half that area. Very
little changed from original condition,
hence very good place to study wild plant
and animal life. Flora undisturbed and
breeding grounds of many animals.

Sisseton, 12 mi. west by auto; Chi.,
Mil. &St. PaulR. R.

Eden, 5 mi. east by auto, Minneap.,
St. Paul, and Sault Ste. Marie R. R.—
E. J. P.

The Big Bad Lands of the White River.
This wonderland of southern South
Dakota has been outlined in part, in a
bill (S. 3541) by Senator Norbeck, and
by Williamson in 1923 (H. R. 2810)
which is to establish Wonderland Na-
tional Park. Some eminent authorities
think that the area should be continued
enough farther westward to nearly double
its size. It would then include the won-
derful^ area about Scenic, S. D., and the
intervening areas to the east and south-
west joining the area specified in the bill.
The only difficulties to be encountered in
this extension, so far as I can learn, are
some private claims. Two more town-
ships would add the best areas.

I have not sufficient data to give exact
outlines of the area, nor to describe its
features better than has been done by
the following writers: C. C. O'Hara,
Bull. 13, School of Mines, S. D., Rapid
City, S. D., 1920.

E. C. Perisho and S. S. Visher, South
Dakota State Geological Survey, Bull.
5, 1912.

Chi., Mil. & St. Paul R. R. passes
through the long axis of this area, east
and west. — E. J. P.

F. States with Coniferous Forest, Semi-desert, and Desert^

Utah, Nevada, Arizona and New
Mexico are included here. Idaho, Colo-
rado, and Texas which might be in-

1 This is a group of states classed by the Geological
Survey as requiring guides to watering places. The
foUowng publications of the U. S. Geological Survey
relate to areas in the United States requiring guides
to watering places.
Brown, J. S. Routes to Desert Watering Places in

the Salton Sea Region, California. U. S. Geol.

Sur., Water Supply Paper 490-A. 1920.

Thompson, D. G. Routes to Desert Watering
Places in the Mohave Desert Region, California.

U. S. Geol. Surv., Water Supply Paper 490-B. 1921.
Ross, C. P. Routes to Desert Watering Places in the

Lower Gila Region, Arizona, Ibid, Water Supply

eluded are placed elsewhere on account
of the small area requiring Guides to
Watering Places.

Paper, 490-C. 1922.
Bryan, Kirk. Routes to Desert Watering Places in

Papago Country Arizona, Ibid, Water Supply

Paper 490-D. 1922.

This series contains detailed maps of excellent
character showing roads, other features and a printed
guide to the various watering places.

Tbe following Water Supply Papers are also of
value: Nos. 277, 294, 320, 343. 422, 423, 425, 427 and
450a, b, c, d.

U. S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 730-B contains a good map
and much information on the Papago Country of
southwestern Arizona.

NATURAL AREAS AND RECIONS

557

1. UTAH
By C. F. Korstian

Utah is situated near the center of the
western United States on the great
Intermountain Plateau. The main Wa-
satch Mountain Range extends north
and south practically the entire length
of the state; while the Uinta Mountains
extend eastward from the Wasatch
Range paralleling the Wyoming state
line. By far the greater part of the
state lies above an elevation of 4000 ft.
The main summits of the mountains
attain altitudes of 10,000 to 13,000 ft.
A number of isolated mountain masses
occur in practically every part of the
state. Situated, as it is, in the interior
of the continent and to the leeward
of the great Sierra Nevada Mountain
Range all of the state, with the exception
of the higher mountains, has a distinctly
arid climate. The annual rainfall varies
from 5 to 15 in. throughout the lower-
lying portions, while on the mountains
the precipitation is 20 to 30 in. per year.

All the country west of the summit
of the Wasatch Range drains into the
Great Basin. The largest bodj^ of water
in the state is the Great Salt Lake,
the "water of which is so salty that a small
shrimp is practically the only form of
life found in it. This lake is the present
daj' remnant of the ancient Lake Bonne-
ville which formerly occupied an
extremely large area in this region.
The old shore-line ma}^ be traced along
the western foothills of the Wasatch
Range all the way from Provo to a point
some 30 mi. north of Ogden.

Practically all of the valleys and the
plateau country between the mountain
ranges were originally a sagebrush
desert, the dominant species being
sagebrush {Arlemisia tridenlata) asso-
ciated with other small-leafed shrubs.
Greasewood (Sarcobatus vermicnlaius),
andshadscale (i'l/np^cxsp.) are the domi-
nant species on extensive areas of alkali
flats in the arid valleys. A distinctly
halophytic association of vegetation is
found on the salt flats adjacent to the

Great Salt Luke. On the coarser soils
of the fnotliilis the junipcni (JuniperuM
utdhmsis -iJid J. ■

in tiic soiitlierii jtart . . , , .. ;,

{Pinus c(luHs) form o|)on park-like wood-
iand.s. (Tiie foroKoinK tyi)Cfl of vcgcta-
tion fall witliin the Upfjcr Sonoran
Life Zone.)

A small area of extreme dc»crl con-
ditions occurs aloHR the \'irKin Uivor
in soutliwcstcrn Utali. TIiIh i- -'■ —
acterized as a small-lcafcd shrui
in which the creosote Iniflh {Cortttra
Iridcntalfi) is the dominant
(Lower Sonoran Life Zonej. W ....
mammals except small burrowinR forma
occur naturally in this area, reptiles
are very abundant.

The mountains were oriRinally clothed
with a coniferous forest which is often
regarded as a southward extension of
the northern evergreen forest. In the
southern part of the state western
yellow pine {Pinus jwndcroaa scopulo-
rum) is most abundant. In the cen'- '
and northern part of the state t ..-
species is largely replaced by a brush
cover composed of various species of
shrubs and small trees (Transition Life
Zone). The next higher tyi>e altitudi-
nally is that in which Douglas fir {Pseu-
dolsvga taxifolia) and white fir (.1' '•
concolor) are dominant (Canadian I •<-
Zone). In the Uinta Mountains loii^.
pole pine {Pinus contorta) also forms
rather extensive stamls. On tin ' ' -
mountains above 0000 ft. Kn;,
spruce {Picca engelmanni) and alpine
fir {Abies lasiocarpa) are the char-
acteristic species (Hudsonian Liff' '^

The forest conditions are tl<
more fully by Baker and Ixicke in con-
nection with the in of the

National Forests in i urni" "■' n

Region.* Succulent plants arc i
principally to the higher mountain
slopes.

The following animals have lx^cn
reported as inhabiting the Bftgrbruiih
desert: pronghorn
caprn amtrtcatui), r<'_>"n ■ ■...■.• -j-j- ,

> This volume. ptkK* •'*■

558

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

prairie-dogs (Cynomys leucurus and C.
parvidens), badger (Taxidea taxus),
jackrabbits (Lepus townsendii and L.
californicus deseriicola) , cottontail rab-
bits (Sylvilagus nuttallii grangeri and
S. audubonii warreni), chipmunk {Eiita-
mias sp.), ground-squirrels (Citellus
sp.), mice, rattle-snakes, horned toads,
and birds as follows: sage sparrows,
sage thrashers, sage hens, ravens,
herons, western mourning doves, and
western meadowlarks. The forest-cov-
ered mountains are inhabited by elk
{Cervus canadensis), mule deer {Odocoi-
leus hemionus), black bear (Ursus
americanus), mink (Mustela vison en-
ergumenos) , marten (Martes sp.), yellow-
bellied marmot (Marmota flaviventris
subspp.), weasels {Mxislela spp.), tree
squirrels, ground-squirrels, chipmunk
{Eutamias spp.), pocket-gopher (Thomo-
mysspp.), yellow-haired porcupine {Ere-
ihizon epixanthum) , bob-cat {Lynx sp.),
cougar (Felis oregonensis hippolestes),
snowshoe hare {Lepus bairdii), and
beaver {Castor canadensis subsp.). The
latter are confined to a few streams
but are now on the increase since they
have been under protection. The ma-
jority of the other animals often range
over two or more life zones. Among
the birds found in the forests of Utah
the following are worthy of mention:
dusky grouse, woodpeckers, sapsuckers,
flycatchers, crossbills, junco, nuthatch,
kinglet, thrush, bluebird, blue jaj^,
pine siskin, water ouzel, sparrows,
grosbeak, creeper, Clark's nutcracker,
hawks, owls and the eagle. Many
birds that winter farther south nest
within the state, some in the coniferous
types, others in the deciduous trees and
shrubs along the watercourses in the
lower mountains, and still others in
the sagebrush desert. The lakes and
marshes are important to the migratory
birds, especially the waterfowl which
often alight while migrating.

Following the settlement of Utah the
greatest agricultural development has
taken place in those parts of the sage-
brush desert where it has been possible

to irrigate with water from streams
rising in the mountains. The desert
areas that have not been placed under
irrigation have been used as winter
range for sheep and cattle which have
grazed in the mountain forests in sum-
mer. Because of the fact that the
pioneer settlements of Utah were very
remote from large industrial sources
of supply it was necessary for the
settlers to utilize the local resources.
Therefore, with the continued develop-
ment of the state, natural conditions
in the vicinity of the settlements were
materially changed through the denuda-
tion of the mountains as a result of
unregulated timber cutting, unrestricted
grazing, fires and the resultant erosion.
Floods and uncontrolable high water
became increasingly and alarmingly
frequent in many localities, reservoirs
and irrigation systems silted up rapidly,
washouts were numerous, fields were
covered with boulders, debris was
brought down from the adjacent moun-
tains, and streams became too muddy
during flood periods, and in some cases
at all times, for fish to live in them.
Since the creation of the National
Forests in the mountains, the U. S.
Forest Service has inaugurated sj^stems
of timber cutting and regulated grazing
which favor the ultimate restoration
of the forest and the forage plants on
the lands under its management. On
the other hand in regions remote from
the settlements large areas of virgin
forest representing virtually natural
conditions, except for some grazing,
existed when they were incorporated
in the National Forests. In the foot-
hills and the valleys adjacent to the
settlements, however, due to continued
over-grazing and repeated fires the
once luxuriant growth of sagebrush
has been largely replaced by six-weeks
grass {Bromus lector um).

The bighorn sheep has become rare
but is said to be increasing to some
extent in the more rugged parts of the
Uinta Mountains in the Ashley National
Forest. A band of elk has been released

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

559

in the Manti National Forest and
another in the Cache National Forest,
both of which are increasing. The
U. S. Bureau of Fisheries and the U. S.
Forest Service have co(Ji)erated with
the State Game Department in restock-
ing manj' of the streams with trout;
rainbow trout, eastern brook trout and
mackinaw trout have been introduced
successfully.

The Cache Game Preserve covering
208,501 acres on the Cache National
Forest, the Strawberry Game Preserve
of 92,160 acres on the Uinta National
Forest, the Fish Lake Game Preserve
of 307,200 acres on the Fishlake National
Forest, the Dixie Game Preserve of
435,200 acres on the Dixie National
Forest, the Heaston Game Preserve
of 299,200 acres, the Mountain Game
Preserve of 19,440 acres, the Ogden
Game Preserve of 41,000 acres, the
Parowan Game Preserve of 27,520 acres
and the Game Preserve of 46,080 acres
adjoining Little Zion National Park
are State Game Preserves under the
control of the State Game Department.
The U. S. Biological Survey protects the
waterfowl in an 8500 acre Federal Game
and Bird Refuge on the Strawberry
Valley Project of the U. S. Reclamation
Service. Deer and grouse are protected
on 76,800 acres in the Zion National
Park.

MOLLUSCS OF THE GREAT B.VSIN

This area is of great interest on ac-
count of its desert conditions and the
Quaternary history of its great lakes,
Lahontan, of which Great Salt Lake
and Sevier Lake are the descendants,
and Humboldt, Walker, Pyramid, Car-
son, and other small lakes wliich are
relics of the great glacial Lake Bon-
neville. The molluscan fauna of these
relic lakes is in some respects peculiar.
See the paper by Call, On the Quaternary
and Recent Mollusca of tiie Great
Basin, in Bull. 11, U. S. Geol. Surv.

NATURAL AREAS

*Zion National Park. (A2.) Tlie
pinyon-juniper type is best develoi)C(l

on the low slopes, while tlie hlRli moun-
tain tops, which are reiiched \vi*'
difriculty, are covered with
yellow pine. The valley bottom beur«
a typical growtii of Cottonwood and
other stream-bank species of tliiit
region. The fauna conHiHlH chiefly of
small desert animals. This National
Park can be reached from Cedar City
very easily by auto stage. The eleva-
tion is about 5000 ft. in the bottom of
the canyon. — F. S. Baker.

*The Dinosaur Xntioiial Mduuvh ni
(A3.) This reservation consists alni'i-t
entirely of exposed beds of sedimentary
rocks bearing in the crevices, scattered
grasses and herbs, and a few stunteil
juniper trees characteristic of semi-
arid woodlands. A typical fauna of
small animals is present. Elevation
is about GOOO ft. Reached from Ver-
nal, Utah (which is 13 mi. distance).
The village of Jensen is not far
from the Dinosaur quarries. — F. S.
Baker.

*Nalural Bridges Natio7ial Monument.
(A3.) This area consists chiefly of
eroded sandstone rocks with little
vegetation. Some juniper, stunted
western yellow pine and Fraxinua
anomala is present, together with
desert herbs. There is a typical desert
fauna of small animals. This area is
most readily reached from lilanding,
Utah, a distance of about 40 mi. over
rough mountainous country neces.'^itai-
ing horse back travel. The country
is almost waterless, and services of a
guide are necessary in visiting this
reservation. — /*'. .S'. Baker.

Rainbow Bridge Naliojial Monutmut.

Timpanogas Cave Naltonal Monurtuut.

*Brijce Canyon National Monununt.
(B2.) Mountain Coniferous Forest t in
the Sevier National Forest. About 4 8<|.
mi. of talus slopes, mountains and
canyons in Bryce Canyon. Semi-do^'(.•^l
conditions showing succession from sagc-
brusli to western yellow pino forest.
Reserved on account of scenic fts|>octs,
dissected cri>dcd topography known
as "Tcni|)lo of the Gods." 000(i
SOOO ft.

560

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

MarysvaleJ, 78 mi. south. D. &
R. G. R. R. daily stage to Panguitch,
Utahf, 26 mi. northwest of area|| §. —
C. F. K.

*Timpanogas Area. (B3.) Moun-
tain Coniferous Forestf in the Wasatch
National Forest. 10,000 acres of moun-
tains, ravines, canyons, rocks, glaciers,
cirques, in Utah County around Mt.
Timpanogos. All grazing by domestic
livestock has been restricted because
of its scenic and ecological interests.
Several thousand tourists visit the area
each year being attracted by the glacier
and mountain scenery. The area pos-
sesses great variety of vegetation, very
favorable for the study of altitudinal
zonation. 5000 to 12,000 ft.

Provol, Utah, 15 mi. northeast.—
C. F. K.

*Big Cottonwood Canyon Watershed.
(B3.) Mountain Coniferous Forestt in
the Wasatch National Forest. About
50 sq. mi. including flood plain, talus
slopes, waterfalls, springs, swift streams,
mountain canyons, on Big Cottonwood
Canyon watershed. Protected by Salt
Lake City and the U. S. Forest Service,
because the city water supply is derived
from the creek and also because of its
excellent scenic features. The Forest
Service has done considerable experi-
mental silvicultural work on this water-
shed. In the aspen, fir, and spruce types
of forest. Fauna includes beaver, bear,
deer, muskrat. 5000 to 12,000 ft.

Salt Lake City}, 25 mi. southeast.
Brightonjl in head of canyon.— C. F. K.

*Bear River Bay. Several thousand
acres of shooting preserves in low
swampy land near Great Salt Lake.
Protected except during shooting season.
Especialy good for ground nesting
migratory birds. Near Brigham,
Utah.— IF. C. Allee.

Emigration Canyon. (C3.) Altitude
4500 to 7000 ft., typical semi-desert and
conifer-covered areas, regular auto ser-
vice up the canyon in summer from Salt
Lake City.—/. M. Aldrich.

The Shore of Great Salt Lake. (B2.)
A good place for study of dipterous
fauna, take Saltair trains from the city.

Get off when the train turns around —
J. M. Aldrich.

Salt Lake Beach at Garfield, Utah.
(B2.) One sq. mi. lake beach with
halophytic vegetation, located in Gar-
field County, Is mi. west of Salt Lake
City, a part of the Great Salt Lake beach
at Garfield, Utah.— F. E. Shelford.
Reference :
Barnes, C. T. Mammals of Utah.
Utah University Bui., 12 (1922),
No. 15, pp. 160, figs. 31. The author
gives descriptions of 121 mammals
occurring in Utah, together with
accounts of the distribution and
the habits of each.

2. NEVADA
By C. F. Korstian

Nevada is situated in the western
United States on the great Intermoun-
tain Plateau and ranks sixth among the
states in area.

The greater part of the state is a
table land 4000 to 8000 ft. above sea
level with lower elevations in the ex-
treme southern part, and the tops of
the higher mountains reach altitudes
in excess of 10,000 ft. The state is
bounded on the west by the Sierra
Nevada Mountains while the Wasatch
Range lies to the east just over the line
in Utah. It is crossed by a series of
parallel mountain ranges having a
general northerly and southerly direc-
tion. Between the mountains are broad
flat valleys presenting true desert
conditions.

Practically all of the valleys and the
plateau country between the mountain
ranges were originally a sagebrush
desert, the dominant species being
sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) asso-
ciated with other small-leafed shrubs.
The soil of the sagebrush desert is
usually very fertile and yields excellent
agricultural crops when watered suffi-
ciently; but the supply of water avail-
able for irrigation is decidedly limited.
Consequently, there is relatively little
land under cultivation in the state
except in a few of the better watered
valleys, such as the Humboldt. Grease-

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

Ml

wood {Sarcohatus vermiculatus) and
shadscale (Atriplex sp.) are the domi-
nant species on extensive areas of alkali
flats in the arid valleys. A distinctly
halophytic association of vegetation is
found on the salt flats adjacent to many
of the salt lakes and on those extensive
areas in eastern Nevada which were
covered originally by the ancient Lake
Bonneville. On the coarser soils of
the foothills the junipers (Jtmiperus
utahensis and /. monosperma) and in
the central and southern part of the
state, pinyon (Pinm edulifi and F.7nono-
phylla) form open park-like woodlands.
(These types of vegetation fall within
the Upper Sonoran Life Zone.)

An area of extreme desert conditions
is found in the southern part of the
state, similar to and sometimes con-
sidered an extension of the California
desert. This is characterized as a
small-leafed shrub desert in which the
creosote bush {Covillea tridetitala) and
the sandbur (Franseria dimiosa) are
common dominant plants over consider-
able areas, (Lower Sonoran Life Zone).
This association contains quite a num-
ber of deciduous shrubs and large semi-
succulents (Yucca brevifolia, Y. arbo-
rescens, and Opuntia sp.) are found
scattered through it. Grasses and per-
ennial herbs are uncommon, but short-
lived annuals are abundant during the
spring months. While no mammals
except the small burrowing forms occur
naturally in this area, reptiles are very
abundant.

The higher mountains were originally
clothed with a coniferous forest which,
with certain modifications, may be
regarded as a southward extension of
the northern evergreen forest. Western
yellow pine {Pinus pondcrosa scopulo-
rum) occurs limitedly on the Nevada
Mountains and those to the south. In
the northern part of the state this
species is replaced at similar elevations
by either a brush cover composed of
various species of shrubs or often by
grasslands (Transition Life Zone). Tiie
next higher type altitudinally is rather
unique in that its composition is quite
different from any other common forest

tyi)c in adjacent Htatea. ABpeo (,Popu-
las IrcniHloidta) iu the commoncjit
tree in the Iow««r part of thin tyi>c.
Occurring to some extent in mixture
with aspen and common at the higher
elevations limber pine (Pinun flrrilii)
and alpine fir {Al'ics livtiocar pa ) form
forests which have been exploited com-
mercially, notably in the Jarbidge
Mountains. Farther south in the Ne-
vada Mountains Engelmann Mpruce
(Picca cngclmanni) is found. Succu-
lent plants are confined principally to
the forest zone on the higher mountain
slopes.

The animals and birds of the variouB
vegetative associations common on tlie
great Intermountain Plateau have l>cen
listed in the Utah account.' The
writer's knowledge of the fauna of
Nevada is not suflicient to warrant an
attempt to indicate such minor differ-
ences as may occur.

Many of the desert areas have been
used as winter range for sheep and
cattle which have grazed in the moun-
tain forests of this and other states in
summer. The state is much better
adapted to the livestock industry than
to farming. The grazing of livestock
has been practiced almost continuously
since the earlj' settlement of the state
and has been developed to such an
extent that it has resulted in consider-
able over-grazing. On many of the
open ranges in the state the situation
is becoming acute. On the other hand,
remedial measures to prevent over-
grazing are being applied on the National
Forests.' Hccause of tl>e fact that the
settlements and mining camps of Ne-
vada have, for the most part, been very
remote from large indu.strial sources of
supply, it was necessary for the settlers
to utilize the local resources. There-
fore, with the continued development
of the state and the exploitation of the
local resources, the natural conditions

1 -f
J

VC.1 ' .
I
1 ii.
lioi.
by 1
1021.

.•1 KorwU." thta

281.

562

NATXJRALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

in the vicinity of these settlements
were materially changed through the
denudation of the mountains as a result
of unregulated timber cutting, un-
restricted grazing, fires, and the re-
sultant erosion. Since the creation
of the National Forests in the moun-
tains, the U. S. Forest Service has in-
augurated systems of timber cutting
and regulated grazing which favor the
ultimate restoration of the forest and
the forage plants on the lands under
its management.

None of the major vegetational asso-
ciations have been destroyed, except
locally. Many desert areas, because
of the extreme aridity, will doubtless
remain in essentially a natural condition.
The forest conditions have been de-
scribed by Baker and Locke^ in con-
nection with the discussion of the
National Forests. The location of the
Forest Supervisor's headquarters is
also given.

The Southern Pacific and Los Angeles
and Salt Lake Railroads pass through
the desert for the entire distance which
they traverse the state. Side trips
into the heart of the desert can be made
from many of the towns along these
railroads, the larger of which are Pali-
sade, Elko, Battle Mountain, Winne-
mucca Reno, Caliente, Modena, and
Las Vegas. The Overland Trail and
the Lincoln Highway automobile routes
from Utah to California cross the state
northerly and the Arrowhead Trail
crosses the southern tip.

Aside from the National Forests and
Indian Reservations no specially re-
served areas within Nevada have been
brought to the attention of this
Committee.

*The Lehman Cave National Monument
in Nevada is an area of commonplace
pinyon-juniper woodland, similar to
thousands of acres elsewhere in Nevada,
much more readily reached. This cave
has been insufficiently studied for
anything to be known regarding the
animal life that may be present. —
F. S. Baker.

' This volume, page 224.

3. ARIZONAi

By G. a. Pearson, E. A. Goldman,

Forrest Shreve and Charles

t. vorhies

I. general topography (f. s.)

The state is one in which altitude and
topographic features are of basic im-
portance in determining the distribu-
tion of the widely dissimilar types of
biota found within its 113,020 sq. mi.
of extent. The conditions of tempera-
ture and rainfall are themselves deter-
mined by altitude much more than by
the 5f ° of difference in latitude between
its southern and northern borders.

The most elevated part of Arizona
is a broad ridge running from the north-
west corner to the center of the eastern
boundary, and forming the southern
edge of the Colorado Plateau. The
broadest part of this ridge, in the north-
western part of the state, has been cut
by the Grand Canyon of the Colorado
and dissected by other streams. The
southeastern end of the ridge, known
as the Mogollon Mesa, is narrow, has
been less dissected, and culminates
near the New Mexican line in the White
Mountains, embracing some of the
highest elevations in the state. Super-
posed on the Mogollon Mesa, in the
center of the northern half of Arizona,
are the volcanic San Francisco Peaks
(elevation 12,794 ft.) About 175 mi.
to the southeast Ord Peak (10,266 ft.)
and Escudilla Peak (10,691 ft.) form
the summits of an extensive elevated
region. On going northeast from any
part of the Mogollon Mesa the descent
is gradual into the plain drained by the
Little Colorado River, lying between
5000 and 6000 ft. in elevation. This
plain is bordered on the north and east
by a plateau 6000 to 8000 ft. in elevation
and by low mountains. On going
southwest from the Mogollon Mesa
into the drainage of the Salt and Bill
Williams Rivers, the descent is abrupt

1 Where there was no cooperation between the
different authors, the names stand in the order of
receipt of manuscripts. The committee has ar-
ranged the parts and indicated authorship.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

563

and the most complex topography of
the state is encountered.

The southwestern half of Arizona is
a vast plain tilted toward the Colorado
and Gila Rivers, and studded with
numerous hills and mountains. The
floor of the plain descends from ele-
vations of 4000 to 5000 ft. near the New
Mexican boundary to near sea level at
Yuma. On the most elevated part of
this plain are to be found a number of
small and isolated mountains which
rise to elevations of 8000 to 10,500 ft.,
including the Pinaleno (Graham), Chi-
ricahua, Huachuca, Santa Rita and
Santa Catalina ranges. Throughout
the remainder of the plain the moun-
tains are less numerous and not so high.

It is often said in Arizona that a
bucket of water thrown out anywhere
in the state will flow past Yuma, a
remark which is as true with respect
to the drainage systems as it is facetious
with regard to the commonly prevailing
conditions of evaporation.

The differences of altitude in Arizona
are accompanied by great differences in
temperature conditions. The growing
season ranges from 105 days at Flagstaff
(elevation 6886 ft.) to 310 days at Yuma.
The minimum temperatures range from
-20° at Flagstaff to 27° at Yuma, and
the maximum from 85° at Flagstaff to
115° at Yuma. The rainfall increases
with altitude from an annual average
of 3.36 in. at Yuma to 22.80 in. at Flag-
staff, and is greater in the vicinity of
large mountains than it is at the same
elevation in the open plains.

II. ORIGINAL BIOTIC REGIONS (f. S.)

Arizona may be subdivided into the
following natural landscape aspect re-
gions: Desert (Lower Sonoran Zone),
lying below 3500 ft. in the region south
of the Mogollon Mesa or below 5000
ft. to the north of it. Desert Grassland
(Upper Sonoran Zone in part), lying
above 3500 ft. and below 6000 ft., but
not of general occurrence between these
altitudes. Xerophytic Forest (Upper
Sonoran Zone in part), Ij^ing between
5000 and 7000 ft., its lower limit being

lower on mountain slopes than in open
plains. Evergreen Forest (Transition
and Canadian Zones), occuring from
elevations of 6000 to 7000 ft. to the
summits of all of the higher mountains
except the San Francisco Peaks.

A. Desert biota

1. Vegetation {F. S.). The conspic-
uous perennial vegetation of this
region consists of a relatively small
number of species, although the total
flora, including ephemeral herbaceous
plants, is large. The animal life is also
rich, particularly in small mammals,
reptiles, birds, and insects. The most
abundant and widely distributed plants
are Covillea tridentata, Franseria diimosa,
Acacia paucispina, Parkinsonia micro-
phylla, Olneya tesota, Prosopis velutina
and numerous tj^pes of cacti, chiefly
of the genus Opuntia. The level plains
are covered with low open stands of
Covillea, or else of Franseria, Acacia
and Prosopis. The flood-plains bear
relatively dense forests of Prosopis
velutina or P. glandulosa, reaching a
maximum height of 30 ft., and accom-
panied by shrubby species of Zizyphus,
Celtis and Lycium. On coarse outwash
slopes there are open forests of Parkin-
sonia, Olneya and Prosopis, reaching a
maximum height of 20 ft. and accom-
panied by a large number of small-
leaved shrubs, such as Acacia, Lycium,
Jatropha, Krameria, and Simmondsia,
together with a great diversity of cacti,
including Carnegiea, Ferocactus, Opun-
tia and Echinocereus. The vegetation
of hills and lower mountain slopes is
sometimes heavier and richer than that
of the outwash slopes, particularly in
the case of hills with highly retentive
basaltic clay soil; or in other cases is
poor and open, as on hills with soils
derived from sandstone or rhyolite.

8. Animals (C. T. V.). The most
abundant and conspicuous mammals of
this region are the desert jackrabbits,
the very interesting antelope jackrabbit
{Lepus alleni) (Limited distribution in
southern Arizona), Arizona cottontail,
small ground squirrels, kangaroo rats,

564

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

wood rat, pocket gohpers, pocket mice,
white-footed mice, skunks of the genera
{Mephitis, Spilogale, and Conepatus),
badger, (Taxidea), and several species
of bats, representing the smaller forms.
The larger predators are represented
by the fox, coyotes, {Canis mearnsi)
and others, and the wildcat or "bob-
cat," (Lynx). Peccaries, once abun-
dant (southern Arizona only) are now
scarce, and the mule deer (locally black-
tail) are still to be found in the desert.
Antelope in times past occurred plenti-
fully, but are now practically wiped
out of the desert portion of their former
range. The mountain sheep of the
desert ranges of the most arid southwest
portions of the state also belongs to
this fauna.

Turning to the reptiles we find as the
most conspicuous or interesting lizards
several species of Sceloporus, Cnemido-
phorus, and Phrynosoma, and the Gila
Monster, Heloderma suspectum. While
there is a considerable number of species
of snakes, many are comparatively
seldom seen, the commonest being the
racers, Zamenis, the Bull snake, Pitu-
ophis, and the Western Diamond Rattle-
snake, Crotalus atrox B. and G. The
"side winder" or horned rattlesnake,
C. cerastes Hall, occurs in appropriately
sandy portions of this zone. Another
interest-exciting reptile of this region
is the desert tortoise, Gopherus agassizii
Cooper.

3. List of mammals and birds (Lower
Sonoran Zone). The lower Sonoran
Zone is essentially synonymous with the
Desert area as described by Shreve.
The following is a partial list of the
present characteristic mammals and
birds of the zone.

a. Mammals^ (A. E. G.). Pipisirel-
lus hesperus hesperus, western bat;
Antrozoxis pallidus pallidus, big-eared
pale bat; Vulpes macrotis neomexicana,
New Mexican desert fox; Citellus tereti-
caudus arizonae, Arizona ground squir-

' Among species of mammals excluded are a
number such as the coyote, badger, and mountain
lion which range in all zones. Some of the species
of mammals and birds included occur extensively
in two zones as indicated.

rel; Ammospermophilus harrisii har-
risii, Harris' ground squirrel. Cynomys
ludovicianus arizonensis, Arizona prairie
dog; Thomomys fulvus toltecus, Toltec
pocket gopher; Thomomys perpallidus
chrysonotus, yellow-backed pocket
gopher; Perognathus intermedins inter-
medins, intermediate pocket mouse;
Perognathus intermedins phasma, Gila
pocket mouse; Dipodomys deserti deserti,
desert kangaroo rat; Dipodomys specta-
bilis spectabilis, banner-tailed kangaroo
rat (also Upper Sonoran); Dipodomys
ynerriami merriami, Merriam's kangaroo
rat; Onychomys torridus torridus, desert
grasshopper mouse; Peromyscus eremi-
cus eremicus, desert mouse; Peromyscns
manicnlat^is sonoriensis, Sonora white-
footed mouse (also Upper Sonoran) ;
Sigmodon hispidus eremicus, Colorado
Valley cotton rat; Sigmodon hispidus
arizonae, Arizona cotton rat; Sigmodon
hispidus confinis, Gila cotton rat;
Ncotoma albignla albigula, white-
throated wood rat (also Upper Sonoran) ;
Lepus californicus eremicus, Arizona
jackrabbit; Lepus californicus deserti-
cola, Colorado desert jackrabbit; Sylvi-
lagns audubonii arizonae, Arizona cot-
tontail (also Upper Sonoran) ; Pecari
angulatns sonoriensis, Sonora peccary;
Ovis canadensis gailliardi Gailliard's
mountain sheep (also Upper Sonoran).
b. Birds {E. A. G., and C. T. V.).
Gambel's partridge, white-winged dove,
mourning dove, Mexican ground dove,
Inca dove, elf owl, western horned
owl, road-runner, red-tailed hawk,
Texas night hawk, Texan woodpecker,
Gila woodpecker, gilded flicker, Arizona
crested flycatcher, ash-throated fly-
catcher, vermilion flycatcher, Sonora
redwing, Arizona hooded oriole, Bul-
lock's oriole, house finch, western lark
sparrow, desert sparrow, desert song
sparrow. Abort's towhee, Arizona
cardinal, Arizona pyrrhuloxia. Cooper's
tanager, phainopepla, Arizona vireo,
Lucy's warbler, Sonora yellow warbler,
western mockingbird, cactus wren,
verdin, gnatcatcher, Cassin's king bird.
Palmer's thrasher, Arizona hooded
oriole, canyon towhee.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

665

B. Temperate semi-desert

1. Vegetation {F. S.). It is only on
relatively level plains or outwash slopes
that the sparse type of desert grassland
is found, carrying with it numerous
representatives of the true desert of
lower altitudes. The hills and moun-
tain slopes lying at the same altitude are
either desert or Xerophytic Forest.
In a few localities between 5000 and
6000 ft., on granitic outwash soil, there
are grasslands in which there occurs a
nearly continuous stand of Bouteloua
curtipendula, B. oligostachya, Feetuca
arizonica, Sporobolus cryptandrus and
other grasses, with a verj^ scanty rep-
resentation of such desert forms as
Opuntia spinosior, 0. whipplci, Feroc-
actus u'islizeni, Acacia grcggii, and
Momisia pallida.

The principal part of the Desert
Grassland of Arizona consists of a very
open stand of the above, together with
numerous other species of Bouteloua,
Eragrostis, Sporobolus, Andropogon,
Hilaria, Festuca, Pappophorum and
Aristida, together with such conspicuous
plants as Yucca elata, Nolina ernmpens,
Prosopis, Acacia, Celtis and several
species of Opuntia. The Desert Grass-
land is much poorer in shrubs and small
trees than the Desert. Yucca elata is
usually present in this vegetation and
is its most striking plant, being 6 to
12 ft. in height and surmounted by
flower stalks from 3 to 4 ft. in length.

2. Animals (C. T. V.). With respect
to the animal life one can not draw much
distinction between Desert and Desert
Grassland regions without too many
specific distinctions for the limits of
this article. Of the most conspicuous
mammals mentioned for the Desert
it may be said that the antelope, mule
deer, antelope jackrabbit, banner-tailed
kangaroo rat, D. spectabilis, and wildcat
tend to be more common in the higher
regions of the Desert Grassland. For
the birds the same may be said of the
scaled quail and the cardinal, while
the western kingbird supplants the
Cassin's.

C. Xerophytic forest

1. Vegetation {F. S.). This vegetation
lies above the desert slopes of the larger
mountains and below the Evergreen
Forest, being confined to mountains in
southern Arizona, but found on plateaus
and plains in central and northern
Arizona. The dominant plants are
Juniperus pachyphloea, J. monosperma
or /. Utahensis, and Pinus edulis or
P. cembroides. With the junipers and
pinyons, especially in southern Arizona,
occur several species of evergreen oaks,
notably Quercus emoryi, Q. oblongifolia,
and Q. arizonica. In the open park-
like stand of these trees are found
numerous shrubs, as Arctostaphylos,
Garrya, Cercocarpus, Rhamus and
Fallugia, as well as several types of ^grawe
and Yucca, and a very large number of
root perennials and bunch grasses, the
whole forming an extremely diversi-
fied and very interesting type of
vegetation.

£. Animals (C. T. V.). Here we find
a greater change in the more conspicuous
faunal elements. In southern Arizona
the white tail deer is found, while from
the southern rim of the Mogollon plateau
northward the deer of this and the
montane forest are mule deer, doubtless
different forms from the desert mule
deer. The small, spotted and round-
tailed ground squirrels give way to the
larger, bushy tailed species of Citellus,
the so-called rock squirrels, while
Sciurus spp. now appear. The kit fox
gives way to the gray fox. Prairie dog
towns form a conspicuous feature of the
landscape where normally abundant.
The remarkable antelope jack drops out,
but the California jack remains, though
generally less plentiful than in the lower
zone. Peccaries, as now reduced in
numbers, are more plentiful here than
in the desert, though perhaps not origi-
nally so. The basarisk, Bassariscus,
the cougar, wolf and occasional jaguar
are among the more important new
elements in the mammalian fauna. Of
the smaller mammals mentioned for the
Desert, the changes here are chiefly in

566

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

species or varieties and not in genera,
though a Eutamias appears.

Among the birds we find now the
Mearn's quail (restricted practically
to southern Arizona, however), Ste-
phen's whippoorwill, cuckoo, ash-
throated flycatcher, canyon wren, and
rock wren.

The collared lizard is rather Upper
Sonoran than Lower Sonoran, and the
Gila monster occasionally is found here,
while new species of lizards of the desert
genera mentioned, rather than new
genera, mark the changes. The com-
monest rattlesnake is now C. molossus
B. and G., in southern Arizona partic-
ularly, some confluentus Sag. and others
in the northern portion.

D. List of mammals and birds: Semi-
desert and arid coniferous forest
(Upper Sonoran Zone)

1. Mammals (E. A. G.). Otosper-
mophihis variegatus juglans, rock squir-
rel; Citellus spilosoma macro spilotus,
oracle spotted ground squirrel; Citellus
spilosoma praiensis, plateau spotted
ground squirrel (also Transition) ; Am-
mospermophilus leucurus cinnamomeus,
cinnamon antelope squirrel; Cynomys
gunnisoni zuniensis, Zuni prairie dog
(also Transition) ; Butamias quadrivit-
tatus hopiensis, painted desert chipmunk ;
Sciurus arizonensis arizonensis, Arizona
squirrel; Thomomys latirostris, painted
desert pocket gopher; Perognathus flavus
himaculatus, Yavapai pocket mouse;
Dipodomys spectablis spectabilis, ban-
ner-tailed kangaroo rat (also Lower
Sonoran) ; Dipodomys ordii longipes,
painted desert kangaroo rat; Onychomys
leucogaster melanophrys, dusky grass-
hopper mouse; Peromyscus maniculatus
sonoriensis, Sonora white-footed mouse
(also Lower Sonoran) ; Peromyscus boylei
rowleyi, Rowley's mouse (also Transi-
tion); Peromyscus truei truei, True's
mouse; Sigmodon minimus minimus,
buff -bellied cotton rat; Neotoma albigula
albigula, white-throated wood rat (also
Lower Sonoran) ; Neotoma lepida lepida,
Thomas' wood rat; Neotoma lepida
stephensi, Stephens' wood rat; Neotoma

cinerea arizonae, Arizona bushy-tailed
wood rat; Lepus californicus texianus,
Texas jackrabbit; Sylvilagus audubonii
arizonae, Arizona cottontail (also Lower
Sonoran); Sylvilagus audubonii warrcni,
Colorado cottontail; Odocoilcus couesi,
Coues' white-tailed deer (also Transition
and Canadian) ; Ovis canadensis gail-
liardi, Gailliard's mountain sheep (also
Lower Sonoran).

2. Birds (E. A. G., and C. T. V.).
Scaled partridge, Mearns' Massena
partridge, Arizona woodpecker. Wood-
house's jay, Arizona jay, pinyon jay,
Brewer's blackbird, Scott's sparrow,
black-headed Grosbeak (also Transi-
tion), desert wren, bridled titmouse,
Stephens' whippoorwill, rock wren.

E. Mountain coniferous forest

The evergreen coniferous forest of
Arizona is found almost throughout
the portions of the state above 7000 ft.
in altitude, and in favorable localities
it may be found as low as 6000 ft. The
largest body of forest extends from the
vicinity of the San Francisco peaks
southeastward to the New Mexican
line.

1. Lower Mountain Forest. Vege-
tation (Transition Zone) (F. S.).
At the lower edge of the largest areas
or forest and on the small isolated moun-
tain ranges the forest is a relatively
open stand of pines (Pinus scopulorum
or P. arizonica), sometimes with a clear
floor, sometimes with an undergrowth
of trees and shrubs such as are char-
acteristic of the Xerophytic Forest, or
others of higher range. In northern
Arizona the commonest undershrubs
and small trees are Querexis gamheli,
which occurs singly or in large mottes,
Robinia neo^mexicana, Arctostaphylos
pungens, Cercocarpus parvifolius, Fal-
lugia paradoxa, Rhus trilobata, Cean-
othus greggii and Artemisia tridentata,
the latter being frequent in extensive
close stands. In southern Arizona the
commonest undertrees and shrubs are
Quercus hypoleuca, Q. reticidata, Arbutus
arizonica, Ceanothus fendleri, and Robi-
nia neo-mexicana. Throughout the state

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

567

the pine forests are very rich in suffrut-
escent or herbaceous perennials, chiefly
composites and legumes, while the
number of annual species is extremely
small.

b. Animals (C. T. V.). In this belt
are found Mule Deer (northern Arizona)
whitetail deer (south of the Mogollon
Rim). Abert, Kaibab and tuft-eared
squirrels, Sciurus spp., porcupine, and
black bear are the principal conspicuous
additions to the fauna. The rodent
genera Peromyscus, Sigmodon, Perogna-
thus, and even Citclliis drop out wholly
or in large part, while Microtus, and
Eutamias appear as new elements.
Most of the skunk and bat species also
disappear.

Merriam's Turkey, the Band-tailed
Pigeon, and the Steller Jay are the
largest and perhaps best known new
elements of the avifauna of this belt.
Many warblers and other small birds
breed here.

Reptiles are scarce in this belt, though
some of the less common species such
as Crotalus willardi Meek, and Gerrhono-
tus kingii have been taken at an altitude
above 9000 ft. in southern Arizona, and
at least one species of Phyrnosoma is
commonly found.

2. List of birds and mammals (Tran-
sition Zone), a. Mammals (A. E. G.).
Mxistela arizonensis, Arizona weasel
(also Canadian) ; Callospermophilus la-
teralis arizonensis, Arizona golden-man-
tled squirrel (also Canadian); Citellus
spilosoma pratensis, plateau spotted
ground squirrel (also Upper Sonoran);
Cynomys gunnisoni zuniensis, Zuni prai-
rie dog (also Upper Sonoran) ; Eutamias
cinereicollis cinereicollis, San Francisco
mountain chipmunk (also Canadian);
Eutamias dorsalis dorsalis, Baird's chip-
munk; Sciurus fremonti mogollonensis,
Mogollon squirrel; Sciurus apache,
Apache squirrel; Sciurus aberti aberti,
Abert's squirrel; Sciurus kaibabensis,
Kaibab squirrel; Thomomys fulvus ful-
viis, Fulvous pocket gopher (also Cana-
dian); Peromyscus maniculatus rufinus,
tawny white-footed mouse (also Cana-
dian); Peromyscus boylii rouieyi, Row-

ley's mouse, (also Upper Sonoran);
Neotoma mexicana pinetorum, San Fran-
cisco mountain wood rat (also Canadian)
Microtus montanus arizonensis, Arizona
meadow mouse; Microtus mogollonensis,
Mogollon meadow mouse; Sylvilagus
nuttalli pinetis, Rocky Mountain cot-
tontail; Odocoileus hemionus hemionus.
Rocky Mountain mule deer (also Cana-
dian) ; Odocoileus couesi, Coues' white-
tailed deer (also Canadian).

b. Birds (A. E. G., and C. T. V.).
Merriam's turkey (also Canadian),
band-tailed pigeon (also Canadian),
white-breasted woodpecker, broad-
tailed hummingbird, rufous hum-
mingbird, Coues' flycatcher, Richard-
son's flycatcher, western evening gros-
beak, red-backed j unco (also Canadian),
chestnut backed junco, spurred
towhee (also Canadian), green tailed
towhee, black-headed grosbeak (also
Upper Sonoran), Louisiana tanager,
western tanager, northern violet green
swallow, Audubon's warbler (also Cana-
dian), red-faced warbler (also Cana-
dian), MacGillivray's warbler, western
house wren (also Canadian), sierra
madre creeper (also Canadian),
rocky mountain nuthatch (also Cana-
dian), pygmy nuthatch (also Canadian),
chestnut-backed bluebird, painted red-
start.

F. Upper mountain forest

1. Vegetation {F. S.). In the elevated
parts of the Evergreen Forest the pines
that have been mentioned are absent,
the genus being represented by the less
abundant Pinus flexilis and P. strobifor-
mis. The dominant trees here are
Abies concolor, Pseudotsuga taxifolia
and Picea engelmannii. The lower limit
of this vegetation (Canadian zone)
varies according to slope exposure and
other conditions from 7500 to 9000 ft.
In it the trees are large, the stand is
heavj^ and the number of shrubby species
is large. The most common deciduous
tree is Populus treynuloides, which often
covers old burns in extensive pure
stands. Along streams and in the more
open parts of the forest are to be found

568

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Alnus oblongifolia, A. tenuifolia, Acer
grandidentatum and A. brachypterum,
as well as the shrubs Symphoricarpos,
Ribes, Cornus, Jamesia, Sorbus, and
Pachystima. The herbaceous plants
are chiefly of northern relationship,
with their activity confined to the
earliest weeks of the brief growing
season.

2. Animals (Canadian Zone) (A. E.
G.). a. Mammals. Sorex vagrans mon-
ticola, San. Francisco mountain shrew;
Mtistela arizonensis, Arizona weasel
(also Transition); Callosperm,ophilus la-
teralis arizonensis, golden-mantled
squirrel (also Transition) ; Eutamias
minimus arizonensis, Arizona chipmunk ;
Eutamias cinereicollis cinereicollis, San
Francisco mountain chipmunk (also
Transition) ; Sciurus fremonti mogol-
lonensis, MogoUon squirrel; Sciurus
fremonti grahamensis, Graham moun-
tain's squirrel; Thomomys fulvus fulvus,
Fulvous pocket gohper (also Transi-
tion); Peromyscus maniculatus rufinus,
tawny white-footed mouse (also Transi-
tion) ; Neotoma mexicana pinetorum,
San Francisco mountain wood rat
(also Transition) ; Microtus alticola alti-
cola, San Francisco mountain meadow
mouse; Microtus alticola leucophaeus,
Graham Mountain's meadow mouse;
Odocoileus hemionus hemionus, Rocky
Mountain mule deer (also Transition);
Odocoileus couesi, Coues' white-tailed
deer.

b. Birds. Merriam's turkey (also
Transition), band-tailed pigeon (also
Transition)^ white-breasted woodpecker,
olive-sided flycatcher, Richardson's fly-
catcher, long-crested jay, Clarke's nut-
cracker, pine siskin, red-backed junco
(also Transition), Arizona junco, spur-
red towhee (also Transition), green-
tailed towhee, northern violet green
swallow, olive warbler, Audubon's warb-
ler (also Transition), red-faced warbler
(also Transition), western house wren
(also Transition), Sierra madre creeper
(also Transition), Rocky Mountain
nuthatch (also Transition), pygmy nut-
hatch (also Transition), Townsend's
solitaire. Rocky Mountain hermit thrush
mountain bluebird.

III. PRESENT BIOTA

Original conditions with respect to
plant life have been modified in varying
degree. None of the major vegetational
types have been destroyed, however,
except on local areas. Cultivation has
made very limited inroads. Lumbering
and fire have devastated considerable
areas of forest, but still larger bodies
remain in the virgin state. Very few
localities are free from the influence
of domestic grazing animals; but sub-
stantial areas of all vegetational types
are nearly in a natural state.

Wild animal life has been disturbed
by the activities of man to a greater
extent, perhaps, than plant life. Game
laws and game refuges promise to pre-
serve animals subject to extermination,
but such artificial restrictions will not
restore a natural balance. Among the
wild animals still more or less abundant
are bear, cougar, bob-cat coyote, deer,
pronghor antelope, beaver, black-tailed
jackrabbit, Abert squirrel, Kaibab squir-
rel, horned lark, road-runner, dusky
grouse, Arizona jay, pinyon jay, Clarks
nutcracker, Merriam's turkey, ducks
and geese. Lakes and streams are
as a rule artificially stocked with fish.
Those which occur in the high moun-
tains are fairly free from pollution.

IV. NATURAL AREAS

*Grand Canyon National Park. Area
312,290 acres. Altitudes range from
2000 at the bottom of the canyon to
over 8000 on the north rim. The higher
plateau country bears magnificent for-
ests of virgin yellow pine (Pinus ponde-
rosa scopulorum. In the canyon may
be found a great variety of vegetation
ranging from extreme desert types to
the moisture-loving forms occupying
north exposures and water courses.
Timber cutting and hunting are pro-
hibited, but cattle grazing is permitted.

Grand Canyont, A. T. & S. F. R. R.

Apache Indian Reservation. 1,681,920
acres in east central Arizona. Altitudes
range from 4000 to 11,000 ft., and vegeta-
tional zones from desert-grassland to
spruce forest.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

569

Holbrookt, 75 mi. south, A. T. & S.
F. R. R. White River, Agency Head-
quarters.

Colorado River Indian Reservation.
272,027 acres in southwestern Arizona.
Extreme desert mostly below 1000 ft.,
elevation; mountains, arid mesas and
irrigable valley along Colorado River.

ParkerJ, A. T. & S. F. R. R.

Gila River Indian Reservation. 371,422
acres in southern Arizona. Desert with
mountains, arid mesas, and irrigable
valleys. Giant cactus, Parkinsonia,
Fouquieria and other desert plants.

Casa GrandeJ, 25 mi. north, S. P.
R. R. ; Sacaton, Agency Headquarters.

Gila Bend Indian Reservation. 10,231
acres in southwestern Arizona. Desert,
mainly below 2000 ft. Typical desert
vegetation.

Gila Bendl, S. P. R. R. Agency
Headquarters.

Navajo Indian Reservation. 8,783,997
acres in northeastern Arizona. Alti-
tudes range from 4000 to 9000 ft., and
vegetational zones from semi-desert to
coniferous forest. Navajo National
Park, area about one square mi., lies
within the reservation. It contains
petrified forests, a natural bridge and
ancient cliff dwellings.

Flagstafft, 75 mi. northeast, A. T.
& S. F. R. R. ; Tuba City, Agency Head-
quarters western division.

Gallupt, N. M., 30 mi. northwest,
A. T. & S. F. R. R.; Fort Defiance,
Agency Headquarters eastern division.

Hopi (Moqui) Indian Reservation.
2,472,320 acres in northeastern Arizona.
Altitudes range from 4000 to 5000 ft.,
and vegetational zones from semi-
desert to woodland.

Holbrookl, 75 mi. north, A. T. &
S. F. R. R. ; Keams Canyon, Agency
Headquarters.

Ilualapai Indian Reservation. 730,940
acres in northwestern Arizona, border-
ing on the Grand Canyon. Altitudes
from 4000 to 5000 ft.

KingmanJ, 30 mi. northeast, A. T. &
S. F. R. R.; Valentinel, Agencj^ Head-
quarters.

Kaibah Indian Reservation. Area
138,240 acres, northwestern Arizona.
Altitude ranges from 4000 to 5000 ft.

Papago Indian Reservation. 2,285,068
acres extending to the southern border
of Arizona. The altitude is mainly
below 1000 ft. This reservation rep-
resents the most extreme type of desert.

It can be traversed by automobile
starting from Tucson or Casa GrandeJ,
S. P. R. R., west about 25 mi.

Salt River Indian Reservation. 71,691
acres in southern Arizona. Desert,
mostly below 3000 ft. elevation. Giant
cactus and other typical desert veg-
etation.

Phoenixl, A. T. & S. F. and A. E. R. R.

San Carlos Indian Reservation.
1,834,240 acres in east-central Arizona.
Altitudes range from 4000 to 9000 ft.
Semi-desert to coniferous forest.

GlobeJ, S. P. R. R.

Military reservations in Arizona

a

H

<!

S

NEAREST

NAME

LOCATION

<

sq.

TOWNt

RAILROAD

mi.

Buckeye . . .

Southwest

3

Phoenix

A. E.

Douglas. . .

Southeast

3

Douglas

E. P. &

S. W.

Ft. Hua-

chuca ...

South

80

Ft. Hua-
chuca

E. P. &
S. W.

Ft. Apacbe.

East-Cen-

15

Hol-

A. T. & S.

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brook

F.

Florence... .

South

20

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Mesa

South

2

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A. E.

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Barracks.

Central

5

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S.F.P.&P.

Wilmot ...

South

5

Tucson

S. P.: E.
P. & S. W.

Yuma

Southwest

2

Yuma

S. P.

National inonuments

Petrified
Forest . .

Papago

Sahuaro.

Casa

Grande. .
Walnut

Canyon

Montezuma
Castle. .

LOCATION

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RAILROAD

A. T. &

S. F.

S. F. P. &
P.; A.E.

Ariz. E.

A. T. &

S. F.

S. F. P. &
P.

570

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

4. NEW MEXICO

By a. O. Weese

i. general features and
original biota

1. Physiographic regions

a. Great Plains. Included in this
region is approximately the eastern
third of the state. The most important
subdivision is the valley of the Pecos
river which drains southward into the
Rio Grande.

b. The Southern Rockies extend into
the north central portion of the State
from Colorado, and continue as some-
what isolated chains southward into
western Texas.

c. The Rio Grande Valley, which cuts
through the state from north to south,
is generally placed, with a small area
in the southwestern corner drained by
the Gila and its tributaries, in the
"Basin and Range" province.

d. The Colorado Plateau occupies that
part of the western half of the state not
included above. Mount Taylor, with
its associated lava-capped mesas, is the
most conspicuous elevation in this
region.

2. Geographic and local plant and
animal communities

The greater part of the state is char-
acterized by a temperate grassland
broken by rocks, ravines, high and low
mountains, etc. The second largest
area is eastern succulent semi-desert
in the south central part and Pecos
valley. There are also considerable
areas of xerophytic coniferous forest
and of mountain coniferous forest.

a. Grassland. For plant communities
see under Texas (page 507) and Arizona
(page 565).

Characteristic animals are the prong-
horn antelope, the coyote and the
prairie dog. The bison also, at one
time, ranged over the greater part of
this area. There are many local varia-
tions due to mountains and edaphic

conditions, such as the presence of
streams, playas, saline areas and rock
outcroppings.

h. Eastern succulent semi-desert. See
under Texas (page 109).

c. Forests. About one-fifth of the
state is covered with forest, i.e., in the
Southern Rockies and the higher parts
of the Colorado Plateau. These for-
ests, except along water-courses, are
of the semi-desert coniferous type,
becoming increasingly mesophytic with
increasing altitude.

For xerophytic coniferous forest see
under Arizona (page 565) and for moun-
tain conifer see under Colorado (page
524).

d. Cross section. A typical transect
from Rio Grande Valley regions to the
top of an adjacent peak of the Rocky
Mountains would show a series of com-
munities about as follows:

(a) River Valley Communities

1. Mud-flat. Tiger beetle (Ci-

cindela hirticollis)

2. Cottonwood forest — Juncus

meadow savanna. Tiger bee-
tle (Cicindela vulgaris), west-
ern meadow lark.

3. Bigelovia association. Blister

beetle {Cysteodemus wis-
lizeni).

(b) Semi-desert ("mesa") formation.

Pronghorn antelope, coyote,
prairie-dog, desert horned lark,
beetles (Eleodiini).

(c) Cedar (Juniperus monosperma).
Western diamondback rattler {Crotalus
a. atrox) and collared lizard (Crotaphytus
collaris haileyi),

(d) Pinyon (Pinus edulis) The fence
Uzard{Sceloporus undulatus) jPinyon jay .

(^) Yellow pine (Pinus ponder osa),
Black bear, mule deer, band-tailed
pigeon.

(/) Douglas fir {Pseudotsuga mucro-
naia). Lynx, dusky grouse, elk.

{g) Engelmann spruce {Picea en-
gelmannii).

(h) Alpine meadow and chaparral
associations. Bighorn sheep (also in g),
white-tailed ptarmigan.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

571

II. PRESENT BIOTIC CONDITIONS

Relatively small areas, except in some
of the valleys, have been utilized for
agriculture, but grazing has done a great
deal to alter former conditions, espe-
cially in the short-grass regions, and to
a lesser extent in the forests. In many
places the original grasses have been
almost entirely replaced by such plants
as Gutierrezia and Russian thistle
(Salsola). Efforts are being made to-
ward the extermination of prairie dogs
and other characteristic rodents which
interfere with the complete utilization
of the land, as well as so-called preda-
tory animals such as the coyote. The
bison, which formerly ranged to points
west of the Rio Grande, remains only in
captivity, and the prong -horn owes its
preservation from final extinction to a
few interested ranchers. Compara-
tively little lumbering has been done,
and in all of the National Forests (see
Pearson's account of D-3 National
Forests, page 232) are considerable
areas, inaccessible for grazing purposes,
practically undisturbed except in so
far as the larger animals have been
killed off by sportsmen and government
hunters of predatory animals. The
Arizona elk, which made its last stand
in northwestern New Mexico, has
entirely disappeared, while individuals
of the northern form have been brought
back to the state within recent years
and are reported to be flourishing.
There are a few mountain sheep in the
Guadalupe mountains on the southern
border. The ranges and numbers of all
other large animals have been sharply
reduced.

III. NATURAL AREAS

The National Forests of New Mexico:
(Carson, Santa Fe, Manzano, Lincoln,
Datil, and Gila) comprise an area of
approximately 9^ million acres, located
mainly in the Rocky Mountain and
Colorado Plateau regions of the state.
About half of this area is in the pinyon
and juniper zones. For further de-
scription refer to the section on National
Forests.

1. U. S. Preserves, exclusive of National
Forests

*Bandelier National Monument. See
account of Santa Fe National Forest,
Jemez division, in National Forests of
the Southwestern District (page 000).

*Chaco Canyon National Monument.
(B2.) 36 sq. mi. semi-desert with moun-
tain, canyon and rocky situations.
Near Putnam, San Juan County.
Reached via Gallup (60 mi.) on main
line of A. T. & S. F. Ry.

*Carlsbad Bird Preserve. (B3.) 36
sq. mi. savanna, marsh, pond, river,
with land and water birds. Eddy
County, two mi. from Lakewood, on
Pecos Valley branch of A. T. & S. F.

2. Available for preservation

A. Stinking Lake. (B2.) 8 sq. mi.

of swamp and Lake. Rio Arriba
County, 4 mi. from El Vado.
Reached via Chama on D, & R. G.
Ry. Should be made a Bird
Preserve, as it is the most im-
portant breeding ground for
aquatic birds in the state.

B. Areas suggested for reservation

in the national forests by G. A.

Pearson :
a. Upper desert:

1. Manzano National Forest.
Montezuma Ranger Sta-
tion. Camp pasture, 30
mi. southwest of Moun-
tainair. Go to L. H.
Claunch ranch about 25
mi. south of Mountainair,
known locally as Pueblo
Pardo Ranch. From there,
follow dim road 6 to 7 mi.
west by auto. (Sandy.)
Woodland and grassland
(Talbot).

2. Jornado Range Reserve.

Areas under fence to be
selected.

3. Santa Fe National Forest.

Abundant material avail-
able within forest bounda-
ries or on federal domain
nearby. Fencing prob-
ably necessary. — G. A. P.

572

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

6. Woodland:

1. Santa Fe National Forest.

City watershed of Las
Vegas may be suitable,

2. Carson National Forest. All

around Taos Junction.
Disadvantage here is poor
railroad facilities and hotel
accommodations. Most of
the accessible areas in
northern New Mexico have
been cut over and over-
grazed for centuries.

3. Fort Bayard Military Reser-

vation. This is all fenced,
but stock are grazed in-
side.—(?. A. P.

c. Yellow pine :

1. Lincoln National Forest. In

Guadaloupe division is an
area of yellow pine and
brush which is very rough
and little grazed.

2. Datil National Forest. Good

areas typical yellow pine
are available, but they
are difficult of access. — ■
G. A. P.

d. Douglas fir:

1. Lincoln National Forest.

Cloudcroft Reserve. This
contains fine stands of
Douglas fir and yellow
pine.

2. Santa Fe National Forest.

Fir and spruce stands in
country between Santa Fe
Las Vegas. — G. A. P.

e. Alpine type :

1. Top of. Santa Fe Baldy.

2. Top of Jicarilla Peak.

3. Top of Mt. Taylor (prob-

ably).—G. A. P.

IV. PLACES TO STOP FOR STUDY

For the convenience of the ecologist
who wishes to make a survey of the most
important biotic communities of the
state, the following list of favorable
points for study is given. As it is
probable that most persons desiring
such a list will wish to make their ob-
servations in the course of a transcon-

tinental trip along one of the main lines
of travel, it has been arranged with
reference to those lines. In all cases
hotel accommodations and facilities for
excursions into the surrounding country
are available.

Santa Fe-Main Line

This railway enters the state from
Colorado through the Raton Tunnel,
near which is the highest point on the
line. Raton lies just on the southern
side of a spur of the Rockies and on the
edge of the high plains, over which the
road passes until it again approaches the
southern end of the Rockies after leav-
ing Las Vegas. A favorable point from
which to observe this region is Glorieta
(Hotel accommodations must be ar-
ranged for in advance; address Valley
Ranch), from which excursions may be
made into the heart of the mountains.
Santa Fe, at the edge of the Rockies
on the Rio Grande valley side, is reached
by way of a branch line from Lamy.
Santa Fe is the center of the archeolog-
ical interest of the region, and from
this point excursions may be arranged
covering the entire Rocky Mountain and
Rio Grande Valley regions. Bandelier
National Monument, within the borders
of the Santa Fe National Forest, contains
some of the most important of the
remains of the prehistoric peoples of
New Mexico. Albuquerque is located
on the Rio Grande, and the series of
communities listed in Section I, 2, of this
sketch is to be observed within easy
reach. Gallup is an important point
of departure for the study of the higher
portions of the Colorado Plateau.

The Rio Grande Valley may be trav-
ersed by making a detour at Albuquer-
que via the El Paso line of the Santa Fe,
and proceeding by way of the Southern
Pacific from El Paso.

Santa Fe-Southern Route

This line enters the state from Texas,
crossing the Pecos Valley, and joining
the main line near Albuquerque.
Favorable places for study are Clovis,
Fort Sumner and Vaughn, all in the

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

573

Great Plains steppe region. The lower
Pecos Valley maj' be reached by way of
a branch line from Clovis.

Rock Island-Southern Pacific

This line enters the state at Tucum-
cari in the high plains region, crosses
the Pecos at Santa Rosa, and approaches
the isolated White and Sacramento
mountains at Carrizozo and Alamo-
gordo, respectively. To the west of
the railway line and between the moun-
tains just mentioned and the San
Andreas range, bordering the Rio
Grande Valley, lie the Tularosa Plains.
Occupying a great part of this basin,
which has no drainage outlet, are saline
and alkaline marshes and flats, and a
great area of about 350 sq. mi. of gypsum
dunes. A portion of this area was
included in the proposed "All-Year
National Park, ' ' which failed of approval
because of some very undesirable fea-
tures of the bill for its creation. Pro-
vision should be made for its preserva-
tion without interference with the

present policy of the National Park
System. This ref^'on may be best
reached from Alan^ ordo.

Stinking Lake Bird Reservation
{New Mexico)

10 sq. mi. swamp and lake. Breeding
ground for water fowl. 7000 ft. Tierra
Amarilla, 20 mi. west, (a) (h) 4 mi. W.
(h) El Vado. Should be made State or
Federal bird reservation. — A. 0. Weese.

REFERENCES

de

Baca, T. G. 1917 Report of the
Game and Fish Warden of New
Mexico, 1915-1916. Santa Fe.
Watson, J. R. 1911 A contribution to
the study of the ecological distribu-
tion of the animal life of north cen-
tral New Mexico with especial refer-
ence to the insects. Rep. Nat. Res.
Survey, N. M., 1: 57-117.
1912 Plant geography of north cen-
tral New Mexico. Bot. Gaz., 54:
194-217.

S. Forest Service^ 1922 The na-
tional forests of New Mexico, Dept.
Circular 240. U. S. D. A. 1-21.

' Authors not designated.

u

Section 3. The Tropics North of the Equator

A. Mexico and Central America

1. MEXICO

By E. W. Nelson and E. A. Goldman

I. Introduction

The following brief outline is based on
information gathered by the authors in
the course of field investigations in
Mexico, begun in 1892, and continued
with short interruptions until 1906.
Nearly all of the higher mountain
ranges and principal valleys were vis-
ited, and field travel extended into
every state and territory in the Re-
public, including an overland journey
the entire length of Lower California.

II. General Features and
Native Biota

a. topography

Mexico, extending from about latitude
14° to 32° 42' North, and longitude 86°
40' to 117° 10' West from Greenwich,
presents an extraordinary diversity of
physiographic and biologic conditions.
It is crossed near the center by the
Tropic of Cancer, well to the south of
which the land mass culminates on
Mount Orizaba (having an elevation of
more than 18,000 ft., and the highest
mountain in North America south of
Alaska) in an elevated section including
other timberline peaks, one of which,
the extinct Volcano of Ixtaccihuatl,
bears small receding glaciers on its
upper slopes.

All of the 12 or 15 highest mountain
peaks of Mexico are of volcanic origin
and are grouped about the southern
border of the tableland. Orizaba, on
the east, fronts the Gulf of Mexico, and
the Volcano of Colima looks over the
Pacific. Scattered irregularly between
these peaks are the other higher moun-
tains, including those about the Valley

of Mexico, The Volcano of Colima is
still active at intervals and Popocatepetl
sends out smoke and steam from small
vents in the crater walls.

The salient physical features of the
Mexican mainland are simple. The
greater part of the area is occupied by
what is termed the tableland or great
interior plateau. This is an obtusely
triangular area having an elevation of
from 1500 to 3000 ft. in the north and
rising from 7000 to 8000 at the apex of
the triangle, which forms its southern
end, in the region of the Valley of
Mexico. The tableland has the form
of a rolling plain broken here and there
by escarpments and with irregularly
scattered mountains rising island-like
on its surface, some of them attaining
altitudes from 6000 to 11,000 ft. On
the west the tableland is bordered by
the Sierra Madre Occidental, as the
southern extension of the Rocky Moun-
tains from the United States is called,
and on the east by the Sierra Madre
Oriental.

For most of the distance on the eastern
and western flanks of the tableland
these mountains slope up so gradually
from the tableland that they do not
appear as large ranges. On the eastern
and western fronts, facing the coasts,
the rise from the low base level on the
coastal plains is abrupt and often rug-
ged, presenting the contours of strongly
developed mountain ranges. Between
the low coastal bases of the ranges
extend gently sloping coastal plains
varying from 25 to more than 100 mi.
in width, across which flow the rivers
draining the mountain slopes. The
southern end of the tableland narrows
with the general narrowing of the con-
tinental area, which brings the mountain
ranges together and forms a broken

574

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

575

mountainous region which occupies
most of the State of Oaxaca and is
limited to the southeast by the Isthmus
of Tehuantepec. This isthmus is a
broad trough-shaped pass, with an
elevation of only about 800 ft. in the
highest part, extending across the
narrowed continent between the Atlan-
tic and Pacific coasts. Be3'ond this, to
the east again rises a broad generally
mountainous area reaching an altitude
of more than 8000 ft., which extends
southward as the elevated interior of
Guatemala, and thence continues more
brokenly into other parts of Central
America.

The principal mountain range of
Mexico, the Sierra Madre Occidental,
as already mentioned, is the southern
extension of the Rocky IMountain sys-
tem. It is broken into sections by
passes, each marked by a river canyon
and along the Lerma Valley by a broad
plain. An offset range located parallel
to the coast in Guerrero is known as the
Sierra Madre del Sur, which extends
southeasterly through Oaxaca to unite
with the southern end of the Sierra
Madre Oriental. The two great eastern
and western mountain sj'stems of ]\Iex-
ico reach their greatest development
in the southern extension, between the
ISth and 20th parallels of latitude.
There they mark a region of tremendous
volcanic activity and the highest peaks,
from 15,000 to over 18,000 ft. in altitude,
stand up boldly, towering high above
the surface of the tableland which,
about their base, has elevations of from
7000 to 8000 ft.

The Peninsula of Lower California
has a single, definite mountain range of
varying elevation extending near the
eastern coast nearh^ its entire length,
to end on the shore of La Paz Bay.
This range has an abrupt slope fronting
the Gulf of California but descends
gently toward the Pacific. The range
begins at an elevation of about 4000 ft.
on the California border as a southern
extension of the San Jacinto Mountains
of southern California, and about 150
mi. farther south rises to an altitude of

more than 10,000 ft. on La Providencia
Peak. Near La Paz the mountains are
interrupted by a low gap south of which,
near the western side of the peninsula,
rises the short Sierra de la Victoria,
which has an altitude of from 3000 to
6000 ft., with occasional peaks rising
1000 or 2000 ft. higher.

In addition to the main mountains
mentioned above, the land surface of
Mexico is here and there diversified
by minor ranges.

The long, narrow valley of Toluca in
the State of Mexico is the highest in the
Republic. It has an altitude of about
8200 ft. and is inclosed on three sides
b}^ high mountains, the drainage being
to the north. The valley floor about 15
mi. broad consists of open sloping,
treeless plains with extensive centrally
located marshes forming the principal
sources of the Rio Lerma, which flows
north and westerly into the Pacific and
is the longest river wholly within Mexi-
can territory. The valley of Mexico,
separated from the valley of Toluca by
the Sierra de las Cruces, is much larger
and more oval in form, but of similar
character. This basin in which is
located the City of Mexico, at about
7400 ft. altitude, contains lakes Tezcoco,
Chalco, Xochimilco, and several of
smaller size, together with extensive
marsh areas.

Coastal plains form a well defined
lowland belt, between the shore line
and the basal slopes of mountains,
along the entire Pacific littoral of Mex-
ico, both on the mainland and in places
on the western side of the peninsula
of Lower California. These are inter-
rupted in places where the mountain
spurs or ridges extend to the shore line.
The seaboard of the Gulf of ^Mexico
has a broader coastal plain which merges
into that which covers all the peninsula
of Yucatan, including the states of
Yucatan, Campeche, and the territory
of Quintana Roo, together with the
neighboring state of Tabasco, the
general area consisting almost wholly
of nearly level, or gently rolling tropical
lowlands, with slight elevation,

676

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Owing to the shortness of watersheds
and the mountainous character of the
more humid portions of Mexico most
of the rivers are torrential streams, of
which some of the largest on the Gulf
side are navigable for small steamers a
short distance only from the sea. Aside
from the Rio Grande del Norte and the
Rio Colorado, both of which are mainly
in the United States, the longest river
of the Republic is the Rio Lerma or
Rio Santiago, as it is termed below
Lake Chapala. This river cuts its way
from its sources above 9000 ft. in the
mountains about the valley of Toluca,
northwesterly through the Laguna de
Chapala to the Pacific in the state of
Nayarit. The Rio de las Balsas drains
the southern slopes of the lofty group
of mountains forming the southern
border of the valley of Mexico and the
highlands of Puebla and northern
Oaxaca and flows through a broad in-
terior valley of arid tropical character.
Its general course is westward into the
Pacific in Guerrero. The Rio Yaqui
flows through great canyons from the
high northern part of the western slope
of the Sierra Madre Occidental into the
Gulf of California. The Rio Mayo,
Rio del Fuerte, and many other western
slope streams traverse rugged canyons
in nearly parallel courses from the
highest part of the Sierra Madre to the
sea. The rivers of eastern Mexico are
short as compared with some western
slope streams, owing in part to the more
abrupt eastern escarpment of the table-
land region. As their watersheds, how-
ever, occupy regions of greater precipi-
tation the principal streams of the Gulf
slope gather an immense volume of
water which form torrents in the moun-
tains and become sluggish floods in
traversing the coastal plain where they
afford navigation for short distances by
small steamers. The Rio Panuco drains
the eastern slopes of the tableland region
with many ramifications mainly in the
states of Vera Cruz, Hidalgo, Queretaro,
and San Luis Potosi and enters the
Gulf at Tampico. The Rio Papaloapan,
with a very short main trunk, combines

near its mouth several large streams
including the San Juan, flowing from
the mountains of northern Oaxaca into
the Gulf south of the port of Vera Cruz.
Two large rivers, the Rio Grijalva and
Rio Usumacinta rise not far apart in
the high mountains of southwestern
Guatemala and after following widely
divergent courses flow through mouths
not far apart into the Gulf of Campeche,
on the coast of Tabasco. The Rio
Nazas, of the northern part of the table-
land region carries the drainage of a
section of the eastern slope of the
Sierra Madre Occidental eastward from
Durango to the sink of the Laguna de
Meyran, a small body of water with no
outlet, in southwestern Coahuila.

Through long coijtinued erosion the
drainage channels of several streams
flowing into the Pacific have cut through
the Sierra Madre Occidental in the
states of Chihuahua and Durango and
are now draining parts of the eastern
slopes of these mountains and adjacent
tablelands in both Durango and
Chihuahua.

The largest lake in Mexico is the
Laguna de Chapala in the state of
Jalisco. This lake receives the waters
of the Rio Lerma which are discharged
from an outlet not far from the mouth
of this river. The stream below the
lake is known as the Rio Santiago.
Other notable depressions are filled by
lakes Cuitzeo and Patzcuaro in Micho-
acan, and lakes Tezcoco, Chalco, and
Xochimilco in the valley of Mexico, all
of which are comparatively shallow.

B. CLIMATE

Climatic conditions in Mexico vary
greatly, due not only to differences in
latitude between the northern and
southern portions, but also in accord-
ance with highly diversified local con-
ditions of elevation, slope exposure,
direction of prevailing winds, and other
factors. In general the climate of
eastern Mexico is most humid in the
southern portion and the region of the
higher mountains, the precipitation
decreasing_rapidly toward the north,

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

577

especially in the tableland region where
it slopes down to the lower Rio Grande,
and in Lower California. Much of the
peninsula of Yucatan, however, is
comparatively arid as are also some
sections of the low Gulf strip in Vera
Cruz and the narrow coastal plains
bordering the Pacific. The dryest re-
gions of the Republic are the north-
western part of Sonora and the section
of Lower California extending from
about the thirtieth parallel of latitude
to La Paz.

In these regions, and to a somewhat
lesser extent on the plains of north-
eastern Mexico, the annual precipitation
is slight. The aridity of the Pacific
coastal plains of southern Mexico is due
to the distribution of the rainfall during
the year, rather than to any lack of
total precipitation. The year is divided
into a wet and dry season, and it is to the
length of the dry season that the gen-
erally arid condition so well reflected
in the character of the vegetation is due.
The climate of the northern part of the
Sierra Madre Occidental in summer is
similar to that of the southern part of
the Rocky Mountain region in southern
Arizona and New Mexico. During this
season there are abundant rains, but
there is much less snow in winter. Low
temperatures due to the elevation of the
central plateau and the great height
of the mountains of southern Mexico
carry Boreal conditions far into tropical
latitudes. The rainfall of particular
areas is strongly influenced by local
conditions, especially variations in alti-
tude, slope exposure, and direction of
prevailing winds. As a result sections
of "rain forest" may occur on mountain
slopes in close proximity to areas of
extreme aridity. Comparative meas-
urement data concerning the rainfall
of particular areas are not readily
available, but field observations with-
out the use of instruments indicate
that the wettest regions of the Republic
are the Gulf slopes of high mountains
in Vera Cruz, Oaxaca, and Chiapas.
The rainfall is also excessive on island-
like areas on the Pacific slopes of some

of the mountains in Michoacan, Guer-
rero, Oaxaca, and Chiapas.

C. NATURAL LIFE AREAS

Several major North American life
zones, or plant and animal associations
below the Arctic-alpine belt are easily
recognizable in Mexico within which,
owing to highly diversified conditions of
local environment, a great number of
minor associations may be discerned.
These minor associations, or plant and
animal communities commonly coincide
with and are obviously dependent upon
changes in landscape aspect such as
forests of varjdng type, grassland, rock
formations, sand dunes, lakes, marshes,
and streams. Minor ecological groups,
closely allied but varying in combina-
tion of component parts tend to appear
and disappear at irregular intervals
throughout the zones. Many animals
are not definitely assignable to a partic-
ular type of landscape aspect, as for
example, they may frequent the grass-
land for much of their food and retire
to the adjoining forest for shelter.
Combinations of ecological groups are
often conveniently recognizable as floral
or faunal regions or districts in which
many forms are allied to but often speci-
fically or subspecifically separable from
those of neighboring districts in the
same major life zone. The major life
zones have been incompletely delimited,
on the basis of field observation of plant
and animal assemblages. Only a mere
outline can be presented here. Alti-
tudes are omitted as a rule in this brief
treatment as these vary widely in
accordance with latitude, slope ex-
posure, base level, and other local
climate determining factors.

The Lower and Upper Austral Zones
and the Transition Zone are easily
traced over the tableland region, in-
cluding its mountain ranges. Along
the southern borders of this area, how-
ever, especially where high mountains,
directly face tropical lowlands boreal
and tropical elements are less widely
separated due to peculiar climatic
conditions, as a result of which the

578

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

intermediate zones may be obliterated

or so intermingled as to become difficult
to distinguish. In the high altitudes
of this section facing the coast the
temperatures are low and suited to the
needs of the northern forest and accom-
panying fauna, while extreme humidity
derived from warm cloud formations
prevents frost and favors the upward
extension of tropical elements. On the
higher parts of certain slopes nearly
continuous fog or rain has produced a
heavy forest cover, with slow rate of
evaporation and slight range of variation
in temperature throughout the year.

1. Major life areas

The names of plant indicators or
botanical features are used for con-
venience in designating most of these
areas, which it should be understood
are each characterized by a great num-
ber of species of both animals and plants.

a. Tropical Zone {including rain for-
est and arid tropical deciduous forest).
This zone as a whole occupies the low-
lands and tropical (normally frostless)
slopes of the mountains from 5000 to
7000 ft. altitude under favorable local
conditions in the southern part of the
Republic, the upper limit descending to
sea level north of Tampico on the Gulf
coast, and to low elevations along the
west slope of the Sierra Madre Occi-
dental in Sinaloa and southern Lower
California. It is divisible into Lower
and Upper Tropical sections, and at low
elevations into Humid and Arid ele-
ments with irregular boundaries, im-
perfectly known, and impossible to trace
in detail in a short account. The Humid
Lower Tropical section is fairly uni-
formly covered with an evergreen for-
est. The Arid Lower Tropical division
includes the coastal plain on the Pacific
side north to northern Sinaloa, and
parts of the coastal plain in Vera Cruz,
Campeche, and Yucatan, together with
some of the interior valleys of southern
Mexico. Owing to the long dry winter
season much of the forest is deciduous.
Along the Pacific coast within this arid
belt sections of forest alternate with

sections of grass-land or savanna some-
what mixed with an irregular growth of
Ciiratella, Coccoloba, Byrsonima, and
other trees of non-forest types. The
Tropical Zone as a whole, includes the
vast fauna and flora which pushes north-
ward from Central America, and is
divided into eastern and western
branches near the Isthmus of Tehuante-
pec by the southward thrust of the
central highlands.

The habitats of the plants and ani-
mals are not well enough known to
locate them in plant areas. E. — east-
ern, largely rain forest; S. — southern,
largely rain forest; W. — western, largely
arid tropical deciduous forest. See
map.

Plants

Dicranopteris bancroftii, fern. E.
Dicranopteris Hexuosa, fern. E.
Dicranopteris pectinata, fern. E.
Dicranopteris bifida, fern. E.
Dicranopteris palmata, fern. E.
Cyathea princeps, tree fern. E.
Cyathea mexicana, tree fern. S.
Hemitelia costaricensis, tree fern. S.
Alsophila quadripinnata, tree fern. S.
Pinus pringlei, Pringle's pine. W.
Pinus oocarpa, ocote. VV,
Zamia spartea, cycad. S.E.
A canthorriza mocinni, palma de escoba.

S.
Chamaedorea elegans, palm. E.
Attalea cohune, corozo. S.
Acrocomia mexicana, coyol. W. and S.
Agave ixtli, ixtle. S.E.
Ficus padifolia, wild fig. Ranges

widely.
Brosium alicastrum, ramon. Ranges

widely.
Castilla elastica, rubber tree, hule or

arbol del hule. W. and S.
Cecropia mexicana, Guarumo. Ranges

widely.
Coccoloba schiedeana, Tamulero. Ranges

widely.
Talauma inexicana, flor de corazon. S.
Annona glabra, li&Xo de corcho. Ranges

widely.
Per sea schiedeana, chinini. E.
Capparis Jlexuosa, Ranges widely.
Licania arborea, cacahuananche. W.
Hirtella americana, cajetillo. W. and S.
Leucaena glauca, lead tree. S.
Lysiloma acapulcensis, tepehuaje.

Ranges widely.
Inga spuria, jinicuile. Ranges widely.
Cassia occidentalis, habilla. Ranges

widely.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

579

Hymenaea courbaril, guapinol. Ranges

widely.
Bauhinia glabra. S.
Bauhinia latijolia, pata de venado.

W. and S.
Haematoxylum campecheanum, logwood,

palo de Campeche. S.E.
Haematoxylum brasiletto, logwood, palo

de Brasil. W.
Sweetia panamensis, huesillo. W.
Esenbeckia ilava, palo amarillo. W.
Elaphrium simaruba, palo mulato,

chaca. Ranges widely.
Elaphrium rhoifolium. W.
Swietenia macrophylla, mahogany,

caoba. S.E.
Stcietenia humilis, mahogany,

Caoba. W.
Cedrela 7nexicana, Spanish cedar.

Ranges widely.
Cedrela yucatana, Spanish cedar. S.E.
Byrsonima crassifolia, nanche. W. and

S._
Sapium biloculare, hierba de la flecha.

W.
Cyrtocarjm edulis, ciruela. W.
Maytenus phyllanthoides . Ranges

widely.
Dodonaea viscosa, switch sorrel.

Ranges widely.
Ceiba aesculifolia, pochote. W. and S.
Bombax ellipticum, ceiba, amapola.

Ranges widely.
Theobroma cacao, cacao. W. and S.
Guazuma uhnifolia, cuaulote. Ranges

widely.
Curatella americana, raspa-viejo. W.

and S.
Rhizophora mangle, mangrove. Ranges

widely.
Conocarpus erecta. Ranges widely.

Mammals

Didelphis yucatanensis yucatanensis.

Yucatan opossum. S.E.
Marmosa murina mexicana, INIe.xican

murine opossum. S.
Metachirusfuscogriseus pallidus, Orizaba

opossum. S.E.
Sorex macrodon, large-toothed shrew.

S.E.
Cryptotis nelsoni, Nelson's shrew. S.E.
Notiosorex gigas, giant shrew. S.W.
Saccopteryx bilineata centralis, northern

white-lined bat. S.
Balantiopteryx plicata, Peter's pouched

bat._ S.
Noctilio leporinus mexicanus, Mexican

bulldog bat. S.
Chilonycteris rubiginosa mexicana, Me-
xican dark brown bat. S. ■
Mormoops megalophylla megalophylla,

large-eared bat. S.
Macrotus mexicanus mexicanus, Mexican

large-eared bat. S.

Macrotus pygmaeus, pygmy large-eared

bat. S.E.
Glossophaga soricina leachii, long-
tongued bat. S.
Carollia perspicillata azteca, Aztec short-
tailed bat. S.

Artibeus phaeotis, Chichen Itza bat.
S.E.

Artibeus jamaicensis jamaicensis, Ja-
maican bat. S.

Desmodus rotundus murinus, Mexican
vampire bat. S.

Natalus mexicanus, Santa Anita bat.
W.

Dasypterus ega xanthinus, Sierra Laguna
bat. W.

Pizonyx vivesi, Cardonal Island bat. W.

Canis vigilis, Colima coyote. W.

Urocyon cinereoargenteus fraterculus, Yu-
catan fox. S.E.

Bassariscus sumichrasti sumichrasti, Su-
michrast's bassariscus. S.

Nasua narica molaris, Colima coati,
tejon. W.

Potos ilavus aztecus, Aztec kinkajou,
martica. S.

Mustela tropicalis tropicalis, tropical
weasel. S.E.

Tayra barbara senex, gray-headed tayra,
cabeza viejo. S.

Felis onca hernandezii, Hernandez' tiger,
tigre. W.

Felis onca goldmani, Goldman's tiger.
E.

Felis pardalis pardalis, ocelot, tigrillo.
o.

Reithrodontomys fulvescens mustelinus,
buff-bellied harvest mouse. W.

Reithrodontomys cherriei jalapae, Jalapa
harvest mouse. E.

Baiomys musculus musculus, Colima
little brown mouse. W.

Peromyscus leucopus mesomelas, Orizaba
white-footed mouse. E.

Peromyscus nelsoni, Nelson's mouse. E.

Oryzomys couesi couesi, Coues' rice rat.
o.

Sigmodon hispidus toltecus, Toltec cot-
ton rat. E.

Oryzomys chapmani chapmani. Chap-
man's rice rat. E.

Xenomys nelsoni. Nelson's wood rat. W.

Hodomys alleni, Allen's wood rat. W.

Neotoma tropicalis, tropical wood rat.
E,

Neotoma distincta. Vera Cruz wood rat.
E.

Ototylomys phyllotis phyllotis, Tunkas
rat. S.E.

Heterogeomys torridus, tropical pocket
gopher. E.

Heterogeomys hispidus, Jalapa pocket
gopher. E.

Platygeomys fumosus, Colima pocket
gopher. W.

580

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Heteromys desmarestianus desmarestia-
nus, Coban spiny pocket mouse. S.

Heteromys gaumeri, Gaumer's spiny-
pocket mouse. S.E.

Liomys pictus pictus, painted spiny
pocket mouse. W.

Dasyprocta mexicana, Mexican agouti.
E.

Coendou mexicanum, Mexican porcupine.
S.

Citellus annulatus annulatus, band-
tailed ground squirrel. W.

Sciurus deppei deppei. Deppe's squirrel.
E.

Sciurus yucatanensis yucatanensis, Yu-
catan squirrel. S.E.

Sciurus aureogaster hypopyrrhus, fire-
bellied squirrel. E.

Sciurus socialis cocos, Acapulco
squirrel. W.

Lepus Uavigularis, Tehuan tepee jack-
rabbit. S.

Sylvilagus gabbi truei, Vera Cruz forest
rabbit. E.

Cyclopes didactylus dorsalis, Costa Ri-
can two-toed anteater. S.

Tamandua tetradactijla mexicana, Mex-
ican three-toed anteater. S.

Alouatta palliata Tnexicana, Mexican
howling monkey. S.E.

Ateles neglectus, Mexican spider
monkey. S.

Pecari angulatus hwmeralis, Colima
peccary. W.

Pecari angulatus yucatanensis, Yucatan
peccary. S.E.

Tayassu pecari ringens, Campeche pec-
cary. S.E.

Odocoileus acapulcensis, Acapulco deer.
W.

Mazama pandora, Yucatan forest deer.
S.E.

Tapirella dowii, Dow's tapir. S.

Birds

Oedicnemus bistriatus bistriatus, Mexi-
can thick-knee. S.

Chloroenas rufina pallidicrissa, pale-
vented pigeon. S.E.

Lepidoenas speciosa, scaled pigeon.
S.E.

Leptotila gaumeri, Gaumer's dove. S.E.

Coccyzus minor minor, mangrove cuckoo.
E.

Piaya mexicana, Mexican squirrel-
cuckoo. W.

Tapera naevia excellens, northern striped
cuckoo. S.E.

Morococcyx erythropygus mexicanus,
Mexican rufous-rumped cuckoo. W.

Ara macao, red, blue and yellow macaw.
S.

Ara militaris mexicana, Mexican green
macaw. W.

Eupsittula astec, Aztec paroquet. S.

Brotogeris jugularis, Tovi paroquet.
S.W.

Psittacula cyanopygia cyanopygia, Mexi-
can parrotlet. N.W.
Amazona auropalliata, yellow-naped

parrot. S.
Amazona autumnalis autumnalis, yellow-
cheeked parrot. E.

Amazona finschi, Finsch's parrot. W.

Amazona albifrons albifrons, white-
fronted parrot. W.

Amazona xantholora, yellow-lored par-
rot. S.E.

Otus hastatus thompsoni, Yucatan
screech owl. S.E.

Nyctagreus yucatanicus, Yucatan poor-
will. S.E.

Momotus lessonii goldmani, Goldman's
motmot. E.

Momotus lessonii exiguus, Yucatan mot-
mot. S.E.

Momotus mexicanus saturatus, coast
motmot. W.

Megaceryle torquata torquata, ringed
kingfisher. Ranges widely.

Galbula melanogenia, black-chinned ja-
camar. S.E.

Ramphastos piscivorus piscivorus, keel-
billed toucan. S.E.

Pteroglossus torquatus torquatus, col-
lared aracari. E.

Pteroglossus torquatus erythrozonus, Yu-
catan aracari. S.E.

Aulacorhynchus prasinus prasinus, emer-
ald toucanet. S.E.

Centurus dubius veraecrucis. Vera Cruz
woodpecker. S.E.

Centurus rubriventris rubriveniris, Swain-
son's woodpecker. S.E.

Centurus chrysogenys Jlavinuchus, Aca-
pulco woodpecker. W.

Celeus castaneus, chestnut-colored wood-
pecker. S.E.

Scapaneus guatemalensis guatemalensis,
Guatemalan ivory-bellied woodpecker.
S.

Dryobates scalaris parvus, sisal wood-
pecker. S.E.

Pharomachrus mocinno mocinno,
quetzal. S.

Curucujus massena, Massena trogon.
S.E.

Trogon melanocephalus melanocephalus,
black-headed trogon. E.

Trogon citreolus, citreoline trogon. W.

Chrysotrogon caligatus, gartered trogon.

o.

Phaethornis longirostris veraecrucis, Vera

Cruz hermit. S.E.
Phaethornis longirostris mexicanua,

Guerrero hermit. W.
Anthoscenus longirostris pallidiceps,

pale-crowned star-throat. S.
Anthoscenus constantii leocadiae, pine

star-throat. W.
Campylopterus himileucurus, Delattre's

sabre-wing. S.
Amazilia yucatanensis cerviniventris,

fawn-breasted hummingbird. E.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

581

Agyrtria Candida, white-bellied emerald.
S.E.

Saucerottia beryllina heryllina, beryl-
line hummingbird. E.

Anthracoihorax prevostii prevostii, Pre-
vost's mango. E.

Abeillia abeillei, Abeille's hummingbird.
S.E.

Chlorostilbon canivetiii caniveltii, Cani-
vet's emerald. E.

Florisuga mellivora, Jacobin humming-
bird. S.E.

Doricha eliza, Mexican shear-tail. S.E.

Lophornis helenae, Princess Helena's
coquette. S.E.

Cynanthus doubledayi, Doubleday's
hummingbird. S.W.

Chaetura gaumeri, Gaumer's swift. S.E.

Dendrocolaptes sancti-thomae sancti-
thomae, barred woodhewer. S.E.

Xiphocolaptes emigrans sclateri, Sclater's
woodhewer. S.E.

Xiphorhynchus Havigaster Havigaster,
Svvainson's woodhewer. E.

Xiphorhynchus Havigaster yucatanensis,
Yucatan woodhewer. S.E.

Xiphorhynchus tiavigaster nientalis,
Grayson's woodhewer. W.

Lepidocolaptes lineaiiceps insignis,
northern streaked-headed woodhewer.
S.

Sittasomus s:,lvioides sylvioides, Mexi-
can sittasomus. S.E.

Dendrocincla anabatina anabatina,
northern dendrocincla. E.

Dendrocincla anabatina typhla, Yucatan
dendrocincla. S.E.

Sclerurus mexicanus mexicanus, Mexi-
can sclerurus. S.E.

Xenops genibarbis mexicanus, Mexican
xenops. S.E.

Synallaxis erythrothorax, rufous-
breasted synallaxis. S.E.

Xenicopsis variegaticeps, scaly-throated
xenicopsis. S.

Automolus cervinigularis cervinigularis,
buff-throated automolus. S.E.

Thamnophilus doliatus mexicanus, Mexi-
can antshrike. E.

Thamnophilus doliatus yucatanensis, Yu-
catan antshrike. S.E.

Microrhopias boucardi boucardi, Bou-
card's antwren. S.E.

Cercomacra tyrannina crepera. Dusky
tyrannine antbird. S.E.

Formicarius moniliger moniliger, Mexi-
can antthrush. E.

Formicarius moniliger pallidus, Yucatan
antthrush. S.E.

Grallaria guatimalensis mexicana, Mexi-
can antpitta. S.E.

Cotinga amabilis, lovely cotinga. S.E.

Microtriccus semiUavus, gray-capped ty-
rannulet. S.

Attila citreopygus salvini, Salvin's attila.
E.

Attila citreopygus gaumeri, Gaumer's
Attila. S.E.

Attila citreopygus cinnamomeus, Law-
rence's attila. W.

Lathria unirufa unirufa, Mexican
lathria. S.E.

Pachyrhamphus cinnamomeus, cinnamon
becard. S<

Pachyrhamphus major itzensis, Chichen
Itza becard. S.E.

Platypsaris aglaiae sumichrasti, Sumi-
chrast's becard. E.

Platypsaris aglaiae yucatanensis, Yuca-
tan becard. S.E.

Erator albitorques. Eraser's erator. S.E.

Tityra semifasciata personata, Mexican
tityra. E.

Manacus candei, Cande's manakin.
S.

Chiroprion linearis, long-tailed manakin.
S.

Pipra mentalis mentalis, yellow-thighed
manakin. S.

Onychorhynchus mexicanus mexicanus,
Mexican royal flycatcher. S.

Myiarchus yucatanensis, Yucatan &y-
catcher. S.E.

Oncostoma cinerigulare, bent-billed fly-
catcher. S.

Todirostrum cinereum finiiimum, north-
ern tody-flycatcher. S.

Todirostrum schistaceiceps, slate-colored
tody-flycatcher. S.

Platytriccus cancrominus, Mexican
spade-billed flycatcher. S.

Craspedoprion brevirostris, short-billed
flycatcher. S.

Rhynchocyclus cinereiceps, gray-headed
flycatcher. S.

Myiopagis placens placens, placid fly-
catcher. S.

Elaenia martinica subpagana, northern
elaenia. S.

Legatus albicollis, striped flycatcher.
S.E.

Myiozetetes texensis texensis, Giraud's
flycatcher. S.

Pipromorpha assimilis assimilis, Mexi-
can pipromorpha. S.

Leptopogon pileatus, brown-capped
leptopogon. S.

Myiobius xanthopygus sulphureipygius,
sulphur-rumped myiobius. S.

Myiochanes brachytarsus, short-legged
wood pewee. S.E.

Heleodytes rufinucha, rufous-naped cac-
tus wren. E.

Heleodytes guttatus, Yucatan cactus
wren. S.E.

Heleodytes humilis, Sclater's cactus
wren. S.W.

Pheugopedius maculipectus maculipectus,
spotted-breasted wren. E.

Pheugopedius maculipectus cano-brun-
neus, Yucatan spotted-breasted wren.
E.

582

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Pheugopedius felix felix, happy wren.
S.W.

Thryomanes albinucha, Cabot's wren.

S.E.
Henicorhina leucophrys mexicana, Mexi-
can wood wren. S.E.
Nannorchilus leucogaster pacificus, Co-

lima wren. W.
Nannorchilus leucogaster brachyurus,

Temax wren. S.E.
Hylorchilus sumichrasti, Sumichrast's
wren. S.E.

Catharus melpomene melpomene, night-
ingale thrush. S.E.

Turdus tristis assimilis, Jalapa thrush.
E.

Turdus infuscatus, black thrush. S.E.

Turdus flavirostris, MazsLtl&n robin. W.

Myadestes unicolor, slate-colored soli-
taire. S.E.

Poliopiila alhiventris, Yucatan gnat-
catcher. S.E.

Calocitta formosa formosa, Bullock's
magpie-jay. W.

Psilorhinus mexicanus mexicanus, white-
tipped brown jay. E.

Psilorhinus mexicanus vociferus, Yu-
catan brown jay. S.E.

Xanthoura luxuosa luxuosa, green jay.
E.

Cissilopha san-blasiana pulchra, Aca-
pulcojay. W.

Cissilopha yucatanica, Yucatan jay.
S.E.

Cyanolyca nana, dwarf jay. S.E.

Cyclarhis jlaviventris flaviventris, Mexi-
can pepper-shrike. S.

Cyclarhis Jlaviventris yucatanensis, Yu-
catan pepper-shrike. S.E.

Vireosylva magister cinerea, Cozumel
vireo. S.E.

Neochloe brevipennis, green-winged
vireo. E.

Pachysylvia decurtata, gray-headed
pachysylvia. S.

Diglossa baritula, Mexican diglossa. S.

Coereba mexicana, Mexican bananaquit.
S.

Granatellus venustus, Du Bus' red-
breasted chat. W.

Gymnostinops montezuma, Montezuma
oropendola. E.

Amblycercus holosericeus, Prevost's
cacique. S.E.

Megaquiscalus major obscurus, Colima
boat-tail. W.

Dives dives, Sumichrast's blackbird.
S.E.

Icterus melanocephalus melanocephalus ,
black-headed oriole. S.

Chlorophonia occipitalis, Mexican
chlorophonia. S.E.

Tanagra hirundinacea, Bonaparte's
euphonia. E.

Thraupis abbas, Abbot tanager. E.

Piranga roseo-gularis roseo-gularis, rose-
throated tanager. S.E.

Phlogothraupis sanguinolenta, crimson-
collared tanager. S.E.

Phoenicothraupis rubica rubicoides, Mex-
ican ant tanager. E.

Phoenicothraupis rubica affinis, Oaxaca
ant tanager. W.

Chlorospingus ophthalmicus, brown-
headed chlorospingus. E.

Arremonops rufivirgatus crassirostris,
Cordoba sparrow. S.E.

Arremonops superciliosus sumichrasti,
Acapulco sparrow. W.

Arremonops verlicalis, Schott's sparrow.
S.E.

Richmondena cardinalis yucatanica, Yu-
catan cardinal. S.E.

b. Covillea Association (Lower Austral
Zone). With Covillea glutinosa as a
convenient plant indicator this zone,
also characterized by many other
peculiar plants and many animals,
occupies much of the northeastern part
of the Republic, including the lower
portions of the tableland region in the
interior, the Rio Grande Valley, the
coastal plains of Sonora, and the central
section of Lower California from lati-
tude 30° to near La Paz.

This zone, lying next the Tropical
Zone, is separated from the latter by
the normal frost line. In it occur
representatives of a considerable num-
ber of animals and plants of groups
mainly tropical in distribution which
may be regarded as intrusive, and have
become specifically or subspecifically
differentiated. It is an area of great
aridity and includes the dryest sections
of North America. While the zone as a
whole is distinguished by the general
occurrence of Covillea and other widely
ranging ligneous species these are locally
very irregularly distributed and inter-
rupted by sections of grassland, espe-
cially along the bottoms of broad val-
leys, by sand dunes, usually of limited
extent, and by streams bordered by
vegetation with a high moisture require-
ment. These and other locally varying
environmental conditions favor the
development of minor plant and animal
associations or communities of limited
extent.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

583

Plants

Ephedra trifurca.

Ephedra aspera, pitamoreal.

Washinglonia sonorae, palm.

W ashingtonia Jilifera, palm.

Yucca schottii.

Yucca australis.

Yucca decipiens.

Nolina a finis.

Celiis pallida, hackberry.

Atriplex linearis.

Atriplex matamorensis .

Prosopis pubescens, screwpod mesquite,

tornillo.
Prosopis juliflora velutina, mesquite.
Prosopis juliflora glandulosa, mesquite.
Acacia grcggii, Gregg's acacia.
Acacia wrightii, Wright's acacia.
Pithecolohium brevifolium.
Pithecolohium sonorae, uiia de gato.
Hoffmanseggia microphylla.
Parkinsonia micro phyll, palo verde.
Cercidium torreyanum, palo verde.
Cercidium iloridum, retama.
Eysenhardtia polysiachya, tardy.
Parosela spinosa, indigo bush.
Parosela berlandieri.
Olneya iesola, ironwood, palo de hierro.
Erythrina ilabelliformis, colorin.
Covillea glutinosa, creosote J bush;

gobernadora.
Viscainoa geniculata.
Koeberlinia spinosa, corona de cristo.
Elaphrium microphyllum, torote.
Simmondsia calif ornica, jojoba, goat

nut.
Fouquieria splendens, ocotillo.

Mammals

Didelphis marsupialis texensis, Texas

opossum.
Cryptotis pergracilis pergracilis, Ocotlan

short-tailed shrew.
Mormoops megalophylla senicida, Texas

large-eared bat.
Macrotus calijornicus, California large-
eared bat.
Pizonyx vivesi, Cardonal Island bat.
Pipistrellus hesperus Hesperus, little

western bat.
Antrozous pallidus pallidus, large-eared

pale bat.
Canis mearnsi, Mearns' coyote.
Canis microdon, small-toothed coyote.
Bassariscus astutus Havus, tawnj^

bassariscus.
Felis pardalis albescens, Pucheran's

ocelot.
Felis pardalis sonoriensis, Sonora ocelot.
Lynx ruffus texensis, Texan wildcat.
Lijnx ruffus baileyi, desert wildcat.
Baiomys taylori taylori, Taylor's little

brown mouse.
Peromyscus eremicus eremicus, desert

mouse.

Peromyscus leucopus texanus, Texas

white-footed mouse.
Oryzomys couesi aqualicus, Rio Grande

rice rat.
Sigmodon hispidus berlandieri, Ber-

landier's cotton rat.
Sigmodon hispidus eremicus, western

desert cotton rat.
Neotoma albigula melamira, Sonora

white-throated wood rat.
Neotoma micropus micropus, Baird's

wood rat.
Thomomys sinaloae, Sinaloa pocket

gopher.
Thomomys bottae russeolus, San Angel

pocket gopher.
Geomys personatus tropicalis, Tamauli-

pas pocket gopher.
Liomys irroratus texensis, Texas spiny

pocket mouse.
Perognathus penicillatus pricei. Price's

pocket mouse.
Dipodomys platycephalus, Calmalli kan-
garoo rat.
Dipodomys ordii palmeri, Palmer's kan-
garoo rat.
Dipodomys agilis peninsularis , peninsula

kangaroo rat.
Eutamias merriami meridionalis, Lower

California desert chipmunk.
Cynomys mexicanus, Alexican prairie

dog.
Citellus tereticaudus, Yuma ground

squirrel.
AmmospermopJiilus harrisii saxicola,

Mearns' white-lined ground squirrel.
Lepus californicus eremicus, Arizona

jack rabbit.
Lepus californicus merriami, Merriam's

jack rabbit.
Sylvilagus bachmani exiguus. Lower

California brush rabbit.
Pecari angulatus angulatus, Texas

peccary.
Pecari angulatus sonoriensis, Sonora

peccary, Jabali.
Odocoileus hemionus eremicus, desert

mule deer.
Odocoileus hemionus canus, gray mule

deer (also Upper Austral).
Antilocapra americana peninsularis,

Lower California antelope.

Birds

Lophortyx gambelii, Gambel's quail.
Callipepla squamata castanogastris,

chestnvit-bellied scaled partridge.
Psillacula cyanopygia pallida, Sonoran

parrot let.
Amazona viridigenalis, red-crowned

parrot.
Amazona albifrons saltucnsis, Sonoran

parrot.
Otus asio mccallii, Texas screech owl.
Micropallas whitneyi whitneyi, elf owl.

584

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Colaptes chrysoides mearnsi, Mearns'
gilded flicker.

Centurus uropygialis uropygialis, Gila
woodpecker.

Dryobates scalaris symplectus, Texas
woodpecker.

Platypsaris aglaiae aglaiae, rose-
throated becard.

Otocoris alpestris pallida, Sonoran
horned lark.

Otocoris alpestris diaphora, Tamaulipas
horned lark.

Heleodytes brunneicapillus brunneicapil-
lus, Guaymas cactus wren.

Heleodytes brunneicapillus couesi, Coues'
cactus wren.

Thryothorus ludovicianus herlandieri,
Berlandier's wren.

Toxostoma longirostris sennetti, Sen-
nett's thrasher.

Toxostoma curvirostre curvirostre, curve-
billed thrasher.

Toxostoma curvirostre palmeri, Palmer's
thrasher.

Toxostoma lecontei lecontei, Leconte's
thrasher.

Mimus polyglottos leucopterus, western
mockingbird.

Polioptila plumbea, plumbeous gnat-
catcher.

Auriparus flaviceps flaviceps, verdin.

Xanthoura luxuosa glaucescens, Rio
Grande green jay.

Dendroica aestiva sonorana, Sonoran
yellow warbler.

Megaquiscalus major nelsoni, Sonoran
boat-tailed grackle.

Icterus melanocephalus audubonii,
Audubon's oriole.

Icterus cucullatus sennetti, Sennett's
oriole.

Icterus cucullatus nelsoni, Nelson's
oriole.

Amphispiza bilineata deserticola, desert
sparrow.

Melospiza melodia fallax, desert song
sparrow.

Arremonops rufivirgatus rufivirgatus,
Texas sparrow.

Pyrrhuloxia sinuaia sinuata, pyrrhuloxia.

Pyrrhuloxia sinuata texana, Texan
pyrrhuloxia.

Richmondena carainalis superba, Ari-
zona cardinal.

Richmondena cardinalis canicauda, gray-
tailed cardinal.

c. Pinyon-Juniper Association {Upper
Austral Zone: Pinyon-Juniper Forest).
This association or zone occupies an
area mainly along the slopes of the
mountains above the limits of the
Covillea association. It includes most
of the oak woods, junipers, and pinyon

pines, and may be regarded as a direct
extension of the pinyon-juniper asso-
ciation of the southwestern United
States. A small, isolated area, assign-
able to this association, occupies the
upper slopes of the mountains of the
Cape Region of Lower California, and
it occurs in a belt reaching sea level
on the Pacific side of the San Pedro
Martir Mountains in the northern
part of the peninsula. Its greatest
extension is along the flanks of the
Sierra Madre Occidental.

Plants

Pinus cembroides, pinyon.

Juniperus californica, California

juniper.
Juniperus pachyphloea, alligator-barked

juniper.
Juniperus flaccida.

Juniperus mexicana, Mexican juniper.
Cupressus arizonica, Arizona cypress.
Cupressus benthami, Bentham's cypress.
Juglans mollis, black walnut.
Hicoria mexicana, Mexican hickory.
Quercus reticulata.
Quercus arizonica, Arizona oak.
Quercus eynoryi, Emory's oak.
Quercus mexicana, Mexican oak.
Celtis reticulata, hackberry.
Morus microphylla, desert mulberry.
Isomeris arborea.

Fallugia parodoxa, apache plume.
Cowania stansburiana.
Cercocarpus paucidentatus, mountain

mahogany.
Ceanothus greggii, Gregg's ceanothus.
Rhamnus tomentella.
Tilia occidentalis.
Sida neomexicana.

Mammals

Sorex lagunae. Sierra Laguna shrew.
Sorex californicus juncensis, Socorro

shrew.
Canis cagottis, Mexican plateau coyote.
Mustela frenata frenata, bridled weasel.
Onychomys torridus ramona, Ramona

grasshopper mouse.
Peromyscus truei gentilis, Jalisco long-
eared mouse.
Peromyscus californicus insignis, Dul-

zura mouse.
Peromyscus truei lagunae. Sierra Laguna

mouse.
Oryzomys couesi crinitus. Valley of

Mexico rice rat.
Sigmodon minimus, buff-bellied cotton

rat.
Neotoma albigula durangae, Durango

white-throated wood rat.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

585

Neotoma fuscipes macrotis, large-eared

wood rat.
Cratogeomys fulvescens, plateau fulvous

pocket gopher.
Liomys bulleri, BuUer's spiny pocket

mouse.
Dipodomys phillipsii, Phillips' kangaroo

rat.
Citellus variegatus variegatus, Mexican

plateau rock squirrel.
Thomomys boltae nigricans, Stephens'

pocket gopher.
Thomomys bottae alticolus, Sierra Laguna

pocket gopher.
iSciu7-us aureogaster frumentor, Perote

squirrel.
Lepus gailliardi gailliardi, Gailliard's

jack rabbit.
Odocoileus hemionus canus, gray mule

deer (also Lower Austral).

Birds

Chloroenas fasciaia vioscae, Viosca's
pigeon.

Balanosphyra formicivora bairdi, Cali-
fornia woodpecker.

Balanosphyra formicivora angustifrons,
narrow-fronted woodpecker.

Dryobates villosus intermedins, inter-
mediate woodpecker.

Basilinna xantusii, Xantus' humming-
bird.

Tuchycineta thalassina brachyptera,
Lower California violet green swallow.

Thryomanes bewickii charienturus, San
Diego wren.

Tardus confinis, San Lucas robin.

Chamaea fasciata henshawi, pallid wren-
tit.

Baeolophus wollweberi wollweberi, WoU-
weber's titmouse.

Baeolophus ivollweberi annexus, bridled
titmouse.

Baeolophus inornatus cineracens, ashy
titmouse.

Baeolophus inornaliis murinus, San
Diego titmouse.

Psaltriparus minimus minimus, bush-
tit.

Psaltriparus melanotis melanotis, black-
eared bush-tit.

Psaltriparus grindae, Grinda's bush-tit.

Sitta carolinensis lagunae, Lower Cali-
fornia nuthatch.

Cyanocephalus cyanocephalus, pinyon
jay.

Aphelocoma cyanotis, blue-cheeked jay.

Aphelocoma sumichrasti, Sumichrast's
jay.

Aphelocoma sieberii wollweberi, Zacatecas
jay.

Vireo huttoni cognatus, Frazar's vireo.

Megaquisculus tenuirostris, slender-
billed grackle.

Aimophila ruficeps ruficeps, rufous-
crowned sparrow.

Aimophila ruficeps sororia, Laguna

sparrow.
Pipilo fuscus potosinus, plateau brown

towhee.
Pipilo maculalus magnirostris, mountain

towhee.

d. Pine Association (Transition Zone) .
An area, commonly characterized by
the occurrence of yellow pine, and
associated species as plant indicators
occupies the upper slopes of the Sierra
Madre Occidental, except the summits
of the few high peaks, from near the
international boundary to the southern
part of the Republic where it is rep-
resented on the slopes of the higher
mountains, and thence northward along
the Sierra Madre Oriental largely in
the State of Vera Cruz. It also includes
most of the upper slopes of the San
Pedro Martir Mountains in northern
Lower California and of ranges which
rise island-like to a sufficient altitude
from the great interior plateau.

Plants

Pinus ponderosa, western yellow pine.
Pinus chihuahuana. Chihuahua pine.
Pinus lumholtzii, Lumholtz' pine.
Pinus arizonica, Arizona pine.
Pinus lambertiana, sugar pine.
Pinus coulteri, Coulter's pine.
Robinia neomexicana, New Mexican

locust.
Rhamnus betulaefolia.

Mammals

Scapanus anthonyi, Anthony's mole.
Ursus nelsoni, Nelson's grizzly bear.
Ursus machetes. Chihuahua black bear.
Ursus americanus eremicus, Coahuila

black bear.
Cants mexicanus, Mexican wolf.
Reithrodontomys megalotis zacatecae,

Zacatecas harvest mouse.
Peromyscus truei martirensis, San Pedro

Martir mouse.
Peromyscus difficilis difficilis, Zacatecas

mouse.
Sigmodon leucotis, white-eared cotton

rat.
Nelsonia neotomodon, Zacatecas little

wood rat.
Neotoma albigula zacatecae, Zacatecas

white-throated wood rat.
Neotoma mexicana madrensis, Sierra

Madre wood rat.
Microtus mexicanus phaeus, Colima

meadow mouse.

586

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Zygogeo7nys trichopus, Michoacan pocket
gopher.

Eutamias bulleri, BuUer's chipmunk.

Callospermo'philus madrensis, Mexican
golden-mantled chipmunk.

Sciurus aberti barberi, Barber's squirrel.

Sciurus douglasii mearnsi, Mearns'
squirrel.

Sylvilagus floridanus orizabae, Mount
Orizaba cottontail.

Odocoileus couesi, Coues' deer.

Odocoileus hemionus californicus, Cali-
fornia mule deer.

Birds

Chloroenas fasciata fasciata, band-tailed

pigeon.
Rhychopsitia pachyrhyncha, thick-billed

parrot.
Glaucidium gnoma gnoma, pygmy owl.
Campephilus imperialis, Imperial ivory-
bill.
Colaptes mexicanoides, Guatemalan

flicker.
Dryobates villosus icashis, Chihuahua

woodpecker.
Leptuas neoxenus, eared trogon.
Trogonurus mexicanus, Mexican trogon.
Basilinna leucotis, white-eared hum-
mingbird (also Canadian).
Colibri thalassinus, Mexican violet-ear.
Cyanolaetnus clemenciae, blue-throated

hummingbird.
Eugenes fulgens, Rivoli hummingbird

(also Canadian).
Selasphorus platycercus, broad-tailed

hummingbird (also Canadian).
Cypseloides brunneitorques brunneitor-

ques, chestnut-collared swift.
Lepidocolaptes leucogaster, white-striped

woodhewer.
Myiochanes pertinax pallidiventris,

Coues' flycatcher.
Empidonax pulverius, Sierra Madre

flycatcher.
Empidonax trepidus, Chancol flycatcher.
Ptilogonys cinereus cinereus, Mexican

ptilogonys.
Heleodytes megalopterus, Huitzilac cac-
tus wren.
Troglodytes brunneicollis brunneicollis,

brown-throated wren (also Canadian).
Troglodytes brunneicollis cahooni, Ca-

hoon's wren.
Catharus occidentalis olivascens, olive

nightingale thrush.
Turdus migratorius propinquus, western

robin.
Ridgwayia pinicola, Ridgway's thrush.
Sialia mexicana bairdi, chestnut-backed

bluebird.
Myadestes townsendi. Townsend's

solitaire.
Penthestes sclateri, Mexican chickadee.

Sitta carolinensis aculeata, slender-billed

nuthatch.
Sitta carolinensis mexicana, Mexican

nuthatch.
Sitta pygmaea pygmaea, pygmy nuthatch.
Sitta pygmaea leuconucha, white-naped

nuthatch.
Certhia familiaris albescens, Sierra

Madre creeper.
Certhia familiaris alticola, Mexican

creeper (also Canadian).
Aphelocoma unicolor coelestis, cerulean

jay.

Cyanocitta stelleri diademata, long-
crested jay.

Cyanocitta stelleri azteca, Aztec jay
(also Canadian).

Oreothlypis superciliosa, Hartlaub's
warbler.

Peucedramus olivaceus, olive warbler.

Dendroica auduboni nigrifrons, black-
fronted warbler.

Cardellina rubrifrons, red-faced warbler.

Setophaga picta picta, painted redstart.

Ergaticus ruber, red warbler (also
Canadian).

Ergaticus versicolor, pink-headed warb-
ler (also Canadian).

Piranga hepatica, hepatic tanager.

Hesperiphona vespertina mexicana, Mex-
ican evening grosbeak.

Spinus pinus macropterus, Mexican
pine siskin (also Canadian).

Junco phaeonotus phaeonotus, Mexican
junco (also Canadian).

Melospiza melodia goldmani, Goldman's
song sparrow.

Pipilo maculatus maculatus, Mexican
spotted towhee.

e. Fir-spruce Association {Canadian
and Hudsonian Zones). This zone char-
acterized by boreal species of plants
and animals occupies the upper slopes
to timberline at 13,000 to 13,500 ft. of the
highest mountains of the Republic. It
includes very limited areas on the ex-
treme upper slopes of the San Pedro
Martir Mountains in northern Lower
California, a few peaks along the crest
of the Sierra Madre Occidental, and more
extensive belts above about 9000 ft.
altitude, on the higher mountains of
southern Mexico, including those of the
state of Chiapas, which form part of
the mountain system of Central Amer-
ica. It is doubtful whether Canadian
and Hudsonian elements well developed
farther north can satisfactorily be
separated in Mexico, owing to their
limited extent.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

587

Plants

Pinus contorta, lodgepole pine.
Pseudotsuga mucronata, Douglas fir

(also Transition).
Abies religiosa, pinabete.
Populus treviuloides (also Transition).
Alnus firmifolia, alder.
Quercus ghiesbrechtii, Ghiesbrecht's oak.

Mammals

Sorex orizabae, Mount Orizaba shrew*
Cryptotis alticola, Mount Popocatepetl

shrew.
Bassariscus astutus astutus, Mexican

plateau bassariscus.
Reithrodontomys chrysopsis chrysopsis,

volcano harvest mouse.
Peromyscus oaxacensis, Oaxaca mouse.
Peromyscus difficils felipensis, Cerro

San Felipe mouse.
Sigmodon alticola alticola, Oaxaca cotton

rat.
Neotomodon orizabae, Orizaba little

wood rat.
Microtus mexicanus mexicanus, Mexican

meadow mouse.
Cratogeomys oreocetes. Mount Popoca-
tepetl pocket gopher.
Romerolagus diazi, volcano rabbit.

Birds

Basilinna leucotis, white-eared hum-
mingbird (also Transition).

Lampornis pringlei, Pringle's humming-
bird.

Eugenes fulgens, Rivoli hummingbird
(also Transition).

Selasphorus platycercus, broad-tailed
hummingbird (also Transition).

Troglodytes brunneicollis brunneicolHs,
brown-throated wren (also Transition).

Sialia mexicana australis. Nelson's blue-
bird.

Certhia familiaris albescens, Sierra
Madre creeper.

Nucifraga Columbiana, Clarke's nut-
cracker.

Cyanocitta stelleri azteca, Aztec jay
(also Transition).

Ergaticus ruber, red warbler (also
Transition).

Ergaticus versicolor, pink-headed warbler
(also Transition).

Loxia curvirostra stricklandi, Mexican
crossbill.

Spinus pinus macropterus, Mexican
pme siskin (also Transition).

Spinus atriceps, Guatemalan pine siskin.

Carpodacus cassinii, Cassin's purple
finch.

Junco phaeonotus phaeonotus, Mexican
junco (also Transition).

2. Minor life areas

A few of the numerous regional life
areas, into which the major life zones of
Mexico are divisible, may briefly be
indicated.^ No attempt is made to
list the total number of species that
occur.

a. Cape Louiands District {Arid Trop-
ical Zone). Lowlands of Cape region
of Lower California. Desert plains
and low mountains. Flora and fauna
derived largely from adjacent mainland
of Mexico.

Plants

Haematoxylum brasiletto, logwood, palo

de Brasil.
Esenbeckia flava, palo amarillo.
Elaphrium rhoifolium.
Sapium biloculare, hierba de la flecha.
Cyrtocarpa edulis, ciruela.
Maytenus phyllanthoides, mangle dulce.
Dodonaea viscosa, switch sorrel.
Rhizophora mangle, mangrove.
Conocarpus erecta.

Mammals

Oryzomys peninsulae. Lower California

rice rat.
Balantiopteryx plicata, Peter's pouched

bat.
Natalus mexicanus, Santa Anita bat.
Dasypterus ega xanthinus, Sierra Laguna

bat.
Pizonyx vivesi, Cardonal Island bat.

Birds

Ardea herodias sancti-lucae, San Lucas
great blue heron.

Egretta thula brcrsteri, Brewster's egret.

Rallus beldingi, Belding's rail.

Crotophaga sulcirostris, groove-billed
ani.

Toxostoma cinereum cinereum, San Lucas
thrasher.

Dendroica bryanti castaneiceps, man-
grove warbler.

Richmondena cardinalis ignea, San Lucas
cardinal.

Pyrrhuloxia sinuata peninsulae, San
Lucas pyrrhuloxia.

Cyanospiza versicolor, varied bunting.

b. Vizcaino Desert District {Lower
Austral Zone). Central Lower Cali-
fornia. Desert plains and low, but
rugged mountains. A region of extreme

' For full treatment of floral and faunal districts in
Lower California, see Nelson, 1921, pages 117-132.

588

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

aridity, allied in part to the same zone
(landscape aspect similar) in southern
California and in part to the same zone
in Sonora, but many floral and faunal
elements differing from both.

Plants

Covillea glulinosa, creosote bush, go-

bernadora.
Idria columnaris, cirio.
Fouquieria splendens, ocotillo.
Pachycormus discolor, elephant wood.
Simmondsia californica, goat nut.

Mammals

Odocoileus hemionus eremicus, desert
mule deer.

Antilocapra americana peninsularis,
Lower California antelope.

Eutamias merriami meridionalis, Lower
California desert chipmunk.

Thomomys bottae russeolus, San Angel
pocket gopher.

Dipodomys platycephalus, Calmalli kan-
garoo rat.

Dipodomys agilis peninsularis, penin-
sula kangaroo rat.

Sylvilagus bachmani exiguus, Lower
California brush rabbit.

Birds

Lophortyx californica vallicola, valley
partridge.

Melopelia asiatica mearnsi, western
white-winged dove.

Dryobates scalaris eremicus, San Fer-
nando woodpecker.

Centurus uropygialis breivsteri, Brew-
ster's woodpecker.

Colaptes chrysoides brunnescens, San
Fernando flicker.

Otocoris alpestris enertera, Santa Rosalia
horned lark.

Toxostoma cinereum mearnsi, Mearn's
thrasher.

Toxostoma lecontei arenicola, desert
thrasher.

Amphispiza belli cinerea, gray sage
sparrow.

Pipilo fuscus aripolius, desert towhee.

c. San Diegan District (Upper Austral
Zone). Western mainly brush-covered
slopes of Sierra Juarez and San Pedro
Martir Mountains from sea level to
about 5000 ft. altitude. The extension
of the Upper Austral Zone to sea level
is here due to coastal influences. It is
interrupted to the southward by Lower
Austral plains and low mountains but

reappears on the upper slopes of the
mountains of extreme southern Lower
California as indicated by the allied
flora and fauna. Biota mainly an
extension of that of southern California.

Plants

Juniperus californica, California

juniper.
Pinus monophylla, pinyon.
Nolina palmeri, Palmer's nolina.
Quercus agrifolia, California live oak.
Quercus, dumosa, California scrub oak.
Quercus palmeri, Palmer's oak.
Ribes indecorum, currant.
Adenostoma fasciculatum, chamiso.
Adenostoma sparsifolium, palo amarillo.
Heteromeles arbutifolia, California holly.
Aesculus parryi. Parry's buckeye.

Mammals

Sorex californicus juncensis, Socorro

shrew.
Onychomys torridus ramona, Ramona

grasshopper mouse.
Peromyscus californicus insignis, Dul-

zura mouse.
Neotoma fuscipes macrotis, large-eared

wood rat.
Perognathus femoralis mesopolius, Lower

California large-eared pocket mouse.
Thomomys bottae nigricans, Stephens'

pocket gopher.

Birds

Balanosphyra formicivora bairdi, Cali-
fornia woodpecker.

Thryomanes bewickii charienturus, San
Diego wren.

Chamaea fasciata henshawi, pallid wren-
tit.

Baeolophus inornatus murinus, San Diego
titmouse.

Psaltriparus minimus minimus, bush-
tit.

Aimophila ruficeps rujiceps, rufous-
crowned sparrow.

Pipilo maculalus atratus, San Diego
towhee.

d. Cape Mountains District {Upper
Austral Zone). Mountains of Cape
region in extreme southern Lower
California. Allied to the San Diegan
District of northern Lower California,
but separated by hundreds of miles of
desert plains and mountains assigned to
Lower Austral Zone.

Plants

Pinus cembroides, pinyon.
Nolina beldingi, Belding's nolina.

NATUEAL AREAS AND REGIONS

589

Populus monticola, huirigo.
Quercus devia, encino negro.
Ribes brandegei, Brandegee's gooseberry.
Heteromeles arbutijolia, California holly.
Arbutus peninsularis, Lower California
madrono.

Mammals

Sorex lagunae, Sierra Laguna shrew.
Peromyscus truei lagunae, Sierra Laguna

mouse.
Thomomys bottae alticolus, Sierra Laguna

pocket gopher.

Birds

Balanosph7jra formicivora angustifrons,
narrow-fronted woodpecker.

Basilinna xantusii, Xantus' humming-
bird.

Tachycineta thalassina brachyptera,
Lower California violet-green swallow.

Turdus confinis, San Lucas robin.

Baeolophus inornahis cineraceus, ashy
titmouse.

Psaltriparus grindae, Grinda's bush-tit.

Sitta carolinensis lagunae, Lower Cali-
fornia nuthatch.

Vireo huttoni cognatus, Frazar's vireo.

Aimophila ruficeps sororia, Laguna
sparrow.

Pipilo maculalus magnirosiris, mountain
towhee.

e. San Pedro Martir District {Transi-
tion and Canadian Zones). Upper slopes
(mainly western) of Sierra Juarez and
San Pedro Martir Mountains (5000 to
9000 ft.) in northern Lower California, an
extension, with local modifications, of
mountain flora and fauna of southern
California. A pine-forested area mainly
Transition Zone, but with an infusion
of Canadian Zone elements on colder,
north slopes of highest peaks.

Plants

Abies concolor, white fir.
Pinus contorta, lodgepole pine.
Pinus ponder osa jeffreyi, Jeffrey's pine.
Pinus coulteri, Coulter's pine.
Pinus lamhertiana, sugar pine.
Libocedrus decurrens, incense cedar.
Populus trichocarpa, black Cottonwood.
Populus tremuloides, quaking aspen.
Quercus chrysolepis,^ canyon live oak.
Symphoricarpos parishii.

Mammals

Scapanus anthonyi, Anthony's- mole.
Sciurus douglasii mearnsi, Mearns'
squirrel.

Peromyscus truei martirensis, San Pedro
martir mouse.

Odocoileus hemionus calif ornicus , Cali-
fornia mule deer.

Birds

Oreortyx picta confinis, San Pedro quail.

Dryobates villosus hyloscopus, Cabanis'
woodpecker.

Sialia mexicana anabelae, San Pedro
Martir bluebird.

Penthestes gambeli baileyae, Bailey's
mountain chickadee.

Sitta carolinensis aculeata, slender-
billed nuthatch.

Sitta pygmaea leuconucha, white-naped
nuthatch.

Nucifraga Columbiana, Clarke's nut-
cracker.

Cyanocitta stelleri frontalis, Sierra Ne-
vada jay.

Junco townsendi, Townsend's junco.

/. Vera Cruz Rain Forest District
(Humid Tropical Zone, Tropical Rain
Forest). Tropical lowlands and moun-
tain slopes from sea level to 6000 to 8000
ft. depending upon local conditions,
bearing evergreen forest, receiving mois-
ture in the form of rain or fog at frequent
intervals throughout the year. A typi-
cal section includes the northeastern
seaward slopes of the Volcano of Orizaba
and the Cofre de Perote. Divisible
at about 3000 ft. altitude into upper
and lower sections which can not prop-
erly be characterized in a short
account.

Plants

Dicranopteris bancrofiii, fern.
Cyathea tuerckheimii, tree fern.
Chaynaedorea elegans, palm.
Castilla elastica, rubber tree, hule,

arbol del hule.
Talauma mexicana, flor de corazon.

Mammals

Sorex macrodon, large-toothed shrew.

Tayra barbara senex, gray-headed tayra,
cabeza viejo.

Sigmodon hispidus toltecus, Toltec cot-
ton rat.

Reithrodontomys cherriei jalapae, Jalapa
harvest mouse.

Peromyscus 7ielsoni, Nelson's mouse.

Oryzomys _ chapmani chapmani, Chap-
man's rice rat.

Neotoma distincta. Vera Cruz wood rat.

Heterogeomys hispidus, Jalapa pocket
gopher.

590

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Dasyprocta mexicana, Mexican agouti.
Sciurus deppei deppei, Deppe's squirrel.
Sciurus aureogaster hypopyrrhus, fire-
bellied squirrel.
Tapir ella dowii, Dow's tapir.

Birds

Saucerottia heryllina beryllina, Berylline
hummingbird.

Abeillea abeillei, Abeille's hummingbird.

Henicorhina leucophrys mexicana, Mex-
ican wood wren.

Hylorchilus sumichrasti, Sumichrast's
wren.

Catharus melpomene melpomene, night-
ingale thrush.

Turdus tristis assimilis, Jalapa thrush.

Turdus infuscatus, black thrush.

Myadestes unicolor, slate-colored soli-
taire.

Cyanolyca nana, dwari isij.

Neochloe brevipennis, green-winged
vireo.

Diglosa baritula, Mexican diglossa.

Chlorophonia occipitalis, Mexican
chlorophonia.

Phoenicothraupis rubica rubicoides, Mex-
ican ant tanager.

Chlorospingus ophthalmicus, brown-
headed chlorospingus.

g. Yucatan Peninsula District {north-
ern and western portions) {Arid Tropical
Zone, Arid Tropical Deciduous Forest).
Low, gently sloping limestone plains,
broken by a few low ridges. A region of
moderate rainfall, but long dry season.
Vegetation largely deciduous, but foliage
retained in the more humid strip along
Caribbean coast and across southern
Yucatan.

Plants

Agave ixtli, ixtle.

Coccoloba schiedeana, tamulero.

Brosimum alicastrum, ramon.

Cassia occidentalis .

Bauhinia, glabra.

Haematoxylum campecheanum, logwood,

palo de Campeche.
Annona glabra, palo de carcho.
Elaphrium simaruba, chaca.
Cedrela yucatana, Spanish cedar.
Byrsonima crassifolia, nanche.
Ceiba aesculifolia, pochote.
Bombax ellipticum, amapola.

Mammals

Didelphis yucatanensis yucatanensis, Yu-
catan opossum.

Cryptotis mayensis, Yucatan shrew.

Macrotus pygmaeus, pygmy large-eared
bat.

Artibeus phaeotis, Chichen Itza bat.
Urocyon cineroargenteus fraterculus, Yu-
catan fox.
Felix onca goldmani, Goldman s tiger,

tigre. .

Felix pardalis pardalis, ocelot, tignlio.
Oiotylomys phyllotis phyllotis, Tunkas

TTfi ■f

Heteromys gaumeri, Gaumer's spiny
pocket mouse. .

Sciurus yucatensis yucatanensis, Yu-
catan squirrel.

Pecari angulatus yucatanensis, Yucatan

peccary.
Mazama pandora, Yucatan forest deer.

Birds

Leptotila gaumeri, Gaumer's dove.

Otus hastatus thompsoni, Yucatan
screech owl.

Nyctagreus yucatanicus, Yucatan poor-
will.

Momotus lessonii exiguus, \ ucatan mot-
mot.

Pteroglossus torquatus erthrozonus, Yu-
catan aracari.

Centurus rubriventris rubriventris, Swam-
son's woodpecker.

Dryobates scalaris parvus. Sisal wood-
pecker.

Chaetura gaumeri, Gaumer s swift.

Xiphorhynchus Jlavigaster yucatanensis,
Yucatan woodhewer.

Dendrocincla anabatina typhla, Yucatan
dendrocincla. .

Thamnophilus doliatus yucatanensis, Yu-
catan antshrike.

Formicarius moniliger pallidus, Yucatan
antthrush. . ,

Attila citreopygus gaumeri, Gaumer s

attila. . • /-.u- I.

Pachyrhamphus major itzensis, (^hicJaen

Itza becard. .

Platypsaris aglaiae yucatanensis, Yu-
catan becard.

Myiarchus yucatanensis, Yucatan fly-
catcher.

Heleodytes guttatus, Yucatan cactus
wren.

Pheugopedius maculipectus cano-brun-
neus, Yucatan spotted-breasted wren.

Thryomanes albinucha, Cabot's wren.

Nannorchilus leucogaster brachyurus, Te-
max wren.

Polioptila albiventris, Yucatan gnat-
catcher.

Psilorhinus mexicanus vociferus, Yu-
catan brown jay.

Cissolopha yucatanica, Yucatan jay.

Cyclarhis flaviventris yucatanensis, Yu-
catan pepper shrike.

Vireosylva magister cinerea, Cozumel
vireo.

Piranga roseo-gularis roseo-gularis, rose-
throated tanager.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

591

Arremonops verticalis, Schott's sparrow.
Richmondena cardinalis yucatanica, Yu-
catan cardinal.

h. Guerrcro-Colima District (Arid
Tropical Zone, Arid Tropical Deciduous
Forest, and Savanna). Coastal plains,
and slopes of mountains to about 3000
ft. altitude. A region of moderate
rainfall, but long dry season. Trees
largely deciduous, except along streams.
Forest irregularly interrupted by sa-
vanna areas.

Plants

Coccoloba schiedeana, tamulero.
Licania arborea, cacahuananche.
Hirtella americana, cajetillo.
Lysiloma acapulcensis, tepehuaje.
Cassia occidentalis, habilla.
Bauhinia latifolia, pata de venado.
Bauhinia glabra.
Sweetia panamensis, huesillo.
Swietenia humilis, mahogany, caoba.
Byrsonima crassifolia, nanche.
Bombax ellipticum, ceiba.
Guazuma ulmifolia, cuaulote.
Curatella americana, raspa-viejo.

Mammals

Canis vigilis, Colima coyote.

Nasua narica molaris, Colima coati,
tejon.

Felix onca hernandezii, Hernandez' tiger,
tigre.

Felix pardalis nelsoni, ocelot, tigrillo.

Platygeomys fumosus, Colima pocket
gopher.

Xenomys nelsoni, Nelson's wood rat.

Hodomys alleni, Allen's wood rat.

Sciurus socialis cocos, Acapulco squirrel.

Citellus anmdatus annulatus, band-
tailed ground squirrel.

Pecari angulatus humeralis, Colima
peccary.

Odocoileus acapulcensis, Acapulco deer.

Birds

Momotus mexicanus saturatus. Coast
motmot.

Centurus chrysogenys Uavinuchus, Aca-
pulco woodpecker.

Trogon citreolus, Citreoline humming-
bird.

Phaethornis longirostris mexicanus,
Guerrero hermit.

Anthoscenus constantii leocadiae, pine
star-throat.

Cynanthus doubledayi, Doubleday's
hummingbird.

Xiphorhynchus flavigaster mentalis,
Grayson's woodhewer.

Attila citreopygus cinnamomeus, Law-
rence's attila.

Myiarchus nuttingi inquietus, Guerrero
flycatcher.

Heleodytes humilis, Sclater's cactus
wren.

Pheugopedius felix felix, happy wren.

N annorchilus leucogaster pacificus, Co-
lima wren.

Tardus jlavirostris, Mazatlan robin.

Cissolopha san-blasiana pulchra, Aca-
pulco jay.

Granatellus venustus, Du Bus' red-
breasted chat.

Megaquiscalus 7najor obscurus, Colima
boat-tail.

Phoenicothraupis rubica affmis, Oaxaca
ant tanager.

Arremonops superciliosus sumichrasti,
Acapulco sparrow.

i. Sierra Madre District {Transition
Zone). Sierra Madre Occidental of
northern part of Republic (Chihuahua,
Sonora, Durango) . An elevated plateau
region (GOOO to 8000 ft.) with irregular
surface, but few high peaks. An ex-
tension of the Rocky Mountain region
of the United States; deeply cut on the
western flank by canyons mainly assign-
able to lower zones.

Plants

Pinus ponderosa, western yellow pine.
Pinus chihuahuana, Chihuahua pine.
Pinus lumholtzii, Lumholtz' pine.
Pinus arizonica, Arizona pine.
Rhamnus betulaefolia.

Mammals

Ursus nelsoni. Nelson's grizzly bear.
Ursus machetes, Chihuahua black bear.
Canis mexicanus, Mexican wolf.
Neotoma mexicana madrensis, Sierra

Madre wood rat.
Callospermophilus madrensis, Mexican

golden-mantled chipmunk.
Sciurus aberti barberi, Barber's squirrel.
Odocoileus cousei, Coues' deer.

Birds

Chloroenas fasciata fasciata, band-tailed
pigeon.

Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha, thick-
billed parrot.

Campephilus imperialis. Imperial ivory-
bill.

Dryobafes villosus icastus. Chihuahua
woodpecker.

Leptuas neoxenus, eared trogon.

Empidonax pulverius. Sierra Madre
flycatcher.

592

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Troglodytes brunneicollis cahooni, Ca-
hoon's wren.

Catharus occidentalis olivascens, olive
nightingale thrush.

Ridgwayia pinicola, Ridgway's thrush.

Sialia mexicana bairdi, chestnut-backed
bluebird.

Cyanocitta stelleri diademata, long-
crested jay.

Dendroica auduboni nigrifrons, black-
fronted warbler.

Junco phaeonotus phaeonotus, Mexican
junco.

Melospiza melodia goldmani, Goldman's
song sparrow.

j. Sonoran District (Lower Austral
Zone). Arid plains and' low mountains
of Sonora, an extension of the desert
region of southwestern Arizona, allied
to the Tamaulipan District.

Plants

Ephedra trifurca.

Washingtonia sonorae, palm.

Yucca schottii.

Celtis pallida, desert hackberry.

Atriplex linearis.

Prosopis pubescens, screwpod mesquite,

tornillo.
Prosopis julijlora velutina, mesquite.
Acacia wrightii, catsclaw, una de

gato.
Pithecolobium sonorae, una de gato.
Hoffmanseggia microphylla.
Cercidium torreyanum, palo verde.
Eysenhardtia polystachya. "

Parosela spinosa, indigo-bush.
Olneya tesota, ironwood, palo de hierro.
Erythrina flabellijormis, colorin.
Covillea glutinosa, creosote-bush,

Gobernadora.
Koeberlinia spinosa, corona de cristo.
Fouquieria splendens, ocotillo.

Mammals

Pipistrellus hesperus hesperus, little

western bat.
Canis mearnsi, Mearns' coyote.
Felis pardalis sonoriensis, ocelot, ti-

grillo.
Lynx ruffus baileyi, desert wildcat.
Peromyscus eremicus eremicus, desert

mouse.
Sigmodon hispidus eremicus, western

desert cotton rat.
Neotoma albigula melanura, Sonoran

wood rat.
Thomomys sinaloae, . Sinaloa pocket

gopher.
Perognathus penicillatus pricei, Price's

pocket mouse.
Dipodomys merriami merriami, Mer-

riam's kangaroo rat.

Citellus tereticaudus, Yuma ground

squirrel.
Ammospermophilus harrisii saxicola,

Mearns' white-lined ground squirrel.
Lepus californicus eremicus, Arizona

jack rabbit.
Pecari angulatus sonoriensis, Sonoran

peccary.
Odocoileus hemionus eremicus, desert

mule deer.

Birds

Lophortyx gambeii, Gambel's quail.
Psittacula cyanopygia pallida, Sonoran

parrotlet.
Ainazona albifrons saltuensis, Sonoran

parrot.
Micropallas whitneyi whitneyi, elf owl.
Colaptes chrysoides mearnsi, Mearns'

gilded flicker.
Centurus uropygialis uropygialis, Gila

woodpecker.
Otocoris alpestris pallida, pallid horned

lark.
Heleodytes brunneicapillus brunneicapil-

lus, Guaymas cactus wren.
Toxostoma curvirostre palmeri. Palmer's

thrasher.
Toxostoma lecontei lecontei, Leconte's

thrasher.
Polioptila plumbea, plumbeous gnat-
catcher.
Dendroica aestiva sonorana, Sonoran

yellow warbler.
Megaquiscalus major nelsoni, Sonoran

boat-tailed grackle.
Icterus cucullatus nelsoni. Nelson's oriole.
Amphispiza bilineata deserticola, desert

sparrow.
Melospiza melodia fallax, desert song

sparrow.
Pyrrhuloxia sinuata sinuata, pyrrhu-

loxia.
Richmondena cardinalis superba, Arizona

cardinal.

k. Tamaulipan District (Lower Austral
Zone). Lower part of Rio Grande
Valley and the plains and low moun-
tains of northeastern Mexico largely in
Tamaulipas, but extending into Nuevo
Leon and Coahuila, south to a point a
short distance north of Tampico. Gen-
erally arid in climate, allied to the Son-
oran District.

Plants

Ephedra aspera, pitamoreal.

Yucca australis.

Celtis pallida, desert hackberry.

Atriplex matamorensis.

Prosopis julijlora glandulosa, mesquite.

Acacia wrightii, catsclaw, una de gato.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

593

Pithecollohium brevifolium, tenaza.
H offmanseggia melanosticta.
Cercidium jloridum, retama.
Eysenhurdlia polysluchya, tardy.
Parosela berlandieri.
Covillea gluiinosa, creosote bush,

Gobernadora.
Koeberlinia spinosa, corona de cristo.
Fouquieria splendens, ocotillo.

Mammals

Pipislrellus hesperus hesperus, little

western bat.
Canis microdon, small-toothed coyote.
Bassariscus astutus Jlavus, tawny

bassariscus.
Felis pardalis griffUhii, ocelot tigrillo.
Lynx ruffus texensis, Texan Ijaix.
Baiomys taylori taylori, Taylor's little

brown mouse.
Peromyscus leiicopus texanus, Texas

white-footed mouse.
Oryzomys couesi aquaticus, Rio Grande

rice rat.
Sigmodon hispidus berlandieri, Ber-

landier's cotton rat.
Neotoma micropus micropus, Baird's

wood rat.
Geomys personatus Iropicalis, Tamauli-

pas pocket gopher.
Liomys irroratus texensis, Texas spiny

pocket mouse.
PerognatJms merriami, Merriam's pocket

mouse.
Dipodomys merriami merriami, Mer-
riam's kangaroo rat.
Citellus mexicanus parvidens, Rio Grande

ground squirrel.
Lepus calij'ornicus merriami, Merriam's

jack rabbit.
Pecari angulatus angulatus, Texas

peccary.
Odocoileus hemionus canus, gray mule

deer.

Birds

Callipepla squamata castanogastris,
chestnut-bellied scaled partridge.

Amazona viridigenalis, red-crowned
parrot.

Otus asio mccallii, Texas screech owl.

Dryobutes scalaris symplectus, Texas
woodpecker.

Platypsaris aglaiae aglaiae, rose-
throated becard.

Otocoris alpesiris diaphora, Tamaulipas
horned lark.

Heleodytes brunneicapillus couesi, Coues'
cactus wren.

Thryothorus ludovicianus berlandieri,
Berlandier's wren.

Toxostoma longirostris sennetti, Sennett's
thrasher.

Xanlhoura luxuosa glaucescens, Rio
Grande green jay.

Icterus melanocephalus audubonii,
Audubon's oriole.

Icterus cucullatus sennetti, Sennett's
oriole.

Arremonops rufivirgatus rujlvirgatus,
Texas sparrow.

Pyrrhuloxia sinuata texana, Texan
pyrrhuloxia.

Richmondena cardinalis canicauda, gray-
tailed cardinal.

D. MODIFICATION OF ORIGINAL BIOTA

While much of Mexico remains in
essentially primeval condition important
changes have been brought about
through human occupation, especially
near the larger cities. On the higher
parts of the Plateau near its southern
end many of the more fertile sections of
original grassland, or mixed grassland
and scrub have been turned into fields
of wheat, corn, beans, century plants or
magueyes for the production of pulque
(a fermented drink), mezcal and tequila
(distilled liquors), fiber, and other crops.
The grazing of such domestic stock as
cattle, horses, burros, sheep, and goats
is extensively carried on wherever
conditions are suitable throughout the
Republic; and this, as elsewhere, has
resulted in the overutilization of forage
in places, especially in the vicinity of
water. Large sections of the northern
tier of states remain but little modified
owing to extreme sterility and scanty
forage production, or to the absence of
a permanent water supply for stock.

Within the tropical zone much of the
original forest is still intact. Cultiva-
tion of the soil here usually involves
the clearing of forest for growing a
variety of crops including corn, beans,
sugarcane, cotton, coffee, cacao, and
many kinds of fruit. Coffee is grown on
humid tropical mountain slopes to 6000
ft. altitude. A considerable section
of northern Yucatan is devoted to the
cultivation of a native century plant
{Agave ixtli) from which is extracted
the "ixtle" or "henequen" of commerce.
The production of this fiber, extensively
used as binding twine, constitutes one
of the more important Mexican in-
dustries. As a result much of the

594

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

original arid deciduous forest of this
part of Yucatan has disappeared.

In some parts of the tropical zone
small sections of original forest are cut
and cleared by burning during the dry
season. With the opening of the rain
season these are planted to corn, beans,
and other crops which owing to the
absence of competing vegetation mature
with little or no further attention. The
second year some cultivation is required
as intrusive non-forest plants are begin-
ning to secure a foothold. The third
year the clearing is often abandoned
owing to an exuberant growth of her-
baceous and shrubby vegetation with
which the ordinary native and his
primitive tools can not cope. At this
stage he often prefers to fell more
forest, leaving the cleared area to
revert through a succession of dominant
plant types leading again after many
years to a climax, or near-climax forest.
It is evident that in this manner, piece
by piece, a very large share of the area
covered by the present extensive for-
ests of tropical Mexico has at some time
been brought under cultivation by man;
and vast areas lost their original forests
by clearing many centuries ago.

Fires started by lightning and by
human agency have had a profound
effect in limiting forest growth, espe-
cially along the Sierra Madre Occidental
and on the mixed savannas and arid
deciduous forested plains along the west
coast. While vast bodies of timber
remain uncut there has been, aside from
general clearing, much destruction of
forest through lumbering operations,
especially in connection with the devel-
opment of the vast mining industry of
Mexico. The tropical forests of the
Atlantic watershed have been exploited
for the more valuable timber, such as
Spanish cedar, mahogany and logwood
until most of the supply within easy
reach of navigable streams has been
removed. Forest products of the same
region include rubber from the rubber
tree Castilla elastica, and chicle, the
basis of most of the chewing gum of
commerce, from Achras zapota. The

process of gathering these gums tends
to exhaust the trees, causes premature
decay and finally their destruction.

Some of the largest marshes including
those in the Valley of Mexico and the
Laguna de Chapala in Jalisco are re-
ported to have been partially drained
within recent years, one result being
the obliteration of extensive breeding
and feeding grounds for many thousands
of migratory and non-migratory water-
fowl. This drainage is serious in its
effect on water fowl and other aquatic
animal life, especially in view of the
fact such water areas are very limited
in extent in the region under review.

As elsewhere much of the larger game
has disappeared over extensive areas
due to human occupation of the country.
Those especially affected have been the
antelope, mule deer, and mountain
sheep. The sparse settlement of the
country, however, has permitted these
game animals to continue their exist-
ence in the less frequented sections and
efforts are being made by the Mexican
government through presidential de-
crees and recently enacted game laws to
protect them. Little organized effort
has been made to control predatory
animals, but wolves formerly very de-
structive to domestic stock apparently
have been exterminated in the southern
part of the high plateau region.

III. Accessibility of Natural Areas

The railroad system of Mexico sup-
plemented by stage lines affords, under
normal conditions, easy access to many
interesting regions, but owing to the
rugged character of the country many
others can only be reached by under-
taking rather long trips with pack out-
fits. The principal gateways on the
north are by rail through Nogales, El
Paso, Ciudad Porfirio Diaz, Laredo and
Brownsville. The route through No-
gales affords access to much of the west
coast region, and a connection through
Jalisco with the main system of the
Republic. A railroad across the Isth-
mus of Tehuantepec connects the sea-
ports of Coatzacoalcos (now Puerto

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

595

Mexico) and Salina Cruz, and short
railroads radiate from the port of
Progreso, Yucatan. The principal ports
of the east coast, Tampico, Vera Cruz
and Progreso, are reached by regular
steamers from New York, New Orleans
and other cities, and from Tampico
and Vera Cruz there is rail connection
with the interior. On the west coast
there are numerous ports visited by
coastwise steamers, some of which have
railroad connections. Among the prin-
cipal ports that may be mentioned are
Guaymas, La Paz, Mazatlan, San Bias,
Manzanillo, Acapulco, Salina Cruz,
and Tapachula.

Visitors to Mexico should be provided
with passports. Collectors of birds or
mammals, especially, should inform
themselves concerning Federal and local
laws and regulations affecting shooting
and the taking of such material. Let-
ters of introduction to officials and
others should be secured whenever
possible as they are of great value in
preventing misunderstanding. Dis-
turbed political conditions may make
certain regions unsafe. Mexican
officials are usually very courteous and
inclined to be helpful when approached
by properly accredited individuals,
as are the people in general except the
Indians of some remote sections who
look with suspicion upon all visitors
whose motives they can not readily
understand.

IV. Bibliography

The following bibliography includes
the titles of some of the more general
works concerning in part the biota of
Mexico, together with those of a few
of the more important papers dealing
exclusively with the region.

Baker, H. B.

1922. The Mollusca collected by the
University of Michigan-
Walker Expedition in South-
ern Vera Cruz, Mexico. Oc-
casional Papers, Museum of
Zool., Univ. Mich., No. 106.
Hernandez, Francisco.

1651. Rerum medicarum Novae His-
paniae thesaurus, seu plant-

arum animalium, mineralium
mexicanorum historia ex
Francisco Ilerndndez, novi
orbis medici primarii, rela-
tionibus in ipsa mexicana
urbe conscriptis a Nardo
Antonio Reecho collecta ac
in ordinem digesta: a Joanne
Terrentio, Joanne Fabro et
Fabio Columna Lynceis notis
et additionibus illustrata.
Cui accessere aliquot ex Prin-
cipis Federici Caesii frontis-
piciis theatri naturalis phyto-
sophicae tabulae una cum
quam plurimis iconibus. Pp.
1-950+1-90. 111. Rome, 1651.
(An important early work
including much information
concerning animals and
plants.)
Biologia Centrali-Americana.

1879-1915. An elaborate treatment in
52 volumes by various authors
of the mammals, birds, in-
sects, moUusks, and plants of
Mexico and Central America.
Le6n, Nicolas.
1895. Biblioteca Botdnico-Mexicana,
Catdloge bibliographico y crl-
tico de autores y escritos
referentes a vegetales de Mex-
ico y sus aplicaciones, desde
la Conquista hasta el pre-
sente. Mexico, 1895. (Con-
tains an extensive bibliog-
raphy of Mexican botany.)
Ramirez, Jose.

1899. La Vegetacion de Mexico, pp.
1-271, with 2 maps. Mexico,
1S99. (Describes the general
character of the flora.)
Ridgway, Robert.

1901-1919. Birds of North and Middle
America: A descriptive cata-
logue of the higher groups,
genera, species, and subspe-
cies of birds known to occur
in North America, from the
Arctic Lands to the Isthmus
of Panama, the West Indies,
and other islands of the
Caribbean Sea, and the Gala-
pagos Archipelago. Bull. 50,
U. S. Nat. Mus., pts. 1-8,
each separately paged have
been issued (others to follow),
covering families in reversed
order Fringillidae to Alcidae.
Washington: Govt. Printing
Office. (The current authori-
tative systematic account of
the birds of the region.)
Ramirez, Jose, and Gabriel V. Alcocer.
1902. Sinonomia Vulgar y Cientifica
de las Plantas Me.xicanas,

596

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

pp. I-XII, 1-160, Mexico,
1902. (A valuable list of
scientific and common names.)

Elliot, Daniel Giraud.

1904. The Land and Sea Mammals
of Middle America and the
West Indies. Pub. Field Co-
lumb. Mus., Zool. Ser., vol.
IV, pts. 1-2, pp. 1-850. Chi-
cago, 1904. (Contains list
of species with original ref-
erences, brief descriptions,
type localities, and geographic
distribution.)

Mearns, Edgar Alexander.

1907. Mammals of the Mexican Bound-
ary of the United States:
A Descriptive Catalogue of the
Species of Mammals Occurring
in that Region ; with a General
Summary of the Natural His-
tory, and a list of trees.
Bull. 56, U. S. Nat. Mus., pt. 1
(part 2 unpublished). Families
Didelphiidae to Muridae, pp.
1-530, pis. I-XIII, text figs.
1-126. (An important, but
unfortunately uncompleted
work on the mammals of the
region.)

Miller, Gerrit S., Jr.

1912. List of North American Land
Mammals in the United States
National Museum, 1911, pp.
I-XIV, 1-455, 1912. (An au-
thoritative systematic list of
currently recognized North
American species at the end
of the year 1911, with refer-
ences to original descriptions;
type localities are given and
in some instances geographic
ranges. It is understood that
a new edition of this im-
portant work will soon be
issued.)

Nelson, Edward W.

1918. Wild Animals of North America.
Combining in one volume
text and illustrations of two
numbers of National Geo-
graphic Magazine — that of
November, 1916 devoted to the
"Larger Mammals of North
America, and that of May,
1918 entitled the "Smaller
Mammals of North America."
(Includes accounts of many
Mexican species.)

Pilsbry, Henry A.

Various papers in the Proc. Phil.
Acad. Nat. Sci., 1891-1920,
on the Mollusca of Mexico,
including description of new
family and species and eco-
logical notes.

Standley, Paul C.

1920-1923. Trees and Shrubs of Mex-
ico. Contrib. U. S. Nat.
Herb., vol. 23, pts. 1-3, pp.
1-848 (have been issued).
Parti. Gleicheniaceae-Betu-
laceae (1920). Part 2. Fa-
gaceae-Fabaceas (1922). Part
3. Oxalidaceae-Turneraceae
(1923). (A valuable descrip-
tive and distributional list.)
Nelson, Edward W.

1921. Lower California and its Natural
Resources. Mem. Nat. Acad.
Sci., vol. XVI, pp. 1-194.
pis. 1-35. Washington: Govt.
Printing Office, 1921. (Includes
detailed accounts of life areas. )

2. GUATEMALA
By Wilson Popenoe

In Guatemala, as in Mexico and
several other tropical American coun-
tries, three climatic zones are popularly
recognized. These are the tierra ca-
liente (hot region), in Guatemala ex-
tending from sea level to an altitude of
about 2000 ft. ; the tierra templada
(temperate region), comprising the ter-
ritory between 2000 and 6500 ft. ; and the
tierra fria (cold region) which extends
from 0500 ft. to the upper limit of culti-
vation, about 10,000 ft.

For the purposes of the present work
it is more useful to consider Guatemala
as comprising the following regions:
(1) the Pacific littoral; (2) the volcanic
mountains which rise from the northern
edge of the coastal plain; (3) the plateau
region, known locally as Los Altos,
which extends from the volcanic range
northward the eastward past 'the geo-
graphic center of the country; (4) the
moist mountainous Vera Paz region;
(5) the semi-arid valley of the upper
Motagua River; and (6) the moist
lowlands of the Atlantic Coast, together
with the great plain of Peten which
comprises about one-third of the whole
area of Guatemala.

1. The coastal plain on the Pacific
side of Guatemala averages about 50
mi. in width. At the base of the sierra,
whence it slopes uniformly to the sea,
it has an elevation of 1000 to 2000 ft.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

597

There is a rainy season of several
months' duration, followed by a severe
dry season, during which vegetation
turns brown and many plants lose their
leaves. Scattered small trees and
scrubby forest occurs throughout, while
the entire plain supports a heavy growth
of grass during the wet season. Pro-
ceeding inland from the coast the trees
become gradually larger and more
numerous, until the rain forest is
reached. The latter occupies a belt
along the lower slopes of the volcanoes,
extending from levels of 1000 or 1500 up
to 5000 or GOOO ft.

There are three ports on the Pacific
coast, of which two only are important.
These are Champerico and San Jose.
Thirty or 40 mi. back from the coast are
a number of prosperous towns which
serve as centers of agricultural activity.
From north to south the most important
of these are Ayutla, Coatepeque, Retal-
huleu, Mazatenango and Escuintla.
The plain is generally thinly populated,
particularly near the coast. Along the
foot of the sierra are numerous coffee
plantations and several large sugar
estates.

2. The mountain range which rises
at the northern edge of the coastal
plain forms the main watershed between
the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Its
summit is not a well defined crest ; it is
rounded in places, and elsewhere vol-
canic cones reach up to great heights.
Tacana (about 1.3,000 ft.) is the dividing
line between Me.xico and Guatemala.
Almost due east of this peak is Taju-
mulco, whose elevation is nearly 14,000
ft. Southeastward is Santa Maria at
whose northern base lies the city of
Quezaltenango. Not far to the east and
slightly south of this city is the beautiful
lake of Atitlan, surrounded by the
volcanoes of S. Pedro, Tollman, and
Atitlan. Continuing toward the south-
east, the volcanoes Acatenango and
Fuego rise from the western side of the
valley of Antigua, while on the east is
the Volcan de Agua (12,300 ft.).
Between this group and the volcano
Pacaya is the lake of Amatitlan. Pa-

caya is the southernmost peak of con-
sequence, the territory between this
point and the Salvadorian frontier
being a series of broken hills and ridges,
with small valleys here and there.
Santa Maria, Fuego and Pacaya have
all been in eruption during the past half
century.

This mountainous region, gradually
becoming lower as it approaches the
border of Salvador, is characterized
toward the northwestern part of Guate-
mala by rain forest along the southern
slopes, and by oak and pine forests at
elevations between 6000 and 10,000 ft.
approximately. The Indians long ago
cleared the native vegetation from
most of the lands suitable for
cultivation.

The climate in the inhabited regions
of the sierra is cool and practically
identical with that of the plateau region
which reaches out to the north and east.
Rainfall is scanty at the higher eleva-
tions, and severe fi'osts occur at 8000 ft.
This region is known as ticrra fria and
is often referred to in literature as
having the climate of the Temperate
Zone. It should not be inferred, how-
ever, that the minimum temperatures
experienced in any of the inhabited
parts of Guatemala are as low as those
of the temperate zone proper. The
highest settlements are at elevations
scai'cely exceeding 10,000 ft. It is
doubtful if the mercury goes below 20°
F. at such altitudes in Guatemala.
Occasionall}^, it goes as high as 75°.

3. The region known as Los Altos
comprises most of the Departments of
Huehuetenango, Totonicapan, Chimal-
tenango, Guatemala, and portions of
Quezaltenango, Solola and Suchitepe-
quez. While generally held to be a
plateau, it is extremely broken in
character, and nowhere are there plains
of great extent. Its mean elevation is
probably between GOOO and 7000 ft.
Toward the western side where it ap-
proaches the volcanoes, the mean ele-
vation is somewhat greater than toward
the east. Throughout all this region,
which has been cultivated by the In-

598

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

dians from early times, the best land
has been cleared for agricultural pur-
poses, and much of the timber has been
cut off for fire wood. It is rare, in fact,
to find extensive landscapes in which
native vegetation still persists. On the
rougher slopes are open forests of oak
and pine, while many of the higher
regions are covered with grass. Rain-
fall is scanty and confined to a certain
part of the year. Minimum tempera-
tures of 30 to 40° are experienced and
maxima of 80 to 90°. The orange tree
can be cultivated up to elevations of
7500 ft. The landscape is nearly always
characterized by cultivated fields of
the Indians, roadways lined with agave
plants, and deeply eroded barrancas
(occasionally becoming small canyons)
in which low scrub forest is found.
About Guatemala City, which marks
the eastern end of the plateau region,
the elevation is only 5000 ft.

4. To the average naturalist, there
is probably no other portion of Guate-
mala which possesses so much interest as
the Vera Paz. Coban, the center of
this region, lies about 100 mi. north of
Guatemala City, in a region of low moun-
tains and abundant streams. The
southern half of Alta Vera Paz and
northern third of Baja Vera Paz are
uniform in character; farther south,
across the Cachil divide, the country
becomes dry and unattractive; while
to the north lies Peten, part of the huge
plain which extends to the coast of
Yucatan.

The mountains of the Vera Paz, few
of which reach heights greater than
6000 ft., are drained by the Chixoy
on the west and the Cahab6n and the
Polochic rivers on the east. There is
practically no level ground in this
region; in the small valleys, most of
which lie at elevations between 3000
and 5000 ft., are Indian villages, as well
as coffee plantations which have been
developed in recent years by Europeans.
The mountains are covered in many
placeSjk by luxuriant rain forest, and
everywhere there are small brooks,
clear__^as crystal.^^ Rains fall upon this

region almost daily during the greater
part of the year, and there is no well
defined dry season, though the inhabi-
tants are wont to consider as such the
occasional periods of three or four
weeks when the rains cease to an extent
which permits the roads to become dry.
Toward the southern part of this region,
some of the slopes are covered with
grass and pine. On the north side of
the Polochic valley, however, they are
mostly clothed with rain forest. Near
San Cristobal and Tactic there are
groves of Liquidambar in the open
places. The tree dahlia {Dahlia maxo-
nii) brightens with its starry pink
flowers many of the hillsides, while
beneath the rain forest are to be found
tree ferns, dwarf palms of the genus
Chamaedorea, orchids, and Bromeliads
in abundance.

5. The valley of the Motagua River,
from Gualdn westward to El Rancho,
typifies the arid tropical zone of Guate-
mala. To the north are the slopes of
the Sierra de las Minas, while to the
south are low arid hills as far as the
frontiers of Honduras and Salvador.
Many of the landscapes are typically
those of a desert region, with Opuntias
and other Cacti, and thorny shrubs of
several families, notably Leguminosae.
The soil is sandy, and the rainfall only
a few inches per annum.

6. The lower Motagua valley; the
region around Lake Izabal; the Golfo
Dulce; and the great plain of Peten
are to be considered under one head.
In all this region the elevation is nowhere
above 1000 ft. The rainfall is abundant
during a large part of the year, and the
vegetation is that of the humid tropical
zone (Rain Forest). Around Izabal
there are great numbers of Attalea
palms and forest trees typical of the
Central American sea coast. About
Puerto Barrios, the land is very low and
swampy. Southwest of this point is a
small, low range of mountains known
as the Sierra del Mico, at whose north-
ern base lies Lake Izabal. Between
this and the port of Livingston is the
limestone gorge of the Rio Dulce, along

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

599

which is a riot of tropical vegetation
famous for its beauty.

The plain of Peten has been more
thoroughly explored by archaeologists
than by botanists, though its uniformity
makes relatively simple the matter of
studying either its fauna or its flora.
In all this region there are forests and
savannahs. During four or five months
of the year little rain falls, and travel
becomes possible; more than half the
time it is extremely difficult to penetrate
the interior of this Department, due to
the condition of the trails, and the lack
of settlements where supplies can be
obtained. Only a few thousand people
live in Peten, and of these the majority
are in the one town of Flores. The
great Usumacinta River flows along the
western boundary of this Department,
and drains the larger part of it.

ROUTES OF TRAVEL

Guatemala is traversed from the
Atlantic to the Pacific by a railroad,
which, leaving Puerto Barrios on the
Atlantic, passes up the Motagua valley
onto the plateau where lies Guatemala
City. Thence it descends past Lake
Amatitlan and the foot of the Volcan
de Agua, to the town of Escuintla,
whence it crosses the coastal plain
to the port of San Jose. From Santa
Maria Junction, between San Jos6
and Escuintla, there is a line which
extends up the coastal plain to the
Mexican border, with a branch to the
port of Champerico.

The railway gives easy access to the
humid tropical region of the lower
Motagua valley where are located ex-
tensive banana plantations; the desert
region about Zacapa and El Rancho;
the plateau of Guatemala City; and
the entire coastal plain along the Paci-
fic. It also places one within striking
distance of other parts of the country.

From such towns as Escuintla, Maza-
tenango, and Retalhuleu it is easy to
reach by horse or mule the rain forest
belt on the slopes of the sierra, where
are located most of the coffee planta-

tions. Quezaltenango and the high-
land region can also be reached from
the railway at Santa Felipe. From
Guatemala City there is a stage line to
Antigua, which lies in a beautiful and
interesting valley, while by horse or
mule it is not difficult to visit the entire
plateau region (Los Altos) though this
requires several days.

The Vera Paz may be reached either
from Guatemala by horse or mule, or
from Livingston by boat through Lake
Izabal to Panzos on the Polochic River,
whence there is a railway 28 mi. in
length to Pancajche, from which place
Coban may be reached by horse or mule
in a day and a half. From Cobdn there
are trails to many parts of the Vera
Paz, and one may cross the Chixoy
and go through the province of Quich6
to Los Altos. The trail from Coban to
Guatemala City passes through Tactic
and Salamd, thence over the Chuaciis
range into the Motagua valley and up
to Guatemala City.

The southeastern part of the country
may be reached on horseback from
Guatemala City. It is not difficult to
journey as far as Santa Ana in the
neighboring republic of Salvador.

The Peten region is difficult of access,
except through British Honduras. The
usual route is from Belize up the river
to a point near the border of Guatemala,
whence there is a trail to Flores.

Overland travel in Guatemala is not
difficult, providing one is willing to be
satisfied with poor accommodations
and food. It is best to carry a few
supplies to augment the monotonous
round of tortillas, arroz and frijoles.
Good riding animals are difficult to
secure, unless one has friends in the
country.

bibliography'

*Brigham, William T. Guatemala: the

land of the Quetzal. New York.

1887.
Pepper, Charles M. Guatemala, the

country of the future. Washington,

D. C. 1906.

• Those considered especially valuable are marked
with an asterisk.

600

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

*Sapper, Karl T. Grundzi'ige der phy-
sikalischen geographic von Guate-
mala. Gotha. 1894.

Rodriguez, Juan J. Apuntamientos
sobre los estudios de biologia en
Guatemala e importancia de estos
estudios. . . . Guatemala. 1893.

Dearborn, Ned. Catalogue of a col-
lection of birds from Guatemala.
Chicago. 1907. (Field Museum of
Natural History. Publication 125.)

*Rodriguez, Juan J. Memoria sobre la
fauna de Guatemala. Guatemala.
1894.

Blake, Sidney F. Native names and
uses of some plants of eastern Guate-
mala and Honduras. Washington,
D. C. 1922. (Contr. Nat. Herb.,
Vol. 24, pt. 4.)

Blake, Sidney F. New Plants from
Guatemala and Honduras. Wash-
ington. 1922. (Contr. Nat. Herb.,
Vol. 24, pt. 1.)

Brigham, William T. The Guatemalan
Forests and their Future. Trans.
Mass. Hort. Soc. 1884 (pt. 1):
159-173, 1885.

Smith, John Donnell. Enumeratio
plantarum Guatemalensium. Oqu-
awka, 111. 1889-1907.

Rodriguez, Leopold. Note sur la vege-
tation du Guatemala. Bulletin
Soc. Bot. France. Vol. 67: 356-360.
1921.

*Sapper, Karl. Die Alta Verapaz
(Guatemala). Hamburg, Germany.
1902.

Jduregui, Antonio Batres. Los Indios,
su Historia y su Civilizacion.
Guatemala. 1893.

*Recinos, Adrian. Monografia del De-
partamento de Huehuetenango.
Guatemala. 1913.

Popenoe, Wilson. The Avocado in
Guatemala. Department of Agri-
culture, Washington, D. C. Depart-
ment Bulletin no. 743.

*Sapper, Karl. Das Nordliche Mittel-
Amerika, Reisen und Studien.
1888-95. 3 vols. Brunswick, 1897.

3. BRITISH HONDURAS
By Karl P. Schmidt

I. GENERAL CONDITIONS

1. Topography

British Honduras lies at the south-
eastern corner of the Yucatan Penin-
sula. The northern part of the country
is a part of the typical tertiary limestone
area of Yucatan, with its characteristic

lakes. To the southeast, the coastal
region is a tropical lowland which rises
gradually to the west where, on the
western border, a plateau level of over
1500 ft. is reached. An isolated moun-
tain mass, the Cockscomb Mountains,
reaches 3600 ft. altitude, the highest in
British Honduras.

2. Climate

The climate is typically tropical,
with a rainj^ season from May to Janu-
ary. The heat is much relieved by the
steady sea breeze along the coast.

II. ORIGINAL BIOTA

The tropical rain-forest of the low-
lands of British Honduras abounds with
the characteristic tropical mammals
and birds of Central America, such as
tapir, jaguar, brocket deer, curassow
and yellow throated toucan. A distinct
species of crocodile (Crocodylus more-
lelii) is found in the swamps near Belize,
and manatee is reported to be fairly
common in the rivers. The small
population and the great extent of
forest, from which at most the mahogany
has been removed, offers an assurance
of easily accessible primitive conditions.

British Honduras offers a number of
advantages to the North American
biologist, among which are ready acces-
sibility from New Orleans, English
speaking natives, and great areas of
untouched forest. Twenty-five mi. of
railroad lead to an abandoned United
Fruit Company plantation, which is
surrounded by an uninhabited wilder-
ness. At this plantation, excellent
accommodations, and the services of
the few remaining workmen are avail-
able. The chain of coral cays off the
coast offers ready access to coral reef
and tide-pool marine life, while their
shoreward sides are in many cases a
mass of mangrove.

Morris, Daniel.

1883. The colony of British Honduras,
its resources and prospects;
with particular reference to its

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

601

indigenous plants and eco-
nomic productions. London:
E. Stafford. 12°, XIII +
152 p.

4. HONDURAS
By Karl P. Schmidt

I, GENERAL ACCOUNT

1. Topography

Honduras includes the mountainous
highland which connects the moun-
tains of Guatemala and Nicaragua.
This central highland rises to a general
level of about 5000 ft., above which are
higher isolated peaks and ranges, and
below which are the deeplj' cut and
often broad valleys of the principal
rivers. With the exception of the
triangular area which touches the Bay
of Fonseca, the drainage is Atlantic.
No less than five considerable rivers
flow into the Caribbean Sea, besides
the Wanks on the Nicaraguan boundary.
Of these rivers, the Chamelecon and
Ulua to the west are close together
and their valleys combine to form the
Valle de Sula, which is the most thickly
inhabited area in Honduras. The north-
east corner of the country is one of the
least exjjlored areas in Central America.
The mountains are heavily dissected,
and many ranges are isolated outliers
of the general mass. The northward
spur from the highland, which roughly
marks the Honduran-Guatemalan
border, reaches a height of 6000 ft.
and approaches within 20 mi. of the
north coast. The Sierra de Pija is a
still more detached range. The Co-
mayagua valley forms a pa.ss, probably
below 2000 ft., which opens to the north
into the valley of the Ulua and to the
south into a river flowing into the Bay
of Fonseca. A single large interior
lake, Lake Yojoa, lies at 2000 ft. above
sea level, on the northward slope of the
central highland.

2. Climate

The climate is intensely hot along the
coastal plains, much modified by alti-

tude in the interior. The Pacific coast
is much drier than the north coast,
although at the height of the drj^ season,
even this assumes a surprisingly arid
appearance. Some of the interior val-
ley's, from which the rains are cut off
by mountains, resemble the Pacific
coastal plain more than they do the
Caribbean, into which their rivers
flow. The rainy season begins about
June first and extends until November
with little interruption. The dry season
is, likewise, continuous, producing a
strong contrast between the two on
the north coast, which becomes much
less marked in the interior.

II. ORIGINAL BIOTA

The principal floral and faunal sub-
divisions that suggest themselves are:

1. The tropical coastal-plain forest
on the north.

2. An Oak-Pine zone from 1000 to
4000 ft. in the outlying mountains to
the north.

3. A sub-temperate cloud forest above
4000 ft. in mountains to the north.
This receives the trade winds.

4. The pine clad mountains of the
interior.

5. The semi-arid Pacific slope.

Of these, the first is sharply char-
acterized by the presence of the Cohune
Palm, together with common tropical
forest trees such as mahogany, fig,
and silk-cotton. It is the typical
habitat of the strictly tropical mammals
among which are the White-faced and
howling monke\'s, the jaguar and ocelot,
the Central American tapir, peccaries,
and ant-eaters, armadillos, pacas, etc.

The second is an oak and pine forest,
the oaks often hung with Spanish moss.
The Cohune palm appears to be absent.
The mammals appear to be those of the
lowland.

The third offers moisture conditions
which give it a rich flora of epiphites
and tree-ferns, in a mixed hardwood
forest. Several species of dwarf palm
are abundant. There is a considerable
fauna of tree-frogs and arboreal sala-
manders confined to it, and many birds,

602

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

notably ant-thrushes and toucans, have
species confined to it. The larger
mammals, especially deer and peccary,
range into it from below.

The fourth subdivision undoubtedly
merges into the second, but over great
areas it consists of an open growth of
pine in a nearly pure stand. There
are occasional open meadows in the
depressions at high level, but these may
not be natural. The pine forest extends
to the tops of the mountains. It is
through this area that the southward
extension of the more characteristically
North American forms take place;
cougar, coyote, grey fox, and rabbits
are among the larger mammals. The
appearance of lizards of the genus
Sceloporus sets it off rather sharply
from the lower districts.

The Pacific area is notable for the
considerable cactus and agave element
in its flora, the absence of the Cohune
palm, and the appearance of other
species of palm. Its fauna appears
to be largely influenced by that of the
mountain area, for Sceloporus variabilis
descends at least to 500 ft. on this slope.

III. PRESENT BIOTA

A large part of the valleys of the
Chamelecon and Ulua Rivers is under
cultivation for sugar-cane, bananas,
or grass-land. In the interior, the chief
agricultural industry is cattle-grazing.
The original fauna, even in the cleared
areas, seems to have been relatively
little modified. Deer are remarkably
abundant in the neighborhood of San
Pedro Sula. Great areas of the country
are absolutely primeval.

IV. GUIDE AREAS, EASILY ACCESSIBLE
FOR STUDY

San Pedro Sula, reached by rail from
Puerto Cortes, offers an ideal base for
field work in Honduras. It is only a
five hours' climb from San Pedro, at
200 ft., to the cloud forest, on the tops
of the mountains to the west, which
reach a height of 6000 ft., and such a
climb carries one through the pine-

oak zone. Small lakes on the plain
swarm with water birds and are note-
worthy for the abundance of crocodiles.
By rail and auto, it is possible to reach
Lake Yojoa, where hotel accommoda-
tions are to be found. The shores of
this large lake offer conditions of un-
usual ecological interest.

Squier, E. G.

1855. Notes on Central America; par-
ticularly the states of Hondu-
ras and San Salvador: their
geography, topography, cli-
mate, population, resources,
productions, etc., and the
proposed Honduras inter-
oceanic railway. New York:
Harper and Brothers. 8vo.
p. 397, pi. 11, maps 3.

5. THE REPUBLIC OF SALVADOR
By Paul C. Standley

Salvador is a small country, having
approximately the same area as the
State of Vermont. Unlike the other
Central American states it has no
Atlantic slope, and for that reason its
fauna and flora are less diversified than
those of the neighboring countries.
The seasonal distribution of the rainfall
also has an important influence, upon
the plant life at least. The rainfall is
very moderate for a tropical country,
varying in different parts from 58 to
98 in., the average being about 70 in.
As elsewhere upon the Pacific slope of
Mexico and Central America, the year
is divided into two seasons, a wet one,
beginning about the middle of April
and lasting until the end of October,
and a dry one, covering the rest of the
year. In the dry season no rain falls,
but in the rainy season there may be a
period of a week or more without any
rainfall, and on the other hand there
are occasional temporales, when rain
falls almost continuously for one or
even two weeks. During the dry season
many of the plants wither, some of the
trees drop their leaves, and the small
herbaceous plants disappear.

Salvador is the most densely populated

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

603

American republic except Haiti and
nearly all the arable land, at least in
the more productive regions, is under
cultivation, so that at middle and high
altitudes it is difficult to find localities
in which primitive conditions prevail.
The principal agricultural product is
cofi"ee, and since coffee requires trees
for its shade, conditions for animal life
are more favorable than might be ex-
pected, but they are less satisfactory
as regards vegetation.

Broad-leaved forests originally existed
over probably the whole country but
they are now restricted to the less
accessible regions and to those unsuited
for agriculture. Eastern Salvador,
beyond the Rio Lempa, is still mostly
in its original state, with heavy monsoon
forest along the coast and with thickets
and thin forest toward the interior
(savanna), interspersed with limited
areas of grassland or scrub. The same
conditions prevail throughout a narrow
belt which extends along the coast and
in western Salvador extends inland to
the city of Sonsonate, and well up the
Rio Paz along the Guatemalan frontier.
This region is one of low altitude, 1000
ft. or often much less.

At middle elevations the greater part
of the forest has disappeared and the
land is mostly under cultivation. On
all the higher volcanoes there is a dense
montane forest, with thick undergrowth
and many epiphyteS; indicating that
the rainfall is heavier here than else-
where. Much of this forest has been
cut away to make room for coffee planta-
tions, but there are still large areas left
in the Sierra de Apaneca (in the depart-
ments of Ahuachapan and Santa Ana)
and upon some of the isolated peaks,
such as the Volcano of San Vicente.
All these natural forested areas are
likely to disappear within the next 25
years, or in even less time.

The vegetation is everywhere tropical
and greatly varied, no one species of
plant being specially abundant, as a
rule. In general appearance the plants
are not strikingly different from those

of certain parts of temperate North
America. Except for the coconut palm,
plants of this family are not numerous
as to either species or individuals. The
most striking and distinctive tree is
probably the guarumo {Cecropia mexi-
cana), but certain others such as the
niadre de cacao {Gliricidia sepium),
maquiligua (Tabebuia pentaphylla) , and
palo mulato (Triplaris americana) are
both conspicuous and abundant. Coni-
ferous forests are of only slight extent
but there is a small one near Santa Ana
and larger areas on the mountains along
the Honduran frontier. They are
formed by a single species of pine, in-
dividuals of which are found in small
numbers upon several of the higher
volcanoes. The pine forests near Santa
Ana consist of widely spaced trees with
much undergrowth of shrubs and a thick
growth of coarse gi'asses and other
herbaceous plants.

Grassland is of frequent occurrence,
particularly in the central departments,
and in some parts of the western ones.
Near Ahuachapdn there is an especially
interesting savanna covered almost ex-
clusively with a close sward of a single
species of grass, an area quite unlike
anything found elsewhere in the coun-
try; and on the lower slopes of the vol-
canoes there are often wide meadows,
used for pasture but probably of spon-
taneous origin. The number of species
of grasses is perhaps greater here than
in any other Central American area of
the same size.

There are several localities in which
desert conditions are approached, chiefly
because of the nature of the under-
lying soil. Deserving of mention are
several lava flows of known date which
are extremely arid but covered with
sparse vegetation. A detailed study
of them would probably prove to be of
great interest. Most of the coastal
region is essentially arid, and in some
portions, such as the vicinity of Acajutla
and the valley of the Rio Paz, the plant
covering is markedly sparse. Cacti
are few in both species and individuals,

604

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

but certain other xerophytic plants are
abundant.

The country is rather well supplied
with streams, especially in the depart-
ments of Ahuachap^an and Sonsonate,
and hot springs are found almost every-
where. There are numerous lakes, sev-
eral of them of large size. That of
Maquigiie, near La Uni(3n, possesses a
remarkably rich aquatic flora and prob-
ably an equally varied fauna.

Nothing is known definitely concern-
ing the animals of Salvador, and no
group of them has been thoroughly
studied. In spite of the dense popula-
tion there still persist some of the larger
animals such as deer and jaguars, and
birds are plentiful, although there do
not seem to be as many aquatic birds
along the coast as there are in some
parts of Mexico, for instance.

About 2000 species of plants are known
from Salvador at the present time,
but the number actually occurring there
is doubtless at least 50% greater. The
flora is similar to that of western Guate-
mala and closely related to that of the
Pacific slope of Mexico, particularly in
the State of Oaxaca. It is also very
like that of Pacific Nicaragua and of the
Nicoya Peninsula of Costa Rica. The
flora of western Honduras, however,
is decidedly different, at least in its
greater part, because of the much
greater elevation of the latter
country.

Salvador is better provided with trans-
portation facilities than any other part
of Central America, and for that reason
it is scarcely necessary to mention
special routes. Two railroad lines reach
from one end to the other, and there are
good cart roads to all portions of the
country, most of them practicable for
automobiles. The higher mountains
must be reached by short trips with
mules. The Sierra de Apaneca is easily
reached thus from Sonsonate, Santa
Ana, or Ahuachapd,n. Provided with
letters of introduction, it is easy to
obtain lodging at many of the fincas in
the high mountains.

6. NICARAGUAi

By Ludlow Griscom

i. general features

Nicaragua is bounded on the north
by the republic of Honduras, on the
south by the republic of Costa Rica,
on the west by the Pacific and on the
east by the Caribbean Sea. The north-
ern and southern boundaries are in
dispute, but the Rio Coco or Wanx
and the Rio San Juan respectively
locate these boundaries in any ordinary
atlas. The outstanding physiographic
features are Lake Nicaragua and Lake
Granada, occupying the southern cen-
tral third of the country. West of these
great lakes a relatively level plain
stretches to the Pacific. Through this
plain from north to south runs a chain
of isolated conical volcanoes, three of
them now active, rising with great
abruptness. Destructive eruptions and
earthquakes have frequently occurred,
but it is this plain which is the settled
part of the country, and the seat of the
Indian civilization which the Spanish
Conquest destroyed. Just east of these
great lakes rise the central highlands.
These practically disappear southward;
but rise steadily as we proceed north-
ward and spread out both to the east
and the west, until just south of the
Honduras boundary these highlands
occupy more than half the width of the
country. The maximum altitude is
approximately 5500 ft. No definite
orographic system exists, the country
is exceedingly broken and rugged, and
travel is rendered very difficult and
tedious. From the east slope of these
mountains to the Caribbean stretches a
tremendous unbroken rain forest which
is practically unexplored and unin-
habited, with a very unhealthy climate.
Small areas of open savannah are re-
ported in the extreme northeastern
section. Their existence requires con-
firmation.

1 As this country has been but very slightly ex-
plored from the naturalist's point of view, this ac-
count is very general, and great detail is impossible.
No ecological literature exists.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

605

Geographic andfaunal communities

With the exception of the highest
mountains the whole of Nicaragua is in
the Tropical Zone, and humidity is
consequently the chief factor in causing
varying plant and animal communities.

Luxuriant tropical rain forest. The
entire Caribbean Slope is one of the
most humid areas in the New World.
It rains from mid-April to December,
and an annual fall of 250 in. is not
unusual. Hence the primeval unbroken
rain forest, the trees of tremendous
height, with the sun never reaching the
ground. The flora is unknown, but
many valuable timber trees such as
mahogany are abundant. The fauna
is extraordinarily abundant and varied.
Tapirs, jaguars, howling monkeys,
sloths, ant-eaters, and many bats and
rodents are characteristic. Over 400
species of birds, of neotropical groups,
are already recorded.

Arid deciduous forest. The central
highlands are apparently a barrier to the
moisture-laden trade winds. As a re-
sult the Pacific Slope is much drier,
the rains are less heavy, and last from
mid-May to November. In the dry
season the rainfall is rapidly absorbed
or evaporated, and semi-arid conditions
prevail. Cactus is frequent, and the
dominant type of vegetation is a low
scrub. Originally a type of open gal-
lery forest is reported, but is now largely
destroyed, patches of this forest remain-
ing in a very few places, such as the
slopes of the volcanoes El Viejo and
Mombacho. We have here a dry Tropi-
cal Pacific Slope fauna and flora, quite
different from the Caribbean rain forest,
and much less abundant and varied.
Two associations only can be distin-
guished, the open scrubbj^ plains and
the gallery forest, with markedly differ-
ent floras and faunas, that of the latter
much more varied. Native report has
it that this gallery forest was originally
the predominating association, but
scientific evidence is lacking. There
are no rivers, lakes, or marshes.

Very varied ecological and faunal
conditions prevail in the central and
northern highlands. Most of this region
has never been visited by a naturalist,
and consequently only a very general
account can be given.

Semi-desert. Proceeding due north
from Lake Managua to the town of
Matagalpa at an altitude of 2200 ft.,
the climate during the long dry season
is extremely arid, and the vegetation is
distinctly xerophytic, with a total
absence of herbaceous plants. The
birds are quite different from those of
the Pacific Slope. The extent westward
of this region is entirely unknown, but
its eastern limits are the eastern slopes
of the highlands, where the humid
Caribbean forest abruptly begins.
North of Matagalpa the mountains rise
from 4000 to 5500 ft. There are at
least two high valleys or plateaus known
at about 3500 ft. Here in addition to the
usual dry scrub association is found an
oak association, and these districts
support many species of birds known
nowhere else in the country.

Conditions change abruptly above
3500 ft. Between this level and 5000 ft.
the mountains are covered with a pine
forest, with a totally distinct fauna and
flora. Many north temperate genera
of plants and birds, such as the Sweet
Gum, Crossbills, Siskins, Bluebirds,
and Flickers, here reach the southern
limits of their range. The birds are a
beautiful illustration of how favorable
ecological conditions have enabled them
to adapt themselves to a tropical cli-
mate. The altitude is apparently re-
sponsible for the great humidity, as it
rains in this pine forest belt throughout
the year.

Montane forest. Very few of the
mountains are known to rise above 5000
ft., but this altitude is sufficient to
produce a genuine Subtropical Zone,
as defined by Chapman. These sum-
mits are covered by an excessively
dense, dark cloud forest, characterized
by tree-ferns, gigantic begonias, and an
astonishing wealth of epiphytes, para-

606

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

sites and hyper-parasites. The bird
fauna is scant in individuals but very
peculiar. Here is the haunt of the
famous quetzal or resplendent Trogon,
the remarkable bell-bird, an emerald
Paradise Tanager, a gigantic ant-
thrush, and a solitaire. The sun rarely
shines, and it rains almost every day
in the year. The extent to which this
Subtropical Zone occurs is unknown.
Hundreds of miles of the northern high-
lands of Nicaragua have never been
visited by a white man.

II. BIOTA

From the point of view of the natural-
ist, Nicaragua is a virtually untouched
paradise. Present biotic conditions are
apparently primeval in almost every
zone, faunal area, and ecological asso-
ciation defined above. Barring a few
banana plantations along some of the
rivers, and a little crude lumbering, the
Caribbean forest is uninhabited and
unvisited. The Subtropical Zone and
the Pine Forest Region are uninhabited.
The balance of the central and northern
highlands is very thinly settled, chiefly
by pure Indians, who never trap or
shoot. Primeval conditions are con-
sequently spoiled only in the immediate
vicinity of the few settlements. The
thickly settled Pacific Slope is the great
exception. While historical and scienti-
fic evidence concerning primeval con-
ditions is lacking, it may fairly be pre-
sumed that extensive cultivation, the
presence of several large cities and a
relatively large rural population has
profoundly modified original primeval
conditions, which now exist in a few
remote and isolated localities. Most
of this area could not be rated as better
than C2, according to the system of
classification adopted in this guide,
and much of it would be rated even
lower.

III. NATURAL AEEAS

There are of course no Preserves of
any kind in so uncivilized a country.

IV. WATER POLLUTION

The entire absence of factories and

industries makes it practically certain
that no polluted waters exist.

V. DIRECTIONS FOR TRAVEL IN NICARAGUA

The traveling scientist in Nicaragua
will be seriously handicapped by the
great difficulties in transportation. The
east coast can be reached by steamer
from New Orleans, and one can dis-
embark either at Cape Gracias or Blue-
fields where there are small settle-
ments. Greytown, indicated on all
maps as lying on the coast at the mouth
of the Rio San Juan, no longer exists.
From these centers travel or exploration
is practically limited to success in
hiring a launch or motor boat, and in
penetrating up the larger rivers where
there are baftana plantations or lumber
camps, where the traveler is usually
received with cordial hospitality. Any
side trips into the wilderness require a
carefully planned expedition on a large
scale, dependent entirely upon man
packing in an exceedingly unhealthy
and rainy climate, and it is doubtful if
a party could average 20 mi. a day. On
only a few occasions has a traverse of
the country to the Pacific Slope been
made, and the two regions are entirely
out of communication with each other.

Running from Panama to San Fran-
cisco the Pacific Mail Steamship Com-
pany's steamships stop at San Juan
del Sur and Corinto. From Corinto
the only railroad in Nicaragua runs to
the three big cities, Leon, Managua,
and Granada, on Lake Nicaragua.
From Granada a steamboat touches at
various points along the southern half
of the lake, the run terminating at San
Juan, where the Rio San Juan runs to
the Atlantic, as the outlet of the lake.
There are numerous rough roads and
trails along the Pacific side of the
country but they can be used only by
horses, mules, or a primitive type of
heavy ox cart with solid wheels. These
roads are usually impassable in the
rainy season. From Leon a road runs,
roughly speaking, northeast to Mata-
galpa in the central highlands, approxi-

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

607

mately 100 mi. away. Under favorable
conditions ox teams with machinery
have suceeded in reaching Matagalpa.
Another trail to the same town starts
from Savana Grande on the railroad, a
distance of 110 mi. This latter is the
road used by travelers on horse or mule
back. From Matagalpa a trail runs
northward over the mountains to Jino-
tega where it forks, one branch going to
San Rafael del Norte and the other to
Ocotal. The chief difficulty for the
stranger is in obtaining mules to trans-
port himself and his baggage along the
trails mentioned. No one is anxious to
hire out his mules, and no native of the
lower classes will do any kind of work as
guide or muleteer if he can possibly
avoid it. One should allow three days
on the road to Matagalpa, from Mata-
galpa to Jinotega one day, from there
to San Rafael two days, to Ocotal
three days. In addition the traveler
must allow an indefinite number of days
or weeks at the various starting places
to acquire mules. He who reaches
Matagalpa from Corinto in less than two
weeks will be fortunate. Localities
north of Matagalpa he will probably
not reach at all in the rainy season.

On the Pacific Slope the volcanoes
Viejo, best reached from Chinandega
on the railroad, and Mombacho, reached
from Granada, are places worthy of
careful study. Any section of the
Carribean rain forest is worthy of a
visit. The fauna and flora around
Matagalpa are quite different from
those of the lowlands, and at San Rafael
del Norte the traveler is in the heart
of the pine forest, with the high sub-
tropical rain forest just above that.
It is obvious that off the trails men-
tioned are vast areas of country with
diversified climate and topography
whicJi still await the exploration of a
scientist. Travelers should be warned,
however, that to reach any of the more
interesting and remote places mentioned
is a lengthy and a costly job. Explora-
tion in Nicaragua except on the Pacific
Slope could not be done for less than
one thousand dollars a month, if new
territory were to be investigated.

7. COSTA RICAi

By Ludlow Griscom

i. general conditions

1. Topography

Costa Rica is bounded on the north
by Nicaragua, on the south by Panama,
east by the Caribbean Sea, and west by
the Pacific Ocean. It has an area of
about 18,500 sq. mi., and may be roughly
described as a highly mountainous and
broken country lying wholly in the
tropics.

The chief ph^^siographic feature is the
lofty volcanic mountain ranges which
follow the general trend of the continent
from northwest to southeast. The
whole central portion of the country
is a broken tableland, lying to the south-
west of the main range of the Cordillera,
and bounded on the Pacific side by
various broken and irregular mountain
masses, more or less isolated from each
other. As a result the coastal plains
on both sides are narrow, varying from
almost nothing to 25 or 30 mi. in width.
The only exception to this statement
is the northern and northeastern part
of the country, which is comparatively
flat and low, draining into Lake Nica-
ragua or its outlet, the Rio San Juan.
The more northerly range rises with
great abruptness in the extreme north-
west corner of the country from the
low level Pacific plain of Nicaragua.
Composed at first of a succession of
volcanic cones, such as Orosi (5185 ft.),
Miravalles (4698), and Tenorio (6800),
it changes to a highland, for over 50
mi. without a single volcano. Poas
(8895) begins a new series of volcanic
peaks culminating in Irazu (11,200)

1 The relatively little thorough exploration of this
country, compared with areas of similar size in
North America, renders a very general account
necessary, and detail is impossible. No ecological
literature exists, but the reader is referred to Car-
riker's Birds of Costa Rica, Annals Carnegie Mus-
eum, Vol. VI, No. 4, August, 1910, for a general ac-
count of the physiography and faunal distribution,
the latter.however, requiring extensive modification.
"A Year of Costa Rican Natural History" by P. P.
& A. S. Calvert (MacMillan & Co., 1917) gives an ex-
cellent account of life in the country and there is an
extensive bibUograpby.

608

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

and Turrialba (10,900) in the center of
the country. From Irazu, the whole
of Costa Rica and both oceans are
visible, and its ascent is a profitable
and easy excursion for the ambitious
tourist. Destructive eruptions have
occurred in this section in historical
times, and severe earthquakes have
destroyed the city of Cartago on two
occasions. Slight shocks occur almost
annually.

South of Turrialba there is a pro-
nounced break, the continental divide
is very narrow, and the sources of the
rivers Reventazon and Rio Grande de
Tdrcoles are within half a mile of each
other, flowing to the Caribbean and
Pacific respectively in broad, deep
valleys. Still further to the south-
east is an unbroken expanse of moun-
tains, rivers, and primeval forest,
inhabited by wild Indians, and practi-
cally unexplored. The so-called Tala-
manca or Chirrip Mountains rise in
this section, culminating in Chirripo
Grande (11,485 ft.), Pico Blanco (9645)
and Rovalo (7050), the last two placed
in Panama on some maps. All altitudes
given are uncertain.

The Caribbean coast is monotonous
and unbroken. It is covered with heavy
forest, numerous rivers descend rapidly
from the mountains in narrow valleys,
separated by steep ridges, and the
climate at low levels is unhealthy and
malarial. The Pacific coast, however,
is quite different. It is steeper on the
whole, and includes two bold promon-
tories or capes. The peninsula of
Nicoya is separated from the mainland
by the shallow Gulf of Nicoya. The
chief port town of Puntarenas is situated
about half way up this gulf. In south-
western Costa Rica another bold pen-
insula is separated from the mainland
by the Golfo Dulce. The Cape of
Burica is the dividing line between
Costa Rica and Panama. It projects
straight south into the Pacific and forms
the western boundary of David Bay.
On the Pacific side are several more or
less isolated groups of mountains, rang-

ing from 4000 to 8000 ft. One of them
is directly back of Puntarenas, and
another on the Nicoya Peninsula oppo-
site, making the scenery very attractive.
As a general rule the rivers are fewer in
number but of larger size and rapid
current. The Rio Grande de Terraba
has a large delta, with several mouths.
The bulk of the population lives in
the central plateau, around the four
provincial capitals, and at the ports of
Puntarenas and Limon on the Carib-
bean. There is a remarkably high per-
centage of Spanish blood, compared
with other Central American countries,
and the negro element is exceedingljr
small. Indians in a state of complete
savagery still exist along the Nicaraguan
border and in the Talamanca section.
They are inoffensive and are rapidly
disappearing.

2. Climate

As in Nicaragua, the moisture-laden
trade winds from the Caribbean cause
a tremendous rain-fall on the Caribbean
slope of Costa Rica, sometimes exceed-
ing 200 in. annually. It is fairlj^ con-
tinuous throughout the year, but is
lightest from January 15 to April 1,
which is consequently the pleasantest
season of the j^ear. The rainfall de-
creases with altitude, the only exception
being the highest peaks. In the plateau
region and the Pacific slope very differ-
ent conditions prevail. There is a
marked rainy season from May 1 to
the end of November, light the first and
last months, but daily the rest of the
time, and often very violent. The
remainder of the year is entirely with-
out rain. Altitude divides the country
into three distinct climates from the
point of view of temperature. It is
tropical from sea level to about 4000
ft., cool or subtropical from 4000 to
7500 ft., and temperate or cold above
that. At San Jos6, the capital, at
4000 ft., a light overcoat is welcome at
night during the winter months. Frost
occurs frequently above 7500 ft., and

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

609

snow has been recorded in the i^igh
mountains. Tree-line is about 10,000 ft.

S. Geographic and faiinal communities

Costa Rica is a naturalist's paradise.
The varied topography and climate,
combined with favorable geographic
position, given it the most varied fauna
and flora, for so tiny an area, in the New
World. The continent has narrowed
down to sixty miles, and in this space
occurs an unparalleled diversity of
conditions. Its present fauna and flora
has been derived both from the north
and the south, and in past geological
periods the mountains have been an
island, on which peculiar and distinct
types have evolved. In birds at least
one peculiar family, numerous endemic
genera and species, give the Costa
Rican highlands rank as a distinct
faunal area. The very diversity of
conditions and origins, however, makes
the delimitation of life zones or ecologi-
cal associations particularly difficult and
complicated, and unfortunately any
detailed knowledge of local distribution
is entirely lacking. The great rarity
of many endemic species, some of general
distribution, and others confined to a
single mountain peak, affords still
further food for speculation. There is,
here, a fascinating field in the study of
geographic distribution, but only the
most generalized account can be given.

Luxuriant tropical rain forest. The
Caribbean slope is the easiest to de-
scribe. It is covered with a dense
tropical rain forest, with an exceedingly
humid and unhealthy climate. It is
exactly the same as the Caribbean slope
of Nicaragua, described in the preceding
article. It has a typically rich and
varied fauna, all the conspicuous and
prevailing neotropical types occurring.
There are no less than 400 species of
birds recorded. The flora is little
known, but the trees are of great size,
and the undergrowth of creepers and
lianas makes progress difl^cult, without
cutting at every step. At the lowest
levels, especially near the rivers, jungles

of palm catch the traveller's eye. (For
species, see under Nicaragua.)

Arid deciduous forest. On the Pacific
side of the coimtry, the difference in
rainfall causes a difference in ecological
condition, and slight differences in the
fauna. The northwestern past, includ-
ing the Nicoya peninsula is a region by
itself, and is exactly the same as the
Pacific slope of Nicaragua (which see).
It is the extreme southern limit of a
fauna which contains such conspicuous
forms as the white-winged dove, a
cactus wren, a rock wren, several orioles
and a long-tailed crested jay (Calocitta).
As in Nicaragua an extensive Indian
civilization existed at the time of the
Spanish Conquest, and much of the
original gallery forest has disappeared
and is replaced by grassy savanna.
Further south the Pacific slope is covered
with a dense gallery forest, the fauna
of which, at least, is not so distinctly
different from the tropical fauna of the
Caribbean slope. In extreme south-
western Costa Rica from the Terraba
Valley and the Golfo Dulce southward,
the heavy gallery forest is again varied
by considerable tracts of savanna.
Ecologically there would seem to be
little or no difference, but the fauna
is quite distinct. Numerous endemic
species of birds, such as a black and
yellow mannakin (Manacus aurantia-
cus), a snowy cotinga (Carpodectes
antoniae), and a hummingbird {Agyrlria
boucardi), are found only here and in the
adjacent parts of western Panama.
The causes, which have evolved this
peculiar fauna, are not understood.

Passing now from the purely tropical
zone to higher altitudes, a marked
change takes place, when we enter the
subtropical or upper tropical zone at
about 3500 to 4000 ft. There are two
distinct ecological divisions. The lower
plateau region, while originallj- forested,
is the most settled portion of the coun-
try, and has long since been cleared in
large part, and used for agriculture and
pasture. Such is the country around
Cartago and San Jose. There are

610

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

several broad valleys. There are nu-
merous characteristic plants and ani-
mals. Even from the train the casual
traveller will notice the absence of
palm jungles, and the wayside fields
will have flowers, reminding him subtly
of a more northern latitude.

Montane Forest. From 5000 to 8000 ft,
lies what might be called the upper
plateau region. It is again forested,
the forest exceedingly dense with an
abundance of epiphytic vegetation, and
tree ferns are noticeable and char-
acteristic. The varied fauna is in part
derived from the north, but is composed
chiefly of species of tropical origin,
which have become adapted to lower
temperatures. In the plant world,
numerous boreal genera appear (such
as Carex) or groups very closely related.

Subalpine evergreen forest. The tem-
perate zone extends from about 8000
ft. to tree-line on the highest summits.
It is very humid, the forest is spreading,
stunted and gnarled, due to the high
winds, and contains oaks and other
arboreal species characteristic of a more
northern flora. Some of the most
remarkable of Costa Rican birds occur
in this zone, such as Zeledonia, the type
of a distinct family, the beautiful re-
splendent trogon, or quetzal {Pharomac-
rus mocinno), the unique peg-billed
sparrow (Acanthidops hairdi), and types
of clearly northern origin, such as a
hairy woodpecker, an ant-eating wood-
pecker, and a hummingbird {Selasphorus
flammula) closely related to species of
Mexico and western North America.
Above tree-line on the highest volcanoes,
living in the scrubby bushes occurs a
junco or snow-bird (Jimco vulcani)

•

II. PRESENT BIOTIC CONDITIONS

The greater part of Costa Rica is
still in a primeval and unspoiled con-
dition. There are three principal ex-
ceptions. The lower plateau region,
as already mentioned is thickly settled
and thoroughly cleared. As it was
originally forested, great changes from
original biotic conditions must have

taken place. In the northwestern sec-
tion, just as in Nicaragua, the Indian
civilization removed most of the original
gallery forest, leaving much cleared
land, which has turned into grassy
savanna. The original biota, here too,
must have been profoundly disturbed.
The biologist must, however, bear in
mind the law of compensation, which
clearly applies in such cases. Many
of the species now found only in this
section of Costa Rica would not occur
there at all were it not for the changes
which have taken place. The third
exception is that part of the Caribbean
slope which has been cleared for banana
plantations and other types of agricul-
ture chiefly along the railway lines from
Puerto Limon to San Jose. Such culti-
vation is particularly disturbing in the
tropics, where very delicate adjustment
to minute variations in conditions can
alone explain the numerical abundance
of species and the scarcity of individ-
uals. Probably 50% of the original
avifauna, for instance, has disappeared
from such cleared areas, never to return,
and few indeed are the species which
replace them, chiefly certain native
ones which were able to adapt them-
selves to the sudden change in condi-
tions. Cultivation has been steadily
spreading and increasing in eastern
Costa Rica, but at least 75% of the
tropical rain forest is still a primeval
wilderness. There is no satisfactory
evidence that a single species of the
Costa Rican fauna is as yet in danger of
extermination, from causes which could
be ascribed wholly to the influence of
man. Consequently, while there are no
Preserves, none are as yet really needed.
No polluted waters of any consequence
are known.

HI. POLITICAL RELATIONS, TRANSPORTA-
TION AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR
RESEARCH

There is probably no section of the
New World tropics which can be reached
so conveniently or so cheaply as Costa
Rica, or where greater diversity of con-
ditions exist. This is due to the com-

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

611

paratively settled state of the country
politically, and to the large concessions
of the United Fruit Company on the
Caribbean coast, a concern which has
expended considerable capital in devel-
opment. Its comfortable steamers ply
regularly to Puerto Limon, and an
excellent railroad runs from there to
San Jose, the capital, with branches
running to Guapiles and Alajuela.
San Jose is a pleasant city with several
excellent hotels and a delightful climate,
and this trip is becoming increasingly
popular with the tourist, who is given
every encouragement. The ride to the
capital from Puerto Limon over the
continental divide is a fascinating one,
and the scenery is magnificent. There
are numerous towns and way stations
en route, where the biologist can stop,
choosing the altitude he desires. The
stranger is always hospitably treated,
and can often put up at some plantation
or hacienda. From Cartago one can ride
to the summit of Irazu, and the more
energetic traveller can camp at any
desired altitude along the way, and
study any desired life zone or ecological
association.

There is a government railroad run-
ning from San Jose to Puntarenas on the
Pacific Coast. There is a tolerable
hotel here also, and the steamers of the
Pacific Mail Steamship Company call
regularly on their way to Panama or
San Francisco. They run about every
three weeks, but the schedule is irregu-
lar, and the boats are often several daj-s
late. The traveller must consider sev-
eral things to save himself annoyance.
He cannot get reliable information in
San Jose about the arrival or departure
of these steamers. At Puntarenas he
must see the Port Officer and get per-
mission to leave the country. This
permit is telegraphed from the Minister
of War, and costs five dollars. At least
a day must be allowed to secure it.
Everything is dutiable in Costa Rica,
and your baggage is rated at so much
per kilo. Exactly the same thing is
true when leaving, the export tax cover-

ing all personal effects, at so much per
kilo. The scientist, however, with
proper letters and credentials, can usu-
ally obtain a waiver of import duties,
but will have to pay the export duties,
unless he remembers to make the nec-
essary arrangements before leaving.

At Puntarenas the biologist can get a
glimpse at least of the peculiar fauna
of the northwestern section. From
there a very fair road runs north to
Bagaces, Liberia, and on to Rivas in
Nicaragua. Bagaces is in the heart
of the savanna country, and a trip to
the summit of Miravalles, where many
peculiar species are found, is not par-
ticularly difficult or expensive. Travel
on this road is chiefly by mule or horse,
hut animals are not particularly difficult
to secure.

Reaching any other section of Costa
Rica is increasingly expensive and
difficult. The T^rraba Valley and the
Golfo Dulce region is best reached by
securing some small coastwise sailing
vessel at Puntarenas. The price will
be high, the delay in securing one great,
and all supplies must be taken. The
little hamlet of Boruca has served as the
headquarters of the few collectors who
have ever gone there. The interior is
unexplored. The whole of northeastern
and southeastern Costa Rica is practi-
cally unexplored and unvisited. Real
results could only be obtained by well-
organized expeditions, prepared for
difficult conditions and an unhealthy
climate.

Opportunities for research will be
limited only by the ignorance or in-
competence of the student. In the
higher vertebrate groups, few new
species remain to be discovered, but
many more will be found to occur in the
country. In every other phase of
biological investigation, the student will
have almost a virgin field, and can
specialize in any department he sees fit.
The foregoing account proves how
readily any desired type of climatic or
ecological conditions can be reached in
this naturalists' paradise.

612

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

8. PANAMA
By E. A. Goldman and James Zetek

I. INTRODUCTION (e. a. G.)

The brief account of Panama here
presented is largely an abstract from
published results (Goldman, 1920) of
field investigations by the author in
1911-1912 in connection with the biologi-
cal survey of the Panama Canal Zone,
undertaken by the Smithsonian Insti-
tution in cooperation with the Biological
Survey and other government depart-
ments, and supplemented by informa-
tion gathered from various sources.
The field work was centered largely in
the Canal Zone, but extended to extreme
eastern Panama.

II. GENERAL FEATURES AND ORIGINAL
BIOTA (e. a. G.)

A. Topography

The narrow intercontinental land
mass forming the Republic of Panama
extends in a sigmoid curve from east to
west between the meridians of 77° 15'
and 83° 30' west from Greenwich and
parallels 7° 10' to 9° 40' of north latitude.
It varies in width from less than 50 mi.
at the Canal Zone and at the constric-
tion between the mouth of the Rio
Chepo and the Bay of San Bias to over
100 mi. at the Azuero Peninsula. Ex-
cept for the Chiriqui Lagoon the north-
ern shore line forms a nearly undented
S-shaped curve. The southern coast
line, on the contrary, is very irregular.
There are numerous inlets or baj^s, and
several peninsulas form prominent sa-
lient features. The smaller bays are
mainly the tidal estuaries of the numer-
ous rivers, some of which are of large
size. The estuary of the Rio Tuyra
permits small steamers to ascend to
Real de Santa Maria, about half the
distance from the outer shore line across
to the Atlantic Coast. The most con-
spicuous projection, the Azuero Penin-
sula, in broadly extended outline,
bounds the Gulf and Bay of Panama on
the west. Another prominent feature

of the southern coast is the Burica
Peninsula, a prolongation of the Ser-
rania de Carones, territory in dispute
between Panama and Costa Rica. The
largest outlying land area is Coiba
Island, of slight elevation, off the south-
western coast. Numerous small islands
lie close to the adjacent coast, of which
some of the more important are Cebaco,
and Leones islands in Montijo Bay, and
farther west Insolita, Espartal, Brava,
Parida and Sevilla islands. The second
largest island is San Miguel, or Rey
Island in the Bay of Panama, which with
smaller neighboring islands form an
archipelago known as the Pearl Islands.
These islands are rather low, but rugged
in contour, with eroding coast lines like
those of parts of the adjacent mainland.
Small islands are numerous along the
northern coast, but aside from the
low, forested archipelago separating the
sea from Almirante Bay and the Chiriqui
Lagoon, are relatively unimportant.

The general land surface is hilly and
irregular, but the only very high moun-
tains are in the extreme western part,
where an extension of the highlands of
Costa Rica crosses the international
boundary about midway between the
two oceans and culminates at about
11,500 ft. in the volcano of Chiriqui.

The rather ill-defined backbone of the
Isthmus is divided by comparatively
low passes into several irregular sections
in which steep, but not usually precipi-
tous, mountain ranges reach varying
elevations, in few places exceeding
5000 ft. The Serrania del Brujo, begin-
ning near the Atlantic coast a few miles
east of Colon, rises near Porto Bello to
3000 or 4000 ft., and partially encircling
the Chagres River Valley joins the con-
tinental axis near Cerro Azul, a mountain
about 3000 ft. high on the crest between
the Chagres and Pacora river valleys.
A short distance east of Cerro Azul
are transcontinental gaps probably less
than 1000 ft. in altitude where the head-
waters of the Rio Mamoni interdigitate
with those of streams flowing north into
the Gulf of San Bias. Farther east the
long, narrow curved Isthmian backbone,

LIFE ZONES OF PANAMA

Scale 1 •• 5.500,000

E A

82

I.RtVlfW, 0oT.19;O 1

Fig. 14. Map of Barro Colorado Island, Gatun Lake, Canal Zone,

AND Vicinity
Showing the depth of water but not indicating rivers or contours on the Island.
Taken from U. S. Hydrographic OflSce map No. 5000. (The width of the words
"Barro Colorado" equals 3000 yards.)

r io &■>■

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

613

generally known as the Serrania del
Darien, reaches in many places an
altitude of 3000 to 5000 ft., but the crest
is interrupted at various points by
passes less than 1000 ft. high. Mount
Pirre is the name applied to a dominant
spur, slightly exceeding 5000 ft. in
altitude and projecting northward into
the Tuyra basin in a crescentic curve
with the axial trend of the continent
along the Panama-Colombian frontier.

Aside from the higher mountain ranges
that form the Isthmian backbone, a
multitude of rather steep, extensively
eroded ridges separating narrow river
valleys ramify throughout the greater
part of the republic. Extensive and
fairly level plains occur at various
elevations, however, in the province of
Chiriqui, and along the Pacific coast
as far east as the Bayano River Valley.

Owing to the narrowness of the Isth-
mus most of the rivers are short, and
from their sources, commonly interdigi-
tating along the opposite sides of the
deeply eroded continental divide, flow
directly to the sea, but there are several
notable exceptions. The greatest river
system of the republic is the Tuyra
Chucunaque. After draining a large
and very humid area, these two rivers
unite near the middle of the Isthmus
and in combination with several other
large streams pour an immense volume
of water into the Gulf of San Miguel.
The second river of the republic in point
of size is the Rio Bayano, which takes
a westerly course and joining the Rio
Mamoni, a much smaller stream, turns
southward and under the name of Rio
Chepo enters the Bay of Panama. The
most important river of the Atlantic
drainage is the Rio Chagres, whose
watershed is an interior basin. The
general course of the stream is westerly
to a point near where it enters the Canal
Zone and bends north to the Caribbean
Sea. The Chagres, whose waters are
now impounded in Gatun Lake, 164
sq. mi. in area, furnishes the water for
operating the locks of the Panama Canal,
and through the locks at the southern

end of Gailliard Cut a part of its flow
is diverted into the Pacific Ocean.

B. Climate

While climatic conditions vary con-
siderably in difi'erent parts of Panama,
the region as a whole is subject to the
influence of two annual seasons, the
duration of which are correlated with
the direction of the prevailing winds.
During the so-called "dry" season the
northeast trade wind, blowing daily
from about the month of December to
the month of Ma}% at times with con-
siderable violence, is accompanied by
light, but not infrequent precipitation
along most parts of the Atlantic slope.
At this season rather light cloud forma-
tions discharge their moisture along the
northern side of the Isthmus, the rain-
fall of the coast depending in a measure
on the height and proximity of the moun-
tains. At the higher elevations fogs
are very prevalent, condensed moisture
drips freel}' from the trees and tropical
rain forest conditions prevail. The
Pacific coast in marked contrast, at this
time has a true dry season, during which
little rain falls. During the wet season,
beginning usually about the latter part
of May and ending about the first of
December, southerly winds become
dominant and rains are general through-
out the Isthmus.

At the Canal Zone, which is a cross-
section of the Isthmus about 50 mi.
in extent, the annual rainfall on the
Atlantic coast is nearly double that on
the Pacific coast. Official records for
1909 show a total rainfall of 93.06 in. at
Balboa, and 183.41 in. at Cristobal;
but the average for 13 years at the
former station is 71.67 in., and for 40
years at the latter station 130.03 in.
This relative difference in humidity of
the two sides probably obtains as far
west as the Costa Rican frontier, but
in eastern Panama the difference is less
marked. In much of the Darien region
the total rainfall is increased to an
annual precipitation of perhaps more

614

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

than 200 in., which renders this area one
of the wettest in America.

Clearings are few, and aside from the
rather extensive, open, grassy savannas
near the Pacific coast, and smaller grass
areas in the Chagres Valley, the Isth-
mus is a practically unbroken expanse
of forest.

Under the stimulating influence of
frequently recurring showers and con-
tinuously moist conditions throughout
the j^ear, the Atlantic watershed main-
tains a much more exuberant growth of
vegetation than the Pacific watershed,
where long periods of drought check
vegetative vigor. At the height of the
dry season the trees of the Atlantic
forest are clothed with brilliant ever-
green foliage, while those of the Pacific
forest, truly deciduous for the most
part, present bare stems, and the land-
scape has an autumnal appearance,
relieved to some extent along the
streams.

C. Natural life areas

Three principal life zones are recogniz-
able in the republic, extending at low
elevations from sea to sea, and at higher
elevations as belts on the slopes, or
embracing the tops of mountain ranges.
Beginning at sea level these are the
Lower Tropical Zone, of which there
are well-marked arid and humid divi-
sions ; the Upper Tropical or Subtropical
Zone, and the Temperate Zone. As
elsewhere the major life zones are
obviously subdivisible into minor re-
gional faunas and floras, or plant and
animal associations of varying rank,
most of which are very imperfectly
known. A few only of the more char-
acteristic mammals, birds, and plants
are mentioned as indicators, and the
zonal position of some of these may be
subject to revision, when their distri-
bution areas have more completely been
delimited.

1. Lower Tropical Zone. An area of
high temperature including by far the
greater part of the Isthmian land surface
from the Atlantic and Pacific shore lines
across at low elevations from sea to sea

and to about 3000 to 3500 ft. in average
altitude along the slopes of the higher
mountains. Many species of animals
and plants range in suitable places
throughout the zone; others are re-
stricted to the arid or humid divisions,
or reach their greatest development
there.

a. Humid Lower Tropical Zone (Low-
land rain forest). The Humid Lower
Tropical Zone occupies the crests of
most of the mountain ranges, and nearly
all that part of the Atlantic watershed
of Panama lying below about 3000 ft.
altitude. It is replaced, however, by
a strij) of Arid Lower Tropical Zone
which extends from the Pacific coast
across the continental divide in the
vicinity of the Panama Canal, but the
transition to humid conditions is rapid
to the northward of Empire and the
bend of the Chagres River. The area
is comparatively uniform in character,
usually heavily forested, and includes
the most luxuriant vegetation on the
Isthmus.

Mammals: Marmosa mexicana isth-
mica (Isthmian marmosa), Marmosa
invicta (Black marmosa). Philander
laniger derbianus (Derby's opossum),
Peramys melanops (Panama peramys),
Mazama sartorii reperticea (Canal Zone
forest deer), Tapirella bairdii (Baird's
tapir), Neacomys pictus (painted bristly
mouse), Oryzomys bombycinus bombyci-
nus (silky rice rat), Oryzomys caliginosus
idoneus (Panama dusky rice rat), Necto-
mys alfari efficax (Cana rice rat), Hete-
romys australis conscius (Cana pocket
mouse), Heteromys desmarestianus zona-
lis (Canal Zone pocket mouse), Dasy-
procta punctata isthmica (Isthmian
agouti), Microsciurus alfari venustulus
(Canal Zone pygmy squirrel), Bassari-
cyon gabbii gabbii (Costa Rican bushy-
tailed olingo), Sylvilagus gabbi gabbi
(Gabb's rabbit).

Birds : Leucopternis ghiesbrechti
(Ghiesbrecht's hawk), Odontophorus
marmoratus (marbled partridge), Eury-
pyga major (sun bittern), Leptotila
cassini cassi7n (Cassin's dove), Neomor-
phus salvini (Salvin's ground cuckoo),

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

615

Capita maculicoronatus maculicoronatus
(spotted-crowned barbet), Jacamerops
aurea (great jaeamar), Hylomanes ino-
motula obscurus (Panama tody-motmot),
Electron platijrhynchum minor (lesser
broad-billed motmot), Urospatha viartii
semirufa (greater rufous motmot), Euto-
x^res aquila salvini (Salvin's sickle-bill),
Pittasoma michleri viichleri (Michler's
antpitta), Myrrneciza exsul exsul (Scla-
ter's antbird), Gymnocichla nudiceps
nudiceps (bare-crowned antbird), Praedo
audax (black-billed flycatcher).

Plants : Lycopodium dichotomuni. Heli-
conia wagneriana, Brosimum utile, Cecro-
pia arachnoides (guarumo), Ficus pana-
mensis (Panama wild fig), Ficus piiiieri
(Pittier's wild fig), Inophleum armatum
(Maragua), Swartzia panamensis (cu-
taro), Sloanea megalophylla, Pachira
aquatica, Eschiveilera panamensis, Gus-
tavia nana, Gustavia parvi folia, Miconia
barbinervis, Sagraea petiolata.

b. Arid Lower Tropical Zone (arid
deciduous forest and savanna). The
Arid Lower Tropical Zone extends in a
belt of varying w-idth, mainly at low
elevations, all along the southern side
of the Isthmus, excepting the south-
eastern part, from the Pacific coast line
to near the base of the higher mountains,
reaching farthest inland along the valley
of the Tuyra River, and at the base of
the Azuero Peninsula. In the vicinity
of the Canal Zone it crosses the conti-
nental divide and invades a part of the
valley of the Chagres River; islands off
the southern coast are also included in
its scope.

The total rainfall is by no means
scanty, and in the wet season the for-
ested parts of this zone differ compara-
tively little from Humid Lower Tropical
areas, truly arid conditions prevailing
only during the dry season when much
of the forest, except near water, is
leafless and the contrast with the con-
tinuously humid areas is very striking.

Two principal associational divisions
are recognizable within the Arid Lower
Tropical section of the Lower Tropical
Zone. These are an arid or semi-arid
forest association, and a savanna and

savanna border association. The for-
ests are generally continuous along the
basal slopes of the mountains and cover
irregular contours to near the sea.
They also extend as semi-arid belts
along the river valleys. Open, grassy
plains or savannas, often of wide extent,
cover generally level areas along the
Pacific slope from near the Costa Rican
frontier eastward to the Bayano River.
Savannas also occur in the valley of the
Chagres River east of the Canal Zone.
Many mammals and birds are not
definitely assignable to savanna or
forest as they find their most congenial
habitat along the forest borders where
they seek food in the open spaces and
retire to the woodland for shelter. No
effort is made to differentiate these
elements in the brief lists of indicators
following:

Mammals: Marmosa mexicana savan-
narum (savanna marmosa). Philander
laniger pallidus (pale woolly opossum),
Odocoileus chiriquensis (Chiriqui white-
tailed deer), Macrogeomys pansa (Bug-
aba pocket gopher), Liomys adspersus
(Peter's spiny pocket mouse), Sciurus
variegatoides helveolus (Canal Zone squir-
rel), Sylvilagus gabbi consobrinus (sa-
vanna rabbit).

Birds: Rupornis ruficauda (rufous-
tailed hawk), Odontophorus castigatus
(Panama partridge), Leptotila rujinucha
(rufous-naped dove), Gymnocichla nu-
diceps erratilis (Costa Rican bare-
crowned antbird), Myrrneciza exsul oc-
cidentalis (Cherrie's antbird), Pheugo-
pedius fasciatoventris melanogaster
(black-bellied wren), Anihiis parvus
(Panama pipit), Basileuterus semicervi-
nus veraguensis (buff-rumped warbler),
Sturnella magna inexpectata (Central
American meadowlark), Leistes militaris
(Cayenne red-breasted blackbird), ^m-
modramus savannarum obscurus (Mina-
titlan sparrow), Sporophila minuta mi-
7iuta (minute seedeater).

Plants : Sweetia panamensis, Dalbergia
reiusa (cocobola), Cedrela mexicana
(Spanish cedar), Swietenia macrocarpa
(mahogany), Ceiba pentandra, Cavanil-
lesia platanifolia (cuipo), Bromelia pin-

616

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

guin, Rowpala complicata, Indigofera
pascuarum, Meibomia angusti folia, Pha-
seolus gracilis, Byrsonima cumingiana
(nance), Sloanea quadrivalvis, Guazuma
ulmifolia(guacivao), Curatella americana,
Duranti plumieri.

2. Upper Tropical Zone {montane
rain forest). With the exception of the
lofty Volcan de Chiriqui, the Upper
Tropical Zone embraces the slopes and
crests of mountains above 3000 to 3500
ft. altitude. Its upward extent on the
Volcan de Chiriqui has not been accu-
rately determined, but probaby reaches
7000 to 8000 ft. varying according to
slope exposure. While the zone as a
whole is humid, no very definite divi-
sions on the basis of moisture being now
recognizable in Panama, variations in
humidity due to slope exposure are
often marked.

Mammals : Peromyscus pirrensis
(Mount Pirre mouse), Peromyscus nu-
dipes (La Carpintera mouse), Rhipidomys
scandens (Mount Pirre climbing mouse),
Scotinomys teguina apricus (Boquete
brown mouse), Oryzomys pirrensis
(Mount Pirre rice rat), Rheomys raptor
(Panama water mouse), Macrogeomys
cavator (Chiriqui pocket gopher), Micro-
sciurus hoquetensis (Chiriqui pygmy
squirrel), Syntheosciurus brochus
(groove-toothed squirrel), Icticyon pana-
mejisis (Panama bush dog), Cryptotis
merus (Mount Pirre shrew).

Birds : Leurcopternis princeps (barred-
bellied leucopternis), Odontophoriis gut-
tatus (spotted partridge), Aulacorhyn-
chus caeruleogularis cognatus (Darien
blue-throated toucanet), Pharomachrus
mocinno costaricensis (Costa Rican quet-
zal), Oreopyga casianeoventris castane-
oventris (Chiriqui mountain gem), Goe-
thalsia bella (Goethal's hummingbird),
Eriocnemis jloccus (wool-tufted hum-
mingbird), Margarornis belluhis (beau-
tiful margarornis), Myadestes coloratus
(varied solitaire), Catharus fuscater
mirabilis (Darien nightingale thrush),
Zeledonia coronata (wren-thrush),
Pheucticus tibialis (Irazu grosbeak),
Buerremon brunneinuchus (chestnut-
capped buerremon).

Plants: Quercus warscewiczii, Quercus
bumeliodes, Quercus chiriquensis (Chir-
iqui oak), Cecropia maxoni (Max-
on's guarumo), Prunus occidentalis,
Rubus floribundus, Lupinus clarkii,
Begonia chiriquina, Psycholria pana-
mensis, Senecio arborescens Lycopodium
watsonianum, Piper pseudopropinquum.

S. Temperate Zone {temperate forest).
The slopes of the Volcan de Chiriqui,
above about 7000 to 8000 ft., are assigned
to this zone. The mountain has not
been visited by me, however, and has
been very incompletely explored by
others. There seems to be a diminution
in moisture above about 8000 ft., and
temperatures below the freezing point
are registered near the summit at about
11,500 ft.

Mammals : Reithrodontomys creper
(Chiriqui harvest mouse), Scotinomys
xerampelinus (Chiriqui brown mouse),
Sigmodon austerulus (Chiriqui cotton
rat).

Birds: Selasphorus torridus (helio-
trope-throated hummingbird), Empi-
dona.coinceps (black-capped flycatcher),
Planesticus nigrescens (sooty thrush),
Catharus gracilirostris accentor (Chiriqui
nightingale thrush), Thryorchilus browni
(Brown's wren), Ptilogonys caudatus
(Costa Rican ptilogonys), Phainoptila
melanoxantha (Salvin's ptilogonys), Ba-
sileuterus melanogenys eximius (Chiriqui
warbler), Diglossa plumbea (Costa Rican
diglossa), Chlorospingus pileatus (sooty-
capped chlorospingus), Junco vulcani
(volcan junco).

Plants: Lycopodium chiricanum, Ly-
copodium hippuridium, Dendropthora
biserrula, Dendropthora costaricensis,
Dendropthora ivrightii, Maytenus ble-
pharodes, Arcytophyllum lavarum.

D. Modification of original biota

Human occupation of Panama to a
degree sufficient to exert a marked
effect on the original biota is still re-
stricted largely to particular sections
leaving the greater part of the region in
a primeval condition. Human agency
as a modifying factor is most strikingly
exemplified in the construction of the

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIOi\S

617

Panama Canal. This gigantic under-
taking, involving the destruction of
formerly unbroken forest and the crea-
tion of Gatun Lake, approximately 164
sq. mi. in area, along a transcontinental
belt has had a profound effect on the
local fauna and flora. Species re-
stricted to the original forest interior
are replaced by those of widely different
associations which thrive on forest
borders or in cleared spaces where
grasses, herbaceous vegetation, and a
multitude of shrubs antl vines of low
growth are the first to secure a foothold.
In these cleared spaces many birds and
certain mammals such as the cotton rats
rice rats, and white-tailed deer not
found in the de])ths of the forest find a
congenial environment. Along the for-
est borders marking the edges of the
clearings, on the other hand, some for-
est mammals, especially ground-inhab-
iting rodents, increase in number
owing to the more abundant food sup-
plied by the low growing vegetation.

The impounding of the waters of the
Chagres River to form Gatun Lake in
an interior basin, and the diversion in
this way of Atlantic drainage to the
Pacific through the canal has brought
about marked changes in water relations
on the Isthmus. The rising waters
of Gatun Lake destroyed the forest
and permitted the extension of many
aquatic species into a new area where
the development of stable associational
relations may be expected to require
considerable time. The white-tailed
deer {Odocoileus chiriquensis) , seems
to be absent in the depths of the un-
broken forest where it is replaced by
the forest deer [Mazama sartorii reper-
ticia), but favors the forest borders
or the dense thickets and mixed growth
of small trees and shrubby vegetation
which have sprung up in the partly
cleared spaces. From the partly open
country near the Pacific coast of the
Isthmus it appears to have followed the
Canal route northward nearly to Colon.

Along the southern side of Panama
settlements occur at intervals in the
savanna and arid deciduous forest type

of country and stock raising is carried
on to a rather limited extent. On the
southern slopes of the lofty Volcan de
Chiriqui in western Panama some forest
has been cleared and the land devoted
to the growing of coffee and other crops.
In the vicinity of Bocas del Toro in the
northwestern part of the Republic
formerly forested areas near the coast
have become the seat of a banana-
growing industry.

Considerable sections of the mixed
savanna and arid deciduous forest
extending along the Pacific coast from
the Costa Rican frontier east to the
Rio Chepo are swept annually during
the dry season by fires which tend to
limit the extension of forest growth.

III. ACCESSIBILITY OF NATURAL
AREAS (e.A. G.)

The regular steamship routes con-
verge to the Atlantic and Pacific ports
at the ends of the Panama Canal. From
these ports or stations on the Panama
Railroad many points in the vicinity
of the Canal Zone embracing a variety
of local conditions are easily reached.
Barro Island in Gatun Lake has recently
been made a station for tropical re-
search by various institutions, and this
or other points in the Canal Zone may
conveniently be used as headquarters
for field operations in many parts of
Panama.

Some of the steamers to and from
Colon to Port Limon make stops at
Bocos del Toro. Small vessels make
trips coastwise from Panama, at the
Pacific end of the canal west to David
from which transportation may be
secured to the elevated region about
the Volcan de Chiriqui. Small vessels
or motor boats also make trips from
Panama to the Pearl Islands, to Chepo
on the Rio Chepo and to points as far
east as Real de Santa Maria near the
head of motor navigation on the Rio
Tuyra. The Atlantic coast from Porto-
bello eastward is practically uninhabited
except by Indians and access to that
section is difficult. Although the Isth-
mian region is narrow the greater part,

618

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

especially the interior of the northern
half is difficult of access, owing to the
shortness of the navigable streams and
the rugged character of the land surface,
covered for the most part with an un-
broken forest. Because of this inacces-
sibility the biota of much of the region
remains comparatively little known.

Yellow fever, formerly prevalent in
the Canal Zone has been controlled,
but malarial fever^ amoebic dysentery
and other diseases of the region should
be guarded against in working on the
tropical lowlands,

IV. NATURAL AREAS (j. Z.)

The Rio Pequeni-Boqueron
Region^ Panama

The best time of the year to make a
trip into this region is during the dry
season, i.e., February and March,
with the latter the best month. There
are two big divides, one close to the
Caribbean coast, and the other South-
East of the Chagres River basin. As
a result rainfall is heavy during the
rainy season, and the rivers, confined
in places to narrow gorges, are im-
passable.

There are two ways to reach the
region. The best is to get into touch
with the Manganese Mining Company,
Colon R. P., and get by a small boat to
Playa de Las Damas at Nombre de Dios.
From here they are building a narrow
gauge railroad to their two mines. On
both sides of this route it is wild. It is
possible to go up the Nombre de Dios
river in a small cayuca. One could go
to Porto Bello and from there by trail
to this new road, but this is not advis-
able on account of the need of guides.
It is 17 mi. from the coast to the man-
ganese mine No. 2, where a good camp
exists. Within this small distance are
two fair rest camps. The trip may be
made in one day, or in two or three, as
is desired. Mine number One is not
used at present. Between One and Two,
a distance of 12 mi., the trail is open
and could even be used by horses if
need be, though this is not desirable

here. At One are good falls, and the
river in places along the general route
is narrow, with tall, vertical rock walls,
with rapids and other exciting features
in abundance. Good guides are easily
obtainable, and if treated right, well
fed and given tobacco (important!)
they will prove very satisfactory. A
half dollar a day in addition would be
ample pay unless the work was heavy
due to excessive luggage, when more
should be given. The first mine is at
Rio Peluca. All along this route one
meets no one unless it be a rubber
hunter. In a few of the clearings or
treeless places, small farms will be met
with but their owners, since they planted
the seed do not return until it is time
to gather in the crop. Nature is a
wonderful mother to these natives.

From mine number One to the town of
Alejuela, where the Panama Canal has
a hydrographic station, it is nine hours
in a cayuca with two "palancas," and
these cayucas poled by the sturdy na-
tives are as safe as anything can be.
In a few places short portage is neces-
sary but the trip is not dangerous.
From Alejuela to Gamboa, where the
train can be taken to either Cristobal
on Panama City, it is a short, uninterest-
ing trip.

There is practically no danger from
malaria in this region unless one goes
into the Rio Pequeni area, the branch
that goes eastward from where the
Boqueron joins the main Pequeni. In
this particular region it is fiat and low,
swampy, and the water so muddy that
to drink it requires boiling. In the
region recommended, very few mos-
quitoes will be encountered. Instead
ticks will be felt, but daily reconnais-
sance can eliminate them. The screw
worm, Dermatobia cyaniventris, which
causes a dermal myiasis, is quite com-
mon, but not a serious menace if one
wears shoes, leggings and clothing.
Even if a few larvae should start to
develop, the experience is so rare and
novel and the danger to health so slight,
that they are not objectionable.
The least possible equipment is best.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

619

Food is of importance, and should be
plentiful, concentrated and varied.
Definite advice on this can be had from
the Survey Division of the Panama
Canal or from others who have made
such trips. Their advice is essential
if the trip is to be a success. Woolen
socks are desirable. Tents are not
necessary, as they take up too much
valuable space which is needed for food.
It is best to have a native guide make
a thatch palm shelter, which he does
rapidly and well. Several rubber cov-
ered bags are useful to keep important
instruments, papers, matches, etc. pro-
tected against rains or accidental turn-
overs in the rivers. It is usually pos-
sible to rent camp equipment from The
Panama Canal. Two guides and a cook
are ample. The entire trip as outlined,
can be made in a week to ten days.

The country about here is typically
tropical, of the humid kind. Wild
animals are not troublesome. A cougar
may be met but as a rule he is not aggres-
ive, though often he will follow one
out of curiosity. It is not unusual to
find out afterwards that one of these
big cats had been following a party all
day long. Three kinds of monkeys,
the Howler, Red-Spider, and White-
faced, will be met with, and to the un-
initiated the big Howler will cause
alarm. If nuts (palm) are abundant,
then the wild hog, or jabali, will be met
with in large bands, but there is not
much danger from them, though they
are capable of inflicting very painful
wounds.

It is necessary to carry a gun and
revolver and plenty of ammunition, in
order to get fresh meat each day and for
possible protection. Snakes are not
plentiful nor unusually serious. Or-
dinary precautions are all that is
necessary.

The Rio Indio-Rio Chagres Region,
Panama

This is another easily accessible
virgin region within the Republic of
Panama and close to civilization. It
is reached from Gamboa by launch

to Limon, which is a little above Juan
Mina, and then by cayuca to Alejuela,
a trip made with ease in one morning.
From Alejuela by cayuca to Rio Indio
is another half day. Both can be done
the same day if arrangements with
guides had been made beforehand. At
San Juan, the only village of many huts,
above Alejuela, on the Pequeni, is a
man, called "Old Mexico," a faithful
guide who knows every inch of the
territory. He is reached as follows:
Old Mexico, San Juan de Pequeni, care
of Alejuela Hydrographic Station, via
Gamboa, Canal Zone.

The water at Rio Indio is excellent.
At Rio Chico and the Chagres is a
splendid camp site, on a sand bar. It
is only a few minutes from untouched
localities. This is a region few men,
other than rubber hunters, have entered.

It is easy to get to this region, even
to follow the Chagres to its source, and
to get back again to the Canal Zone in
ten days.

Other regions in the Republic of Panama

The Chiriqui Province is very interest-
ing because it stretches from sea level
to 5000 ft. or more. The range is from
tropical to temperate climates. A rail-
road goes from David to Boquete on
one side, and to Alanjeon the other side,
with the extinct Volcdn between the
two. While many farms are present,
especially in the Boquete region, it is
possible to get into virgin territory with-
out difficulty, and to secure good guides
and help. Hotels and private houses
are plentiful, so that accommodations are
not hard to get. The Governor and
Alcalde should be seen first, so as to get
special letters which will help getting
assistance in the interior.

The San Bias region is not suitable
for exploration because of the customs
of some of the Indians. If treated well
and told just what one's mission is,
they sometimes prove of great help.

The Darien coast, on the Pacific side,
entering through the River Tuyra, which
is comparable (o the Mississippi, is
most interesting as one gets into the

620

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

hilly regions. Here nature is found
unmolested and wild, but inaccessible.
For an expedition, this territory would
prove rich in results.

Barro Colorado Island Laboratory, Gatun
Lake, Panama Canal Zone

The Institute for Research in Tropical
America was organized under the aus-
pices of the National Research Council
in the spring of 1922. The member
institutions are: American Anthropo-
logical Association; American Genetic
Association; American Museum of Na-
tural History; American Phytopatho-
logical Society; American Society of
Agronomy; Brooklyn Botanic Garden;
California Academy of Sciences; Car-
negie Museum; Commercial Museum
of Philadelphia; Ecological Society of
America; Harvard University; Indiana
University; Johns Hopkins University;
National Geographic Society; National
Research Council; New York Academy
of Sciences; New York Zoological
Society; University of Michigan; Phila-
delphia Academy of Sciences; Smith-
sonian Institution; University of Flor-
ida; and Yale University. The Institute
was organized to promote research in
tropical America. Barro Colorado Is-
land was set aside by the Canal Zone as
a reserve and was assigned to the Insti-
tute for scientific purposes. The Insti-
tute has built a laboratory or field
station on the island and provided
simple furniture and utensils, so that
visiting scientists can camp while
carrying on field work in the forest.

Barro Colorado Island is located in
Gatun Lake, west of Frijoles, C. Z.,
and its east side borders the Panama
Canal prism. It is approximately 10
mi. from Gatun and Gamboa, and about
two mi. west of Frijoles. It is 3^ mi.
long and about 3| mi. wide. Its area
is about 6 sq. mi. It begins with an
elevation of 85 ft. above sea level, which
is the normal level of Gatun Lake, and
reaches an elevation of 537 ft. It is
completely wooded, excepting for a few
hectares at one spot of the southern
shore which are under cultivation. The

vegetation is practically virgin tropical
rain forest.

When Gatun Lake was formed, the
rising waters slowly inundated all lands
below the 85 ft. contour. Barro Colorado
Island was in the center of an extensive
area which the rising waters were cover-
ing up. The animals that were able to
migrate gradually drained into this
island. Thus the island became a
refuge to a large host of animals. It
has been practically undisturbed and
is today the only available large tract
of virgin forest in this region.

The number of species of plants on
this island, exclusive of cryptogams,
is in the neighborhood of 2000. Verte-
brates are well represented. Of the
mammals, the following may be men-
tioned: several species of opossums,
sloths, ant eaters, armadillo, peccary,
deer, tapir, olingo, several species of
rats and similar rodents, tayra, agouti,
squirrels, rabbits, raccoon, coati, ocelot,
many species of bats, the night monkey,
howling monkey, white-throated ca-
puchin monkey, spider monkey, etc.,
typical of the humid lower tropical
zone. The shore fauna and flora are
quite varied.

In addition to the island, there are
excellent places nearby easily reached
by a launch, such as the headwaters of
the Trinidad, Sirri and Sirricito Rivers,
the Chagres and its tributaries, Rio
Gatun, etc., and by cayuca or canoe
many of the small streams can be
explored.

Brigadier General Jay J. Morrow,
Governor of The Panama Canal, under
date of April 17, 1923, set aside this
island as a Natural Park and prohibited
all hunting thereon, in response to a
request by Mr. James Zetek.

The Panama Canal is the most acces-
sible region in the world. Steamer
service is plentiful and rapid, averaging
seven days from New York. Many
features are present which should make
this island laboratory a popular place
for the study of tropical conditions
and biota. At Ancon the United States
Government maintains a large modern

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

621

hospital. Attached to it is the Board
of Health Laboratory, with its depart-
ments of bacteriology, pathology and
chemistry. The Panama Canal con-
tinues the splendid work of sanitation
begun by General Gorgas and through
which yellow fever and bubonic plague
have been eliminated from the isthmus,
and malaria and other tropical diseases
reduced to a minimum.

In Panama City there is the new Santo
Tomas Hospital likewise certain to
become a center of medical and sanitary
research. Close to it, and cooperating
with it, is the new Gorgas Memorial
Institute. The establishment of this
whole great medical center in Panama
City is due to the wise and progressive
spirit of Doctor Belisario Porras, Pres-
ident of the Republic of Panama.

The Panama Canal maintains store-
houses at Balboa where almost any-
thing can be obtained, and especially
in the medical section, where reagents,
drugs, glassware, apparatus, etc., are
always on hand. Screened, well-venti-
lated living quarters are also available,
averaging $9 to $10 for bachelors (one
room, including janitor service, electric-
ity, and water), to $20 to $30 per month
for "married" quarters. All quarters
are equipped with furniture and stoves,
but bedding, linen, silverware, china-
ware, cooking utensils, etc., must be
provided by each occupant. Excellent
hotel accommodations are available
at Colon, Ancon and Panama City.

Restaurants are operated on the
Canal Zones, and good, wholesome food
can be obtained at very moderate cost,
depending on the wants of the indivi-
dual. It is possible to live well at
these restaurants for $40 to $50 a month,
or less. The commissaries operated by
The Panama Canal supply almost
everything needed for the home, person
and table. In Panama City there are
many very reliable stores.

The following excerpt from a letter
from the Governor to Dr. David Fair-
child of the National Research Council,
dated December 14, 192.3, is of impor-
tance ^^ everyone contemplating a visit

to the station for study. It indicates
some of the concessions which have been
extended to scientists at the Barro
Colorado Island laboratory.

To the scientists coming here properly
accredited, I shall be glad to extend the
privileges you mention — the $50.00 rate
on Panama Railroad Steamers and right
to purchase at our commissaries. We
will also give them passes on the Panama
Railroad, and will otherwise assist them
in any way we can. I am satisfied that
the men who will be accredited by your
Committee will be of such type, and will
have such objects in view, as will fully
entitle them to these courtesies.

Scientists who plan to go to the labo-
ratory on Barro Colorado Island must
first communicate with the Chairman
of the Executive Committee of the
Institute for Research in Tropical
America, in care of National Research
Council, Washington, D. C. They will
then receive additional information
and will be given the necessary cre-
dentials. Candidates will be given
preference from institutions which sup-
port or "maintain a table" at the Island
Laboratory. Exceptions may be made
in special cases. Collecting of unduly
large series, especially of vertebrates,
will not be permitted. The island was
set aside first and foremost as a Biolog-
ical Preserve. Generally speaking the
large mammals must not be disturbed.

There are adequate facilities on the
island for both study and living. Or-
dinary native labor can be had for as
little as $1 per day. There is a dis-
tinct advantage in living on the island.
No time is lost in getting at once into
the jungle. Much important data can
be gathered while seated on the veranda
of the station building. The island is
reached by boat from Frijoles station.

Special apparatus or reagents should
be brought by each person, and if these
can not be taken along in a trunk as
part of the baggage, which is most
advisable, but must be sent by freight
or express, then such equipment should
be sent at least three weeks ahead of
time, and the Resident Custodian at
Ancon, C. Z., should be notified and

622

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

given all details regarding such ship-
ment, in order to arrange for free entry
(exemption from payment of duty).
The Resident Custodian should also
be notified in advance of the arrival of
the scientist in order to have everything
in readiness.

Upon arrival at Cristobal, C. Z., the
person should take the train to Panama
City and go from there to Hotel Tivoli
in Ancon. After becoming established
at the hotel, he should proceed to Ancon
Hospital grounds where the Resident
Custodian has his office. The post-
office address of Mr. James Zetek is
Box 245, Ancon, C. Z. Mail may be
sent in care of Mr. Zetek.

It is not necessary to have a pass-
port or to see any foreign consul when
going to the Canal Zone. Once estab-
lished in the Canal Zone, there is no
restriction on entering the Republic
of Panama. If steamers of the Panama
Railroad Company are used, especially
when equipment is sent as freight, a
minimum of trouble will be experienced.

President Porras of the Republic of
Panama has set aside a very excellent
section of land north of the Gorgas
Memorial Institute for a Marine Bio-
logical Station and Aquarium, and at
present writing prospects are very
favorable so that within a few years
such an institution and aquarium will
be built on this land, and thus the
fundamental aim of the Barro Colorado
Island laboratory will be increased to
include marine research.

The library facilities of the Board of
Health Laboratory, Ancon Hospital,
The Panama Canal Library, and the
Gorgas Memorial Institute are available.

v. BIBLIOGRAPHY (E. A. G.)

The following bibliography includes
only the titles of a few of the more
important general works bearing upon
the biota of Panama. For a bibliog-
raphy of the mammals see Goldman,
1920.

Wafer, Lionel.

1729. A New Voyage and Description

of the Isthmus of America.
3rd edition, London, 1729.
Published as pp. 263-160 of
the third volume of Dampier's
Voyages. The original edi-
tion was published separately
under the same title in 1699.
(Includes quaint and interest-
ing accounts of the biota
based on observations made
in eastern Panama in 1681.)

Biologia Centrali-Americana.

1879-1915. An elaborate treatment in
52 volumes by various authors
of the mammals, birds, in-
sects, and plants of Mexico
and Central America.

Ridgway, Robert.

1901-1919. Birds of North and Middle
America. A descriptive cata-
logue of the higher groups,
genera, species, and subspe-
cies of birds known to occur
in North America, from the
Arctic Lands to the Isthmus
of Panama, the West Indies,
and other islands of the
Caribbean Sea, and the Gala-
pagos Archipelago. Bull. 50,
U. S. Nat. Mus., pts. 1-8, each
separately paged have been
issued (others to follow),
covering families in reversed
order Fringillidae to Alcidae.
Washington: Govt. Printing
Office. (The current authori-
tative systematic account of
the birds of the region.)

Bangs, Outram.
1902. Chiriqui Mammalia. Bull.
Mus. Comp. Zool., Vol. 39,
pp. 17-51, April, 1902. (An
annotated list of 63 species
and subspecies mainly from
the Volcan de Chiriqui, west-
ern Panama. One of the
most important single contri-
butions to knowledge of the
mammals of Panama.)

Elliot, Daniel Giraud.

1904. The Land and Sea Mammals of
Middle America and the West
Indies. Pub. Field Columb.
Mus., Zool. Ser., Vol. IV, pts.
1-2, pp. 1-850. Chicago, 1904.
(Contains list of species with
original references, brief de-
scriptions, type localities, and
geographic distribution.)

Goldman, Edward A.

1920. Mammals of Panama. Smith.
Misc. Coll., Vol. 69, No. 5,
pp. 1-309, pis. 1-39. (An
annotated list of species and
tentative treatment of life
zones.)

til .Ca^

THE VEGETATION

OF

NORTHWESTERNMOST SOUTH AMERICA

(After F. M. Chapman)

Scale 1:9000 000

0 50 100

ISO miles

FiQ. 15

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

623

B. Northern South America

1. COLOMBIA!
By Francis W, Pennell

The Republic of Colombia, situated
in the northwestern corner of the South
American continent and adjoining the
isthmus of Panama, occupies a geogra-
phic position of extreme interest. Alone
among South American countries it
touches both the Atlantic and the
Pacific oceans, while its mountain-
systems and river-sj'stems are the most
diversified within the American tropics.
The republic lies between latitudes 12°
24' N. and 4° 17' S. and between longi-
tudes G6° 7' and 79° W., occupying an
area of about 460,000 sq. mi.

I. TOPOGRAPHY

A. Mountains

The Andean uplands dominate the
western half of Colombia. Entering
from Ecuador to the south as a single
highland, the system soon divides into
three chains or "cordilleras" which
trend independently northward and
northeastward toward the Caribbean
Sea. (a) The Central Cordillera is
the highest and maintains without a

1 In this account much topographical and elima-
tological data have been drawn from the compre-
hensive and detailed "Geografia de Colombia" by
Felipe Perez (Bogota,, 1862) and "Nueva Geografia
de Colombia" by F. J. Vergara y Velasco (Bogotd,
1901), with the latter's maps in the "Atlas Complete
de Geografia Colombiana" (Bogota, 1906) The
biological outline of Dr. F. M. Chapman in "The
Distribution of Bird-life in Colombia" (Bull Amer
Mus. Nat. Hist., XXXVI, 1917) is adopted, and
from this work is taken special data concerning
birds. The information about mammals is quoted
from memoranda kindly supplied by Dr. W. H
Osgood of the Field Museum of Natural History!
For the Santa Marta region the study of "The Birds
of the Santa Marta Region of Colombia" (4nn
Carnegie Mus., XIV, 1922) by Dr. W. E. C Todd
and Mr. M. A. Carriker, and for the Goajira Penin-
sula a paper entitled "An Account of a Journey
through .... the peninsula of Goajira" by
Dr. M. T. Dawe (Bogota, 1917) have been of assist-
ance. Mr. P. J. Eder's "Colombia" (New York,
1913) and P. .T. Bell's "Colombia" (issued as a hand-
book of the U. S. Dept. Commerce, Spec. Agent Ser
203, Washington, 1921), give much practical infor-
mation. The writer has personally spent thirteen
months in botanical field-work in Colombia, and has
climbed from the warm lowland to the pdramo on
each of the three cordilleras of the Andes; he has
collected plants in the departments of Antioquia,
Atlantico, Bolivar, Caldas, El Cauca, Cundina-
marca Huila, .Magdalena, Santander, Tolima, and
1^1 Valle, and in the intendency of El Meta

break an axis of highjpeaks from the
Ecuador boundary to the Alto de Pereira
in Antioquia about 6° N. These peaks
repeatedly rise to snow, from south to
north the most important being the
group of the Tuquerres in Narino, of
the Coconucos (including Purac6) in
El Cauca, the mountains Huila and
Barragan in El Valle, and the group of
the Quindio (including Tolima) in
Caldas. Colombia's only active vol-
canoes are in the southern part of this
chain. North of 6° N. the system is
lower and branches widely to form the
hilly country of central Antioquia,
the axis rising but once again to above
timber-line in the Paramo de Santa
Ines north of Medellin. (6) The West-
ern Cordillera, leaving the common
Andean highland-mass of the Tuquerres
and containing some of the highest
peaks of that mountain-knot, extends
north-northeastward parallel to the
Central Cordillera and nearly parallel
to the Pacific coast. Averaging much
the lowest of the three cordilleras, its
long axis mostly a range of forested hills,
which, however, rises in remote high-
lands to above timber-line, although
never to snow. North of the Rio Patfa
the most considerable uplands are to the
north, where occur the more or less iso-
lated "paramos" of Cerro Torrd,, Cerro
Tatamd, Farallones de Citard, the moun-
tains near Frontino, and the Paramillo.
(c) The Eastern Cordillera, leaving the
Central Andes at the Coconucos about
2° N., soon drop into a range of hills
trending southeastward, then turning
northeastward they form a narrow chain
with only occasional higher peaks until
3° 48' N. is reached. Beyond this point
the Cordillera widens into a broad
upland, with a main axis and a con-
siderable diversity of side chains,
so as to form the table-land or plateau
of Bogotd. Here was developed the
ancient civilization of the Chibcha
Indians, many of whose towns as Bogotd,,
Chiquinquird and Tunja survive as
imj^ortant Spanish American cities.

624

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

The mountain-chains of this plateau
usually rise above timber-line and
occasionally, in the peak of Sumapaz
and the Sierra de Chita (or Cocuy),
receive snow. The axis of the Eastern
Cordillera, trending northeast as far
as Cocuy, turns thence abruptly north-
westward, forming the Pamplona high-
lands and reaching Ocaua at 8° N. A
low range of hills continues this axis
farther to the north, rising to moun-
tains in the Motillones and the Sierra
de Perijd., and extending ultimately
nearly to the Goajira Peninsula, the
most northern point of Colombia.
From the Pamplona section of the
Eastern Cordillera a mountain-chain
diverges abruptly eastward, passing
soon into lower hills that form the gap
known as the Isthmus of Tdchira but
then rising again so as to constitute the
eastward-trending Andes of Venezuela,
the snow-chain of the Sierra Nevada
de Merida.

Beside the Andean cordilleras two
other mountain-systems must be men-
tioned. The Sierra Nevada de Santa
Marta, southeast of the city of that
name and within sight of the Caribbean
Sea, forms an irregular mountain-mass
rather extensively capped with snow.
The system is wholly isolated from the
Andes, although separated from the
Sierra de Perijd. only by a narrow lowland
plain. The Serrania de Baudo, skirting
the Pacific coast from the Choc6 Bay
at 4° N. northward, altlTough chiefly a
range of low hills, is also to be carefully
distinguished from the Andes. The
Andean system terminates wholly in
the three cordilleras of Colombia,
whereas the Baudo chain is continuous
with the highlands of Panamd, and
forms part of a Central American land-
mass.

B. River-systems and areas of lowland

In western Colombia the areas of
lowland lie around and between the
mountain highlands while in eastern
Colombia the whole country consists
essentially of one vast plain, the north-
western part of the great interior low-

land of South America. Proceeding
from the Pacific coast eastward the chief
river-systems and areas of lowland are
as follows.

a. West of the Serrania de Baudo
occur only very short streams flowing
directly into the Pacific Ocean.

h. Between the Serrania de Baudo
and the Western Cordillera is a valley
of some 50 mi. width, drained northward
into the Caribbean Sea by the Rio
A.trato and southward to the Pacific
Ocean by the Rio San Juan. South of
Choc6 Bay the numerous streams from
the Western Cordillera flow directly to
the Pacific, mostly across an extensive
lowland. The whole area from the Gulf
of Darien to Tumaco is known as the
Choc6.

c. Between the Western Cordillera
and the Central Cordillera is the long
narrow Cauca Valley, drained north-
ward by the Rio Cauca. In El Cauca
near Popaydn and especially in El
Valle the floor of the valley is a plain
reaching 20 to 25 miles in width
but elsewhere it is much cut into
hills and gorges. In Caldas and Anti-
oquia the Rio Cauca has cut its way by
gorges and deep canyons down from the
elevation of the Cauca Plain, 1000
meters, nearly to sea-level. South of
Popaydn the Rio Patia drains the south-
ern extension of this inter-Andean
lowland, being the only stream of
Colombia to burst through the Western
Cordillera to reach the Pacific.

d. Between the Central Cordillera
and the Eastern Cordillera is the Mag-
dalena Valley, broader and lower than
the Cauca Valley. It is drained by the
Rio Magdalena, a river which, flowing
northward to the Caribbean Sea, forms
Colombia's main artery of traffic.
Much of the valley floor is a plain, but
areas of hills occur in Tolima and Huila.
The most considerable plains are about
Neiva in Huila, Mariquita in Tolima,
and in eastern Antioquia. The Bogotd.
tableland is drained through the Rio
Sogomoso, Rio Carare, Rio Sumapaz
and other streams into the Magdalena.

e. Fronting the Caribbean Sea a

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

625

north of the hills of Antioquia is a plain
crossed only occasionally by low ranges
of hills. In the western part the Rio
Sinii, in the middle part the delta-like
courses of the RiosSan Jorge, Cauca and
Magdalena, all uniting northward to
form the single stream of the lower
course of the Rio Magdalena, and in
the eastern part the Rio Cesar draining
the flat valley of Upar southward into
the Magdalena, flow across this plain.

/. Continuous by a narrow passage
with the Valley of Upar, and projecting
into the Caribbean Sea so as to form the
northernmost point of Colombia and
of the South American continent, is
the Goajira Peninsula. This lowland
embraces plains and low hills, but has
only few and inconsequential streams.

g. Between the forks of the Eastern
Cordillera, and so east of Ocafia and
north of Pamplona, is the valley of the
Rio Catatumbo, draining northeastward
to the Gulf ("Lake") of Maracaibo.
Most of the plains of this valley lie in
Venezuela, the Colombian portion being
chiefly or wholly hilly.

h. Eastward from the base of the
Eastern Cordillera south of the Pamp-
lona forks stretches the enormous low-
land of the interior of South America,
of which in Colombia the northern
portion drains eastward and northeast-
ward to the Orinoco, the southern
portion southeastward to the Amazon.
Many streams roughly paralleling each
other flow from the Andes or rise in the
lowland. To the Orinoco flow the
Rio Arauca, Rio Meta, Rio Vichada
and Rio Guaviare; to the Amazon the
Rio Uapes, Rio Caqueta and Rio Puto-
mayo. This area, covering more than
half of Colombia's territory, is essen-
tially one continuous plain, although
in the Amazonian portion, known as
Caquetd, occur a few remote ranges of
hills and low mountains.

II. CLIMATE

A. Temperature

Lying within the middle belt of the
Tropics Colombia possesses a climate

in which the temperature, if we ignore
diurnal variation, may be described as
practically uniform throughout the
year for any given point. Throughout
all the lowland areas the climate is con-
tinuously hot. The temperature be-
comes progressively lower as one as-
cends in elevation, the Cauca Valley
near Call being cooler than the Mag-
dalena Valley at Honda, Popaydn near
the head of the Cauca Valley cooler
than Call, and Bogotd, in the Eastern
Cordillera much cooler yet. Higher
in the mountains one passes to colder
and colder zones until at last on the
high peaks snow is reached. Above
the snow-line precipitation uniformly
occurs as snow, with the result that
every mountain reaching so high is
capped by a glacier.

B. Rainfall

Rainfall is distributed very unevenly,
depending both upon prevalent winds
and upon elevation. In the Caribbean
plain the northeast trade winds blow
constantly for over half the year, and
the land has consequently two long
seasons, one wet and one dry. The
Goajira Peninsula is arid, but the
amount of precipitation increases grad-
ually westward to the Gulf of Darien.
In the Choc6 the west winds from the
Pacific produce abundant showers usu-
ally throughout the year against the
slopes and spurs of the Western Cordil-
lera. On the south eastern slopes
of the Eastern Cordillera and on the
Amazonian lowland the moisture-bear-
ing winds blow from the east, watering
abundantly nearly throughout the year
the Andean slopes and the region of
Caquetd. On the northern portion
of the eastern lowland — the Orinocan
portion which is known as Casanare —
the rainfall is lighter than further south
and is seasonal. On the plains of the
middle Magdalena and the hills of
Antioquia moderate to heavy rainfall
occurs, with a single wet and a single
dry season as along the Caribbean.
Southward, however, within the trough-
like valleys between the Andean cordil-

626

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

leras, the rainfall is distributed in two
wet seasons and its amount decreases
until portions of the Cauca and upper
Magdalena valleys become decidedly
arid.

While generally the precipitation
increases as the mountains are ascended,
this rule is greatly modified locally
according to exposure to moisture-
bringing winds. Thus the plant-life
indicative of increased rainfall may
obviously be seen to increase upon the
western slope of the Central Cordillera
when an elevation is attained that over-
tops the opposing crest of the Western
Cordillera. Conversely upon the nor-
mally humid slopes of both the western
slope of the Western Cordillera and the
eastern slope of the Eastern Cordil-
lera occur pocket-like arid valleys
caused by the interception of the winds
by higher outlying spurs or ridges. At
higher levels the rainfall tends to be-
come more constant throughout the
year and to occur in lighter individual
showers, although the seasons are still
evident, and with a time of occurence
which may be much altered by local
topographic conditions.

III. NATURAL REGIONS

Since the wild life of Colombia is so
little changed from its primitive state
and since no areas whatever have been
set apart as preserves, it seems best to
modify somewhat the plan of present-
ment used in this volume for the several
states of the United States of North
America. We shall consider the differ-
ent natural regions of life, resultant
from topography and climate, and give
for each region one or more stations
from which it may be studied. In few
parts of Colombia and for few groups of
plants or animals is the flora or fauna
adequately known, so that possibilities
of valuable scientific exploration lie
within the reach of any who have op-
portunity to visit this land.

The localities mentioned will be
assigned to their political department,
so as to facilitate finding upon standard
maps. There are few railroads in

Colombia and none that serve to bind
together the entire country. Northern
Colombia, Antioquia, Tolima and the
Bogotd section (Cundinamarca) are
interconnected by steamboat travel
on the Rio Magdalena, with a series
of subsidiary railroad lines. Steam-
boats from Cartagena also ply on the
Atrato and lower Sinu. The Cauca
Valley and southward should be reached
from the Canal Zone by steamer to
Buenaventura, connecting with a rail-
roa4 to Call. Another approach to
Colombia is by steamboat from Ciudad
Bolivar on the Orinoco in Venezuela
up the Rio Meta — an approach which
only reaches the eastern "Llanos."
Also Cucuta, with railroad and steam-
boat connection to Lake Marocaibo in
Venezuela, is with difficulty reached
from the rest of Colombia. Roads for
wheeled vehicles scarcely exist beyond
the vicinity of the largest cities, so
that much of one's journey into and
across Colombia will be over primitive
trails, with mules or horses for riding
and for pack-loads. While readily trav-
ersed in the dry season, most trails
become difficult by reason of sloughs and
mud-holes in the rainy season. So far
as is consistent with the purpose of
one's journey one should plan a trip
across lowland trails for the dry season.
The mountain trails are apt to be none
too good at any season, but the months
of December to February and June
to August are usually the best for
travel.

In this discussion we shall consider
first the areas of lowland and secondly
the mountain regions. All the lowland
regions of Colombia, except where arid
or, as at PopayAn, where, although
between the cordilleras, one is above the
truly lowland zone of life, are dangerous
to health by reason of malaria and other
tropical diseases. The upland mountain
zones are invigorating and healthful.

A. Rain-forest

The lowlands of Colombia are covered
with evergreen forests wherever rainfall
is sufficient in quantity and occurs

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

627

Bufficiently distributed throughout the
j^ear.

1. Chocd Forest. This occupies the
area between the Western Cordillera
and the Pacific Ocean, including north-
ward the Atrato Valley and the shores
about the head of the Gulf of Darien.
This region is probably the most humid
in the American Tropics and, except for
remote arid pockets due to local con-
figuration, is wholly covered with a
dense rain-forest. There is a great
variety of hardwood trees. Trees of the
Rubiaceae are probably most abundant,
while those of the Melastomaceae,
Lauraceae and other families are com-
mon. Very frequent are trees with the
tips of the leaves elongated. Palms are
prominent, especially along streams.
There are many lianas, some woody,
some as various Araceae heavy and
succulent. Epiphytes, chiefly ferns and
Bromeliaceae, occur in moderate num-
ber. The floor of the forest supports
much underbrush, bushes or stout
foliaceous herbs. There may be also
ferns, Selaginellas and mosses. Along
water-courses and other openings are
thickets of bamboo or of broad-leaved
succulent wild bananas and like plants.
Excepting the gaudy red bracts and
yellow pedicels and flowers of these
Heliconias, there is little bloom to
break the green of the rank vegetation.

Near the coast are wooded swamps,
and the Pacific shore is lined probably
throughout with mangrove swamps.

Dr. Chapman's "Distribution of the
Bird-life of Colombia" reports 150 kinds
of birds in the Choc6 Forest, of which
100 are restricted thereto. The chief
families in order of number of kinds
are (1) Tyrannidae, (2) Formicariidae,
(3) Dendrocalaptidae, (4) Tanagridae,
(5) Trochilidae.

"The mammals are in general related
to those of the Amazonian forest, in
many cases showing slight subspecific
difTerences. Among them are the jaguar
ocelot, sloths, paca, agouti, capuchin
monkey, red howling monkey, night
monkej% and various opossums includ-
ing the woolly opossum (Philander)

and the water opossum (Chironectes) ;
small rodents and bats of many species
are abundant."

Southward and over most of the
Choc6 Forest heavy rainfall occurs
throughout the year, but northward
this becomes increasingly seasonally
distributed until on the lower Atrato
the rains occur from April to December,
with January to March nearly or quite
rainless.

Only near a few settlements has this
forest been cleared.

The middle Choco Forest may be
visited most readily from Buenaventura
on the coast, and at Cordoba, Santa Rosa
and Cisneros, stations on the Buenaven-
tura to Call railroad. These forest
stations are without hotels and in
malarial country, but may be visited
on day excursions from Buenaventura.
From Buenaventura small boats ply
north to the Rio San Juan, and south to
the Rio Micay. The northern Choco
Forest may be studied from Quibdo and
other points on the Rio Atrato reached
via steamer from Cartagena.

2. Magdalena-Sinu Forest. This for-
est occupies the middle Magdalena and
lower Cauca vallej's from La Dorada
in the Rio Magdalena and from above
Caceres on the Rio Cauca down to their
delta-like confluence, thence extending
westward over the San Jorge and upper
Sinu valleys to the Gulf of Darien.
The forest is of moderate density and
height, and trees with broad and ir-
regular leaves occur more frequently
than in the Choco Forest. Probably
trees of the Rubiaceae and Lauraceae
are less frequent than in the Choco,
while Bombacaceae (ceibas) and Lecy-
thidaceae (monkey-pots) are more evi-
dent. Along the rivers star-leaved
Cecropias are conspicuous. Woody
lianas such as various Sapindaceae
and Bignoniaceae, are common but huge
Araceae are few relative to the Choco.
Epiphytes are not numerous until the
foot-hills of the Cordilleras are reached
where ferns and Bromeliaceae become
common. Along the rivers, as may be
seen from the Magdalena steamer, occur

628

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

extensive fringes of Heliconias, with
areas of large-plumed grasses {Gyne-
rium) and clumps of bamboo.

Near the chief rivers are large areas
of swamps and lagoons, from which
during seasons of high water are derived
the large "rafts" of Pistia (water let-
tuce) and Piaropus (water hyacinth)
which become so conspicuous on the
Magdalena itself.

There are 24 kinds of birds known to
be restricted to the Magdalena-Sinii
Forest, the bird-life of which is mostly
shared with the Choc6 Forest to the west
and the Maracaibo and other forests
to the east.

"The mammals are much as in the
Choc6 Forest, being those of general
distribution in tropical rain forests of
all South America. Practically all are
derived from the eastward, but some
important Amazonian forms are absent,
especially among the monkeys."

This region is one of heavy to moder-
ate rainfall, occurring mostly in a rainy
season lasting from April to December
or with a break in August. From
December to May may occur periods of
showers or periods without rain.

Only near the chief towns has this
forest been cleared.

The Magdalena portion of the Magda-
lena-Simi Forest may be readily studied
from Puerto Berrio, the most important
port of the middle Magdalena, the
transfer-point from the steamer to the
railroad westward to Medellin. Al-
though in malarial country Puerto
Berrio has one of the safest and best
hotels in Colombia, being thoroughly
screened. Cd,ceres on the Rio Cauca
and Ayapel on the Rio San Jorge may
be reached by steamers from the Magda-
lena river-port of Magangue. The Sinii
portion of this forest may be reached
by steamer from Cartagena, the boat
running to the town of Monteria (except
in the low water of March and April
when it stops at Lorica), and from Mon-
teria launch or dug-out canoes may be
arranged for transportation upstream
into the forest.
3. Maracaibo Forest. "Heavy tropi-

cal forest" exists in the southern part
of the Maracaibo Basin, including the
lower valley of the Rio Catatumbo in
northeastern Colombia. Beside the
statement of Vergara y Velasco that the
vegetation is profuse and gigantic, I
have seen no description of the Colom-
bian portion of this forest. The region
is especially humid.

Rainfall here occurs throughout the
year, although most severely from May
to October.

The Colombian portion of this forest
may be visited from Ciicuta, to be
reached by boat from Maracaibo,
Venezuela, up the Rio Catatumbo and
Rio Zulia to Puerto Villamizar, Vene-
zuela, thence by railroad to Cucuta,
Colombia.

4. Caquetd Forest. The great eastern
lowland of Colombia from about the
course of the Rio Guaviare southward,
thus embracing the whole of the Amazo-
nian drainage-area, is covered with a
dense "sea" of forest. This is the
northwestern portion of the vast Amazo-
nian forest, which, judging by luxuriance
as well as extent, may be counted the
greatest forest-area of the world. The
Colombian portion has been described
by Rice and by Miller.

The Caqueta Forest is a heavy rain-
forest, although the climate is scarcely
so humid as that of the Choc6 Forest
of the Pacific coast. The essential
composition and aspect of the Caquetd
Poorest doubtless accords with that of
the Choc6, but this immense area should
be found to be richer throughout in the
variety of its forms of life. In looking
from any elevation one is impressed
with the seemingly infinite variety of
tree-outlines and of shades of green.
Huge ceibas and other trees raise pyra-
midal or dome-like crowns above their
fellows. Of lesser size trees of the
Rubiaceae, Leguminosae and Melasto-
maceae are common. Palms occur in
variety, but chiefly along water-courses.
Within the dense forest-shade is an
undergrowth of low palms, Carludovicas
and other leafy plants. Lianas abound,
with numerous Araceae, Sapindaceae

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

629

Bignoniaceae, Apocynaceae, etc. Epi-
phj^tes, excepting ferns and mosses,
are probably not abundant.

Along the many streams is frequently
a lower growth, dense and intricate,
made up of such plants as readily
survive inundation. This "rebalsa"
passes gradually into the neighboring
forest.

No summary of the rich bird-life has
been included in Dr. Chapman's study.
This forest possesses "practically a
pure Amazonian mammal fauna, many
forms being even subspecifically iden-
tical with those from eastern Brazil.
A rare rodent {Dinomys) peculiar to
the east base of the central Andes has
been taken in the region."

In the Caquetd Forest showers occur
throughout the year, the rains being
nearly continuous from April to Sep-
tember and most heavy in June; the
lightest rainfall is in January and
February.

Only near a few settlements has this
forest been cleared.

The Caqueta Forest is traversed
chiefly by the gatherers of rubber. It
is everywhere difficult of access. A
few trails cross the Eastern Cordillera
from the upper Magdalena Valley.
One south from Neiva in Huila leads to
the small town of Florencia. Another
from Bogota crosses to Villavicencio
and south to San Martin; thence one
may go southward into the forests
along and beyond the Rio Guaviare.
The lower portion of the Caqueta Forest
is best accessible by vessels up the
Amazon and tributaries, the Yapura
(or Rio Caqueta) and the lea (or Rio
Putomayo).

B. Grassland and savanna

The lowlands of Colombia lack ever-
green forests wherever the rainfall is
deficient in quantity or is distributed so
unevenly throughout the year as to
permit of a long dry season. Mostly
such lowland is covered with a turf of
grasses, although extensive areas of
xerophytic bushes and brushy deciduous

forest occur. Such unforested lowland
areas are termed "llanos"

1. Llanos of Bolivar and U par. Along
the Caribbean coast from the Magdalena
delta to beyond the Gulf of Morrosquillo,
thence inland across the lower Rio
Sinii to the mouth of the Rio Cauca and
east of the single stream of the lower
Rio Magdalena so as to include the
Valley of Upar drained by the Rio
Cesar, is an extensive flatland covered
originally chiefly by prairie. Except
where permanent streams favor the
development of ranker types, the prai-
ries were covered by coarse wiry grasses,
conspicuous being the species of Andro-
pogon and Arislida. With these oc-
curred doubtless a sparse herbaceous
flora of other plants, similar to that of
other areas of llanos.

On slopes or low hills, where ridges
cross the plain as west of Sincelejo or
in the hills between Cartagena and the
Rio Magdalena, occur large sections of
bushy scrub or of low deciduous forest.
This forest is quite like that of the
monsoon belt of India, and, in Colombia
also, the months of its leafless state are
those of most conspicuous bloom. In
the alluvial bottom-lands of the Mag-
dalena and Sinu grow huge buttressed
trees of Bomhax (ceiba) and Anacardium
(caracoli), while the meadows may
be dotted plentifully with the low
spreading corozo palm. In northern
Bolivar are extensive low hills covered
with dense bushy scrub. Along the
coast near Cartagena and southward
are open salt marshes covered with
coarse low grasses, sedges and rushes,
marshes wholly similar to those of the
Atlantic seashore of the United States
and West Indies.

These Llanos possess the "general
mammal fauna of arid lowland tropics,
mostly of eastern derivation. This
fauna includes the antbear, tamandua
anteater, nine-banded armadillo, col-
lared peccary, savanna white-tailed
deer, savanna brocket deer, tapir, tayra,
hog-nosed skunk, savanna fox, ocelot,
and puma."

The region is characterized by one

630

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

long rainy season, from May to Novem-
ber, and an equal dry season from
December to April.

These open Llanos have been every-
where long grazed by cattle, and their
character changed, at least through
central Bolivar, by the widespread
introduction of the drought-resistant
Guinea and Para grasses. The brush-
covered areas and those of deciduous
forest remain nearly unchanged from
their primitive state.

Corozdl and Sincelejo, towns reached
by trail westward from Magangue,
are in the center of the Llano of Bolivar,
but it is doubtful if any remnant of
natural prairie can be found near them.
The brush hills of northern Bolivar
may be studied at Turbaco and Arend.1
on the railroad from Cartagena to
Calamar on the Rio Magdalena. The
deciduous forest may be visited west of
Sincelejo and near Lorica and Monteria,
towns on the Rio Simi reached by steam-
boat from Cartagena.

2. Goajira Peninsula. The northern-
most prolongation of Colombia is
mostly a low arid sandy land, but
includes also in the heart of the penin-
sula proper a considerable district of low
hills. It is mostly a land of coarse
grasses, brushy scrub and Cfictaceae,
in aridity exceeding any other part of
Colombia. The extensive prairies are
said to be covered chiefly with the thin
grass, Aristida, and the occasional
marshy areas with the sensitive plant.
Mimosa, while conspicuous along water-
courses is the Anacardium (caracoli).

"The mammals are similar to those
of the Caribbean llanos. A small
black-naped rabbit {Sylvilagus nigro-
nuchalis) is peculiar to this and the
adjoining region in Venezuela."

The rainfall of the Goajira Peninsula
is seasonal as on the Llanos of Bolivar
and Upar but is much less in quantity,
the rains occurring only from May to
October.

Some guinea grass has become nat-
uralized in a few areas, but otherwise
this land, occupied only by the Goajiro
Indians, has scarcely been altered by
man.

The Goajira Peninsula maybe reached
by Indian trails from Rio Hacha, a
port along the Caribbean coast east of
Santa Marta.

3. Llanos of Casanare and San Martin.
This region includes the northern por-
tion of the great eastern lowland of
Colombia, from the Rio Guaviare north-
ward and therefore including nearly all
the Orinoco drainage-area. This area
may be again divided into a portion
north of the Rio Meta forming the true
Llanos of Casanare, flat and grass-
covered everywhere excepting along
some streams, and a portion between
the Meta and the Guaviare forming the
Llanos of San Martin, slightly rolling
and hilly and bearing grassland inter-
spersed with palm-groves and forest.
The latter llanos are transitional to
the forests of Caquetd, and, inasmuch
as they have few distinctive features,
will not be further described.

The Llanos of Casanare are the great
"Llanos" or prairies of Colombia.
They are clothed with a variety of
grasses, the leading place being generally
held by species of Andropogon, or in
moister spots by Paspalum, Panicum
and other genera. Among the grasses
is found a rich flora of herbs of many
families. Some of these belong to
genera which in comparable environ-
ments have penetrated into the Tem-
perate Zone and are familiar in the
Coastal Plain of the southeastern
United States. Of such may be men-
tioned pink-flowered species of Polygala
and Meibomia, violet Bradhurya, yellow
and pink Utricularia, and sedges of the
familiar genera Rynchospora and Scleria.
Wholly tropical genera of plants are
represented by yellow-flowered and
pink-flowered Malvaceae and Melasto-
maceae, various small-flowered bluish
or white Menthaceae and Scrophula-
riaceae, yellow Turneraceae, etc. This
little-known prairie flora becomes
parched and largely disappears soon
after the conclusion of the rainy
season.

Along river-courses grow characteris-
tic palms and occur clumps of shrubs
and trees. Along the larger rivers are

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

631

considerable narrow forests, which have
been best described for the lower course
of the Rio Meta. Such river-forest
includes large trees of Bomhax and
Ficus, and contrasts with other lowland
forests in its considerable number of
epiphytes, bromeliads, orchids, etc.

"The mammals are not well known,
but include the savanna white-tailed
deer {Odocoileus), brocket deer {Ma-
zama), puma, jaguar, ocelot, tayra,
armadillos, and anteaters. The large
deer {Odocoileus) is of northern affini-
ties and does not extend to the central
Amazonian region as do most of the
other mammals."

On the Llanos of Casanare rainfall
is seasonal, a wet season lasting from
April to October, and a strongly marked
dry season from December to March.

The "Llanos" are being increasingly
grazed, and it may not be many years
before this magnificient pasture-land
follows the history of the prairies of
the Mississippi Valley and the Pampas
of Argentina. It is practically un-
touched by the plow.

The Llanos may be studied on the
plains of the Meta east of Villavicencio,
reached by trail (5 days) over the
Eastern Cordillera from Bogotd,. Vil-
lavicencio, just at the foot of the Cordil-
lera, is in the San Martin type of mixed
country, with interspersed belts of
forest and prairie. A trail runs south-
ward to the town of San Martin. In
order to see the true Llanos of Casanare
one should visit some of the plains
settlements to be reached by trail over
the Cordillera from Tunja in Boyacd,
a town now accessible by automobile
from Bogota. The country near the
lower Rio Meta, both river-forest and
prairie, may be reached by boat from
Ciudad Bolivar on the Orinoco in
Venezuela to Orocue, Colombia.

4. Llanos of the upper Magdalena
Valley. South from Honda and Mariqui-
tain Tolima the floor of the Magdalena
Valley and the lower mountain-slopes
to the sides are devoid of evergreen
forest, being covered either where flat
or rolling or on the exposed foothills

with grasses and herbs, or on gorge and
canyon sides or in the foothill valleys
with brushy thickets and xerophytic
forest. The chief open grasslands are
in the three small plains, the "Llanuras"
of Mariquita and of Purificacion in
Tolima and the "Llanura" of Neiva in
Huila. These prairies are essentially
similar to the other lowland llanos of
Colombia, but compared with the Llanos
of Casanare have a restricted variety
of component plants. Andropogon and
Bouteloua are characteristic grasses,
while Bradburya, Meihoviia, Polygala,
Sida, Eriosema and Buchnera are fami-
liar herbs. The thickets and low forest
become more xerophytic south-
ward, the large species of Cact-
aceae being increasingly conspicuous.
River-banks are lined by groves of
palms and growths of bamboos.

"The mammals are generally similar
to those of the Caribbean Llanos,
those of some groups being differentiated
into peculiar subspecies or geographic
representatives."

The upper Magdalena Valley has
two wet and two dry seasons, the wet
seasons being from April to June and
from October to December.

The "Llanuras" or prairie portions
of the Llanos of the upper Magdalena
Valley are extensively grazed, but they
have been only locally altered in char-
acter by the introduction of foreign
grasses or by being broken for agricul-
tural purposes.

The prairie portions may be readily
visited at Mariquita and San Lorenzo
in Tolima along the railroad from La
Dorada to Ambalema, and with more
effort at Natagaima in Tolima and
Neiva in Huila, towns reached by trail
south from Girardot. The hilly portion
of the upper Magdalena Valley may be
observed at Honda in Tolima, Girardot
in Cundinamarca, and shortly above
Natagaima.

5. Llanos of the Cauca Valley. The
Cauca Valley from western Antioquia
southward, and continuous therewith
the Patia Valley, constitutes an unfor-
ested open or brush-covered lowland

632

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

quite homologous with the similar
upper Magdalena Valley. The distri-
bution of grassland or xerophytic
scrub follows the same outline. The
prairie is most extensively developed
in El Valle over the plain stretching
from Tulua on the north to Aganche on
the south. Smaller areas of level prai-
rie occur near Popaydn in El Cauca, and
in the Patia Valley in Narifio. Along
the streams palms and bamboos occur.
A notable feature of the Cauca Valley
are the great marshes, occurring east
of the river, a section of which is crossed
by the railroad between Call and Pal-
mira. Toward the base of the Central
Cordillera, in the subsidiary valley of
the Rio La Vieja, is a belt of country
apparently originally covered for miles
with a solid stand of bamboo.

Through Antioquia and Caldas, in
El Cauca from Aganche to near Popaydn,
and in portions of the Patia Valley, the
inter-Andean Cauca-Patia depression
is deeply furrowed by canyons or formed
into hills. The slopes and canyon-
sides may be open or covered with low
brush or with a low xerophytic forest.
Epiphytes, while usually rare in such
scrub, may occasionally occur in some
abundance, with a fair variety of Or-
chidaceae and Bromeliaceae.

Thirteen kinds of birds are known
only from the Cauca Valley. The
mammal life is that of the upper
Magdalena.

The Cauca Valley has two wet and
two dry seasons, the wet seasons being
from March to May and from September
to November.

The prairies of the Cauca Valley are
intensively grazed and changed by
the introduction of drought-resistant
grasses, but the rougher surrounding
portions have clearly preserved the
original flora. The brush-land and low
xerophytic forest, except near the chief
towns, remain in primitive condition.

The Llano itself, — the true "Valley
of the Cauca" — may be visited at Cali,
Palmira or Buga, all reached by train
from Buenaventura. Just east from
Zarzal, reached by river steamer from

Cali, exist xerophytic groves remarkable
for epiphytes, and two days by trail
eastward, just west of Armenia, one
reaches the belt of bamboo. Popaydn,
accessible by train from Cali to Aganche
and thence two days by trail, is in a
slightly higher part of the inter-Andean
valley.

6. Pocket-like valleys of grassland and
scrub. While pocket-like xerophytic
areas are doubtless wide-spread through
the Colombian mountains and occur
at all elevations, it may be worth while
to call attention to two that are most
readily accessible. On the railroad
from Buenaventura to Cali, above the
narrow Dagua gorge and within a sur-
prisingly few miles of the wet Choc6
forest, one passes into an arid grass and
brush-covered valley, its slopes sparsely
grassy and its floor with a variety of
large Cactaceae. Dagua, the only town
between Buenaventura and Cali, is in
this arid pocket-valley. On the trail
over the Eastern Cordillera from Bogotd
to Villavicencio one traverses a canyon-
like valley with grass-covered slopes
and through the midst of its depth roars
the Rio Negro, a tributary of the Rio
Meta.

C. Montane forest

The middle slopes of all mountain-
chains in Colombia, whether on the
Andean Cordilleras or on the Sierra
Nevada de Santa Marta, are clothed
in forest. Where the adjacent lowland
is forested, as on the western slope of
the Western Cordillera and the southern
eastern slope of the Eastern Cordillera,
the forest is continuous over the moun-
tain-bases. From the Santa Marta
mountains the forest also descends to
some distance upon the plain. On the
slopes toward the inter-cordillera val-
leys of the Cauca and the Magdalena,
forest is only reached at a considerable
elevation above the plain.

The Andean mountain-forests are
continuous around the sides, and,
when not too lofty, over the summits,
of the three Cordilleras. This con-
tinuity and the degree of geographic

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

633

uniformity of the forest makes inadvis-
able its separate consideration upon
each Cordillera. However, the wetter
conditions prevalent on the western
slope of the Western Cordillera and
upon the eastern slope of the Eastern
Cordillera have produced biotas differ-
ent from that of the sheltered inter-
Andean slopes. Everywhere, also, have
geographic remoteness and especially
isolation of upland areas resulted in
diversity of the composition of the
fauna and flora. The supreme illustra-
tion of isolation is the life on the Santa
Marta mountains.

Much more important for considera-
tion is the modification of life caused
uniformly on all mountain-systems by
increasing elevation and resultant cooler
temperatures. Thus we may distinguish
a forest of the lower and warmer, and a
forest of the upper and cooler, mountain-
slopes — two types of forest that show
very important differences in com-
position.

Subtropical Evergreen Forest. The
lower mountain-forest is essentially
similar to the evergreen lowland
forests already discussed. The hard-
wood trees belong to the same families,
and palms and conspicuous lianas also
occur. Even more prominent than in
the lowlands is the occurrence of ferns
of many types, and tree-ferns here
become frequent and characteristic.
The trees average lower than in the
lowland forest, and their branches
spread from shorter trunks. The chief
distinguishing feature of the lower
mountain-forest is the great abundance
and wide variety of epiphytes, con-
stituting a remarkable aerial world of
life. Epiphytic ferns and mosses
abound, and of the various groups of
flowering plants with epiphj-tic re-
presentatives the chief place is held
by the two families most highly spe-
cialized for this mode of existence, the
Bromeliaceae and the Orchidaceae.
There is considerable bloom in this
forest and consequently, as compared
with the lowland, a greater number of
pollinating insects and birds. Among

the conspicuous flowers are, beside the
two families of epiphytes named, ter-
restrial species of Gesneriaceae (red,
yellow, white or violet), Lobeliaceae
(red, pink or green) and the Ericaceae
(red, white or orange). Significant
through both lower and upper mountain-
forests are the number of tubular red
flowers, usually yellow within, doubtless
adapted for pollination by humming-
birds, a form of flower shown in many
families, e.g., Lobeliaceae, Rubiaceae,
Gesneriaceae, Bignoniaceae, Logania-
ceae, Ericaceae, Onagraceae, Loran-
thaceae, and even Orchidaceae.

A wetter phase of the lower moun-
tain-forest, which is developed on
slopes especially exposed to moisture-
laden winds, is remarkable for the
extensive and deep growth of mosses,
both terrestrial and epiphytic, for
the predominance of ferns, Carludovicas
and like foliage plants, and for the
scarcity of bloom.

A drier phase of the lower mountain-
forest, which is encountered chiefly
where the ascent to forest is made from
open arid slopes, contains slight diver-
sity in trees and few if any epiphytes.
The growth of trees is open, and the
forest will frequently consist of nearly
pure groves of the evergreen Humboldt
Oak. Between the lowland prairie and
such groves is usually a belt of xerophy-
tic bushes.

This lower mountain-forest and the
occasional open areas occurring at
the same altitude have been denomi-
nated the "Subtropical Zone" in Dr.
Chapman's study of Colombian bird-
life. The chief families of birds are
(1) Tanagridae, (2) Tyrannidae, (3)
Trochilidae, (-1) Dendrocalaptidae, (5)
Fringillidae.

This zone "includes most of the larger
mammals of the lowland forest and some
of the smaller ones or, in many cases,
representative subspecies."

Subalpine Evergreen Forest. The up-
per mountain-forest is yet lower in
height than the forest just considered
and shows a decidedly greater adapta-
tion to a cool environment. It is less

634

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

luxuriant in aspect. The trees are more
uniformly and compactly branched.
In its upper stages the trees become
strikingly rounded and densely bushy,
and frequently occur in park-like for-
mation. More often however the
densely massed low trees pass imper-
ceptibly into a zone of shrubs equally
dense. The upper mountain-forest, and
the plateau savannas and paramo as
well, are of peculiar interest because of
the double origin of the forms of life
that characterize them. There may be
here the same types of life seen in the
lowland and lower mountain-forests,
the same families of trees, of herbs and
of epiphytes, but usually or always in
special upper-mountain species. With
these there are many other types of
life not found at all in the lowland and
lower forests but which are genera
and families which belong characteris-
tically to the cooler parts of the earth,
the Temperate zones of the Northern
and Southern Hemispheres. Such tem-
perate influence is less marked among
trees than among shrubs and herbs,
although Colombia has its native species
of alder and walnut as well as its various
shrubby Hypericums, Gaultherias and
Vacciniums, and its many herbaceous
buttercups, chickweeds, geraniums and
violets. A third series of upper Andean
plant and animal types, certainly in
its origin assignable to one or the other
of these groups but now especially
pronounced and interesting, contains
the types of life now restricted to or
mainly developed upon the Andes,
genera often divisible into species per-
taining to various elevations and to
various isolated portions of the moun-
tain-system. Among flowering plants
this series includes Bomarea, Tropaeo-
lum, Monnina, Fuchsia, Calceolaria,
Centropogon, Mutisia, and very many
others.

The upper mountain-forest is much
more broken into isolated portions,
due to breaks in the continuity of the
Andean mountain-system, than is the
forest of the lower slopes. It is con-
tinuous throughout the Central Cordil'

lera, but in the Western Cordillera
becomes isolated upon each of the high-
lands already mentioned, while in the
Eastern Cordillera it covers a large
area from Sumapaz to Ocafia, with
small areas northeast and southeast
of Neiva and again far to the northward
in the Motillones and the Sierra de
Peri j a.

This upper mountain-forest and the
open areas occurring at the same altitude
have been termed the "Temperate
Zone" by Dr. Chapman. The chief
families of birds are (1) Trochilidae,
(2) Tanagridae, (3) Fringillidae, (4)
Tyrannidae, (5) Coerebidae.

This cool forest "includes a few
mountain forms of mammals derived
from tropical relatives, as the mountain
paca, the mountain opossum and the
mountain brocket deer, also by forms
derived from the southern Andes, as
the spectacled bear {Tremarctos) and
the peculiar marsupial Caenolesies; also
by forms of North American affinity as
weasels (Mustela), rabbits (Sylvilagus)
and shrews {Blarina). It has various
peculiar genera of rodents as Thomaso-
mys, Microxns, Chilomys, and Aepe-
omys."

While on the mountain-slopes seasons
are less distinctly marked than on the
lowland and because of topography
are subject to much modification, the
rains tend to occur mostly in two rainy
seasons lasting each from an equino.x
to a solstice. Mid-March to mid-June
and mid-September to mid-December
are likely to be wet, and mid-June to
mid-September and mid-December to
mid-March dry or rather dry, at middle
elevations of the Andes.

In many parts of Colombia, especially
on the western slope of the Eastern
Cordillera in Santander and Cundina-
marca, on the eastern slope of the Cen-
tral Cordillera in Antioquia and Tolima
and on its western slope in Antioquia,
Caldas, El Valle and El Cauca, the
lower mountain-forest has been exten-
sively cleared to make room for planta-
tions of coffee. The upper mountain-
forest has been considerably cleared for

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

635

agricultural crops on the more densely
settled Eastern Cordillera in Boyacd
and Cundinamarca, while a boom in
cattle is at present causing great and
wasteful destruction of this forest in
the Quindio and elsewhere in order to
create upland pasturage. Still, the
mountains of Colombia are today mostly
covered with virgin forest, although the
traveller along the chief highways may
see little of it.

D. Plateau grassland or savanna

At several places on the Bogota,
Tableland of the Eastern Cordillera,
and perhaps occasionally elsewhere on
the other Cordilleras in the same cool
upper mountain-zone of life, occur
flat open areas of natural prairies called
sabanas. These may contain marsh-
land and enclose small lakes. The two
most important of these areas are the
Sabana of Bogota in Cundinamarca
and the Sabana of Fuquene near Chi-
quinquira in Boyaca. Developed ap-
parently on the flat bottoms of former
lakes, both these sabanas are famed for
their rich soils and have been inten-
sively cultivated since the days of the
Chibcha empire. In the meadows and
along the streams of the Bogota savanna
may be seen species of Marsilea, Carex,
Juncus, Sisyrinchium, Salix, Alnus,
Dichondra, Nierembergia, and Gratiola,
genera of plants which mostly pertain
to the Temperate zones of the earth.
Through much of the Bogoti, tableland,
and well seen near Bogota itself, are
found slopes partly grassy but usually
chiefly covered by growths of bushes or
in canadas of low trees. A varied and
rather rich flora is peculiar here, in-
cluding species of Cerastium, Hypericum,
Lwpinus, Oestrum, Castilleja, Lamour-
ouxia, Cenlropogon, and certain Iri-
daceae, Melastomaceae and Vacci-
niaceae.

Here the single plant-tuft may be three
or four meters in diameter, dark-green
and of coralline hardness, showing no
impress where one's foot has stepped
upon it. Yet inspection shows that
the compactly crowded individual stems

of Distichia grow upright with the leaves
projecting upward so that the human
weight has been supported actually
upon the tips of the leaves! An in-
teresting array of tiny plants of various
families, Ericaceae, Gentianaceae, Scro-
phulariaceae, Lobeliaceae, etc., grow,
dwarfed and protected, within these
mats and cushions.

There are yet other plants of the
paramo which seem to depend wholly
upon some physiologic protection, and
the nearly or quite hairless species of
Pedicularis, Bartsia, Halenia and like
genera grow in the valleys not far below
snow. Indeed, the flowering plants
that grow closest of all to snow are
species of Arahis and Draba, genera of
Brassicaceae with but slight or moderate
hairy covering but which yet are able
to inhabit the bleakest alpine environ-
ments throughout the world.

The paramo is the most broken into
local isolated areas of the mountain
zones of life in Colombia. Its flora
varies in composition upon each of the
Andean Cordilleras and upon isolated
tracts of each cordillera. On many
of these areas it is still wholly unknown.

There are only 19 kinds of birds
characterizing the paramo; of these the
largest number (4) belong to the
Trochilidae.

The paramo "has no mammal fauna
of its own as it is too scattered and too
limited in extent. Certain forms from
the temperate forest extend into it."

The seasons upon the paramos may
occur either at the same time as in the
mountain-forest, or else they may more
or less reverse the program of lower
altitudes. Rains are not heavy on the
paramo, but driving misting cold pene-
trating rain may occur for many days
consecutively.

In the Quindio and on the Eastern
Cordillera in Cundinamarca and Boyaca
the paramos are occasionally pastured.
To make better growth of grass they are
sometimes burned over. Generallj- over
Colombia, however, no effort has been
made to use these remote and bleak
highlands.

636

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

(CDE.) Points from which mountain
forests, mountain sabanas, and paramos
may be advantageously studied. Unless
the purpose of an expedition requires
otherwise, the ascent of mountain trails
should be undertaken during the months
of least rain, January and February,
July and August.

a. For the Western Cordillera: Fron-
tino in western Antioquia to be reached
by trail from Medellin, or via boat from
Cartagena up the Rio Atrato and Rio
Sucio to Pabarandocito in the Choc6,
thence by trail; Santuario in western
Caldas, to be reached by trail from
Medellin (5 days), Manizales (two days),
or La Virginia (one day), the last acces-
sible by steamboat down the Rio Cauca
from Call; La Cumbre in El Valle,
on the railroad from Buenaventura to
Cali.

b. For the western slope of the Cen-
tral Cordillera: Pereira and Manizales in
Caldas, Pereira to be reached by railroad
from Cali and Buenaventura, Manizales
to be reached by trails from Medellin (5
days), San Francisco (1 day) and Mari-
quita (3 days) — from either are trails and
paths up into the Quindio; Salento in
Caldas on the Old Quindio Trail two days
from Cartago on the Rio Cauca and two
daj^s from Ibague in Tolima (probably
now best reached from Ibague by cross-
trail from Armenia on the New Quindio
Trail) — an excellent point for working
in the Quindio; Palmira and Buga in
EI Valle, reached by railroad from
Cali — from whence trails go up into the
Cordillera; Popaydn in El Cauca, to be
reached from Cali by the recently con-
structed railway' — from Popayan are
trails into and over the Coconucos;
Pasto in Nariuo, to be reached by trail
from Popaydn (7 days) or from Quito
in Ecuador (7 days) — eastward and
southward are trails into and across
the Cordillera.

c. For the eastern slope of the Central
Cordillera: Mariquita, San Lorenzo, and
Ibagu6 in Tolima, all to be reached by
railroad from the Rio Magdalena —

• Present activity in construction will soon make
many remote places accessible by rail.

from these towns are many trails into
the Cordillera; from Popaydn in El
Cauca over the Central Cordillera to its
eastern slopes in Huila and Caquetd.

d. For the Eastern Cordillera: Ocana
in Norte de Santander, to be reached
by trail from Gamarra on the Rio
Magdalena — from Ocana, just over the
divide toward the valley of the Cata-
tumbo, a trail continues to Cucuta;
Bucaramanga in Santander, to be
reached by trail from Puerto Wilches on
the Rio Magdalena or by boat up the
Rio Lebrija and thence by trail — the
best point for reaching the Pamplona
highlands; Bogota in Cundinamarca,
to be reached by railroad from Girardot
on the Rio Magdalena — from the capital
are railroads across the Sabana de
Bogota north to Zipaquira and Nemo-
con, connecting with auto-bus for
Tunja in Boyacd, and south to Sibat6,
while trails radiate through the high-
lands of Cundinamarca and Boyaca and
cross the eastern Cordillera to Cdqueza
on its eastern slope and Villavicencio
at its eastern base; Neiva in Huila,
to be reached by trail (5 days) from
Girardot on the Rio Magdalena — from
whence are trails into the Cordillera
and from slightly to the south across to
Florencia in Caquetd.

e. For the Sierra Nevada de Santa
Marta: Santa Marta in Magdalena —
giving ready access by trails to the lower
slopes but only with much difficulty
to the upper highlands; Valle de Upar,
to be reached by trail from the Carib-
bean port of Rio Hacha, or from El
Banco on the Rio Magdalena by steamer
(except in dry season) up the Rio Cesar
to El Paso, thence by trail — giving
access by trails up the gentler south-
eastern slopes of the Sierra to its upper
levels and to snow. Also from Valle
de Upar the ascent of the Sierra de
Perijd (properly a part of the Eastern
Cordillera), lying to the southeast,
may be made. — F. W. P.

Santa Marta. An area 60 by 250 mi.,
the altitude ranging from sea level to
19,000 ft. Dry savannahs exist on the
west, east, and south sides, and rain

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

637

forest on the north and west slopes.
Heath is first encountered at about
10,000 ft. and the summits are
snow-covered. The mountain range is
surrounded by semi-desert. This des-
ert is found around Santa-Marta, the.
east end of the range, and on the south
side, at least between the mountains
and Rio Cesar. The forest on the north
and west slopes are between 25 and 10,000
ft., except that it comes down to sea
level on the north. Tropical rainforest
animals include the tapir, armadillo,
guano, and bushmaster. In the savan-
nahs are numerous lizards and in the
semi-deserts lizards and tortoises. Fine
mangrove swamps and bays near the
sea shore. The nearest important city
is Santa Marta, Colombia, which is
reached by the United Fruit Company
steamer from New York, and part of
the distance from Santa Marta into the
region proper may be covered on the
United Fruit Company's railroad. It is
necessary to outfit in United States.
The only item which may well be omit-
ted from the outfit is tents, as travelers
can live in the native huts. — A. G.
Ruthven and A. S. Pearse.

2. VENEZUELA!

By H. Pittier and H. B. Baker

i. general conditions
1. Topography

Venezuela extends in one direction
between the Caribbean Sea to the north
and Brazil to the south; in the other
direction it is bounded by British Guiana
on the east and Colombia on the west.
It has an area of 1,043,900 km. (403,007
Sq. mi.).

The easternmost ramifications of the
Andean orographic sj'stem enter Vene-
zuelan territory on the western side,
running to the northeast. This is
generally known as the Andes of Vene-
zuela (Sierra de Alerida), and reaches
an elevation of 5002 meters at Columna

1 Where there was no cooperation between the
authors, authorship of the various sections is indi-
cated in the text. The materials were arranged by
the committee.

Peak in the state of Merida; it sends
spurs and branches to the north, on
both sides of Lake Maracaibo. The
Coast Range or Caribbean System,
which runs along the seacoast from the
Aroa Mountains to the peninsula of
Paria, consists of several detached
groups, mainly formed by parallel
ridges running east and west, and cul-
minating at the Pico de Naiguatd,
which is 2765 meters in height.

To the east, the almost unexplored
Guiana Mountains divide their intricate
system between Venezuela and British
Guiana. In like manner, they seem to
consist of several parallel chains, run-
ning also in an east and west direction,
and sending offshoots to the north and
south. Their maximum height has not
been determined, but seems to be
reached in the Maravaca Mountains,
between the Caura and Ventuari Rivers.
Dr. Jahn supposes it to be of more than
3100 meters. The Sierra Pacaraima, the
southernmost member of the system,
forms the boundary with Brazil, while
the celebrated Roraima (2G40 meters)
rises on the ridge which separates
Venezuela fi'om British Guiana. The
western section, bordering on Brazil
and Colombia, seems to be covered by
rather low hills and mountains, in the
middle of which lie valleys drained by
the Orinoco and Amazon.

Between the mountains of Guiana
and their western extensions on one
side, and the Andean and Caribbean
systems on the other side, lies the vast
Orinoco basin, occupied largely by the
so-called llanos. The rivers of this
basin drain nearly four-fifths of the
whole territory of Venezuela. Com-
paratively, the plains around Lake
Maracaibo, the valleys hidden between
the several chains of the Coast Range,
and those of the vipper reaches of the
Rio Negro, occupy but a small area.

2. Climate

a. Temperature. Owing to its varied
topography, Venezuela, in its several
regions, enjoys the whole scale of tem-
perature between the averages of 26°

638

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE .\MERICAS

to 2S'C. on the coast and in certain
places of the interior, and O'C. or less
on the summit of the Andes. While
there is little variation during the course
of the year, the daily range increases
with the altitude. As is generally the
case all over tropical America, three
main belts of temperature are recognized
by the Venezuelans: the tierra caliente,
the tierra templada and the tierra
fria. They correspond more or less to
the Basal ifi to 1000 meters ; mean tem-
perature 2S° to 21°C.), the Intermediate
(1000 to 2S00 meters: mean temperature
20= to 12=) and the Upper Belts 2S00
to 5000 meters; 12= to 0= or less^i, so
designated for biological purposes (the
limits and mean temperatures given
here being those adapted to Venezuela).

b. Rainfall and humidity. Most of
Venezuela is under the influence of the
monsoon, which governs the regime of
the rainfall. The parts most directly
exposed to this wind are either very
dry, with less than 800 mm. of annual
rain, or moderately humid, with SOO
to 1500 mm. They include the coast
from Paria to Maracaibo, the Llanos
with the lower slopes of the surrounding
mountains, and the intermediary ranges
of the Caribbean system. In the ter-
ritory thus defined, the seasonal rhythm
is strongly marked, there being as a rule
a dry season ("verano") extending from
November to April, and a wet season
("inviemo") extending from May to
October. My experience is that both
the annual rhythm and the daily rain
offer no comparison as to regularity
with that i)ersonally observed during
fifteen years as Director of the Meteoro-
logical Observatory in San Jose of
Costa Rica.

Certain parts of the lowlands present
topographic conditions which favor a
heavier forest. These are principally
the Orinoco Delta, the upper Rio Negro
and a limited area south of Lake Mara-
caibo. In these districts, the mean
annual rainfall is probably higher than
in most parts of the lowlands. Besides,
up to an altitude, that varies with the
importance of the mountain masses,

the precipitation steadily increases,
and culminates in a belt in which rain-
forests appear, though with character-
istics distinct from the lowland for-
ests. Above this, the precipitation
decreases anew with the altitude, so
that the upper parts of the high moun-
tains constitute another dry belt.

II. XATCKAL BIOTA

a. Evergreen forest

1. Mangrove swamp. The mangrove
forests are dependent, not on the pre-
cipitation, but upon the ground water.
They are found at several points of the
littoral regions, especially, though not
always, at the estuaries of the large
rivers. The five species of trees (Rhizo-
phora Mangle, Laguncularia racemosa,
Avicennia tomentosa, A. officinalis and
Conocarpus erectus) which form such
forests, practically to the exclusion of
all others, thrive onh* in soils permeated
with salt or brackish water. Rhizo-
phora grows exclusively on soil per-
manently covered with sea water; its
peculiar adaptations are well known.
The other species are found in places
alternately dry and inundated, and
sometimes in brackish swamps where
they are mixed with Acrosiichum au-
reum, Annona glacra and divers Cj-per-
aceae. The principal mangrove forests
of Venezuela are situated at the mouth
of the Orinoco and the adjacent parts of
Golfo Triste, in the Gulf of Cumana,
around Piritii, Unare and Tacarigua
Lagoons, at El Carenero near Cape
Codera, along the coast of Estados
Carabobo and Falcon as far as Chi-
chiriviche and at the entrance to Lake
Maracaibo. At the southern end of
this body of water, they are replaced
by i)ermanently inundated forests, with
Inga. Ficus and Cecropia species. This
last tj-pe of forest forms a striking
feature of our flora and is worth more
thorough investigation.

2. Luxuriant tropical rain-forest.
This represents the optimum of vege-
tative development in the tropics, but
occupies in Venezuela only restricted

NATURAL AREAS AXD REGIONS

639

areas, correponding to those of greater
atmospheric precipitation. In the low-
lands, the}' attain imposing proportions.
The pillar-like trunks of the trees rise
to 30 or 40 meters before spreading in a
dome of dense foliage, which is in it-
self a real plant kingdom, such is the
wealth of epiphytes, parasites and vines
established upon it. Only a very at-
tenuated light passes through the thick
foliage but nevertheless, a wonderful
storied vegetation fills the space under
the larger trees, the lowest tier of which
completely hides the rich soil. This is
formed by la^-er upon layer of the deca}-
of past plant generations, and is so soft
that the giant trees can maintain their
equilibrium only by special adaptations.
These are, for instance, plank-but-
tresses, as in the case of Ceiba pentandra,
or adventitious roots such as those of
Cecropia and Iriartea.

Great is the variety of vines which
form a distinguishing trait of these rain
forests. Some originate high up on the
branches of the trees and their aerial
roots, stretched down into the soil,
look taut cordage. Others creep along
the tree-trunks, which they partially
conceal under their beautiful foliage,
while still others climb independently,
as they may, helping themselves with
aculei, tendrils, twists or other peculiar
modifications, until they reach the bril-
liant sunlight above. We have already
mentioned the epiphytes. Aroids, Bro-
meliads, Orchids and others. Palms,
belonging to the genera Jessenia, Eu-
terpe, Martinezia, Manicaria, Astro-
caryum and others, found also in the
monsoon forests, either fill part of the
space under the larger trees, or pierce
through the leafy dome.

Among the numerous species of trees
which form the tropical forests, the
following are either more conspicuous,
or better known on account of their
economical uses: In the Orinoco Delta
and surrounding region, we have forest
giants like Diiuorphandra excelsa, Xeci-
andra Rodiei, Virola vettezuelensis, along
with the ever-recurring Ceiba pentandra,
several Ficus species, and others of

lesser proportions, among which Sym-
phonia globulifera and Carapa guianen-
sis are also worthy of mention. The
ITpper Orinoco and Rio Negro district,
relatively well known, thanks to the
explorations of Spruce, are especially
rich in species of Licania, Swartzia,
HirteUa, Ouratea, ilacrolobium and Vi-
rola, and certain genera of palms, such
as Bactris, Mauritia, Astrocaryum and
Lepidocaryum, seem to reach their
fullest development in this region. The
flora of the rain forest of the Maracaibo
basin is no less diversified; besides
Copaifera Langsdorfii, found through-
out the region, we maj^ cite C.iissiciispis,
Cariniana pyriformis, Gctupia glabra,
Dialium divaricatum, Gustavia fu^tis-
mortui, Labatia parvi^.ora, as well as
at least two cow-trees, Couma sapida
and Zschokkea edulis. Here, the palnas
seem to belong principally to the genera
Jessenia, Bactris and Aitalea.

Floodplain Forest [H. B. B.). In the
preceding description. Dr. Pittier has
mainly described the lowland type of
forest in Venezuela, which has been
mapped by W. Sievers f 1S96: Petermanns
Mitteilungen, vol. XIII, pi. XT). My
own observations lead me to believe that
this is not entirely a rain-forest, de-
pendent on the precipitation, but
largely an edaphic one. more closely
related to the amount of soil water.

Throughout Venezuela, one is im-
pressed b}- the abundant evidence that
the volume of water in the streams must
vary greatly with the seasons. Many
of the larger rivers. Like the Rio Cata-
tumbo throughout its lower course,
have, by repeated floods, built up their
banks higher than the surrounding
country, so that the surface drainage,
during the dry season, is away from, or
parallel to, the main stream. On these
flood plains, the smaller streams, dviring
the dry season, either meander through
gravel bars, between high, vertical
banks, or disappear in the sand of
numerous. anastamosing channels,
which may retain long, stagnant pools
(canos. or sewers) or lead into large,
shallow lakes (.cienagas). As a result.

640

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

in those parts of Venezuela where the
mountains are some distance back from
the coast, the streams flow through wide,
almost level flood-plains of alluvial
deposit, which, during the wet season,
must be largely under water or dis-
sected by innumerable streams. The
edaphic influence of this rich soil,
containing ground water near the sur-
face, permits the development of large
and rich forests, even in the lowlands
where the rainfall is not great enough
to account for their presence.

Although in some localities, large
plantations have been cleared of the
smaller trees and brush, the unhealthi-
ness of these lowlands has resulted in
a very sparse population. Where large
clearings have been made, irrigation is
often necessary; when abandoned, such
places commonly assume the appear-
ance of rich prairie, and the woodland
appears to invade the sun-baked surface
with some difficulty. Small clearings
become overgrown with remarkably
dense growths of Heliconiae and Con-
volvuli and revert to forest in a few
years.

In these lowland forests, tapir {Tapi-
rus americanus), peccaries {Tayassu
tajacu), howler-monkeys {Alouata seni-
culus, etc.), and the chigiiire {Hydro-
choerus capTjbara) are especially abun-
dant. The larger parrots (Ara, Conu-
Tus, etc.), troupials (Cassicus), and
toucans {Ramphastus, etc.) are more
conspicuous members of the avifauna,
although, as a rule, this appears more
monotonous than in the mountains.
Where a leaf-humus is developed, the
molluscan fauna is very rich; amongst
the larger ground forms, Pleurodonte
is conspicuous in central Venezuela,
but is replaced by Plekocheilus in
Estado Tdchira. Near streams, the
forest mainly consists of palms, which
develop very little true humus; in
swampy places, almost pure stands of
Bactrideae often form dense, impene-
trable thickets. In such places, only
the arboreal species (Drymaeus, Auris)
are represented.

Along the high banks of the larger

streams, the soil is often sandy and
covered by a dense cane-brush or more
rarely by bamboo-thickets; ground liz-
ards {Ameiva) are especially abundant
in these places. Although Ampullarius
is abundant and freshwater pulmonates
occur in the pools and canos {Neoneura
is characteristic among the Odonata),
the larger streams are remarkably
barren, perhaps on account of their
frequent scourings; the extreme paucity
of Naiades is especially noticeable.

Luxuriant tropical rain-forest (H. B.
B.). In undisturbed portions of the
Caribbean System, the arid coastal
region passes quite rapidly into the
rain-forest, which, in places, reaches
down to an altitude of less than a hun-
dred meters. Like most tropical for-
ests, the most noticeable feature is the
variety in size of the trees and in the
floristic composition; large stands of a
single or a few dominant species are
conspicuous by their absence. In gen-
eral, the trees do not attain a very
great height, and even the ceibas are
less gigantic than in western Venezuela.
Epiphytes are quite abundant through-
out this type of forest; the bromeliads
are especially conspicuous, but the
lianas and climbing arums and figs are
less conspicuous than in the far more
luxuriant Mexican rain-forest or in
even that of the eastern foot-hills of
the Andes.

Although coffee and cacao plantations
encroach considerably on the native
forests, in most places on the north-
facing slopes these are so rich and ever-
green as to discourage any efforts to
burn them away. The land is usually
cleared by chopping out the brush and
leaving the larger trees. Such places
return to heavy forest in a few years,
and the leaf-humus is often richer and
the ground fauna more abundant in
"montado" coffee plantations than in
the original forest.

Among the larger animals, agouti
(Agouti para, Dasyprocta rubrafra and
prymnolopha) , jaguars (Felis onga) and
spider monke3's (A teles) are especially
abundant. The bird fauna is one of

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

641

the richest and most variegated that I
have ever seen; the smaller birds, such
as the flycatchers, parrakeets and
hummingbirds, are especially prevalent.
The mollusc fauna has more Antillean
and Central American elements (such
as the Urocoptidae and Pomatiasidae)
than does that of the Andes. Arboreal
snails {Drymaeus, Auris) are common,
while the ground fauna may be exempli-
fied by Poteria and the smaller species
of Pleurodonlc. From the standpoint
of the terrestrial animals, two quite
noticeably different types of forest can
be distinguished: that with a rich leaf-
humus, and that witli a leached-out
root-humus. This difference affects
even the arboreal snails, as many of
these aestivate on the ground.

The eastern prolongation of the
Cordillera Oriental of the Andes is
quite markedh' different, both geologi-
cally and faunisticly, from the Carib-
bean System, from which it is separated
by the semidesert region around Bar-
quisimeto (Cf. Sievers, 1. c). The
appearance of the tropical rain-forest
is verj^ similar although larger trees
are more prevalent and larger areas
are almost completely dominated by
tree ferns or palms (root-humus). The
scarcity of fan-palm and the rich growth
of the similarly leaved Carludovicae
among the Heliconiae of the stream
borders, are conspicuous differences
from the flora of the north-central
mountains. In the moUuscan fauna
the Urocoptidae and Pomatiasidae are
absent, in the region studied, and the
prevalence of Streptaxidae is notable.
The species are closely related to those
of central Colombia. The smallest,
rocky brooks are often overgrown with
Cyclanthaceae and, although poor in
specific diversity, contain numerous
individuals of Heieragrion and Philo-
genia (Odonata) ; Pachychilus (Mol-
lusca) is abundant in the western moun-
tains but absent in the Andes. The
creeks of the larger valleys are scoured
by the torrential floods of the rainy
season, and have a very barren fauna.

3. Montane forest. The temperate

rain forests occupy the middle belt of
the mountains, not at a fixed altitude,
but where the condensation of the water
contents of the ascending air masses
takes place. During the day, this belt
may be easily perceived by the distant
observer owing to the broad strip of
clouds, which stretch horizontally across
it, their base, well defined, ascending
or descending with the increase and
decrease of temperature. Most of the
species which form these forests are
hygrophytes. The trees have a weakly
developed root-system; their leaves are
ample and often provided with dripping
points and hydatodes. The epiphytic
flora is unusually rich, but the lianes
are not so abundant as in the tropical
rain forest.

On account of the diversity in their
altitude, the flora of these temperate
rain forests changes considerably from
one place to the other. It would take
too much of our limited space to enu-
merate even the principal species in
each case. Generally speaking, the
Lauraceae seem to be the dominating
family. Typical of their kind are the
beautiful forest around Colonia Tovar
in the Coast Range, the flora of which,
though investigated again and again,
still seems to be inexhaustible in new
species. In this region we note, among
many others, Cedrela montana, Guarea
mollicoma, G. Ruagea, Esckweilera fend-
leriana, Weinmannia glabra and Escal-
lonia floribunda, which attain here
arboreal dimensions, Protium laxiflorum,
P. icirariba, Sapium stylare, Styrax
macrotrichus, Podocarpus coriaceus, P.
Harmsianus, etc. Also quite a number
of striking species of palms such as
Oenocarpus altissimus, Oe. caracasanus,
Oe. utilis, Ceroxylon Klopstockia, and
at least three Iriarteas. Lesser trees
or shrubs are J lex myricoides, Allophylus
excelsus, Guettarda tovarensis and Aegi-
phila verrucosa. Under these trees,
perpetually dripping and shrouded in
mist, there grows again a world of ferns
and lower Crj^ptogams, excluded in
places by large colonies of the giant
grass Planotia nobilis. No less marvel-

642

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

ous is the wealth of Orchids, either
epiphytes or terrestrial.

Fauna {H. B. B.). A fairly constant
characteristic of this type of forest is
the poor development of leaf humus,
which is correlated with the scarcity of
ground forms. However, Happia guild-
ingi and mediocris were found in the
Cumbres, while Reclarlemon jessei, Dre-
panostomella ammonoceras and H. medio-
cris were quite characteristic in Estado
Tachira. The tree snails are more
prevalent; Auris euryomphalus and
sinuatus appear quite characteristic.
The comadreja and huron {Galera bar-
bata and Galictis allamandi) were mainly
seen here although they occur at lower
levels. In the Sierra de Merida, a
kinkajou {Potos flavus meridensis) and
a squirrel (Sciurus griseogena meriden-
sis) have been described from an alti-
tude of 2500 meters.

b. Arid deciduous forest

This type of forest covers about two-
thirds of the area of Venezuela. It
includes a large number of deciduous
trees, which assume during the dry
season a bare, arid appearance which
would place them among the xerophil-
ous formations but for the fact that
during the rainy season they are green
and luxuriant. These trophophilous
forests, however, distinguish themselves
from the thorn forest by the relative
scarcity of armed trees and ground cacti,
the increased frequency of vines and the
larger proportions of the trees. From
the rain forest, thej^ differ in the great
number of deciduous species, and,
generally, in the lessened vigor of the
vegetation. Also, the underbrush is
thinner, so that, but for the districts
where square miles of the ground are
covered with spiny bromeliads, circula-
tion is everywhere easy.

Specifically, the tree flora of the arid
deciduous forest is exceedingly rich.
There are no really pure stands and
almost each individual tree is distinct
from its neighbors. The composition
of the forest also suffers marked changes
passing from the eastern to the western

part of the country, and, of course,
in the ascent from the lower to upper
levels. In the eastern part, it is char-
acterized mainly by several species of
Coumarouna (C. odorata, C. nudipes,
etc.) which produce the tonka-beans
known in commerce, by rubber-trees,
belonging to Hevea and Micrandra
(Hevea henthamiana, minor, rigidifolia,
M. heterophylla) , by several balata and
chicle yielding Sapotaceae (Achras,
Mimusops, Sideroxylon) , the well-known
Bertholletia excelsa (Brazil-nut tree),
Cusparia irifoliata, from the bark of
which the Angostura-Bitter is extracted,
and many others. Further west, in the
states of Carabobo and Yaracuy, the
more conspicuous trees are Hura crepi-
tans, found in places closely resembling
pure stands, several species of Bomba-
copsis. Sivietenia Candollei (Venezuelan
Mahogany), Cedrela mexicana, Cordia
alliiodora Toluifera Balsamum, etc.
Last but not least, the region sur-
rounding Lake Maracaibo is well known
for its wealth in majestic timber-trees,
among which it will suffice to name
Bulnesia arborea (spurious Lignum
Vitae), several species of Tabebuia
(T. serratifolia, chrysea, etc.), a Centro-
lobium probably distinct from the C.
paraense of the central part of the
country, Helietta Pleeana, Copaifera
Langsdorffii, several Vitex (V. cymosa,
V. berteroana), the coffee-wood or brown
ebony {Caesalpinia Granadillo), etc.
In all these forests are numerous species
of palms belonging to Attalea, Oreodoxa,
Thrinax, Copcrnicia, Maiiritia and
Oenocarpus.

To the monsoon formation we may also
join the strips of forest which accom-
pany the rivers of the Llano (Gallerie-
Wald of Sievers, 1. c). They are singled
out by the presence of such trees as
Copaifera officinalis, Protium heptaphyl-
lum, Hymenaea Courbaril, Andira iner-
mis and a few others.

Fauna {H. B. B.). In main the ter-
restrial species of molluscs increase
in numbers at the transition between the
rain forest and the monsoon forest,
although they decrease greatly in the

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

643

drier parts. Strophocheilus oblongus is
especially characteristic, although it
occurs in the heavier forest. Deer
{Odocoileus gymnotis and Mazuma nemo-
rivaga) are more common in the drier
forest and "monte" than elsewhere.
This type of forest has suffered most from
burning and cultivation. In general,
the fauna is quite similar to the rain
forest although usually much poorer.

1. Deciduous thorn forest. The thorn
forests, which extend along the coastal
belt from the western boundary to the
peninsula of Paria, are also represented
inland in some parts where they merge
little by little into the savannas.
Cactaceae, such as Pereskia Guamacho,
Lemaireocereus deficiens, L. griseus,
Cephalocereus Moritzianus, Acanthocer-
eus pentagonus, Opuntia caracasana,
0. caribaea and others are typical of
this formation, in which grow also
several species of Pithecolobium, Bunie-
lia and Jacquinia, Acacia macracantha,
A. tortuosa, Caesalpinia Coriaria, Pro-
sopsis juliflora, and other thorny trees
and bushes. In the middle of these,
larger trees, unarmed, and almost
deciduous, appear here and there; they
are principally Bursesa Sirnaruba, Esen-
bechia Ataia, Aspidosperma Vargasii, A.
lucentivenium, Amyris balsamifera and
A. simplicifolia . Mention should be
made also of the several species of
Capparis and Croton.

With some variations as to its compo-
sition, the same formation is spread
throughout the interior of the country,
where Mimosa Cabrera is one of preva-
lent species, along with Caesalpinia
Coriaria, and extensive colonies of the
palm, Copernicia tectorum, interrupt
the low forest here and there.

The appearance of the thorn forest
varies according to the degree of prom-
inence of one or the other of the
elements of its vegetable covering. In
many parts along the coast, on steep
hills, and in certain devastated dis-
tricts, cacti occupy the space to the
almost complete exclusion of other
species; in other parts, this formation
intergrades into the next. Between

these arborescent species, the soil is
almost bare or has a spare covering of
grasses and other herbaceous or fruticose
plants. The general impression is
always one of excessive aridity.

Fauna {H. B. B.). This practically
coincides with the thorn formation of
Sievers' map. In some places, as
indicated above, the prominence of the
cacti causes it to assume almost the
aspect of a succulent semi-desert.
Bulimulus cacticolus is a characteristic
snail of these places. A peculiar phase,
little studied, occurs on the fossil
coral-reefs of some parts of the coast;
Sievers includes these, with the usually
adjacent sand dunes (Coccoloba uvifera
is characteristic) in his "Strand Vege-
tation." Most collectors, including my-
self, have neglected this type of country
for the richer rain forest. It is very
probable that the moUuscan fauna will
be found richer in Antillean elements,
like that of the Dutch Leeward Islands,
as there are a number of doubtful records
of West Indian genera {Euirochatella ,
Cerion, etc.) from northern South
America. Brachypodella nidicostata has
been described from limestone cliffs
near Chichiriviche. The rabbit, Sylvi-
lagus cumanicus, appears fairly char-
acteristic of this type of brushland in
eastern Venezuela.

3. Semi-desert. The semi-desert is
simply a transition from the thorn
forest to the savanna, and perhaps to
the Arid Deciduous Forest. Here, the
armed trees are in the minority, and
among the unarmed ones, many assume
considerable dimensions. On the out-
skirts of the savanna, the semi-desert
is formed mainly by stunted trees such
as Curatella americana, Bowdiichia vir-
giliodes, Byrsonima crassifolia and B.
coccolobaefolia. In other parts, the
gregarious Bur sera gummifera, with
its reddish, constajitly peeling trunks,
is conspicuous, and Gyrocarpus america-
nus grows in places in almost pure
stands. Bursera tomentosa, Ruprechtia
sp., etc., also occur frequently in this
formation, which may pass almost
unnoticed by the layman.

644

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

C; Desert

To the xerophilous formations belong
also the half denuded rocks, met with at
all altitudes, exposed to the burning
sun and covered with a scant vegetation
of shrubs, herbs, mosses and lichens.
(The mesa tops, mentioned below,
are also practically sandy deserts, with
a sparse growth of Curatella americana;
Sievers maps the most extensive ones
in the northeastern portion of the
Orinoco valley — H. B. B.)

d. Grassland

1. Savanna. Although the Venezue-
lan savannas attain their greatest
development and diversity in the well-
known llanos, they exist on a limited
scale almost all over the country,
scattered through the forests and on
the mountain slopes. A small part of
them may have originated in the de-
struction of the forests by man, but with
these exceptions, they are certainly
the result of natural processes, and
maintain or lose their balance with the
wooded parts, either encroaching upon
them or giving way to them. They are
almost always bordered by a more or
less broad belt of low bush, which in
certain parts of the llanos is of the true
thorn-forest type.

Contrary to the older descriptions,
the savannas are anything but uniform,
and the often pictured, boundless g; ass-
lands are only approximated away iu the
south, in the states of Portuguesa and
Zamora and beyond the Apure River.
These latter are the sabanas de matas
(grove savannas) of the natives, which
name indicates that even there the con-
tinuity of the grass surface is often
interrupted by masses of higher vege-
tation. Here the grass varies from a
low sward to the height of a mounted
rider. The rivers are barely outlined by
a fringe of low bush. In other sections,
an older level of the country, divided
by the erosion of the rivers, forms the
so-called mesas or table-lands, the arid,
sandy soil of which is sparsely covered
by a scanty, wind-barren vegetation.

Although they are scattered all over
the llanos, these mesas belong to a
single complex. The rainwater which
they receive immediately filters through
the sand, to reappear at the foot, giving
origin to springs and streams, along
which extend by morichales, morass-
like areas with slow drainage. Upon
this inconsistent soil, extensive groves
of the palm {Mauritia flexuosa) rise from
a luxuriant tapestry of perennially
green vegetation, treacherous on ac-
count of the soft substratum.

2. Grassland. The sabanas de pajo-
nales (straw or grass savannas) cover
here and there the slopes of the moun-
tains or hide in the middle of the for-
ests. With reference to the specific
composition of these distinct types of
savannas, we have as yet only very
scant information, with the exception,
of these pajonales of the coastal system
of mountains, which have been repeat-
edly explored. In their middle belt,
around Caracas, the dominating fami-
lies come in the following order: Grami-
nae (with Paspahim and Andropogon
(9 species each), Panicum (6 species),
Eragrostis and Sporobolus (4 species
each) as principal genera), Leguminosae
(Meibomia 11 species. Cassia 9 species,
Mimosa and Aeschynomene 4 species
each, etc.), Compositae and Cyper-
aceae. The forestal element is repre-
sented by dwarfed specimens of Roupala
and Byrsonima, together with a few
shrubby Myrtaceae.

2. Fauna {H. B. B.). As Dr. Pittier
indicates, the larger portion of the
Venezuelan savannas are scattered with
groves of trees, in addition to the
swampy morichales and, of course, the
stream forest. In Venezuela, it is very
difficult to judge how much of the ap-
parent aridity is due to climate and
how much to deforestation. Most of
the northern region appears to become
savanna when the trees have been re-
peatedly burned away, and, outside of
the hills, practically none of the smaller
streams, even in the original forest, is
permanent throughout the year. In
this connection, it must be remembered

I

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

645

that Venezuela was settled at a very-
early period in American history, and
much of the northern region was ex-
tensively cultivated, under control of
Europeans, as early as the sixteenth
century. In addition, Venezuela lacks
native grazing animals, which are now
introduced in large numbers.

Although the pajonales or high sa-
vannas (Sievers' map) of the coastal
ranges are very extensive and, in many
places, remarkably barren, I am of the
opinion that they, at least, are largely
due to the agency of man. The inha-
bitants have a natural antipathy for
forests, and burn them at every op-
portunity; on account of the prolonged
dry season of these valleys, this is easily
done. On almost naked, rocky hills
near Bejuma, I collected bleached shells
of Strophocheilus, etc., that could only
have lived in rather heavy forest. In
the mountain valleys, little patches of
rain forest are bordered by the savanna
itself without any transitional dry for-
est; undisturbed patches give every
indication of invasion into the sur-
rounding grassland. For instance, near
the barren, grassy summit of Cerro
Chiriguara, I found even young tree
ferns growing in the open, at some
distance from the nearest patch of
woods. Climbing bamboos are perhaps
the most prominent feature of recently
burnt woodlands.

On the whole, these savannas appear
to have very little characteristic fauna,
while the richer patches of forest have
about the same species as similar situa-
tions on the heavily forested, north
facing slopes of the mountains. How-
ever, the richer savanna ponds, which
are bordered by a zone of thorn trees
and choked by Pistia and sedges, con-
tain the most variegated aquatic mol-
luscan population that I found in
Venezuela {Physa,Planorbis, Gtindlachia
Ampullarius and Homalonyx). In ad-
dition, E. B. Williamson pointed out
that often the Odonata actually ap-
peared to be more numerous than in
the more heavily wooded regions, per-
haps because the adults were restricted

to the near vicinity of the streams and
ponds. A long-tailed flycatcher was
commonly associated with the savanna
pools, but aquatic birds were rather
infrequent. A rabbit {Sylvilagus ori-
nocoi) has been described from the
llanos of Maypures, and the otter (Lw^ra
paranensis) is said to be especially
prevalent in the streams of this region.

e. Alpine and subalpine formations
(Sierra de Merida)

•

e. Andine Bushland. The andine
brushwood forms a transitory belt
between the upper forests and the
alpine "paramos." Starting at its lower
fringe, the trees become more and more
stunted, ending in being so low and
spreading that it is at times easier to
walk on their tops than on the ground
close beneath. They then disappear
altogether and are replaced by shrubs
and brushwood, often adorned with the
most brilliant flowers. Near its upper
margin, the woody or fruticose vegeta-
tion is more or less interrupted by
grassy patches and thickets of under-
shrubs, which soon take the upper hand,
the underbrush being thus superseded
by the "pdramos." The most con-
spicuous species of this formation are
Myrica arguta, Escallonia florihunda,
Bejaria glauca, aestuans, ledifolia, and
resinosa (the rhododendrons of the
Andes), about a dozen species of Wein-
mannias, among which are W. glabra,
tomentosa and balbisiana and exten-
sive colonies of Arcytophyllum cara-
casanura.

2. Pdramos. These form the upper-
most altitudinal belt of vegetation.
They are extensively developed in the
Andes, while in the Sierra de Merida
they exist only on isolated highlands.
They are a true xerophytic formation,
the result of the combination of intense
cold and scarce rainfall, and all of their
plants are more or less organized for
protection against excess of evaporation
and low temperature. These plants are
reduced in bulk and height; their roots
are thick, the stems usually short, the
leaves smallish and either glabrous with

646

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

a thick cuticle or covered with a more or
less dense and wooly indument. The
flowers are, on the average, exception-
ally large and brilliant. Many of the
smaller species have naked stems, the
leaves being concentrated at the base
in the shape of a rosette or cushion.
The shrubs are either crowded together
or cling tightly to the surface of the
rocks and soil.

The inferior and superior limits of
the pdramos vary greatly with the.local
conditions. The former is as low as
1700 meters in the Pdramo del Morro,
Mdrida, while the upper line coincides
with the extreme superior limit of
vegetation, which has not yet been
accurately determined. According to
Dr. Jahn's collections, the belt of
Espeletias extends from 2100 to 4550
meters, and 13 species of other phanero-
gams and vascular cryptogams are
known to grow above 4200 meters.
Polylepis sericea, the tree which
reaches the highest altitude in
the Venezuelan Andes, has been found
by the same explorer at 4150 meters.

A legion of interesting plants is
scattered over our pdramos, so diligently
explored by Dr. Jahn. Foremost among
them are the above named Espeletias
or "frailejones" of which no less than
16 species have been recognized. They
are all quite erect plants, varying in
size from a few decimeters (herbaceous)
to trees several meters high, and all
more or less covered with a filmy coat
of a white, yellowish or greyish color.
Shrubby Ericaceae {Vacciniwm, Pernet-
tya, Gaultheria) often form large colo-
nies, while quite a number of genera,
such as Gentiana, Geranium, Arenaria,
Cerasiium, Bartsia, Plantago, Oenothera,
Epilobium, etc., appear at first sight
familiar to the alpine botanist. The
tropical element is represented mainly
by several groups of the Melastomaceae
(Miconia, Chaetolepis, Monochaetum,
Tibouchina) .

The flora of the upper belt of the
Coast Range though not unlike
that of the Andes in its general aspects,
is very distinct in specific composition.

Up to the present, only some 30 species
of vascular plants have been found to
be common to both regions, while
nearly 50 (including 10 lichens and 7
mosses), have been only reported from
the Coast Range. It is too soon,
however, to draw conclusions. Among
the species peculiar to the latter
system, we cite Eupatoria sillense,
Gardoquia discolor, Chusquea Spencei
and Pariana inaequalis; the last species
is known also from Guiana, and seems
to reach its western limit here.

The order of sequence of families,
with reference to the number of their
species growing above 2000 meters, is
found to differ greatly from that noted
for the high savannas. The Compositae
come first with 82 species, then the
Polypodiaceae (45), the Gramineae (41),
the Melastomaceae (39), etc.

3. Farina {H . B. B.). Among the
birds, Henicorhina leucophrys, Diva
vassourii, and Colaptes rivolii appear
to be quite characteristic of the sub-
alpine bushland. From the paramos
themselves, the following, among others,
have been cited by Ernst: Sarcoramphus
condor, Diglosa gloriosa, Conirostrum
sitticolor, Eriocnemis vestita, Cinclodes
fiiscus, Synallaxis gularis, Pseudoco-
laptes boissoneautii, Margarornis squami-
gera, Ochthoeca superciliosa, Heliochera
rxibrocristata, Buarremon schistaceus,
Chlorospingiis ignobilis, C. goeringi and
Phrygilus unicolor. An opossum (Ma"^-
mosa dryas) and a coati (Nasua olivacea
meridensis) have been described from
an altitude of 4000 meters in the Sierra
de Merida, and the bear (Tremarctos
ornatus) is said to occur in the Sierra
de Merida.

III. GUIDE AREAS

1. General

New York City (9 days), Red "D"
Line (82 Wall Street), direct from Porto
Rico to La Guaira. The Dutch line also
runs boats between New York and La
Guaira. Alternate steamers from Cur-
agao proceed (one day) to La Guaira, and
(3 days) to Puerto Cabello (J), while the
others (smaller) to (one day) to Mara-

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

647

caibo (t). Small steamer makes alter-
nate connections from Willemstad.

Practically no customs inspection at
Curasao; small deposit required of
second class passengers to insure their
deportation. Venezuelan customs offi-
cials very strict. Both countries pro-
hibit importation of firearms, but scien-
tists may secure permission through
United States Department of State.
Passport and vaccination certificate
(smallpox) for entrance into Venezuela;
be sure to let the officials know where
and why you are traveling and they will
give you every assistance.

Roads fair throughout the Dutch
Leeward Islands. A recently constructed
road, across Venezuela from Caracas
to San Cristobal, Estado Tdchira, is
said to be practicable for all cars
during the dry season. The road from
La Guaira (Caracas) to the Andes is
practicable for any kind of motor car as
far as Merida and will be so to the
Colombian boundary in a few months.
Another very good road goes to El
Sombrero, 300 km. from Caracas, and in
the dry season any kind of car can
reach San Fernando in a very short
time. The beautifful road down the
Tuy valley, which is to be continued to
Ciudad Bolivar, will be open to
traffic soon. Cars are available at
larger towns in Venezuela and in Cura-
gao, Bonaire and Aruba. Fishing sloops
also can be hired cheaply in the islands.

Schooner travel: quite good from
east to west; slow and uncertain in the
opposite direction.

Maps: Venezuelan Government maps
of entire country and also of the separate
states; the best maps but expensive;
complete series of those published in
the Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia. U. S.
Hj^drographic Office: charts 964, 1049,
]290, 2154.— H. B. B.

2. Orinoco Valley

La Guaira: monthly government
steamer to Cumana, Margarita Island,
and Ciudad Bolivar.

La Guaira: (23 km.) R. R. to Caracas
(J), (about 185 km,) to Valencia (|),

and (about 250 km.) to Puerto Cabello.
These arid valleys are very barren
collecting grounds.

Valencia: (10 km.) "Ford" or horse-
back to Lake Tacarigua; (about 45 km.)
ditto during dry season to Bejuma (|),
and (about 105 km.) to Nirgua {%). —
H. B. B.

Lake Valencia. A lake 35 by 15 mi.,
an altitude of 1650 ft. The vegetation
which surrounds it is mostly savanna.
The lake is surrounded with beautiful
mountains. Fishes are abundant. In
the vicinity are deer, caiman, corm>o-
rants, herons, frogs, Bufo marinus. This
place is reached by the Red D steam-
ship from New York to La Guaira. The
nearest important city is Maracay. One
could outfit there. May be reached by
railroad from La Guaira or Pto. Cabello.
Hotels at Maracay and Valencia. Camp-
ing outfit is needed, also a guide. —
A. S. Pearse.

Bejuma: (2 km.) foot to Laguna de
Ram6n Coronel, a representative, sa-
vanna pond.

3. North-Central Mountains

La Guaira: Macuto Electric to Ma-
cuto; Rio Macuto valley, a steep, narrow
valley, with a narrow border of natural
vegetation.

Puerto Cabello: (7 km.), auto or foot
to San Esteban (native huts available);
Camino Real, foot or horse, to Los
Quiguas. Many tributary valleys pre-
sent natural conditions; avifauna es-
pecially rich.

Puerto Cabello: (one night), small
steamer to Tucacas (J); (73 km.) R. R.
to San Felipe (J) and (about 90 km.)
to Aroa (|). The immediate region of
both of these towns is cleared, but quite
undisturbed valleys within walking
distance.

During the dry season one can go
with any car from Valencia through San
Carlos, Acarigua, Barquisimets San
Felipe and Pto Cabello. The road is
now open from Barquisiments to Coro
via Carora, and from here a branch to
Puertos de Olta Gracia, in front of
Maracaibo, is in construction.

648

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

4. Cordillera de Merida

The road to Merida is by steamer to
La Ceiba, R. R. to Motatan (and soon
to Valera) and then by car over
Mucuchies Paramo.

Maracaibo: (About 12 hours.) River
steamer to San Carlos; R. R. to El
Vigia; road to Merida.

Maracaibo: (About 24 hours.) River
steamer to Encontrados on Rio Cata-
tumbo; passes through rich, lowland
forests. In the vicinity of the town,
the forest has been largely removed,
but several swales and ponds are
interesting.

Encontrados: (56 km.) R. R. to E,
Guayabo (posada). Rio Zulia, canos,
and some uncleared woods. (102 km.)
R. R. to La Fria (native huts available),
much uncleared, lowland forest: also
foot-hills with almost pure stands of
tree-ferns (Cerritos de las Brujas),
and forest (Quebrada Santa Aguita) ;
Rio La Grita. (115 km.) R. R. to
Estaci6n Tachira (terminal; get permis-
sion to live in station); a rich locality
in the lower mountains; Rio Lobaterita
and many tributary brooks.

Estaci6n Tachira: (About 55 km.)
good automobile road or horseback to
San Cristobal.

Note: Scientists would be very hos-
pitably received at the American oil-
camps some of which have penetrated
absolutely virgin country in the Moti-
lone region, near the headwaters of the
Rio Catatumbo.— //. B. B.

5. The Lowlands

Tucacas: (37 km.) R. R. toPalmaSola
(get permission to live in station); rich,
lowland forest all around junction; hill
forest 3 km. up track towards San Felipe ;
Rio Aroa and Cano Minapam. (69 km.)
R. R. to Boqueron (our party very hos-
pitably received at hacienda maintained
by Aroa R. R.); lowland and drier for-
est; Rio Aroa and numerous brooks,
creeks; and canos; a very rich, largely
undisturbed region.

Encontrados: See above.

6. The Coastal Semi-Deserts

Maracaibo : Everywhere (get in touch
with oil-men).

Willemstad: (12 hours.) Biweekly
schooner to La Vela; (15 km.j R. R. to
Coro (J).

7. Dutch Leeward Islands

Willemstad: (About 12 hours.)
Weekly mail-schooner (Felipe S. Toledo
agency) to Oranjestad, Aruba (J).
Return trip 36 hours to 2 weeks, de-
pendent on relative strength of wind
and current.

Willemstad: (About 12 hours.)
Weekly mail-schooner to Kralendijk^
Bonaire (rent a house).

Willemstad: Do not get permission
from governor of Curagao and hire a
slooD to visit Klein-CuraQao, as that
barren island is not worth the trouble. —
H.B.B.

It would be premature, for this Vene-
zuela, to try to define territories to be kept
as reservations. Forest destruction and
Nature defacing is the actual program
here in Venezuela as everywhere in
Spanish America. Traveling through
the country is made easier every day, as
roads are being built very actively.
Of course, it is expensive, unless you
have your own car and can handle it
yourself. But today, you can go at any
time from Caracas to El Sombrero in
a few hours, following Humboldt and
Bonpland route, and in summer auto-
mobiles travel easily to Ciudad Bolivar
via Zaraza and to San Fernando de
Aguire via Calabozo. Any kind of
motorcar will go today from Caracas to
Timotes, the high pdramo and moun-
tain-pass giving access from Valera to
the valley of M6rida, and it is expected
that in 1925 it will be feasible to reach
the town of Merida itself . An excellent
new road from Cumana to Maturin, has
just been opened, and another from
Barcelona South to Pao. One of the
greatest features of progress in Vene-
zuela during the last few years has been
the construction of good motor roads on
a giantic scale.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

649

3, THE GUIANAS

By William Beebe and H. A. Gleason

I. Physiography and Vegetation
(W. B.)

In their physiography the three
Guianas present certain common char-
acteristics. The principal features are
the rivers and their branch streams.
In each colony the northern portion of
its area consists of a fluviomarine
deposit extending inland and gradually
rising to a height of 10 to 15 ft. above
the sea.

Part of the low, coastal land, of
these colonies is actually below sea-
level. The Atlantic, along shore, is
heavy with yellow silt drifted north
from the Amazon. This alluvial plain
varies in width from 50 to 18 m. and is
traversed by ridges of sand and shells,
roughly parallel to what is now the
coast, indicating the trend of former
shore lines. By the draining and diking
of these lands the plantations have been
developed along the coast and up the
rivers. These low lands are attached
to a second belt of somewhat higher
plateau, which towards the coast is
traversed by numerous huge sand-
dunes and inland by ranges of hills rising
in places to as much as 2000 ft. The
greater part of this belt of country, in
which the auriferous districts principally
occur, is covered with a dense growth
of rain forest, increasing in density and
elevation until the magnificent height
of two hundred feet is attained. It is
in this area that considerable and rich
gold and diamond deposits are located.
There is the savanna region, isolated
outliers of the great Brazilian savannas,
occurring irregularly and far in the
interior growing only a long wiry grass
and poor shrubs. The hinterlands
consist of undulating open savannas
rising into hills and mountains, some
grass-covered, some with dense forests.

The three colonies are sufficiently
near alike that detailed description of
only one is necessary. Because of the
large amount of research which has
been done in British Guiana, it is chosen
for this purpose.

II. British Guiana

TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE

British Guiana, the westernmost of
the three Guianas, has an area of about
90,000 sq. mi., lying between latitude
1° and 8° N. and longitude 57° and 61°
W., with a coast line of 270 mi. The
coastal lowlands have a width of 10
to 40 mi. along the Atlantic, and are
composed of marine alluvium scarcely
above sea-level. South of this strip
lies a belt of low hills of sand and clay,
nearly 100 mi. wide at the east, but
much narrower at the west. The moun-
tain region occupies most of the hinter-
land and consists largely of plateaus
1000 to 3000 ft. in altitude, surmounted
with mountain ranges. The mountains
are comparatively low in the east and
south, and culminate in the Pakaraima
range of the southwest, where Mt.
Roraima reaches an altitude of about
8600 ft.

The Corentyn, Berbice, Demerara,
and Essequibo rivers, with their minor
tributaries, flow in a generally northerly
direction to the Atlantic, which they
enter through broad estuaries. The
latter receives two large affluents, the
Mazaruni and the Cuyuni, which rise
on the north slope of the Pakaraima
mountains and maintain a generally
easterly course. Several rivers of the
Northwest district show a strong devia-
tion of their courses to the west, due to
the gradual deposition of marine allu-
vium. All the streams are obstructed
by rapids and waterfalls where they
pass from one physiographic region to
another. Of these Kaieteur is note-
worthy for its height of 741 ft.

The temperature is continuously hot,
the monthly variation on the coast
being only 3°, and the annual mean
about 80°. Maximum temperatures on
the coast seldom reach 90°, but in the
savanna region the mean maximum
exceeds 90°. The average temperature
in the sun exceeds 140°.

There are four seasons, the short dry,
February, March, and April; the long
wet, May, June and July; the long dry,
August, September, October and No-

650

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

vember; and the short wet, December
and January. There is considerable
variation in these seasons, and occa-
sionally a short season is almost
eclipsed. The rains offer no impediment
to research. There is no real period
of drought and only three-fifths of the
rain falls during the two rainy seasons.
The ranfall along the coast increases
from east to west from 84 to 100 in.,
and towards the interior to 150 in.
along the eastern foothills of the Paka-
raima mountains. In the savanna re-
gion it is much lower, amounting to
about 60 in.

ORIGINAL BIOTA

1. The vegetation
A. General

Knowledge of the flora and vegetation
of British Guiana is still far from com-
plete, and only the merest outline of
the leading features of the colony can
be given.

The coastal swamps are occupied by
the usual mangrove thickets, in which
the black mangrove (Rhizophora) , the
white mangrove {Laguncularia) , and
the courida (Avicennia) are abundant.
These swamps extend up the principal
streams to the limit of the influence
of salt water.

Fresh-water swamps and marshes
parallel the rivers throughout the
coastal lowlands, and are generally
subject to inundation during the rainy
seasons and at every high tide. At
the water's edge the tall mucca-mucca
(Monirichardia) is abundant, and farther
back the wild cacao {Pachira), the
pumpwood (Cecropia), and the trysil
(Pentaclethra) are characteristic, to-
gether with several species of palms
of the genera Mauritia, Euterpe, and
Manicaria. The whole is bound to-
gether by masses of vines, particularly
of the dogbane and milkweed families.

Aside from a narrow strip of cultivated
land along the coast and the lower
courses of some of the rivers, the re-
mainder of the coastal lowlands and the
sand and clay belt is covered with rain-

forest. It is at present impracticable
to distinguish or describe the various
plant associations, further than to
state that two general types of forest
may be distinguished, the one on the
clay hills, and the other on the sand
ridges (luxuriant tropical rain-forest).
The forest-cover is 124 to 150 ft. high;
the trees are straight and unbranched
for 60 to 75 ft. A second layer of
smaller trees is usually well developed.
Lianas are abundant and of large size,
while practically every tree is occupied
by epiphytic ferns, orchids, and bro-
meliads. The undergrowth of shrubs
and the ground cover of herbaceous
plants depends in general on the avail-
able light, and is best developed along
the stream banks. The great majority
of species are woody.

The flora of these forests is extremely
rich and much of it is still unknown.
Among the hundreds of species of trees,
many of the commoner or more im-
portant are included in the genera
Eperua, Dimorphandra, Inga, Ma-
chaerium, Caraipa, Lecythis, Nectandra,
Licania, Hevea, and Mimusops. The
smaller trees and shrubs are largely
members of the myrtle, melastome, and
madder families. The herbaceous flora
includes numerous species of the arrow-
root, gesnera, and sedge families, to-
gether with numerous ferns and
lycopods.

Higher ridges of pure sand are fre-
quently occupied by an open forest of
low trees with wide-spreading crowns,
in which Dimorphandra is characteristic,
and under which there is a luxuriant de-
velopment of shrubs, herbs, and grasses
showing in specific composition rela-
tions to the savanna vegetation of the
hinterland.

Extensive savannas occupy most of
the southern half of the colony, covering
the high plateaus and broken onlj' by
belts of forest along the streams and on
some of the mountain slopes. The
vegetation here is composed chiefly
of several species of tall grasses and
sedges, with numerous herbs and low
shrubs as secondary elements, and

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

651

interspersed with thickets and isolated
trees of various trees and taller shrubs,
among which Byrsonima is especially
abundant.

The high mountains of the Pakaraima
range maintain a forest similar to that
of the low country in general aspect, but
with many additional species. In our
pres(?nt state of knowledge, it is impos-
sible to name the most typical genera
or species, and endemics are abundant.
The same vegetation probably extends
westward along these mountains across
southern Venezuela as far as the Orinoco.

The highest mountains, Roraima and
Kukenaam, have long been known for
their remarkable endemism, amounting
to about 40% of the known species, and
their flora shows some resemblance to
that of the Andean region.

h. One-quarter sq. mi. of jungle at
Kartabo^ {W. B.)

Geographical -position

Kartabo, the site of the Tropical
Research Station of the New York
Zoological Society, is situated in the
north-central part of British Guiana,
South America, at the junction of the
Mazaruni and Cuyuni Rivers, 6 mi.
above where these combined streams
enter the still larger Essequibo River.
Its position on the earth's surface is
58° 42' W. longitude and 6° 23' N. lati-
tude, approximately 400 mi. from the
equator and 45 mi. from the Atlantic
Ocean.

Nine-tenths of the general work has
been carried on within an area of 2000
by 4000 ft. This area is included in the
easterly portion of the black area shown
on the accompanying map. Unless
otherwise stated, the following account
of the general ecology of this region,
and the various articles which will
follow in future numbers of Zoologica,
dealing with more definite, intensive
researches, refer altogether to this tract
of land and water, measuring 2000 by

1 This paper presents a few aspects of the general
paper on the subject which will appear in "Zoo-
logica, the scientific journal of the New York
^-oological Society.

4000 ft., at the very point of juncture
of the Cuyuni and the Mazaruni Rivers —
an area less than one-quarter the size
of Central Park in New York City.

Meteorological conditions

Accurate records of weather con-
ditions have been taken at the Cli-
matological Station at His Majesty's
Penal Settlement, 3 mi. below Kartabo.
The statements given here are based
upon the published and unpublished
records of this Station which extend
over a period of twenty years.

Scaso7is. Four seasons are recognized
in Guiana — a short and a long dry, and
a short and a long wet season. The
following table shows the generally
accepted seasonal grouping of months,
although slight variations from this
table are constantly apparent.

Short dry season: February, March,

April.
Long wet season: May, June, July.
Long dry season: August, September,

October, November.
Short wet season: December, January.

During the months allotted to the
rainy season approximately 58% of the
rains fall, the precipitation amounting
to an average of 11.73 in. per month.
During the dry season 42% of the yearly
rainfall is felt, the monthly average
being 6.04 inches.

Rainfall. The average rainfall is
100.53 in. per year, the heaviest rainfall
being in May (14.00 in.) followed by
June (12.44 in.) and July (12.40 in.).
March has the lowest rainfall with but
4.94 in. to its credit. The highest
records for annual rainfall is 117.75
in. (1918) and the lowest 77.11 (1911).
Rain falls on an average of 219 days a
year. The highest rainfall for a single
month was in May, 1918 (22.34 in.)
and the lowest in February 1912 (0.03
in.).

Humidity. The yearly average for
humidity is 84.2%. The daily averages
are as follows.

7 a.m 90.9%

1 P-m 79.0%

6 p.m 82.2%

652

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Sunshine. The average daily sun-
shine is 5.3 hours— the greatest amount
being felt in September (6.8 hours) and
October (6.7 hours) followed closely by
November (6.3 hours) and August
(6.2 hours). May (4 hours) followed by
March (4.3 hours) have the least sun-
shine. The maximum amount of sun-
shine recorded for a single day is 11.6
hours.

Temperature. Seventy-nine and two-
tenths degrees is the average shade tem-
perature for the year, the highest tem-
perature being in October (81.5°) and
September (81.1°), and the lowest in
January (77.8°). The maximum and
minimum temperatures for the year
average as follows:

Maximum 83.9°

Minimum 74 .3

The following list will show the
grouping of the months, the coolest
month placed first and the warmest
last: January, February, March, June,
July, December, April, May, August,
November, September, October.

Winds. The winds at Kartabo vary
from "gentle" to "fresh" and average
3.5 mi. per hour. Because of Kartabo's
position the trade winds blow almost
steadily throughout the year, while in
January, February and March, they
continue through much of the night
as well.

Meteorology of Kartabo compared with
the Coast of Guiana and with the far
interior. The following table will show
the variation in rainfall, humidity and
temperature between the coast as
represented by the records taken at
Georgetown, and the far interior as
represented by the records taken at
Dada-nawa, far up on the savannas.
The interior station shows a far greater
range of temperature and rainfall
than do either of the other two places.

CO

■<

0
o

o
<

05 ^

94.37

78.1

80.5°

100.53

84.2
79.2°

51.88

Humidity, percentage —
Temperature, Fahrenheit

86.5
83.1°

Physical features

Land mass. The average height of
the land mass at Kartabo is between
40 and 50 ft. above the mean high tides.
Along the shore of the Mazaruni im-
mediately in front of the Station the
land is from 5 to 15 ft. above the river.
In back of the laboratory the land rises
sharply at first, forming a rounded hill
about 80 ft. in height, which as it con-
tinues westward expands laterally until
at the western end of the research area
it is over i mi. in width. This hill
forms the beginning of the divide
between the Mazaruni and the Cuyuni
Rivers. In the northwestern part of
the research this hill comes close to
the shore of the Cuyuni, while to the
north and northeast are swamps and
moist lowlands. Southward of the hill
rolling lowlands predominate and
swamps are fewer in number and less
in extent.

Tidal area and shore. The amount
of river shore influenced by tide occupies
approximately 6000 linear ft., divided as
follows:

feet

Rocks 300

Sand beaches 650

Steep shores with jungle com-
ing to the water's edge, tree
roots merging with the tidal

area 1200

Shallow, mud and sand bot-
tomed flats 3850

The shore is exceedingly diversified
as to its physical characteristics, and
all conditions of aquatic environments
may be found, varying from shores
formed of unyielding granite to softest
of muddy oozes, and from reeds and
mangroves to buttresses of the tallest
of jungle trees.

Water. At Kartabo the Cuyuni River
is 2500 ft. in width. The opposite shore
of the Mazaruni is over 6350 ft. away
from the laboratory.

The tides on these rivers run from
one to 3 mi. an hour while falling, the
fall ranging from 6 to 6| ft. At the
Station they average about 2| hours
later than they do at the mouth of the
Essequibo, 45 mi. away.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

653

The color of the river water is a pale
brown, mainly caused by the stains
derived from the leaves of the Wallaba
tree (Eperua falcata Aubl.). Lowering
a white disk into the water, the color
is quite yellowish at the surface, be-
coming browner farther down and
before it disappears it acquires a dis-
tinctly orange tone. From eighteen
inches downward the color becomes
darker and darker and at 25 in. the disk
disappears.

Occasionally during heavy rains quan-
tities of brownish yellow mud is brought
down in suspension, making the river
waters quite opaque.

The temperature of the river water
from one ft. below the surface to the
bottom averages from 79° to 80°F.

Within the research area there are a
number of small streams, most of which
are drains for the swampy regions.
Practically all are densely shaded,
narrow in width, meandering at all times
through and around the bases of forest
trees.

Vegetation

The flora of Kartabo has been studied
by no competent general botanist, and
in this resume I have attempted nothing
but an indication of the more con-
spicuous and abundant growths, par-
ticularly those which possess an im-
portant relationship with members of
the vertebrate fauna, either in the way
of food, homes or media of support and
progress.

Fluviatile. Blue-green, red and brown
algae and diatoms are abundant but
no collections have been made of
them. Very remarkable purple algae
have been found in the stomachs of
puffers (Colomesus psittacus) but not
observed elsewhere.

Littoral. The littoral fauna is sharply
delimited to between tide marks.
Where the current is swift near shore,
these forms are almost hidden by over-
hanging vines and lianas, dependent
from the high jungle trees which crowd
down to the very water. Along sandy
and sloping muddy shores they are

spread out, but even in such places do
not extend more than a few yards from
the high tide mark. Specific associa-
tions are well marked in the littoral
flora — solid cultures of mangroves,
sedge, mucka-mucka and others.

Mangroves, RhizopJiora mangle, find
root-hold in certain definite areas of
the gently sloping mud-flats, while
back of them on firm mud and sand are
the graceful sedges. Two species of
sedges are dominant, Eleocharis geni-
culata R. Br. and Cyperus sp. In spots
where the current is not too swift or
waves too violent, appear rank upon
rank of the aroid lily with the incon-
gruous name of mucka-mucka, Montri-
chardia arborescens (Linn^) Schott.
Here and there are small patches of
Horse Tails, Equisetum, hinting of
epochs long since past. In the last two
years, however, these plants have dis-
appeared from the Kartabo shores.

Clustering around the sedge clumps
is a low, white-flowered Diodia, creeping
along the sand and helping the coarse
grasses to cling to the shifting grains.
The most conspicuous flower stalks of
the fore-shore are the tall shore gentians,
Coutoubea spicata Aubl. which hold up
their racemes of pinkish-white flowers
well above high tide level.

One of the most valuable shore binders
is the rush-like herb Xyris tenella
Kunth. Hundreds of these little, grassy-
leaved plants take root beneath the
mangroves and their roots mat together.
With them occur the straggly, jointed
stems with the inconspicuous pea-like
flowers of Vandellia difusa Linne.

On beaches of pure sand, fronting
disintegrating, soil-covered banks, the
plant association is of another char-
acter, all uniting to hold fast as much
as possible of the granitic talus which
now and then slides down in sandy
avalanches. Such is the beach directly
in front of the laboratory.

Every inch of the precipituous bank
which ofl'ers foothold is covered with
representatives of the clearing fauna —
the pink and white Mazaruni primroses,
Sipanea pratensis Aubl. being the only

654

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

bright color note. At the foot of the
bank the tides are felt and the plants
are no longer the gentle growth of a
summer meadow, but must be virile
enough to hold their position against
wind and water. As opposed to the
mangrove zone, the dominant plants
here are grasses. These are of various
types, ranging from great, coarse beach
grass such as a species of Panicum, to
creeping grasses such as Courmelina
longicaulis Jacq. A species of Sporobo-
lus is found, with long prostrate stems.
In surprisingly exposed places the
curious little, clover-like purple-flowered
Desmodium stands bravely in low, com-
pact bunches, while Kyllinga with its
small white flowers, creeps feebly a
few inches from its roots.

Among the mangroves, bromeliads
are found in serried rows and clusters,
often so abundant as to break down their
support. The roots above low water
are coated with moss and lichens, while
the branches are often put under terrific
strain by burdens of heavy vines such
as Souroubea guianensis Aubl. and its
interesting relatives, several species of
Marcgravia. Even the top branches
are not free, and epiphytic orchids such
as Epidendrum gragrans Sw., Epiden-
drum nocturnum Jacq. and Diacrium
hicornutum (Hooker) Benth. are found
in great abundance.

While the actual flora of the tidal
area is limited and fixed, yet this zone
offers one of the most fertile fields for
another phase of botany — the flotsam
and jetsam of the river current. Every
receding tide leaves a host of stranded
seeds and nuts.

Luxuriant tropical rain-forest. Un-
less artificially altered by man the
littoral flora merges directly and ab-
ruptly with that of the jungle. At
Kartabo some of the river jungle is
swampy, with palms as a dominant
association, mingled with hard and soft
wood trees. On the dry and higher
ground we find the typical rain forest
of Eastern South America. In the most
luxuriant primeval forest, the great
trees arise at considerable distances

from each other, with trunks straight
as plummets, often quite bare of
branches for one hundred feet. The
undergrowth is scanty and low, and
the mid-level is broken only by occa-
sional lianas or aerial rootlets, all of
which are as straight as the tree trunks.

Where plantations of the Dutch once
existed, or where an Indian has made
a clearing for his cassava field, the new
growth never regains its maximum de-
velopment. In these changed condi-
tions, while there are many large, tall
trees, yet there is not the unbroken
aspect of the roof of the jungle, and the
undergrowth instantly reflects this in
its more lush character.

In swampy areas Ichnosiphon grows
luxuriantly, tall, smooth, reed-like
stems, with a burst of leaves at the
summit. Comacuballi lianas climb trees
and thrust out masses of red berries
beloved of birds. Wild ginger, in these
places sends its 6 to 12 ft. leaves up from
compact stumps and Heliconias run
riot.

Even in low jungle one can always
see through the undergrowth for ten
to thirty yards. Thorns are rare, but
when they do occur, it is useless to try
to force one's way against them. The
jungle floor is always covered with a
thick carpet of fallen leaves and twigs,
from a few inches to a foot or more in
depth. In deep jungle herbaceous
plants up to 6 ft. in height are not
uncommon, but inconspicuous. Fallen
petals and flowers are abundant, often
having dropped 100 ft. from some ob-
scure vine. Color in masses is to be
found in the tree tops when whole
trees burst forth into a solid head of
lavender or pink within twenty-four
hours. Lichens, fungi and mosses are
everywhere. Even in the dry season
they flourish in damp places, while
during the rains they rival the flowers
of the glades in color. As for molds,
smuts and rusts, a mycologist who spent
four days at the Research Station col-
lected three hundred forms in a few
trips along the trails. The importance
of this density of vegetable growth

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

655

covering every inch of dry land, cannot
be appraised too highly, no matter
what form of organic life we chose for
intensive study.

The following list gives a few of the
larger trees from CO to 150 ft. in height
that are found within the research area.
Rarely, some of these trees become 200
ft. in height. Unfortunately a great
many of the largest trees have remained
unidentified and unidentifiable.

Dimorphandra excelsea (Schomb.) Baill.,

Mora
Nectandra rodiei Schomb., Greenheart

Carapa guianensis Aubl., Crabwood,
Guiana Mahogany

Pentaclethra macroloba (Willd.) Kuntze,
Trysil

Aspidospernium excelsum Benth., Pad-
dlewood, Yaruru

Rhizophora 7nangle Linne, Llangrove

Spachea elegans A, Juss., Pigeon-berry

Inga sp., Waikey

Hevea sp., Hatteeballi

Sapium jenmani Hemsl., Wild Rubber

Vochsia tctraphylla DC, Etaballi

Cassia multijuga Rich., Guana

Anacardium rhinocarpus DC., Wild
Cashew

Spondias lutea Linne, Wild Plum, Hog
Plum, Hoobooballi

Copaifera pubiflora Benth., Purleheart

Piratinera guianensis Aubl., Letter-
wood

Hymeneae combaril Linne, Locust, Siniri

Hieronyma laziflora Muell. Arg., Sura-
danni

Simarupa amara or officinalis, Match-
wood Tree, Simarupa

Unidentified, Dalina

Cecropia palniata, Cecropia, Congo-
pump, Pumpw^ood, Wanasuru

Unidentified, Kurahara

Unidentified, Meerah-wood, Antwood

Unidentified, Hooroowassa

Myristica surinaniensis Roland, Dalli

Unidentified, Wareemeah

Nectandra sp., Silverballi

Unidentified, Potchuwee

Tapirira guianensis Aubl.

Unidentified, Arracanduck

Psidium guava, Cockreeeou, Wild Guava

Humirium floribundam Mart., Tau-
roneero

Tenipa americana Linne, Makreekoonee
Rain-forest palms

Asirocaryum tucuma Mart., Cuyuru
Palm, Acqueero

Maximilliana regia Mart., Kokerite
Palm

Cocos nucifera Linne, Cocoanut Palm

Mauritia fiexuosa L. f., Eta Palm

Euterpe edulis Mart., Manicole Palm

Cleared areas. Immediately about
the Kartabo laboratory are 25 clumps
of bamboos covering a compound of
three acres. These are a very tall
Javan species, imported by the Dutch
from 250 to 300 years ago. West of the
laboratory is a clearing of 7 acres which
four years ago was in course grass. At
the present time it can still be called a
clearing, but tall saplings are springing
up in all directions and the jungle is
creeping in on all sides. This change
is a most interesting one and the altera-
tion from jungle offers opportunity for
hosts of strange organism.s, floral and
faunal.

In the clearing every patch of open
ground is carpeted with a dense growth
of the cheerful little pink Mazaruni
primroses, Sipanea pratensis Aubl. — by
far the -dominant color of the open
clearing and with many tiny weevils
and other insect hosts. With them are
numerous other small, flowering plants,
such as Spermacocs verticillata Linne
and caerulescens Aubl., and such curious
little growths as the Christmas-tree
plants, Dupatya. In other parts of the
clearing Vervain, Stachytarpheta cayen-
nensis Vahl. and Velvet-Leaf, Sida
cordifolia Linne are common, while
scattered here and there are patches of
Orinoco Boneset Mikania orinocensis
H. B. K. Sprouting plants of cashew
are common, Anacardium occidentale.

In unexpected places great clumps of
ginger lilies, Cruium, spring up. The
Pinwheel flower, Tabernaemontana un-
dulata Vahl. shows one of the most
amazing floral-fruit transformations.
The Tree of Life Bryophyllum pinnatum
(Lam.) Kury is as much at home here
as in other parts of the world. Sensitive
plants Mimosa polydactyla H. & B.,
wilt at a touch, and stray bushes of
Indigo, Indigofera sp. have handed down
their seeds for three hundred years
since the Dutch settlers brought them
there.

A still larger growth may be defined
as saplings, of which the Duka, Tapirira
guianensis Aubl., is the most rapid
grower. With these, young jungle trees.

656

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

such as Wareemeah, are sprouting from
stumps of the old forest. There are
also a few lime trees, Citrus medica acida,
planted years ago and almost smothered
under other growths, but still bearing
abundantly. Guavas, Psidium grow
here and there.

In many places, both clearing and
jungle, Melastomas grow rank, some as
trees, others as bushes, shrubs, or
even crawling, vine-like, over sandy
places. One form called Mesopra by
the Bovianders, Bellucia grossularioides
Triana, is common about the bungalow,
and its coarse rough leaves, woody scaly
stems and rounded white blossoms,
all form a haven for a whole fauna of
insect life.

Along the jungle edge of the clearing
the jungle hides its bareness by an
abundant growth of vegetation. Among
these is torchwood. Idea heptaphyllum
Aubl., with its dense foliage, whose
wood, when teased out, is used by the
Indians as candles. Blood-leaf, Vismia
ferruginea H. B. K. and guianensis
Pers. with great leathery leaves beloved
by a multitude of insects, Trysil trees
with the finest of pinnated foliage,
Arrancanduck, and Cassia. Here too
we find tree Cashews, Clusia, Wild
Cocoa and Messopra, with small flowers,
and Maibike with its stems lined with
lavender bloom.

Along shore the edge of the jungle
is varied by many smaller trees and
vines. Here grows the Wild Cocoa
Pachira aquatica Aubl. flowering twice
a year, each blossom one foot across.
The close-packed seeds of this plant
are delicious, either raw or roasted.
Cassia is common here, and Posequcria
but vines have the best chance and
sometimes ramify for several hundred
ft. Especially noticeable are AUa-
mamdas, Bignonias, Petrea and Sourou-
bea guianensis Aubl., the last with its
glossy leaves and panicles of stiff,
scarlet flowers. Its near relative Mare-
gravia vies with it in abundance near
shore, and sometimes presents a solid
front, obscuring the foliage of the re-
maining trees and bushes behind it.

Another shore plant, which in certain
positions becomes almost a vine is the
caterpillar flower, Combretum laxum
Loefl. with its brilliant yellow and
scarlet blossoms.

Spider lilies, Hymenocallis, hold up
their drooping, streaming petals from
among the sedges and reeds, while in
swampy areas grow great clumps of
ginger lilies Hedychium coronarium,
Konig. In dry clearing edges at the
time of the early rains, single plants of
scarlet tiger lilies, Hippeastrum, appear.

Although the jungle growth is so
luxuriant, yet the soil is very thin,
a mere skim of black mold from 6 in.
to 2 ft. lying on the sand and clay.
An Indian cassava field planted in
freshly cleared jungle soil will so deplete
the ground that a second crop is never
attempted on the same field. This
is also true of commercial ventures in
producing crops on this soil. Three
attempts have been made at rearing
crops, first sisal hemp, second rubber
and third cassava. But all these at-
tempts have failed dismally.

2. Animal life

a. Luxuriant rain-forest

In the rain forest of Kartabo; the
mammals range from the mouse opossum
to the jaguar and tapir; the birds from
the tiniest of humming birds to the
harpy eagle; the reptiles and amphib-
ians from the smallest frog to 25 ft.
boa constrictors; the fish range from
half-inch Tomeurus to nine foot catfish.
The worms show extremes from minute
round worms to earth worms three feet
long, and the insects from almost micro-
scopic Coleopters to giant rhinoceros
bettles and moon moths with a 12-inch
spread of wings.

The forest or jungle is divided into
four horizontal zones or strata; the
floor of the forest, the lower forest up
20 ft., the Mid-Forest as high as seventy
and the treetops from 150 to 200 ft.
above the ground. The floras and
faunas of these zones are as distinct
as is the abyssmal for the plankton, and

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

657

these in turn from the surface life of
the ocean. Finallj' the air above the
jungle had to be taken into considera-
tion as being the principal haunt of
many forms of life, just as we have sea-
birds and flying fish and air-breathing
cetaceans in the case of the pelagic
simile.

The ground in the jungle was covered
with the accumulated debris of cen-
turies, all the immense mass of vegeta-
tion which reared itself on high, falling
sooner or later, and returning to this
globigerina ooze of the dry land.

In the low and mid-heights was found
the soft mist of green foliage of the
jungle undergrowth, springing from
thin, twig-like branches and supported
on marvelously slender stems. The
level of this undergrowth was between
5 and 70 ft., above which the tall,
straight trunks of the larger trees were
dominant, with no trace of branch of
leaf until the luxuriant crowns were
reached.

As one walked through the jungle,
tinamou and partridges sprang up and
whirred away, agoutis and armadillos
scuttled from their feeding grounds.
Tracks of deer, tapir, paca and various
cats showed the movements of these
animals during the preceding night.
Grisons and, more rarely, small jungle
mice and rats were observed. On fallen
leaves tiny jungle frogs shrilled, and
giant marine toads live their sluggish
life. Salamanders and serpents were
rare. Once in a while a bushmaster,
fer-de-lance, or some harmless snake was
seen coiled or slowly slipping over the
leaves. Now and then a big yellow
turtle ploughed heavily along. All the
greater and lesser fry of the underworld
whose delight was in decayed wood, who
called the mold home, were here —
strange grubs and beetles, scorpions,
myriapods, peripatus and all wingless,
creeping things.

When I raised my eyes to the level
of the low jungle — to my own height —
an entirely new world appeared. That
of two dimensions was left behind and
one of three entered. Here began the

domain of creatures of moderate flight
and of limited climbing ability, which,
unlike the tortoise and the tapir were
not bound to the ground. Here I was
always certain to find manakins of
several species, and antbirds of still
more. Here the trumpeters and jungle
wrens uttered their characteristic calls.
At night opossums wandered, while in
the twilight of mid-day, morphos— those
bits of quintessent pigment — flapped
leisurely along, together with their
opposites, the skeleton butterflies.

The mid-jungle was the heart of the
tropical life. Here I could no longer
feel myself on equal terms in height. I
had most painfully to crane my neck
upward, and to study the inhabitants
of this suspended cosmos with glasses or
shotgun. Here the big curassows and
guans perched and nested, the great
pigeons, the motmots, jacamars, tro-
gons, goldbirds, and a host of tanagers
and flycatchers and strange tropic forms
chirped, sang, fed, courted, and nested.
In the mid-heights the big tree-frogs
boomed, and the sloths vegetated from
birth until the claws of a harpy eagle
gripped them. Squirrels were so rare
as to appear strange forms, known
chiefly from memory; marmosets and
coatis usurped their place by day, while
kinkajous climbed about by moon-
light. Orchids, air-plants and lianas
rioted, and unknown growths dropped
a myriad plummets, a warp of aerial
roots; threads until they reached the
ground, then becoming in turn twine,
cord, rope and cable. It was the great
center of life of the South American
jungles, a zone vibrating with a myriad
forms suspended half-way between
heaven and earth. Still it was a zone
with decidedly earthward tendencies.
Some of its inhabitants descended to
sleep, others to feed or to build their
homes. The majority, however, re-
mained throughout their lives as they
were born, plankton of the jungle.

Yet another continent of life remains
to be discovered, not upon the earth,
but 100 to 200 ft. above it, extending
over thousands of sq. mi. of South

658

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

America. At present we know almost
nothing of it. Up to now gravitation
and tree-trunks swarming with terrible
ants have kept us at bay, and of the
tree-top life we have obtained only
unconnected facts and specimens. For
the most part my glasses showed forms
silhouetted in black against the bright
sky beyond. I could fire upward and
with a heavily loaded choke bore usually
bring down the bird I desired. Or I
could put my Indians to chopping down
some of the great trees, and after hours
of labor, if no interfering trees or binding
lianas set our work at naught, I could
search among the mass of broken,
bruised foliage, an almost hopeless
task, for casual specimens. And what
I found might often have been brushed
down from the mid-jungle, or have
been disturbed among the very leaves
of the ground.

With my shot bird in my hand and
my black silhouettes and my scattering
of crushed specimens, I was very far
from real knowledge of tree-top life.
What of the tree-frogs, and butterflies
and birds and unknown hosts of crea-
tures which never voluntarily descend
to the ground. There awaits a rich
harvest for the naturalist who over-
comes the obstacles — gravitation, ants,
thorns, rotten trunks — and mounts to
the summits of the jungle trees.
Another year we hope to begin this
work, and to sit in hammocks or on
platforms swung aloft among the tou-
cans, macaws, parrots and caciques,
the umbrella, the calf and the bell-
birds whose strange distant notes or
whose dead bodies were merely tantaliz-
ing invitations to the manifold secrets
which intimate observation among the
tree-tops is certain to reveal.

To show the stratified activities of a
few typical groups of jungle birds and
mammals, I have prepared the fol-
lowing rough diagram :

TYPICAL GROUPS

Ground
Partridges Tinamou

Low forest {0-20 ft.)
Trumpeters Wrens

Antbirds
Manakins

Thrushes

Mid forest {20-70 ft.)

Curassows Barbets

Guans Jacamars

Pigeons Puffbirds

Hawks Goldbirds

Owls Mourners

Motmots Honey-creepers
Trogons

Tree-tops {70-200 ft.)

Cotingas Parrakeets

Toucans Giant Caciques,

Macaws etc.
Parrots

GROUPS FOUND TYPICALLY IN MORE THAN
ONE ZONE

Ground
Goatsuckers

Low forest {0-20 ft.)
Goatsuckers Hummingbirds

Mid-forest {20-70 ft.)

Hummingbirds Tanagers

Flycatchers

Tree-tops {70-200 ft.)

Flycatchers Tanagers

Hummingbirds

Mammals permit a similar mode of
representation of altitudinal distri-
bution:

Ground

Anteaters

Armadillos

Tapirs

Peccaries

Deer

Cats
Dogs
Galictis
Rodents

Low forest

Opossums

Mid-forest

Anteaters

Sloths

Bats

Coatis

Squirrels

Marmosets

Kinkajous

Tree-tops
Red Howlers Beesa Monkeys

The following mammals occur at
the Station: Opossums: Didelphis mar-
supialis, Marmosa chloe, Marmosa

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

659

cinerea demerarae, Meiachirus nndican-
dahis, Monodelphis brevicaudata; Three-
toed sloth: Bradypus cuculliger; Two-
toed sloth: Choloepus didachjlus; Great
Anteaters: Myrmecophaga tridactyla;
Silky Anteater: Cyclopes didactylus; Ar-
madillos: Dasypus novemcinctus , Tatti
kappleri; Peccaries: Tayassu pecari bee-
bei, Pecari iajacu macrocephalus ;
Brockets Deer: Mazama americana tu-
matumari, Mazama neviorivaga; Capy-
bara: Hydrochoerus hydrochoerus ;
Agouti : Dasyprocia aguti flavescens ;V&ca, :
Agouti paca. Spiny rats: Proechimys
cayennensis. Echimys longirostris ; Mice
and Rats: (Ecomys guianae, (Ecomys
nitedulus, (Ecomys rutilus, Neacomys
guianae, Nectomys squamipes melanius,
Oryzomys spp.; Squirrel: Guerlingvetus
aestuans aestuans; Crab-eating raccoon:
Procyon cancrivorus; Kinkajou; Potos
flavus; Otter: Ltitramitis ;T&yr&: Tayra
barbara; Coati: Nasua phceocephala; jag-
uar: Panthera onca; Tiger Cat: Margay
tigrina vigens; Yaguarondi: Herpailurus
yaguarondi unicolor; Bats: Saccopteryx
bilineata, Rhynchiscus naso, Glossophaga
soricina,H emiderma perspicillatum,, Mes-
ophylla macconnelli, Phyllostomus has-
tatus, Vampyrus spectrum, spectrum,
Furipterus horrens, Eumops milleri,
Mollossus obscurus, Molessus rufus;
Monkeys: Saimiri sciureus, Saimiri
cassaquiarensis, Alouatla seniculus
macconnelli, Pithecia pithecia, Cebus
apella apella.

b. Savanna'^

In the forests of the Savanna region
there are several large carnivorous
animals including the black jaguar,
puma and spotted jaguar. The spotted
jaguar would seem to prefer the open
country, where it can hunt deer, and,
in these daj^s, cattle. Both the spotted
and the black jaguar are known not to
despise fish : and it is said that they will
lie in wait for turtles coming on to sand-
banks, to lay eggs. The ocelot may
be found in these woods, also.

__ ' Extracted from the Rev. Walter G. \Miite's
"notes from the Hinterland in Tropical Wild Life"
by Beebe, Hartley and Howes.

A savanna fox or maikang occurs.
It is audacious, coming into the village
in the daytime for fowls or fruit. There
is, upon the savannas, a bush, which
bears a pretty, red berry, which is
called maikang-pimi-u, because the
maikang or savanna fox feeds upon it.
The maikang makes a hole in which it
has its young. A still smaller animal,
having a long tail and a pointed snout,
is the queer creature called, by the
Indians, kuachi. It is the coati, to be
found on the low ground about Kwatata
Creek.

Uruata Forest is the home of the
armadillo and the porcupine and the
sloth. In this big forest, droves of
peccary trample, making a varied diet
of yellow hog-plums, which may be
found scattered over the ground, in
places, during the season. The Indians
name five distinct kinds of peccary,
although only two appear to be known
to science.

Deer are reported to be diminishing
rapidly in the savannas, since the
Indians have taken to the buck-gun.
The deer are most plentiful about the
Napi and upon the Katoka Savanna.
Here, again, the Indians differentiate
four species of deer: Walking {Odocoil-
eus virginianus) , smaller savanna deer
{Mazama simplicicornis) and two bush-
deer. The bush-deer are to be found
in Uruate Forest.

Not much was seen of opossums, for
they keep to the trees, hiding amongst
the foliage and in their holes.

Monkeys are common in all the bush.
The kwata (Ateles paniscus) has given
its name to Kwata-ta, which means
Kwata-place (ta being an abbreviation
of pata, place), and to the knob of land,
Kwata-pubia, or Kwata-head. I have
seen a party of a dozen of these animals,
making their way from one big bush to
another, using, as their highway, the
low scrub, which, at that place, fringes
the savanna, at the river's edge. They
would not cross a long extent of country
upon the ground. The red howler
{Mycetes seniculus) affords the listener
daily and nightly entertainments, in

660

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

these forests. The Sakiwinkie, with
its olive and yellowish tints about the
head, makes a pretty pet. And the
black and fluffy marmoset is also in
demand. I have seen both of these
monkeys leaping and scrambling
amongst the trees, at Uruata, or swarm-
ing up the trunks.

Tapir is a splendid diver. It travels
long distance by water. I have seen
it swimming the Essequibo, where its
width is a full mile.

The Indians gave the names of five
distinct species of turtle, to be found in
the Rapo-nunni and five tortoises, or
land-turtles. The warara, which meas-
ures 5 ft. in length, requires that a man
shall be skilled and strong if he desires
to turn it. An Indian who brought in
one of this size suffered a severe scratch-
ing, from the sharp nails, and sustained
a rupture. Between January and April
turtles' eggs may be found, by the score,
in exposed sand-banks. A lay may be
discovered by following the turtle's
track, easily distinguishable from a boat,
and scooping the sand for a depth of 8
inches. Should rain have obliterated
the track, eggs may be found by probing
where a suspicious indentation of the
sand appears. The egg-shells, being of
parchment texture, are not easily
broken. A smaller turtle, tarekatha,
may sometimes be seen by the fifty,
or the hundred, together. I counted
over fifty emerging from Parishara
Pond. Their necks were craned, to
enable them to eye our boat, and their
whitish throats gave the appearance of a
strew of lily-buds, upon the placid
surface of the water. Moonlight nights
are suitable occasions for watching
turtles come forth, to lay. They always
return upon the same track, leaving
only one mark for the double journey
from and to the water. They are able
to manage this, because they rotate,
when digging the hole for the eggs. It
is observable that the bodies of the
tortoises are not so flattened as those
of the turtle. Tortoises may be found
in the Uruata Forest.

The Rapo-nunni teems with alli-

gators, and every stream and pond of
any size knows them. Their heads,
like the ends of gnared logs, may be
seen stationarj^ or almost imperceptibly
moving, in mid-stream, or near the bank.
Caiman niger mounts guard over every
landing, and looks out for unwary dogs,
thoughtless children, and careless adults.
A foe of the alligator, the iguana, may
often be seen upon the bank of the river,
sunning itself. Sometimes it lies along
the root, or trunk, of a tree, from which
its greenish skin is hardly distin-
guishable.

The pokaru is a good place for studying
snakes. In the bush we saw a green
labaria; and, crossing a side road, with
a frog in its mouth, a black snake, about
four feet in length, passed in front of
us. The green labaris is known as
Lachesis hilineatus. Another green
snake, the Cprallus caninus, or parrot-
snake, lurks in the branches of trees,
waiting for unwary birds. The grey-
green and chrome rattlesnake is com-
mon upon the savanna, although the
ordinary person may walk for miles
without seeing one. Between the Napi
and the Takutu, it is abundant. Upon
the Tuka Savanna, one of our Indians
was killed by the bite of a rattler. This
snake is known to be viviparous.

c. Present biota

The effect of human occupation has
had slight effect on the native fauna
except near the coast, and even here
only in the vicinity of the sugar
plantations.

The Game Laws of British Guiana,
both against shooting and trapping, are
well planned, exceedingly strict and
thoroughly enforced. Data concerning
them may be had from Mr, James
Rodway, Curator of the Georgetown
Museum.

III. Political Relations, Trans-
portation AND OpFORTUNITIES
FOR Research (W. B.)

The data which I give relating to the
conditions at Kartabo, near Georgetown,
apply to many localities in the other

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

661

Guianas, Venezuela and Colombia, ex-
cept for the great advantage of a stable
British Government at one's back.

Georgetown, a city of 60,000, is the
capital of British Guiana and is on the
coast. It is reached in two weeks from
New York by the excellent steamers
of the Furness, Withy Line. There
are comfortable hotels, rail and auto-
mobile roads along the coast, but inland,
almost the whole country is unexplored
scientifically, and it is possible to
penetrate into the interior only by the
rivers and waterways, and occasional
Indian trails. On the coast the majority
of the inhabitants are either negroes or
East Indian coolies. In the interior
are scattered Indian tribes, and equallj^
isolated hamlets of bovianders of mixed
blood — dutch, Indian and negro. The
Indians and negroes are the most reliable
workers and the former make excellent
hunters but poor collectors.

Under the auspices of the New York
Zoological Society I have maintained a
Tropical Research Station for seven
years at Kartabo at the point of juncture
of the Mazaruni and Cuyuni Rivers 45
mi. from Georgetown. Here 32 months
have been spent, and research carried
on by 28 workers from England, France
and the United States and 160 contri-
butions have been published, including
four bound volumes.

The Station is in the heart of the
tropical rain-forest, with large swamps
near by, and is at an elevation of only
50 ft., yet there has never been any case
of malaria or other fevers or illness, nor
serious bites from serpents or other
creatures. The staff sleep in tents with
flaps wide open and no mosquito nets,
as these insects are unknown. No
siestas are taken and the amount of
work and working hours show an in-
crease over those in the north. At the
end of a ten months' season, neither
men nor women show any ill effects
whatever of continuous hard work,
although in close proximity to the
equator.

Realizing the value of concentrated
effort in a limited field, an area of one

quarter of a square mile has been marked
out and studied, with results which
reveal the unbelievable richness of
tropical life. These results are now
being published in Zoologica, the scien-
tific publication of the New York Zo-
ological Society.

Life History notes have been made
on 75 species of mammals, including all
the important forms of northern South
America. Over 450 species of birds
inhabit the district, 108 species of
reptiles and amphibians, and over 130
forms of fish. This latter figure rep-
resents one-third of the whole fish
fauna of the Colony, and was obtained
along only a short 200 yards of river.

The coastal and river swamps may be
easily studied from Georgetown as- a
base. For inland work on the biota of
the coastal region, Kartabo, the site
of the Tropical Research Station, is
strongly recommended and may be
reached quickly and easily from George-
town. For study of the sand and clay
region, a base may be made at Rockstone
on the Essequibo river (one day from
Georgetown) or at Tumatumari on the
Potaro (two days from Georgetown),
at both of which excellent accommoda-
tions are available in rest-houses main-
tained by Sprostons, Ltd., of George-
town, who also provide regular trans-
portation and mail service. From all
other places, an expedition is practically
necessary, in the equipment of which
Sprostons, Ltd., will be found invalu-
able. The nearest savannas are on the
cattle-trail, 20 to 50 mi. southeast of
Wismar (one day from Georgetown by
steamer), but the typical savanna biota
is best seen on the upper Essequibo or
Rupununi rivers (about 15 days by
boat). The plateau and mountain vege-
tation are reached with comparative
ease, but at considerable expense, along
the Potaro river above Kaieteur Falls
(5 days from Georgetown), with the
assistance of Sprostons, but the Roraima
district with its rich endemism is to be
attained only by an expensive expedi-
tion requiring the packing overland of
all supplies.

662

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

References

Anthony, H. E. 1921. Mammals Col-
lected by Wm. Beebe at the British
Guiana Tropical Research Station.
Zoologica, 3: 265-285.

Beebe, C. William. 1916. Fauna of
four square feet of Jungle debris.
Zoologica, 2: 107-119.

Beebe, C. William. _ 1909. Ecology the
Hoatzin, Zoologica, 1: 46-66.

Beebe, Hartley and Howes, and White.
1917. Tropical Wild life in British
Guiana. New York.

Andre, E. In the Guiana Forest.

Rodway, Wm. A Naturalist in the
Guianas. London.

4. ECUADOR

Bt Wilson Popenoe and
H. E. Anthony

I. TOPOGRAPHY (w. P.)

Ecuador is popularly divided into
three regions, the Pacific coast, the
Sierra or inter-Andean region, and
the Oriente or trans-Andean portion.
The coastal region is in the main an
alluvial, low-lying plain formed of
detritus brought down from the Andes;
in the southernmost part of the republic,
near the frontier with Peru, it is practi-
cally desert in character; about Guaya-
quil it is swampy during a portion of the
year, and extremely dry during another
portion; north of this point, as far as
Bahia de Caraques, it is somewhat more
broken, with several ranges of hills,
and has practically the same rainfall as
the Guayaquil section; while to the
north of Bahia de Caraques it is ex-
tremely moist.

The inter- Andean region, though com-
monly termed a plateau, consists in
reality of a number of small basins,
lying between the eastern and western
ranges of the Andes, and separated by
extensions of the latter which are known
locally as "nudos" or knots. From
north to south the Sierra increases in
aridity.

The basins themselves, which usually
lie at elevations between 7000 and 9000
ft., possess delightful climates, with
abundant rains during a large part of

the year (except in the provinces of
Tungurahua and Leon, where rainfall is
scant), and a rich volcanic soil excellent
for agricultural purposes. In these
regions were found the principal centers
of population and agriculture in pre-
Columbian days.

Within sight of each other, twenty-
two snow clad peaks rise from the inter-
Andean plains, presenting one of the
most magnificent scenes in the world.
Many of these can be scaled without
difficulty; others, such as Cayambe
and especially Chimborazo, "King of
the Andes," are difficult of ascent.
Because of their isolation, and the
paucity of knowledge concerning them,
these peaks are extremely attractive to
those interested in geography, geology,
and natural history generally. Among
modern investigators, Reiss and Steubel
(1871-1873) and Edward Whymper (1880)
are perhaps the most important. They
have obtained the following measure-
ments of altitude:

feet

Eastern Cordillera:

Cayambe (W.) 19,186

Sara-Urea (W.) 15,502

Antisana (W.) 19,335

Sincholahua (R. & S.) 16,365

Ruminarui (R. & S.) 15,607

Cotopaxi (W.) 19,613

Tungurahua (R. & S.) 16,690

Altar (Capac-Urcu) (R.&S.). 17,730

Sangay (R.&S.) 17,464

Western Cordillera.

Cotocachi (W.) 16,301

Mojanda (R. & S.) 14,088

Pichincha (W.) 15,918

Atacatzo (R. & S.) 14,892

El Corazon (Chamalari) (W.) 15,871

Illiniza (R. & S.) 17,405

Carihuairazo (W.) 16,515

Chimborazo (W.) 20,498

The trans-Andine region of Ecuador
is similar in character to the neighboring
portions of the upper Amazon basin
occupied by Colombia, Brazil, and Peru.
It is a great forest-covered plain sloping
gradually toward the east, and broken
on its western margin by short spurs
from the Andes as well as by low, iso-
lated ranges which lie between the
courses of the larger rivers. It is
scarcely inhabited, explored only in

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

663

small part, and offers much of interest
to the naturalist.

II. BIOTA (h. e. a.)

1. Luxuriant tropical rain-forest
(humid tropical zone)

a. Esmeraldas district. This district
is typical of the coastal forest north of
Bahia de Caraques. It extends to
Panama. Plant life flourishes and luxu-
riant vegetation makes an impenetrable
canopy. The principal trees of the
forest are large and grow to great
heights, some of them branching out to
form vast canopies of leaves. The
names of these trees are legion, but
among the most conspicuous are the
varieties of wild fig and of the silk-
cotton or kapok. Others are the so-
called cedar, rubber trees, ivory-nut,
and many species of palms.

The lower forms of life; countless
multitudes of ants work night and day,
the long clean-swept paths of the leaf-
cutting ants being seen everywhere,
while dense waves of carnivorous ants
periodically sweep over large areas.
Termites, the so-called white ants,
build huge nests on the limbs of trees
and riddle dead timber. Brightly col-
ored butterflies, of great size float
lazily through the upper regions by day,
while more somber-hued, but even more
marvelously colored, moths make their
appearance at sundown. Frogs fre-
quent every little brook course and damp
spot where fallen leaves give them cover,
vociferous at night or on overcast days
and beautiful in their colors of clear
green with markings of yellow or red.

Lizards and snakes while not often,
nevertheless lurk in suitable localities
and the brilliant coral snake, with bands
as precise and conspicuous as if they
had been painted on with a brush dipped
successively in red, yellow, and black,
is a not uncommon sight. A rare snake
is the huge anaconda, which may reach
a length of as much as 15 to 20 ft. and a
girth of astonishing dimensions.

Birds are present in great variety,
the number of distinct forms being more

than 300. Many of them would occasion
little comment if seen in northern woods,
but there are hosts of others utterly
unlike anything in the north. Noisy
parrots, gaudy macaws, grotesque tou-
cans, showy hangnests or caciques, and
many others are found in the forests
of this zone, and are among the most
conspicuous denizens. Life and color
are added by the flashing plumage of
humming birds, trogons, tanagers, and
the cotingas.

"The mammals are more secretive
and difficult to observe; nevertheless,
in time a great many species may be
noted. The most prominent mammals
are the monkeys, among which first
place is given to the large howler (Alou-
atta aequatorialis) , whose reverberating
roar is a voice worthy of the jungle,
and as characteristic as is the voice of
the coyote on our western plains. The
sonorous voice of the howling monkey
seems fairly to shake the air when
heard at close range."

b. Trans Andine region. See Colom-
bia and the Amazon Valley.

c. Mammals of the Tropical Rain-
forest. (E = eastern; W = western.) Ecua-
dorian black howling monkey [Alouatta
aequatorialis W), red howling monkey
(Alouatta seniculus E), night monkey
{Aotus gularis E), {Aotus vociferans E),
spider monkey (Ateles variegatus E),
titi monkey {Callicebus cupreus E),
marmoset (Callithrix melanura E), {Ce-
buella pygmaea E), capuchin monkey
{Ceb^is aequatorialis W), {Cebus albi-
frons E), woolly monkey (Lagothrix
infumata E) Humboldt's woolly monkey
{Lagothrix lagotricha E), Tamarin mon-
key {Leontocebus graellsi E), Saki mon-
key {Pithecia monachus E), squirrel
monkey (Saimiri sciureus E), brocket
deer {Mazama fuscata), (Mazama za-
mora), (Mazama gualea), {Mazama tema),
{Mazama americana), {Mazama rufina)
EW, tapir {Tapirus americanus), white-
lipped peccary {Tayassu albirostris) ,
spectacled bear {Tremarctos ornatus
majori), black peccary {Pecari niger),
ocelot {Felis pardalis aequatorialis),
{Felis pardinoides andina), jaguar {Felis

664

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

onca), puma {Felis concolor soderstromi),
jaguarondi {Herpailurus yaguarondi),
bassaricyon (Bassaricijon alleni), {Bas-
saricyon gahhii medius), squirrels (sev-
eral distinct groups) (Sciurus hoffmani)
group 2 {Sciurus tricolor) group 1.
Microsciurus (pigmy squirrel), cane
rat (Dactylomys dactylinus), rabbits
{Sylvilagus surdaster, S. daulensis and S.
kelloggi), sloth (Bradypus spp.), sloth
{Choloepus hoffmanni), ant-eater {Ta-
mandua spp.), ant-eater (Cyclopes vari-
ous races), giant ant-eater {Myrme-
cophaga juhata), nine-banded armadillo
(Dasypus novemcinctus) , mouse opossum
(Marmosa spp.), large opossums {Di-
delphys marsupialis group, and D.
paraguayensis group), coati-mundi (Na-
sua quichua jivaro), grison {Grison
vittaia brasiliensis) , kinkaiou (Potos
flavus modestus), tayra {Tayra barbara
madeirensis and b. senilis).

2. Arid deciduous forest (arid lower
tropical zone)

a. Manta district. Here there is a
short rainy season and a long period
of extreme drought during which trees
lose their leaves. It is a region of
intense sunlight and open spaces, a
region of little rainfall and of hot,
parched plains and hillsides. River
valleys open up long vistas from the
coast eastward into the interior,
where the conditions of this zone prevail.

The mammals include the tapir,
white-lipped peccary, jaguar, puma,
ocelot, sloth, ant-eater, nine-banded
armadillo; coati-mundi, grison, and
tayra; capuchin monkey, black howling
monkey, opossums, weasels, hares, squir-
rels, kinkajou, aguit, paca.

3. Savanna (arid lower
tropical zone)

Below Guayaquil, in the region of
Santa Rosa, the broken plains are
covered with low scrub interspersed with
bits of grassland, dry during part of the
year; in the region of Guayaquil, and
extending up the valleys of the Guayas
and Daule, the land is very low and is
covered in places by scrubby forest;

elsewhere it is open, with grass in wet
season, and arborescent shrubs scat-
tered here and there.

The mammals include the Ecuadorian
Fox {Cerdocyon sechurae), nine-banded
armadillo, jaguar, ocelot, opossums,
squirrels (Sciurus straminens group),
ant-eater, rabbit, deer (Odocoileus).

4-. Semi-desert (arid lower
tropical zone)

Vegetation in the extreme southern
portion is very scant, essentially desert.

The mammals include the Ecuadorian
fox, squirrel (Sciurus stramineus) , nine-
banded armadillo, bats of many species.

5. Montane forest (humid
subtropical zone)

It lies between 3000 and 9000 ft. in
humid regions. "The animal life is
quite similar to that of the tropical.
For a great many species this is the
zone of greatest abundance."

See list tropical rain forest animals.
Practically all of the species listed for
tropical forest would range, at times
at least, up to 9000 ft.

6. Inter andine grassland and savanna
(arid subtropical zone)

7000 to 9000 ft. The principal hoyos,
or inter-Andean basins, of Ecuador,
beginning at the Colombian frontier
and going southward, are as follows:
That of Ibarra, drained by the Rio
Mira which flows into the Pacific near
Tumaco in Colombia; Quito, drained
by the Guaillabamba which is an affluent
of the Esmeraldas and also flows into the
Pacific; the plains of Latacunga and
Riobamba, drained by the River Pas-
taza, an affluent of the Amazon; the
relatively small plains of Chimbo,
Alausi, and Canar, all drained by small
streams flowing into the Pacific; Cuenca.
These plains are separated by pdramo
regions and in general lie between the
eastern and western ranges of the Andes.
Formerly (and still in many places),
jaguar, puma, hares, and many small
rodents probably occurred.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

665

7. Semi-desert

2000 to 8000 or 9000 ft. Low annual
rainfall but marked erosion of topog-
raphy, vegetation very scant and xero-
phytic in type, made up of cacti, agave,
mesquite, etc. These areas are often
connected by river valleys with the
arid lowland areas. The largest hoyo
and one of the most important agricul-
turally is drained by the River Paute,
an afHuent of the Maranon, tributary
of the Amazon; the relatively unimpor-
tant plains of Jubones and Zaruma, are
drained by streams flowing into the
Pacific; and finally the small but fertile
plain of Loja is drained by the Rio
Zamora which flows into the Marailou.
A large part of southern Ecuador (Loja
Province) is extremely arid.

Where aridity is pronounced, mammal
life almost nil, bird life very restricted,
lizards about the only reptiles seen.
Where not so arid, puma, hare, many
small rodents occur.

3. Subalpine evergreen forest {humid
temperate zone)

9000 to 12,000 ft. Characterized at
upper limits by stunted, gnarled trees.
Many mammals of tropical and sub-
tropical forest range up throughout the
temperate forest. However the lower
temperatures generally are a barrier
to the monkeys, and individuals of the
other species are not as numerous as
lower down. Many small rodents are
peculiar to this zone.

9. Paramillos

Paramillos at 10,000 to 12fi00 ft.,
are often large areas of low scrub and
fields of Vaccinium and allied plants.

Andean White-tailed Deer: Odocoileus

peruvianus consul, Odocoileus peru-

vianus
Ecuadorian Guemal : THppocamelus

antisiensis
Pudu: Pudus mephistopheles
Andean Wild Cat: Felis pajeros thomasi
Andean Wolf: Pseudalopex reissH
Spectacled Bear: Trcmarctos ornatus

majori
Ecuadorian Shrew: Cryptotis aequatons
Shrew: Cryptotis monlivaga

Andean Hare: Sylvilagus bandinus and

subspecies
American Tapir : Tapirus americanus

10. Andine meadow

Above the bushland, from 12,000
to 15,000 ft., lie the Andine Meadows
or pdramos. In places these are covered
with dense growth of low shrubs, belong-
ing largely to the family Ericaceae,
and elsewhere support nothing but
bunch grass {Stipa ichu) and frailejon
{Espeletia spp.).

The mammals include the Andean
white tailed deer, Ecuadorian pudo,
Andean wild cat, Andean wolf, hares
and small rodents of several genera.

11. Perpetual snoiu

Snow descends to 15,000 ft. on the
higher slopes of the volcanoes and lies
permanently from 16,000 ft. upwards.

Flowering plants and low shrubs
grow right up to the limits of snow
line: the Compositae are well repre-
sented. Humming birds follow the
flowers.

12. Local areas

Water course, etc. Various genera
of mice, nameless to the laymen because
they have never been given common
names, such as various species of Ako~
don, running from the lowlands, both
arid and humid, up to pdramo zone.

Fish-eating Rats: Ichthyomys soder-
stromi, Anotomys leander, Neusticomys
monticolus. Found along the streams
from low -lands to High Andes

Water Opossum: Chironectes minimus.
Along water courses in lower zones

III. ROUTES OF TRAVEL (W. P.)

Guayaquil

Guayaquil does not have a severe
climate, although nearly on the equator,
and in recent years yellow fever has
been wiped out. The port is at present
a pleasant place in which to stop, and
may serve as a base for work on the
Ecuadorian littoral as well as in the
southern provinces. The hotels are
several. The TivoU is recommended,

666

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

though an even better arrangement is
to take a room at the Posada Lacas-
sagne. Living is more expensive than
in Quito, though low when compared
with the United States or with Colom-
bia and Peru.

Excursions can be made up the river
to interesting lowland regions and by
land to Milagro and other points on
the Quito line. Autos can be hired to
take one across the dry plain lying east
of town and as far as Santa Elena (see
below). Small steamers and launches
make trips to points on the coast below
Guayaquil, and there is communica-
tion every two weeks with Manta,
Bahia, and Esmeraldas.

Guayaquil should be avoided, if pos-
sible, from January to April, during
which period the rains are heavy and
constant. The coolest months are June
to November, inclusive.

The Ecuadorian Littoral

Esmeraldas, the northernmost port
of the republic, lies at the mouth of
the Esmeraldas River, in a region of
humid climate and rain forest. Accom-
modations are fair, and from this point
it is possible to penetrate into a little-
known part of Ecuador, using canoes or
other shallow draft boats.

Bahia de Caraques, commonly referred
to as Bahia, is clean and attrac-
tive, offering good supplies of food-
stuffs. A railroad extends from this
point about 25 km. inland to the settle-
ment of Tosagua. There is an overland
route from here to Quito, little used,
which passes through Chone and Santo
Domingo de los Colorados. The region
is less humid than Esmeraldas, rains
occurring from January to April, as at
Guayaquil. The dry season is long and
severe.

Manta, an unattractive settlement
perched upon a sand heap, is the port
for the town of Monte Cristi. There is a
railway from the port to Monte Cristi
(13 km.), Portoviejo (40 km.), and Santa
Ana (60 km.). All this section of the
country, back to the Andean foothills.

is dry and brown during a large portion
of the year, being subject to the influ-
ence of the Humboldt current.

Guayaquil to Santa Elena Bay

An excellent opportunity to study
life, both animal and plant, in the arid
coastal region is offered by the route
Guayaquil to Santa Elena Bay, which
has as its objective the watering-place
known as Salinas. Plans were put on
foot to build a railroad connecting the
two points, and a route was surveyed
and a roadbed graded. Tracks have not
been laid up to the present (1925), and
the roadbed is used for automobile
travel. The 150 km. between Guayaquil
and Salinas is usually covered in about
five hours. There is no good drinking
water available along the road, nor
supplies of any sort, excepting a small
stock of canned goods at the settle-
ment known as Zapotal.

The first 50 km. are over level country
covered with low, scrubby growth,
parched and brown during the long dry
season, but luxuriant during the rains;
the remainder of the journey is mainly
over a flat plain covered with a very
scanty growth of shrubby vegetation,
and in places grass during the wet
season.

Southern Ecuador

A journey through the southern
portion of the republic involves a deal
of hard travel, but presents opportuni-
ties for studying several highly in-
teresting regions. It may be made on
horse or mule back, starting either from
Huigra, on the Guayaquil to Quito
railroad, and proceeding thence through
Caiiar and Cuenca to Loja, or one may
leave Guayaquil by steamer and proceed
to Santa Rosa, whence the journey is
made on horse or mule through Portovelo
(Zaruma) to Loja. It may be found
advantageous to enter by one route
and leave by the other, and in the fol-
lowing brief notes such a course will
be assumed:

A small steamer leaves Guayaquil
once a week for the port of Santa Rosa,

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

667

a voyage of about twenty-four hours.
Food and a cot or hammock for sleeping
can be obtained on board, but no bed-
ding. A light blanket should be taken.
It is necessary to arrange in advance
for securing riding and pack animals
at Santa Rosa, in order that they may
be sent from Portovelo or some other
point in the interior to meet the steamer.

The journey from Santa Rosa to
Portovelo (Zaruma) requires two days,
unless the road is in bad condition,
when three may be necessary. This
trail was at one time notorious as the
worst in Ecuador; in recent years it has
been improved and it is now passable
even in bad weather. The country
between Santa Rosa and Portovelo is
for the most part thinly populated, and
practically no food can be obtained
between the two points. Leaving Santa
Rosa, the trail crosses a level plain for
some distance, and then enters the
canyon of the Rio Santa Rosa. Past
Limon Playa the canyon becomes
narrow, and the trail crosses the shallow
stream sixteen times. After a short
day's ride, the spot known as La Chonta
is reached. Here there are accom-
modations for several travelers, main-
tained by the company which operates
the mine at Portovelo.

Immediately past La Chonta is a
steep ascent known as La Escalera (the
staircase) ; this continues to the crest
of the range (6300 ft.), through luxuriant
vegetation and typical rain-forest con-
ditions. After following along the side
of the mountain for some distance, the
range is crossed, and a descent made
through the small settlement of Aya-
pamba (4640 ft.) to the valley of the
Rio Calera, which is followed to within
an hour's travel of Portovelo (elevation
2100 ft.).

The settlement at Portovelo (about
two mi. from Zaruma) is American
throughout, with modern buildings and
equipment. By making arrangements
with the company's agent in Guayaquil,
properly accredited naturalists can
probably secure accommodations from
the manager. The country round about

is not interesting, but within a few
hours' travel excellent collecting ground,
of various sorts, can be reached.

From Portovelo, the town of Loja can
be reached in two days. The main
route is as follows: From Portovelo
across the Rio Pindo (bridge), thence a
long ascent over the mountain known as
El Tablon, thence a long and gradual
descent to the village of San Pedro,
(one day's ride). From here there is
a slight descent into the valley of the
Rio Catamayo, and an hour is spent in
crossing the dry floor of this valley.
The region is arid and very hot, and
presents a number of interesting fea-
tures. Past the settlement of La Toma
there is a long ascent over the shoulder
of Villonaco Mountain; an elevation of
10,300 ft. is reached, and the trail then
follows along the side of the mountain
at about the same level for some dis-
tance, finally descending into the hoyo
(basin) of Loja, which it crosses from
west to east before the town of Loja
(7250 ft.) is reached.

Accommodations are poor in Loja,
as in southern Ecuador generally, this
section of the country being poverty
stricken and not much cultivated.
Foodstuffs are difficult to obtain, and the
wise traveler will go well-stocked with
provisions.

From Loja it is easy to cross the Cor-
dillera de Zamora, an extremely moist
region with a highly interesting flora,
and descend the valley of the Rio Zamora
to the village of the same name. This
brings one into the country of the
Jibaro Indians, and onto the Amazonian
watershed.

It is easy, also, to make excursions
from Loja southward as far as the
Peruvian frontier, near which is the
huge and arid valley of the Rio Mala-
catos. There is considerable overland
travel between Ecuador and Peru, via
the route Loja to Piura. This trail is
said to be better than that from Loja
to Santa Rosa, and at certain seasons
of the year residents of Loja who desire
to visit Guayaquil sometimes go south-
ward to Piura, thence by train to the

668

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Peruvian port of Paita, whence they
travel by steamer to their destination.
Leaving Loja, one has his choice of two
routes for the first portion of the jour-
ney; he may proceed either through
Gonsanamd. and Cariamanga to Macard
(on the frontier), or he may go via
Catacocha and Celica. From Macard,
to Piura there is only one road, and
that a fairly good one. By either route,
the journey from Loja to Piura is made
in five or six days.

The trail northward from Loja to
Cuenca, and thence to Huigra on the
Guayaquil-Ouito railroad, is passable
throughout the year, though with
difficulty during the wet season (Janu-
ary to May), when deep mud will be
encountered. The section from Loja
to Cuenca is usually made in five or six
days. The villages along the road,
where one may pass the night, are so
situated that it is difficult to make the
journey unless in three very long and
hard jornadas (days' journeys) or in six
short ones. In any event, poor accom-
modations will be found, and little food,
and the traveler who is not forced to
depend upon the country for his sup-
lies is indeed fortunate.

Leaving Loja, the trail crosses the
plain or basin of the same name and
enters the canyon of the Rio Zamora.
Las Juntas, a collection of four or five
huts, is reached after half a day's riding,
and in another five or six hours the
village of San Lucas (8200 ft.). Here
there is a tambo (inn) where travelers
can pass the night. Past this village,
the trail leads up around the shoulder
of Acacana Mountain, through interest-
ing and attractive country. After
reaching 10,200 ft., a descent is com-
menced and continued to the town of
Zaraguro (8400 ft.), inhabited by about
2000 Indians. There is a tambo here
and limited supplies are available.
There is here a change in the character
of the country. From Loja thus far
there has been abundant rain-forest,
with grass in occasional open places;
from here northward the mountainsides
are dry and barren, with only occasional
bits of scrubby forest.

Two hours' riding from Zaraguro is
Paquishapa (8300 ft.), and a long ascent
to the grass-covered pdramo. Here
there are two tambos, and the region
round about is highly cultivated.
Another five hours brings one to Cocha-
pata (9000 ft.), a village of perhaps 500
people, in a good agricultural region.
About three hours farther on is Nab6n
(9100 ft.) where there is a tambo, and
limited supplies of food, as well as
fodder for the animals.

After leaving Nab6n, a long ascent is
made to the grass-covered pdramo,
much of which lies at an elevation of
about 11,500 ft. Ten hours' riding
brings one to the settlement of Tarqui
(8750 ft.), in a pretty agricultural
region, whence the road follows at the
same level onto the floor of the hoyo or
basin of Cuenca, and in another four
hours the town of Cuenca (8500 ft.) is
reached. Here will be found good ac-
commodations, in one of the most
attractive and prosperous towns of
Ecuador.

From Cuenca northward to the town
of Azogues, the road is sufficiently broad
and level to serve for wheeled traffic;
from Azogues to Huigra it is suitable
only for pack and riding animals. The
time from Cuenca to Huigra is two daj'S.
The country traversed is more dens.ely
populated than that between Cuenca
and Loja, and there are better accom-
modations for travelers. At Azogues
there is a small hotel, and another in
Canar; in the village of Tambo de Caiiar
accommodations can also be obtained,
but from this point to Huigra there is
practically nothing. In the dry season
the trip is usually divided as follows:
one day from Cuenca to Canar, and one
from Cafiar to Huigra, or vice versa;
in the wet season the section between
Cafiar and Huigra becomes almost
impassable, and can not be done in one
day.

Leaving Cuenca after a brief ascent
into rough country one descends to
Azogues (8300 ft.). From this point the
road follows the river to Biblidn (8900 f t. ),
and ascends to the pdramo, which it
crosses at an elevation of 11,000 to

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

669

12,000 ft. After a short, rocky descent,
the town of Cafiar (10,500 ft.) is reached;
the descent continues, and a stream is
crossed. Close by is Tambo de Canar
(10,000 ft.), a small village with fields
of wheat and corn all about. Another
ascent to the pdramo begins, and several
hours are spent crossing the latter, at
elevations between 12,000 and 12,500
ft. There is then a long and gradual
descent, in part through rain-forest, to
the settlement of Huigra.

Guayaquil to Quito

The only important railroad in Ecua-
dor is that which connects Quito, the
capital, with Guayaquil, the chief
seaport. This line, 46-3 km. in length,
is owned and operated by an American
company. Two daj-s are consumed by
the journej^ from Guayaquil to Quito,
or vice versa, all trains stopping at
Riobamba for the night. The route is
as follows :

Leaving the dock at Guayaquil, pas-
sengers proceed by steamer to Eloy
Alfaro (Duran on old maps), which
lies upon the opposite bank of the River
Guayas. Here the railroad starts, trains
leaving for Quito daily at 7 a.m. The
train proceeds across a level, uncul-
tivated plain to Yaguachi (22 km.),
the first station of importance. From
this point to Barraganetal (69 km.),
the plain, which remains level and of
low elevation, is cultivated. Beyond
Barraganetal a gradual ascent is main-
tained to Bucay (87 km., elevation 975
ft.), through country in small part
cultivated, covered elsewhere by brush
and scrub forest.

Bucay lies at the lower edge of the
rain-forest region, and vegetation along
the slopes above this point is highly
interesting. Here the railway enters
the canyon of the Rio Chan Chan, which
it ascends toward Huigra (117 km.,
4000 ft.). This station, headquarters
of the railroad company, is the starting
point for Cuenca, Loja, and other
points in southern Ecuador which are
reached by trail only. There is a small
but very fair hotel here. Above Huigra

the slopes become dry and covered with
a scanty growth of leguminous shrubs
and other vegetation typical of an arid
region. The ascent is rapid through
Alausi (143 km., 8553 ft.), a town of
some importance. The grade is 5.5%
in one place and a switchback is used.
At Palmira (166 km., 10,626 ft.), which
lies upon a broad rolling plain, a slight
descent commences and continues
through the small town of Guamote
(181 km., 10,000 ft.), whence the line
continues at about the same level
through Cajabamba (212 km.), a fairly
large and important place, to the station
of Luisa (228 km., 10,379 ft.), whence a
branch line runs to Riobamba, 15 km.
distant. This town, wdiich lies at an
elevation of 9020 ft., is one of the im-
portant centers of agriculture and com-
merce, and supports a good hotel, at
which travelers stop over night before
resuming the journey to or from Quito.
From Riobamba the return is made to
Luisa, whence the railroad resumes the
journey toward Quito. The station of
Urbina (275 km., 11,841 ft.) is the highest
point on the line. From here the line
descends to the fertile, cultivated
country about Mocha and Cevallos,
two Indian towns of minor importance.
Ambato (317 km., 8435 ft.), the most
important agricultural center of Ecua-
dor, supports two or three mediocre
hotels, and serves as a starting point
for the Oriente (eastern Ecuador) via
Bafios. The country round about is
nearlj' devoid of vegetation, except
cultures.

From Ambato the railway proceeds
across rolling or broken country, much
of it cultivated, past the town of Salcedo
to Latacunga (365 km., 9055 ft.), a
somewhat smaller place than Ambato
and Riobamba, and later ascends to the
paramo at the base of the volcano
Cotopaxi. When the weather is fine,
excellent views of the volcano are had.
The station of Cotopaxi (405 km.,
11,653 ft.) is the highest point reached
in this section of the line, and from here
there is a descent into cultivated country
once more. There is now a short ascent

670

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

through the hills, and the road comes
out into a narrow valley whose edge
it follows to Quito.

Quito

The capital of Ecuador is a picturesque
and interesting city, lying upon a small
plain at the foot of the volcano Pichin-
cha. Due to an elevation of 9450 ft.,
its climate is cool throughout the year.
The Hotel Metropolitano is recom-
mended. Naturalists, especially those
coming with credentials from the United
States Government, should by all means
call upon the American Minister before
undertaking work in the republic.
Through him the cooperation of the
Ecuadorian government, which has
taken an exceedingly generous attitude
toward scientific work of all sorts, can
easily be obtained.

As a base for work in the highlands of
central and northern Ecuador, Quito
is the best spot. Interesting collecting
grounds may be found in the immediate
vicinity of the city. The slopes of
Pichincha have furnished material to
naturalists. A few miles distant lies
the remarkable Guaillabamba canyon,
4000 ft. deep, whose slopes lie within
the arid subtropical zone. Several
snow-capped volcanos lie within striking
distance of Quito and offer excellent
opportunities for work at high ele-
vations.

Eastern Ecuador

From the Ecuadorian highlands the
principal routes to the Oriente (as the
Amazonian side of Ecuador is popularly
called) are four in number. Beginning
at the north these are: the Papallacta
trail which leads from Quito through
the village of Papallacta to Archidona,
Tena, and Napo; the Banos route which,
starting at Ambato, descends the Rio
Pastaza and reaches the ancient settle-
ment of Canelos; the trail from Rio-
bamba to Macas, the largest town in
eastern Ecuador; and lastly the trail
from Loja across the Cordillera de
Zamora to the town of Zamora in the
Jibaro country.

The Papallacta trail was one of the
first routes from the Ecuadorian high-
lands to the Amazonian plain. After
passing Papallacta it first reaches
Baeza, then Archidona (2000 ft.). Sin-
clair and Wasson report this settlement
to consist of four or five white families
in as many houses arranged about a
public square. Six and one-half mi.
from this point is Tena (1700 ft.), the
present capital of the Province of
Oriente and residence of the Governor.
Five or six families comprise the village
and there are numerous Indians in the
neighboring jungle. A few miles farther
is the town of Napo, which lies on the
flat north bank of the river of the same
name at an elevation of 1850 ft. This
is a place of about the same size as Tena
and lies at the head of canoe navigation.

The most convenient route into the
Oriente is that which, leaving Ambato,
crosses the plain to Pelileo and descends
the river Pastaza. The picturesque
and interesting town of Banos (6014 ft.),
30 mi. from Ambato, lies immediately at
the foot of the volcano Tungurahua
and is locally famed for its hot springs.
The village offers poor accommodations,
but excellent collecting upon the neigh-
boring slopes of Tungurahua and in
the valley of the Pastaza. Richard
Spruce spent some months here. The
ascent of Tungurahua is not difficult
and can be accomplished easily in a day
and a half. Leaving Banos, where
Indian guides can be obtained, one
travels on foot or horseback through
the settlement of Pondoa and upward
to the spot known as El Campamento.
The elevation here is about 13,500 ft.
and a small quantity of water is avail-
able. The night can well be passed
at this point and the following morning
the ascent of the cone begun on foot.
Since the last eruption the region above
El Campamento has been covered with
volcanic scoriae which makes progress
slow and laborious. Higher up are
vast snow fields which extend almost to
the crater. The last few hundred yards
are free of snow due to the presence of
numerous fumaroles which give off hot

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

671

gases. The crater was inactive for
many years but in violent eruption
during 1916. In 1925 it still exliibited
considerable activity.

About 5 mi. below Banos, the Pastaza
passes over the falls of Agoyan, 198 ft.
high. Sinclair and Wasson, who ex-
plored this portion of Ecuador in 1921,
state, "Several mi. below Baiios we
entered the Amazon jungle. We crossed
the Rio Verde by bridge, the Machay
by a dangerous ford. At Quebrada San
Francisco, 42 mi. east of Ambato, we
noticed sedimentary rocks for the first
time. Similar rocks were seen at the
Rio Topo, 50 mi. east of Ambato, where
a bridge has been built. Shortly beyond
the Topo we had to leave our horses,
and our journey from there on was on
foot. At Mera, 55 mi. east of Ambato,
at an elevation of 3800 ft., the Pastaza
emerges from its great canyon. We
found the village to consist of a string
of about ten houses. It is in the belt of
maximum rainfall."

From Mera the trail, which can be
negotiated only on foot, passes through
Puyo and Indelyama to the village of
Canelos (1690 ft.) situated on a beautiful
plain overlooking the Rio Bobonaza.
Dominican priests are almost the only
white residents. It is surrounded by
pastures and farms and is said to have
few mosquitoes and no malaria. It is
the terminus of the trail from Ambato,
for here the Bobonaza is navigable
by canoe and ten days by water brings
one to the Pastaza at Andoas, head of
navigation on that stream.

The trail from Riobamba to Macas is
of the same character as the two routes
above described. Macas, a town of
about 500 white people, is the largest in
eastern Ecuador. It lies on the south
bank of the Upano River at an elevation
of 3580 ft., according to Sinclair and
Wasson.

The trail from Loja to Zamora, far
to the south of the others just described,
is relatively short and, unlike the others,
can be traversed by animals, though
during periods of bad weather certain
portions must be done on foot. The

Zamora region is mentioned in con-
nection with the discussion of Loja
and surrounding country.

Northern Ecuador

The overland route from Quito north-
ward is much traveled as far as Ibarra,
capital of the rich agricultural Province
of Imbabura, and to a less extent as far
as Pasto in the neighboring republic
of Colombia. While not suitable for
wheeled vehicles except between Otavalo
and Ibarra, the trail is in general of
good character and passable for horse-
men at nearly all times of the year.
Occasionally the section between Ibarra
and Tulcan becomes deep in mud and is
traversed with difficulty. The region
between Quito and the Colombian
frontier holds much of interest to the
naturalist. The remarkable Guailla-
bamba Canyon, which lies almost
exactly upon the equator 10 mi. north
of Quito, presents an admirable op-
portunity to study conditions in the
arid subtropical zone. North of this
lies the Paramo de Mojanda, where are
to be found bits of low forest and the
typical shrubby vegetation of the
paramo region. Near Otavalo is the
Lake of San Pablo, one of the largest
bodies of water in the Ecuadorian high-
lands. Beyond Ibarra is the extrem.ely
hot and dry Chota Valley and between
this and Tulcdn is another interesting
paramo region. Off to the east lies the
Cordillera de Pimampiro, an extremely
moist region in which little collecting
has been done.

From Quito to Ibarra there are two
principal routes, one going through the
town of Pomasqui, thence across the
Guaillabamba Canyon up through the
village of Malchingui, across the paramo
of Mojanda, and through the prosperous
town of Otavalo; the other passes
through Carapungo, descends to the
Guaillabamba River and passes through
the village of the same name, ascends
thence to the town of Cayambe, whence
it passes to Ibarra. Of the two routes,
that through Pomasqui and Otavalo is
the shorter and is generally preferred

672

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

by travelers. It is not so good a road
in seasons of heavy rainfall; hence the
Guaillabamba-Cayambe route, which
stays at lower elevations and on sandier
soil, is preferred during such periods.
By either route it is a two-day ride from
Quito to Ibarra. If the Pomasqui-
Malchingui route is chosen, travelers
leave Quito early in the morning, reach
Pomasqui, which overlooks the Guail-
labamba Canyon, in two and a half
hours, descend to the Guaillabamba
River which is crossed at an elevation of
6000 ft., and then climb by a tortuous,
rocky trail to Malchingui (9600 ft.)
which is reached by dark. Here the
night may be passed, though the accom-
modations are poor. Leaving early
the following morning, the Pdramo de
Mojanda is crossed in the forenoon and
Otavalo is reached in time for lunch.
Three hours more over good road past
the foot of the Volcano Imbabura,
brings one to Ibarra.

If the Cayambe route is chosen,
travelers leave Quito early in the morn-
ing, pass Carapungo, a small town over-
looking the Guaillabamba Canyon, and
descend to the river which is crossed
before noon. After a gradual ascent
the village of Guaillabamba (7200 ft.)
is reached. This lies on a mesa 1000 ft.
above the river and is notorious for
malarial fevers. Ecuadorians usually
shrink from the idea of spending the
night there, due to the danger of con-
tracting malaria. Continuing by a
good trail, Cayambe (9450 ft.) is reached
by nightfall. There is an inn, though
accommodations are not good. Leaving
early the next m.orning, Ibarra (7500 ft.)
is reached by two or three in the after-
noon. Here there are two or three small
hotels.

Leaving Ibarra for the north, the trail
passes over the shoulder of Yura-cruz
Mountain and descends into the arid
valley of the Rio Chota, which stream
it crosses at a village of the same name
(5000 ft.). There is then a long ascent
past the village of Mira through a
region of barley and wheat cultivation
to the town of El Angel (10,000 ft.)

where a stop is usually made for the
night. The second day takes one over
an interesting pdramo region to the town
of Tulcdn on the Colombian frontier.

The journey from Tulcdn to Pasto
requires another two days. The time
consumed in actual travel from Quito
to Pasto is therefore six days. Ecua-
dorians with good riding animals some-
times do it in five, but the traveler
dependent on hired animals can expect
to make little speed.

From Pasto it is feasible to continue
northward through Popaydn to Cali,
chief city of the magnificent Cauca Val-
ley in western Colombia. It is six or
seven dajs' travel from Pasto to Po-
paydn and two more from Popayan to
Cali. From the latter town there is a
good railway to the port of Buenaven-
tura, whence steamers sail fortnightly
for Panama and Guayaquil, and there
is an overland route to Bogotd, by the
Quindio Pass.

EQUIPMENT

The naturalist contemplating work in
Ecuador will require besides his col-
lecting apparatus the following articles:

Saddle, bridle, and saddle blanket.
While the question of a saddle is largely
a matter of individual preference, the
eleven-inch McClellan will be found one
of the most satisfactory obtainable, if
not the best of all, for work of the type
to be done in Ecuador. A small size is
necessarj', since the animals obtained in
tropical America are rarely as large as
North American horses. The bridle
should be of small size and provided with
a curb bit. For use under the saddle,
the best possible thing is a full size
O. D. army blanket, which can be folded
twice, giving four thicknesses of
material.

For the lowlands, khaki clothes are
suitable. Heavy shoes and leather
puttees are desirable for the highlands
as well. In the latter region a warm
riding suit of wool should be provided.
Commodious saddlebags are essential,
as also an aneroid barometer with scale
reading to 16,000 ft. or better still 20,000

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

673

ft. The watch size barometers are less
accurate than those about three inches
in diameter. For tropical rains, the
rubber poncho made in Latin America
is the best possible thing. For the
cold drizzles of the highlands, the native
woolen poncho is preferable. This can
be obtained in any of the highland towns
and is a comfortable and altogether
e.Kcellent thing. For use in the low-
lands, a mosquito bar of fine bobbinet
should be provided. For sleeping, a
light cotton hammock is the best thing
if one is accustomed to it. The folding
canvas cot is good, but much heavier
and more costly to transport. Three
or four heavy blankets are required
for the highlands.

The best means of carrying funds is
in the form of New York drafts, which
should be payable to one's self and in
denominations of fifty or a hundred
dollars. These can be sold in Quito or
in Guayaquil and a better rate obtained
than for letters of credit and travelers'
checks, though the latter are fairly
satisfactory.

All equipment should be packed in
'small trunks (the army locker is best)
and canvas sacks so as to be carried on
mule back when necessary. Pack sad-
dles are not required, as they are fur-
nished with the pack mules hired in
the country.

REFERENCES

The classic work on Ecuador is Teo-
doro Wolf's "Geografia y Geologia del
Ecuador," published at Leipzig in 1892.
Though now out of print, occasional
second-hand copies may be secured in
Guayaquil and Quito. Wolf spent many
years in accumulating the data con-
tained in this book, which is probably
the most exhaustive study published.
Considering the wide range of subjects
he attempted to cover, it is no wonder
that occasional inaccuracies are in-
cluded. The English naturalist, Rich-
ard Spruce, traveled in Ecuador
during the years 1857 to 18G0, after
having come up from the Amazonian
plain. He had been commissioned by

the British government to secure seeds
and plants of the various quinine-
yielding trees — species of Cinchona —
which, due to his efforts, were success-
fully established in the Asiatic tropics.
His "Notes of a Botanist in the Amazon
and Andes" (London, 1908) contain
much information on Ecuadorian natural
history, and make excellent reading.
More recently (1909) the Italian natu-
ralist, Enrico Festa, has written a
book entitled "Nel Darien e nel Ecua-
dor," which will be found useful, as
also Hans Me3^er's "In den Hoch-Anden
von Ecuador" (Berlin, 1907) and Wil-
helm Siever's "Reise in Peru und Ecua-
dor" (Leipzig, 1914). H. E. Anthony,
who collected mammals in Ecuador for
the American Museum of Natural
History in 1921, has published interest-
ing articles in the National Geographic
Magazine, October, 1921, and Natural
History {Journal of the American Mu-
seum of Natural History) for September-
October, 1921. An excellent account
of a journey through the little-known
region at the eastern base of the Andes
is given by Sinclair and Wasson, under
the title "Explorations in Eastern
Ecuador," in the Geographical Review
for April, 1923. Other data on this
region will be found in James Orton's
"The Andes and the Amazon" (New
York, 1870) and Dr. Hamilton Rice's
article, "From Quito to the Amazon
via the River Napo," which appeared
in the Geographic Journal for 1903.
Manual Villavicencio's "Geografia de
la Republica del Ecuador" (New York,
1858) is also of interest. "The Com-
mercial Travelers' Guide to Latin
America," published by the U. S. De-
partment of Commerce (obtainable from
the Superintendent of Documents,
Government Printing Office, Washing-
ton, D. C, price $1.25), will be
found useful.

As to maps, the one published by
Wolf in connection with his book is
probably the best, but it is scarce and
expensive at the present day. Felici-
simo Lopez, using the Wolf map, has
prepared an excellent and portable

674

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

"Atlas Geografico del Ecuador" (1907)
which will be found extremely useful
by all who plan to travel in the republic.
It can be obtained in second-hand book
stores of Guayaquil and Quito. The
Flemming map, based upon Villavi-
cencio, Wolf and other sources, is also
useful. Large areas of the republic
have never been surveyed, hence an
altogether satisfactory map is not yet
obtainable.

Students interested in the Quichua
language, which is spoken by the Indians
of the Ecuadorian highlands, will find
the subject well set forth in Juan M.
Grimm's "La Lengua Quichua," pub-
lished at Freiburg in 1896. This con-
tains the essentials of Quichua grammar
and a vocabulary of words used in
Ecuador. It can be obtained in Quito
and Guayaquil.

5. THE AMAZON VALLEY

By Orland E. White

i. general conditions

1. Topography

The Amazon valley includes north-
eastern Bolivia, eastern Peru, eastern
Ecuador, southeastern Colombia, por-
tions of southern Venezuela and most of
northern Brazil. This huge area, over
2,000,000 sq. mi. in extent, lies wholly
within the tropical zone and consists
for the most part of an alluvial gently
sloping dished plain, broken in the
east by a series of hills and ridges less
than a thousand feet in height, which
are extensions of the Guiana moun-
tains. This plain with its mountainous
borders on the north, south, and west,
may be likened in form roughly to a
grocer's sugar scoop, lying in an east
and west direction parallel to the equa-
tor, with its back on the flanks of the
Eastern Cordillera and its mouth on
the shores of the Atlantic Ocean. The
mountainous borders of this basin in
the west consist of the wall-like range of
the Eastern Cordillera of the Andes,
with numerous snow-capped peaks rising

to over 20,000 ft. and with breaks in
the wall through passes often over
15,000 ft. high. On the north are the
broken ranges of the Orinoco water-
shed, not so high as the Andes, but in
some respects even more difficult of
access. Here the greatest break is that
through which the Casiquiare river
unites the Orinoco and Aniazonian
waterways. The southern side of the
Amazonian "scoop" is largely the high
table land of central Brazil with low
ranges of mountains, the western ex-
tension of which causes the series of
rapids known as the Falls of the Madeira.
Outlying spurs indicate the proximity
of the main ranges, which in the west
come very abruptly, for practically
the whole area lying in Brazilian ter-
ritory and comprising the major part
of the basin is much less than 1000 ft.
in altitude. The head of the Madeira
river is less than 500 ft. and the Amazon
river on entering Brazil is about 266
ft. altitude.

The central axis of this area is the
Amazon river originating in the small
streamlet Lauricocha in the Peruvian
Andes, about 100 mi. northeast of Lima
and at an altitude of about 17,875 ft.
For a few hundred mi., under various
nam.es, its course is north alm.ost to the
northern boundary of Peru, where it
changes to east, entering and continu-
ing through Brazilian territory as the
Solimoens until it unites near Manaos
with the Rio Negro, its principal north-
ern affluent, where its course becon:es
northeast and under its general nan.e of
"Amazon," it reaches the Atlantic
Ocean, near Para (Belem), after a
journey of between 3000 and 4000 mi.
Its principal southern tributaries are
the Madeira, Tapajos, Xingu and To-
cantins. High lands, sometimes rol-
ling, som.etimes flat lie betw^een the
principal tributaries on both sides of
the main river and these are referred to
as "canpos." The principal northern
one lies north of Obydos — the Campos
Geraes. At the head waters of the Rio
Branco is another such area, while
the southern side is plentifully supplied

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

675

with such regions. Between the annual
high and low water limits, lie immense
flood plain areas of perennially enriched
land locally known as "varzias." Nu-
merous lakes, natural canals both tem-
porary and permanent dot and intersect
this region. The whole basin has been
graphically likened to that of a region
recently the bottom of a great sea,
which, gradually subsiding, leaves ridges
of alluvium, cut off lakes, networks of
intersecting waterways and small and
large areas that have been covered with
water only shallowly. The coastal
plain of this basin is low, swampy and
mangrove embowered.

2. Climate

From the standpoint of climate, the
area can be divided into at least four
regions: the region of perpetual snow,
the temperate, the subtropical and the
tropical: and two seasons, wet (winter)
and dry (summer). The region of
perpetual snow (above 17,000 ft., aver-
age temperature about 1°C.) occurs only
in connection with the eastern flanks
of the high Andes. The temperate
lands lie in this same region roughly
above 9000 ft. with an average annual
temperature of about 12°C. The sub-
tropical comprises such regions as the
Yungas valleys of Bolivia, lying at an
elevation of between 3000 and 9000 ft.
(average annual temperature 21 °C.),
while the remainder of the area, making
up most of the basin, is tropical (average
annual temperature about 25°C.) . Each
of these regions is characterized by its
own faunal and floral types. The
seasonal rhythm differs over this area.
North of the Amazon the seasons are
retarded, while south of it they are
advanced. On the north, on the Rio
Negro, the rainy season begins in Feb-
ruary, reaches its maximum in April,
May and June. On the Rio Branco, a
tributary of the Rio Negro, the rains
begin in April and reach their maximum
in June and July and end in August.
In the Acre district on the south side,
the wet season, or tiempo de agua lasts
from September to April, the driest

months being June and July. On the
Beni and Mamore rivers, the rains are
expected toward the end of November,
February and March being the wettest
months, with June marking the begin-
ning of the dry season {tiempo de secho).
Portions of the main river never have
very marked seasonal distinctions. At
Pebas, below Iquitos, Peru, the driest
month is August, while at Para (Belem)
the rains continue throughout the year,
September to November being the
months of least precipitation. The
average annual rainfall at Para is 248.6
cm.; the total average number of rainy
days based on 18 years of records, 252,
the months of January to June ranging
from 22 to 28 days per month. At
Manaos (based on 5 years of records)
the average annual rainfall was 165.7
cm., rainy days per year, 154.3, the
rainiest months by days being December
to May ranging from 19.3 to 22.7 days
per month. At Porto Velho on the Rio
Madeira the average annual precipita-
tion (years 1907 to 1912) was 264.0 cm.,
ranging from 14.22 cm. in September
to 38.68 cm. in December with 1.78 cm.
in July, the driest month. At Para,
most of the rain falls in the afternoon,
evening or during the night. In the
Beni river country, in Bolivia, this also
seemed to be the case. The relative
annual humidity at Para is 88.3, maxi-
mum 89, minimum 43, the highest month
being February (93.8), the lowest Oc-
tober with 84.2 At Manaos, the figures
are: average 77.6, maximum 99, mini-
mum 54. The highest humidity at this
station occured at 7 a.m., the lowest at
4 p.m. The average annual temperature
at Para (Belem), based on 9 years records,
was 25.8°C., with but slightly over a
degree difference between the monthly
averages. Another set of observations
indicates only 3° or 4° difference between
the maximum and minimum over a 24
hour day, the highest temperature being
recorded about 1 p.m. At Obydos sev-
eral hundred mi. from Para, essentially
the same temperatures are recorded.
At Porto Velho, the average recorded
temperature was 27.78°C., maximum

676

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

36.63°C., minimum 14.43°C. (4 years of
records) with a difference of only 2.25°C.
between the coldest (June) and the
hottest month (September). At Rur-
renabaque, Bolivia, on the Beni river
and at the base of the last Andean spur,
at an altitude of about 1000 ft., the
average temperature is said to be around
25°C. Higher up at Huanaco, Peru,
altitude 6270 ft., the average annual
temperature is about 24°C., while at
Iquitos, Peru, lower down, the tem-
perature is higher. The campos regions
north of the Amazon are said to be more
temperate than the main river valley.
The records and opinions of many travel-
lers (among them A. R. Wallace) show
the climate of the Amazon valley, for
the most part, to be a relatively pleasant
one, as far as the temperature is con-
cerned, its chief disagreeable quality
being its everlasting, enervating same-
ness.

In many parts of this region, winds of
various kinds modify the temperature
markedly. During the dry season, the
prevailing winds on the lower Amazon
(below Manaos) are from the north and
east ("vente geral"), while the "vente
de cima" from the west and southwest
prevails during the rainy season. At
times, particularly in the dry months,
a night breeze the "terral" hovers over
the river. In the upper river region
embracing the country between the
Beni and Mamore on the south and the
upper Rio Negro on the north as far
east as Manaos, very sudden changes in
temperature are caused by the "sur"
(Beni) or "friagem" (Purus river re-
gion), a strong cold wind that blows
spasmodically between March and June
from the southwest. A drop of tem-
perature from 33° to 11°C. in a few hours
at about 520 ft. altitude has been re-
corded from northeastern Bolivia. Ac-
curate detailed climatic data are lacking
for many of the areas immediately
adjacent to the east Andean ranges.
Even during the dry season, there are
regions here that are saturated with
moisture, such as the Yungas in Bolivia
and the tops of many mountain ridges.

In July and September, in such regions,
almost everything is moisture-laden
and embowered in damp moss and
lichens.

II. ORIGINAL BIOTA

1. Vegetation and large animals

Heavy forests that for unbroken ex-
tent and diversity of vegetation types
are nowhere equalled in the world,
border the main river and its principal
tributaries, extending far up the eastern
flanks of the Andes, where they are
gradually replaced by the shrub or
chaparral (ceja) formations which con-
tinue the zone of woody plants to about
10,000 to 12,000 ft. altitude, the last
remnants confining themselves closely
to the stream beds, deep down in the
canon-like valleys. For 2000 to 4000
ft. above this woody plant limit, the
slopes are occupied by herbaceous tem-
perate types. Higher still is a scanty
vegetation, largely grasses and alpines,
the latter closely appressed to the
ground and only occurring in favorable
situations, such as sheltered springs.
The "campos" regions (pampas, pajo-
nales, savannas) between the main
tributaries and in the vicinity of the
headwaters of many of the affluents are
rather high prairies, often monotonously
flat with marshy depressions (enriches)
through which very sluggish streams
act as drainage canals. Some of the
"campos" regions are hilly, rolling and
comparatively dry, such as the Campos
Geraes (Brazilian Guiana), while others
such as the Campos Mojos, in north-
eastern Bolivia, are rather wet even
before the rainy season begins. Be-
tween the pure prairies and the forests
(monte, montana) is a park-like country
of prairies sprinkled singly with trees,
and with islands of woody vegetation
(ihlas de mato) varying in size from a
square rod or so up to 5 to 10 acres.
Between the forests and the low water
line, particularly on the upper Amazon
and on most of the southern tributaries,
but not on the Rio Negro and other
"black water" rivers, there are often
areas dominated largely by the huge

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

677

cane grass, cana brava, Gynerium (Rio
Beni, Bolivia). These areas sometimes
extend back a mile before they meet
the forest. On the Rio Negro, the
water and the forest meet, as they do
on many smaller streams here and there
through the basin. Another type of
differentiation in the vegetative areas
depends on the flood plain — the ter-
ritory between low and maximum high
water recorded over many years (var-
zias) and the ten-a firma, land not
subject to the annual inundations,
except under exceptional circumstances.
Wooded portions of the varzias are
"ygapos" or "igapos," while those
dominated by the great herbaceous
stems of the giant arum (Montrichardia
arhorcscens) are "aningas." The great-
est differentiation between the different
areas is found, generally speaking, on
the outer edge of the basin, where the
streams begin and the mountains act as
barriers and species preservers. In
fact these peripheral regions, especially
in the west are veritable nurseries for
new species, each mountain valley
often acting as a specialist for distinct
types. As the streams unite and form
larger streams and these unite to form
still greater arteries, the differentiation
between regions becomes less and less
until the lower Amazon is in some re-
spects a huge jumble of the animal and
vegetable life from all its tril)utaries,
unless special factors of some kind have
interfered to prevent a contribution.
So the farther away from the delta, in
general, the more varied the natural
life.

The high altitudes are the home of
the semi-domestic llama and alpaca
and their wild relatives the vicuna and
guanaco. Chinchillas, viscachas and
the cavia (guinea pigs) abound in some
parts, while in the highest regions the
condor makes its home. Plant life in
the Andes reaches a height of over 15,000
ft. (4600 m.). Wiry "ichu" grass (Stipa),
Festuca and Calamagroslis, rushes, a
few hardy and peculiar bromeliads,
such as Pourretia, 10 to 12 ft. tall with a
sentinal-like habit, and mounds of moss-

like "yareta," largely Azorellas and
Aretiastrums, are characterisic forms.
This whole upper region is extremely
bleak, barren, stony and full of moors.
There are no woody plants, except here
and there patches of tola (mostly a
composite, Lepidophyllimi) which some-
what recall the sagebrush of western
North America. Little carpets of star-
flowered alpines (Gentians, Cerastiums,
Perezias) and the dandelion-like WcTne-
rias hug the sheltered slopes, especially
near water. Clumps of Opuntia dot the
desolation with little thorny domes.
Between 11,000 and 12,000 ft., the van-
guard of the forest begins to appear as
occasional bushes and small trees
{Polylepis, Buddlcia) and these often
abound with parasitic Loranthaceae.
Lupines, bushy yellow-flowered Calce-
olarias, Senecios, Polypodium ferns,
lycopodiums (L. robustum), Baccharis,
border the high water boundaries of the
small streams. Wernerias become plen-
tiful. Between 9000 and 10,000 ft.,
chaparral (ceja) shubbery is present,
in quantity and large variety, Rubus,
Berheris, Ribes, Calceolaria, Barnadesia,
Viburnum, Tibouchina, Fuchsia, and
Clematis are common representatives
of the woody types, while herbaceous
plants are found in such typical form.s as
Anemone, Tropaeolum, Crotalaria, Bys-
tropogon, Solanum, Gerardia, Liabum, Bo-
marea, Commelina, Gunnera, Nicotiana,
and Tagetes. Among the perchers, or epi-
phytes, small Tillandsias, climbing Pol-
ypodium ferns, various peppers (Pepero-
mias) and orchids (Odontoglossum) are
common as forerunners of the great
epiphytic plant world, miles away and
thousands of feet nearer the sea level.
Both purple and yellow dodders {Cus-
cuta) furnish evidence of the aggres-
siveness of the parasitic plants, as they
enmesh and wind about their hosts.
Climbing composites {Mutisia) and
Clematis ramble over the bushes, while
above the chaparral area, the grassy
slopes are colonized with Bromeliads
{Pitcairnia, Puya), red-flowered ground
orchids (Epidendrmn) and Salvias.
Lichens {Usnea, etc.) are prominent on

678

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

shrub and stone. At Pongo de Quime,
Bolivia, such a region is in full flower in
July, hummingbirds darting from bush
to bush and the air is full of springtime
scents. Possibly such a district, barring
the campos, is the most strikingly flori-
ferous part of the great valley.

From 9000 to 5000 ft. (Bolivian Yun-
gas) the country becomes rapidly and
progressively more tropical, though
both tropical and temperate types are
present in strange mixtures, such as
Alder (Alnus) trees loaded with epi-
phytic bromeliads. Palms are still
practically unrepresented, except by
small thorny undergrowth types. The
stumpy-thumb-twigged Cecropias are
only occasionally in evidence, while
begonias, both giant and dwarf are very
conspicuous. This is the elevation
where that best of all possible fruits,
the Annonaceous cherimoya {Cheri-
molia), is found wild and matures in
perfection under cultivation. Here also
all manner of relatives of the potato and
tomato swarm, one of the most delicious
of which is the "tomati de lima," {Cy-
phomandra beiacea) which in some
regions (near Suri, Bolivian Yungas)
is grown about the native villages in
groves. The mountain tops at this
level (in the Andes) are often clothed in
Tibouchinas, bushy 6-foot fuchsias
loaded with scarlet flowers and shrubby
growths plentifully supplied with yel-
low-spotted perching orchids. The
steep mountain slopes (e.g., between
Suri and Canamina, Bolivia) grow coca
{ErythroxyLon) both cultivated and
wild, while the bottoms of the narrow
valleys furnishproper climatic conditions
for oranges, bananas and coffee. Ama-
ryllids of the large-flowered sort often
color the pathway. In certain regions
(particularly fine on mountain ridges
near Canamina, and near Covendo,
Bolivia) typical rain forest conditions
prevail, with dark gloomy forest growth
(laurels and slender palms), dripping
tree ferns (Cyathea, Alsophila) with
mosses and lichens in profusion on stems,
leaves, trunks and as ground covering.
Small prairies and moors abound with

ground orchids, grasses, composites,
ferns, thorny Rubus sp., while small
streams furnish favorable conditions
for Vernonias and other stream-side
plants. Wild bean (Phaseolus) vines
together with other leguminous types
types make tangled masses of vegetation
along the trails. Rocky cliffs, several
hundred feet high, often furnish mar-
velous illustrations of the beauty of
the bromeliads, while forests of small
trees, all but leafless at times during
the dry season, present the spectacle of
thousands of perching gray-leaved rel-
atives of the pineapple in bloom — a
wonderfully effective study in cerise
and Corot gray (Espia, near Canamina,
Bolivia). The puma {Felis concolor)
and the Andean bear occur in this
general region, but monkeys are rare.
The llama as a pack animal disappears
below this elevation. Cinchona, Chus-
quea, Calceolaria, Podocarpus, Vibur-
num, Ceroxylon, Bocconia, Monnina
are characteristic genera, while the
M elastomaceae and Solanaceae are very
profusely represented. The Bolivian
Yungas is a characteristic illustration
of this level. Travel by train to Euca-
lyptus, thence by auto to Pongo de
Quime, thence by mule to Canamina.
Below 5000 ft. though still moun-
tainous, generally speaking the real
tropics begin, where sugar cane, ba-
nanas and monkeys flourish. Dry
mountain slopes between the river
bottoms and the small prairie plateaus
support a luxuriant xerophytic covering
among which agaves and huge tree cacti
{Cereus, Opuntia), are prominent. The
tropical plants so commonly associated
with the Amazon basin, however, do
not appear until an elevation of less
than 1000 ft. has been reached. Below
this level, Para rubber {Hevea sp.),
Brazil nuts (Bertholettia), Lecythis sp.,
wild pineapples {Brovielia), Papaya
sp., palms of many kinds {Attalea,
Guilielma, Mauritia, Iriartea, Astro-
caryum), the cow tree (Mimusops),
Vanilla, Cedrela (cigar-box cedar), rose-
wood, tulip wood, purple-heart (Pelto-
gyne), cassavas {Manihot sp.), cacao

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

679

(Theobroma), balsa (Ochroma), silk cot-
ton (Eriodendroii) , Bixa, Anacardium,
Spondias, Genipa, Tecoma, Panama
hat plant (Carludovica), guavas (Psi-
dium) and Victoria regia are widely
distributed and common. Families par-
ticularly conspicuously represented in
tree form other than the palms are the
laurels, myrtles, Bignoniaceae, Sola-
naceae, Sapotaceae, Bombacaceae, Me-
liaceae and Papilionaceae. The Big-
noniaceae are markedly the glory of the
American tropics, representatives of
them either as vines or trees furnishing
the most striking and varied color
effects. Other trees or vines producing
effective color spots in the monotonous
green wall when in bloom are Petrea,
Bougainvillea, Erythrina, Triplaris,
"aceituna" {Vitex), Callinndra, and
numerous Malpighiaceous vines. Typi-
cal varzea trees are the cannon-ball
tree (Couroupita), Ceiba, Guarea tri-
chilioides, Hura crepitans, Andripetalum,
Ficus, Ochroma, Tessaria and Hevea.
Cacao, Brazil nut, and various Rubiads
are typical of the higher ground. Palms
are not a striking element of the river
scenery in any portion of the upper
basin, i.e., above the entrance of the
Madeira, but on the lower river they
are very conspicuous, forming great
thickets.

The Acanthaceae and Selaginellas
often carpet the forest floor for miles,
while various species of Heliconia,
especially in low, swampy areas, produce
vivid tropical effects with their enor-
mous banana-like leaves and bright red
and yellow inflorescences. INIeibomias
also form extensive carpets on the
sandy river flats beneath the willow-
like Tessaria thickets.

Most of the animal life of the forested
region is found close to the streams,
much of it living in the huge canebrakes
(Gynerium) or just back of them.
Various species of monkeys {Mycetes,
Ateles, Hopale, Midas, Lagothrix, Nycti-
pithecus) are common below 3000 ft.
Other generally distributed Amazonian
animals of this level are the tapir (Tapi-
rus), jaguar, ocelot (Felis pardalis),

peccary (Dicotyles), Irara or mielero
(Galiclus), puma (Felis concolor), capy-
bara [Hydrochoerus), coati-mondi
(Nasua), opossum, sloth {Brady pus,
Cycloturus), paca (Coelogenys paca),
agouti {Vasiprocta), deer {Cervus, Coas-
stis), manatee (Manatus), and the
vampire bats {Andira and Phyllostoma) .
Typically widely distributed birds are
represented by the "perdis" {Tinamus),
parrots, toucans, macaws {Ara), orioles
(Icterus, Cassicus), eagles, vultures,
hoatzins (Opisthocomus) , mutum iCrax),
jacanas (Penelope), egrets (Ardea),
scarlet ibis (Ibis), anhingas (Plotus),
ducks (Cairina and Sterna). The com-
mon turtle is Pof/ocnewts. The swamps,
sluggish streams and lakes usually
contain one or more species of cayman
(Caiman). The rivers and lakes present
a marvellously diversified fish fauna,
among them giant catfish, the pirarucu
(Sudis) and species of the blood-thirsty
piranha (Serrasalmo) in white, black
and red colors. Electric eels (Gymnotus)
are not uncommon in certain regions in
half covered forest pools. The snakes,
relatively speaking, are not numerous,,
but representatives of both the poison
groups occur (Lachesis, Crotalus, Co-
phias, Elaps). The constrictors (Eunec-
tes, Epicrates) reach huge proportions,
anacondas of over 20 ft. length not being
uncommon. Fresh water dolphins
(Steno, Inia) disport themselves in
small schools throughout the Brazilian
Amazon basin.

The "campos" regions are typically
represented bj^ such plant genera as
Curatella, Hymenaea, Genipa, Copaifera,
Piptadenia, Bauhinia, Zamia, Smilax,
Sporobolus and Andropogon. Ground
orchids are common (Sobralia, Cyrto-
podium). The slow moving stream.s
are covered with floating vegetation
(Azolla, Salvinia, Pistia (water lettuce),
water lilies and enormous stretches of
water hyacinth (Eichornia)) . Acres of
3'ellow cannas abound in the marshes
between the Rio Beni and the Mamore
rivers. Malvaceae and Gesneraceae are
well represented. Palms, cacti, portu-
laca, bromeliads, e]nphytic orchids are

680

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

common as elements of the "ihlas."
Typical of the animal life of these prai-
ries are the armadillos (Prionodontes,
Tatusia, Lysurus), the banded great
ant-eater (Myrmecophaga jubata), the
prairie turtle {Cmosternum), deer, the
South American stork (Myderia), the
wild dog (Canis) and the rhea (in certain
regions south of the Amazon — Bolivia,
east of the Beni from Reyes).

III. PRESENT BIOTA

Civilization has only modified the
biota slightly through the rubber and
brazil nut industries. Agricultural de-
velopment is insignificant. Game is
not plentiful, but for the most part,
the country above Manaos — the whole
upper basin forming a triangle between
the Madeira, the Andes and the Rio
Negro — practically remains unchanged.

IV. GUIDE AREAS AVAILABLE FOR STUDY

1. Rio Uaup4s and the Upper Rio Negro.
Reached by both regular and trading
company steamers from Manaos. Regu-
lar monthly steamer to S. Isabel on the
Rio Negro and from there to Rio Uaupes
by canoe and launch.

2. The Javary river district. Reached
by regular monthly Amazon S. N. Cy.
Co. steamer to Remate de Males, 40
mi. up from its mouth.

3. Northeastern Bolivia (El Beni).
Reached by several routes. From the
east by Booth Line steamer to Manaos,
Brazil, regular semi-monthly Amazon
River S. N. Cy. steamers to Porto
Velho, thence by weekly Madeira-
Mamore R. R. train to Bolivian frontier,
thence by Bolivian government or
trading company steamer to Riberalta.
From there passage can be secured on
the monthly government launch to
within a short distance of Rurrenabaque.
From west, see directions for No. 4.

4. Cochabamba River district. Mules
and guides from La Paz, Bolivia to
Espia, head of navigation on the Bopi
river, thence by balsa raft to Covendo
Mission. Arrangements should be made
several months in advance with the

Franciscans in La Paz for balsas and
Indian balseros. December to April
or May, transportation is not prac-
ticable.

5. Bolivian Yungas, easily accessible
from La Paz.

6. Territory tributary to Iquitos, Peru.
Regular steamers reach here from
Manaos.

For all these regions, camping equip-
ment, special outfits, and certain kinds
of canned goods, if desired, should be
brought from the United States. Small
metal change in quantity, trading
articles (knives, salt, large fish hooks)
are very desirable in some parts of the
Bolivian territory.

V. BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Le Cointe, Paul (Commercial Mu-

seum of Para). L'Amazonie br^-
silienne: Le pays-ses habitants,
ses ressources, notes et statistiques
jusqu'en 1920. 2 vols., 528 + 495 p.
Augustin Challamel: Paris, 1922
probably most useful work cited,
deals with climate, physical
geography, navigation, (particu-
larly as to river steamship lines,
number of sailings per month, dis-
tances, etc.), fauna (130 p.) and
flora (giving the native as well as
the scientific names of many of the
species of mammals, birds, fishes,
etc., trees, economic plants of
local use, etc. with information
concerning habits, abundance,
habitat, etc. of the animals, the
uses and localities of economic
plants, etc. A section is devoted
to advice to travelers upon hy-
giene : bibliography of 200 titles.

2. Bates, H. W. Naturalist on the river

Amazons. 1st. ed. 1863. To be
had in many editions, including
one in the Everyman Library
Series. This work together with
No. 3 are the most useful and
authoritative works in English on
the natural history of the Amazon
valley, although written primarily
from the viewpoint of zoology and
No. 2 particularly from that of
entomology: regions described
are: Para and vicinity; the Rio
Tocantins; the lower Amazon from
the Bay of Maraio to Obydos and
from Obj^dos to Manaos ; Santarem
and vicinity; Rio Tapajos; the
upper Amazons from Manaos to
Ega, and Fonte Boa and St, Pftulq,

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

681

3. Wallace, A. R. A narrative of

travels on the Amazon and Rio
Negro, with an account of the
native tribes, and observations on
the climate, geology and natural
history of the Amazon valley.
Reeve & Co. : London, 1853.
Natural history of the Rio Negro,
Rio Uaupes, etc. The description
begins at Para, takes in the Tocan-
tins, and then describes the lower
Amazon, the Rio Negro and the
Rio Uaupes.

4. Spruce, Richard. Notes of a bot-

anist on the Amazon and Andes.
Being records of travel on the
Amazon and its tributaries, the
Trombetas, Rio Negro, Uaupds,
Casiquiari, Pacimoni, Iluallaga,
and Pastasa: as also to the
cataracts of the Orinoco, along
the eastern side of the Andes of
Peru and Ecuador and the shores of
the Pacific during the years 1849-
1864. Ed. by A. R. Wallace. 2
vols. MacMillan & Co. : London,
1908. Written as a natural history
account intelligible and inter-
esting to the layman as well as to
the trained scientist, with the
primary emphasis on the vegeta-
tion aspect (best in English).

5. Whitney, Caspar. The flowing road.

Adventuring on the great rivers of
South America. Wm. Heinemann :
London, 1912. This volume gives
a very true picture of the difficul-
ties of South American jungle
travel. There are several chap-
ters on the Rio Negro, together
with an excellent chapter on "Out-
fitting for jungle travel."

6. Miller, Leo E. In the wilds of South

America. Six years of exploration
in Columbia, Venezuela, British
Guiana, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina,
Paraguay and Brazil. (Under the
auspices of the American Museum
of Natural History.) Chas. Scrib-
ner's Sons: New York, 1918. The
author's interests were primarily
birds.

7. Orton, James. The Andes and Ama-

zon. 3rd. ed. revised and en-
larged. Harper & Bros.: New
York, 1876. A much neglected
work containing a wealth of infor-
mation on the whole Amazon val-
ley, written in the language intel-
ligible and interesting to both
scientist and layman.

8. Herndon, W. L. and L. Gibbon. E.x-

ploration of the valley of the Ama-
zon, made under the direction of
Navy Department. 2 vols. 2
vols, of maps. U. S. Govt. Publ.:
Washington, 1854. Much meteor-
ological data are given. Pt. II by
the junior author is devoted to
explorations on the bolivian tribu-
taries of the Madeira. Most of
the report is presented in diary
form.

9. Goncalves, Lopes. O Amazonas.

Esboco historico, chorographico
e estatistico ate o anno de 1903.
The Amazon. Historical, choro-
graphical and statistical outline up
to the year 1903. In 2 parts, part
II being an English translation by
Richard Mardock of the Portu-
guese (part I). Hugo J. Hanf:
New York. 1904. This work has
chapters devoted to the fauna and
flora.

10. Martins, K. F. P. von and A. W.

Eichler, I. Urban, Editors. Flora
Brasiliensis. 15 vols. 40 pts. with
3811 pi. Munich and Leipzig.
1840-1906.

11. Weberbauer, A. Die Pflanzenwelt

der peruanischen Anden. Die
Vegetation der Erde. XII. W.
Englemann: Leipzig, 1911. Val-
uable for its geographical and
ecological treatment of the plants
of the eastern Andean slope.

12. Herzog, Th. Die Pflanzenwelt der

bolivischen Anden und ihres ost-
lichen Vorlandes. Die Vegeta-
tion der Erde. XV. W. Engle-
mann: Leipzig, 1923. Desirable
reference work for its geographical
and ecological treatment of the
vegetation of the eastern Andean
slope and adjacent territory.

C. Islands in the Atlantic and Adjacent Waters

1. BERMUDA

The islands are located at approxi-
mately 32 N. latitude and about 900
mi. east of Charleston, S. C. The area
is approximately 50 sq. mi. The shores

are fringed with mangrove and the
greater part of the island was probably
covered with species of juniper tree,
called Bermuda cedar. Cacti occur
in arid spots and sage brush springs on
denuded earth.

682

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

For a list of land animals without
ecological comments, see Wallace's
Island Life.

The island has been the seat of a
marine biological station associated
with Harvard University. At the pres-
ent time the station is not open.

EEFERENCES

Phila-

Heilprin, A. Bermuda Islands.

delphia, 1889.
Wallace, A. R. Island Life. London,

1902.
Verrill, A. E., and others. Natural

History of the Bermudas, including

marine and land forms. Geography

and geology. Trans. Conn. Acad.

Sci. Arts., Vols. X, XI, XII. 1899-

1907.

2. BAHAMAS

The group consists of 29 islands and
many rocks southeast of Florida. They
were apparently originally covered with
scrub and low forest.

EEFERENCE

G. B. Shattuck. Bahama Islands, Geo-
graphic Society of Baltimore, New
York, 1905.

3. CUBA
By Brother Leon

Colegio de La Salle. Vedado. Habana

Cuba has an area of 44,164 sq. mi.,
and lies within the geographical range of
74° 7' to 84° 57' of longitude, 19° 48'
and 23° 17' of latitude. Its capital,
Havana, is reached in four days from
New York, in two days from New Or-
leans, and from Key West in some hours.
The system of railroads extends from
one end of the Island to the other, with
many branches and roads with motor
car service north and south ; thus natural
areas can be reached easily.

Cuba is rather a subtropical than a
hot country. The average tempera-
ture in Havana is 26°C. (27° in San-
tiago de Cuba), 28° in August, 22°
in January. It is rarely over 32°,
rarely below 10°. There is a dry season
from November to April; the rainy sea-

son takes place mainly in May-June and
September-October; often July and a
part of August are less rainy, or nearly
dry.

Climatic data for Havana, Cuba, 1922

January. . .
February. .
March. .". . .

April

May

June

July

August

September.

October

November.
December.

Year.

H
K

%

o

«
P

<

a

%

^

°c.

°c.

71.7

28.6

22.5

69.7

29.8

22.8

67.4

30.9

24.6

67.1

31.2

25.5

73.9

31.9

25.8

73.4

31.1

27.0

70.7

32.5

27.8

72.6

32.6

27.6

77.3

32.0

26.8

78.4

31.8

26.3

71.0

29.9

24.8

71.8
72.1

29.5
32.6

23.7
25.4

>4
<
g

inches

1.35
1.00
3.70
0.00
9.45
3.84
1.68
4.91
11.58
9.56
1.12
1.31

Average 4. 125

Total 49.50

The Flora of the Island, subtropical
in general character, is fairly well known,
thanks to the many explorations made
under the direction of Dr. N. L. Britton,
Director of the New York Botanical
Garden and to the intense collecting
work made during the last decade by the
eminent Swedish botanist Dr. E. L.
Ekman, to whom we are obliged for much
useful information. But considerable
field work is still needed to obtain a
satisfactory knowledge of the present
and extinct fauna of the Island. This
has been proved recently by the fact
that many new species of insects have
been discovered, in only a few families,
by Stephen Bruner and Charles Ballou
during the recent exploration of Pico
Turquino region.

GEOLOGIC FORMATION

The condition of Cuba during the
different geologic ages is a very com-
plicated matter; besides, the literature
published on the subject is very scanty;

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

683

nevertheless, following the report pub-
lished in 1901 by Hayes, Vaughan and
Spencer, and modifying it after the
recent discoveries, we may say that
the paleozoic formation is said to exist
in jNIantua, at the western end of Pinar
del Rio province, where quartzite and
nearly black clay-slate are found. The
same formation is seen in Southern
Santa Clara province, in Sierra de
Cumanayagua and also in Northern
Oriente. During the Paleozoic ages,
intrusions of igneous rocks (serpentine,
granite, etc.) are supposed to have
occurred in sediments now disappeared
by erosion.

Of triassic age seems to be the forma-
tion of two parallel series of sandstone
"Lomas" or rounded hills, north and
south of the Jurassic chain, between
Guane and San Diego de los Banos.

The Jurassic was given as "absent?"
in the report referred to above, but its
presence has been proved by the dis-
covery of many Ammonites by Vesa,
C. de la Torre and later by M. Sanchez
Roig, near Vinales, in the chain of dark
blue hard limestone which forms the
axis of the Organos Range, in Pinar del
Rio. A great uplift and erosion must
have occurred during that period.

Grey hard limestone of the Cretaceous
has been found in all the provinces,
with fossils of Radiolites, Barrettia,
Requienia, etc. Then occurred a sink-
ing of a large part of the Island.

Sandstone probably of the eocene has
been observed south of San Diego de los
Banos, in Pinar del Rio. Then, ap-
parently, a large part of the Island was
submersed, or at least in Oriente, where
fossils of the Eocene have been col-
lected. Volcanic activities of that time
caused the formation of alternate
beds of volcanic rocks and Eocene
sediments.

Radiolarian ground of the Inferior
oligocene has been found near Baracoa
(Oriente).

Limestone and marls of the Superior
oligocene are the most extensive geologic
formations of the Island, and occur from
Pinar del Rio to Oriente. Then the

Island was all submersed, except some
peaks or ridges of North and South
Oriente, probably of Southern Santa
Clara, and surely of Pinar del Rio,
otherwise it would be impossible to
explain the actual presence in Western
Cuba of the old Microcycas calocoma.

The miocene and the pliocene forma-
tions, given as absent or doubtful in
1901, has been proved to exist, by the
discovery of many fossils, in white
limestone, near Havana, by Mario
Sanchez Roig: Clypeaster lanceolatus,
Hemispatagus Hoffmani, etc., teeth of
Charcharodon megalodon, Lcmna ele-
gans, and of other species of sharks.
A general uplift of the Island occurred
during the Miocene, followed by a slight
sinking and a nearly equal uprising at
the beginning of the Pleistocene.

Quaternary formations are rather
extensive. Of the post pliocene seems
to be the clay-marl bed between Havana
and Matanzas. Not far from the last
locality have been found five tusks of
Hippopotamus.

Pleistocene is represented by a very
jaggy limestone, containing recent spe-
cies, and surrounding most of the coasts,
especially the northern one. Then
Cuba was united with Isle of Pines.

Of modern times are the alluvions of
some plains, as that of Pinar del Rio,
where is common an iron-oxid more or
less hydrated. Modern formations oc-
curred also between Cardenas and Sagua
la Grande, in the Camaguey plain and
in Oriente.

Though much work remains to be done
in the study and comparison of the
faunas and floras of each of the West
Indian Islands and of the neighboring
continents, something may be said
about the geologic relations of Cuba
with the adjacent countries.

According to Dr. Ekman, the Flora
of Cuba has enough elements in common
with Yucatan and Honduras to assume
that, probably in Precretaceous ages,
it was united with them. With Yucatan
through its western end, and with
Honduras either through Sierra Maestra
and Cayman Islands or indirectly

684

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

through Haiti and Jamaica; but the
separation must have occurred also in
remote times. As to a supposed union
of Cuba with Bahama Islands and in-
directly with Florida, it seems to have
never occurred; according to N. Taylor
and Britton and Millspaugh the Bahama
Islands are young geologically, and the
species which they have in common with
Cuba and Florida have likely been
transported from one to another by
natural agencies of winds, migratory
birds, or oceanic currents.

Cuba itself has floral elements of
distinctly heterogeneous origin. The
flora of Pinar del Rio is very little like
that of Oriente, and since remote times
and during a long period, at least up
to the Miocene, Western Cuba was surely
isolated from Eastern Cuba. Even
in the Eastern part of the Island, there
are two quite distinct floral elements,
that of the Sagua-Baracoa mountains,
little like those of neighboring coun-
tries, and that of Sierra Maestra. This
mountain range has many species in
common with Hispaniola, Porto Rico
and Jamaica, with which islands it was
formerly united. Of these four actual
islands, Jamaica has a flora less like
those of the other three, and according
to Urban must have been separated
first ; then, according to Arldt came the
disjunction of Cuba and Hispaniola
through the Windward Passage, prob-
ably at the beginning of the Pliocene.

NATURAL REGIONS

The series of parallel mountain chains
which traverse the Island from West
to East are covered with semi-deciduous
forests; but, according to Dr. Ekman,
true tropical rain forest does not exist
in Cuba, except, may be, in the Baracoa
region, where one tree of the Brazil
rain forest is growing, Carapa gui-
anensis.

If we take into account the geological
constitution of the different parts of the
Island and their corresponding peculiar
flora, we may divide Cuba in three main
regions: Western, Central and Eastern
Cuba. Western Cuba may be divided

in three subregions: Pinar del Rio,
Isle of Pines, and Havana-Matanzas,
younger geologically. Central Cuba
has three natural subregions: the flat
Col6n region. Las Villas, hilly or moun-
tainous, and the Camaguey plain.
Eastern Cuba may be also divided into
three subregions: the northern flat or
hilly portion, and the two more moun-
tainous parts of the Island, the Sagua-
Baracoa mountains and the Macaca
range or Sierra Maestra.

Pinar Del Rio

Its axis is the Organos Range, of a
Jurassic dark limestone including many
species of Ammonites: Perisphinctes,
Idoceras, Ochetoceras, etc. which have
been found near Viiiales. Fossils of
fishes have also been collected there.
This characteristic mountain range with
its many vertical escarpments resembles
from the distance the pipes of an organ,
hence the name "Organos." These
peaked hills, or "Mogotes," support a
very interesting flora, characterized by
the "Palma de Sierra" {Gaussia prin-
ceps), Anthurium venosum, Elaphrium
Shaferi, Gesneria rupincola with brilliant
red flowers, the curious palmlike rutacea
Spathelia Briiion, and by one of the
oldest living plants, the "Palma Corcho"
(Microcycas calocoma), which may be
found in many "mogotes," near El
Sumidero, and also north of Conso-
laci6n del Sur. The biggest tree of
this natural area seems to be Juglans
insularis. These "Mogotes" of the
Organos range are one of the most
notable malacological regions; a great
variety of snails: Chondropoma, Cho-
anopoma, Cistula, Megalomastoma, He-
lix, Helicina, Urocoptis, etc., are found
there.

The highest peaks of Organos range
are: Pan de Guajaib6n, 2500 ft., Loma
de Miracielo, Loma del Pendejeral,
some peaks of Sierra de Vinales, and the
Mogote Grande of the Guacamayas
Range, little less. The steep and
generally nearly inaccessible peaks are
undisturbed natural areas or approxi-
mately so; in different places they might

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

685

be made into natural reserves, as, for
instance, in Range! region, including
the scenic ravine of Santa Cruz river.

The triassic (?) hills to the north and
south of this central range are barren
pine lands with a low grass vegetation on
their tops but with an interesting vege-
tation along the brooks: Xiyhidium
xanthorrizon, Pieris cubensis, Xolisma
myrtiUoides , Clusia menor, Hypericum
styphelioides, Alsophila myosuroides,
Blechnum serrulatum, and the lovely
Lycopodium cernuum; here and there are
groves of Quercus virginiana, and in
some places the ornamental Befaria
cubensis and Purdiaea cubensis are
common.

The northern part of Pinar del Rio
can be reached easily, either from Guane,
the terminus station of the Western
Railroad, or from Pinar del Rio City
by motor car, through El Sumidero or
through Viiiales; from Paso Real and
San Diego de los Baiios, where are
famous sulphur baths, and also by the
North Coast Steamship Service from
Havana. In San Diego de los Banos
is found one of the most beautiful birds
of Cuba, the "Aparecido de San Diego,"
[Abelorhina cyanea); Gundlach found
it also in Zapata, in Matanzas province
and in Oriente.

North of the mountain axis is the
Qarrow north coast area. Bordering
on the mangrove, is an interesting
shrubby or low forest vegetation, with
sometim.es very rare plants as Pbyl-
lacantha Gri^.ebachiana and Maytcnus
lineatus, rediscovered recently by Dr.
Ekman.

The largest part of Pinar del Rio is a
plain extending from the base of the
mountains to the south coast. Its
extreme southwestern end, the Guana-
hacabibes, usually nanied Cabo San
Antonio peninsula, said to be about
80 mi. long, between Cape Frances
and Cape San Antonio, is a coral reef
with mangrove swamps on its northern
shore, and behind, thickets or low woods,
up to the southern high and vertical
rocky shore. Between this forest and

Guane to the north, is a very peculiar
region with many lagoons of clear
water; between them are pine groves
and barren savannas with patches
of white silicious sand rich in rare and
endemic herbs: figworts, pipeworts,
grasses, sedges, etc. This natural area
has been only slightly disturbed by the
exploitation of pines.

The remainder of Pinar del Rio plain,
the famous tobacco region of Vuelta
Abajo, is formed b}^ sandstone, sandy or
swampy savannas and covered either
by pine groves or by palms of different
species: "Palma barrigona" (Colpothri-
nax ivrightii), "Guano prieto" {Paurotis
wrighiii), and "Palmia Cana" (Sabal
florida), the most abundant of all.
Only very few plants may have dis-
appeared as a consequence of the plant-
ing of Tobacco; patches of the original
vegetation may be found in many places :
Tabebuia Icpidophylla, Coccolobis colo-
mensis, Hyptis shaferi, Vitex divaricata,
Tetraziigia bicolor, etc. The chief modi-
fication of the savanna region is the
extinction of the pines, which, possibly,
were growing formerly up to the limit
of Havana province. The south coast
is, as nearly the entire Carribean sea
coast of Cuba, fringed with mangrove
swamps two or three mi. in average
width.

The deer found in all the Island, is
rather abundant in this Western plain;
it was introduced by the Spaniards.
Wild hogs, escaped long ago from do-
mestication, are common in Pinar del
Rio mountains and also in those of
Santa Clara and Oriente. A ganoid
fish, the "IManjuari" {Lepidosteus tri-
stoechus), survival of remote geologic
ages, is not rare in the rivers of Southern
Pinar del Rio. Near the mouth of
these rivers, or near the submarine
sources of fresh water lives the "Ma-
nati" (Manatus americanus), much more
abundant formerly than now. Many
interesting birds may be obtained near
the lagoons of this plain, as, for in-
stance, the following, collected in
Artemisa: "Pato morisco" {Marila affi.-

686

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

nis); "Pato chico" (Nomonya domin-
icus); "Pato rojo" [Trismaiura ruhida);
"Pato lavanco" (Mareca americana);
"Pezcuecilargo" (Dafila acuta) ; "Guan-
aM rojo" (Botmirus lentiginosus) ;
"Gallareta azul" {lonornyx martinicus) ;
the "Gavildn caracolero" {Rosthramus
sociabilis), which lives in lagoons and
swamps, feeding on snails especially of
the genus Ampullaria. Other species
of hawks, as the "Gavildn de monte"
(Buteo borealis), are also found in Pinar
del Rio. A moth, (Attacus ricinus),
is giving silk, but inferior to that of
Bombyx mori. The river turtle "Ji-
cotea" (Emys rugosa), is abundant here
and in the other provinces.

Isle of Pines

Isle of Pines is throughout of the same
nature as Pinar del Rio. In its northern
and northeastern portions are some
wooded limestone hills, Sierra de Casas
and Sierra de Caballos, about 1000 ft.
high. The central and western parts
are barren pinelands, with an area,
between Santa Barbara and Los Indios
of the same white sand as that of the
Guane-Remates region in Pinar del
Rio. The southern part of the Island,
the Jorobado penin-?ula, is a coral reef
similar to the Guaaahacabibes penin-
sula. On its southern shore, ragged
aeolian rocks alternate with sandy
beaches which seem to be the birth
place of Thrinax parviflora, the palm
of the Cuban coasts. This nearly un-
inhabited southern part is separated
from the rest by the extensive Siguanea
and Lanier's swamps. In the little dis-
turbed woods, are found the "Roble de
olor" {Macrocatalpa punctata), Schaef-
feria frutescens, Guayacum sanctum,
Metopium toxiferum, Copaifera hymen-
aefolia, and the beautiful Bauhinia
jenningsii; the largest tree of that
region is undoubtedly the "Jocuma
amarilla" (Sideroxylum foetidissimum) .
Several marine turtles are fished up in
Isle of Pines: the "Tortuga" (Chelonia
mydas), the "Caguaroa" (C. caretta),
and the valued "Carey" (C. imbricata).

According to Dr. Ekman, the Jorobado
and Guanahacabibes peninsulas (their
geological formation and vegetation
being much alike) undoubtedly were
forming the southcoast of Cuba during
the Pleistocene age.

Though the population of Isle of
Pines hardly reaches 5000 inhabitants,
or perhaps less, good hotels are found
in Nueva Gerona, Santa Fe, etc., and
in motor car, one may run over the
greater part of the Island. A steamship
service connects Havana with Isle of
Pines through Bataban6 three times a
week.

H abana-M atanzas

Besides the low limestone hills of the
north coast, this region is traversed in
its length by two parallel chains of
tertiary limestone. Their rocks are less
hard than those of the Pinar del Rio
mountains and named "diente de perro"
(dogtooth) for being eroded by rain into
sharp points. The Flora is not so
interesting as that of the Jurassic ttlO-
gotes; its predominating elem.ents are,
for instance, the three species of
"Guara" {Cupania americana, C. macro-
phylla, C. glabra); the "Vibona" {Den-
dropanax arbor eum); the "Cigua" (Nec-
tandra coriacea); the "Jagua" (Genipa
americana); the "Ciguaraya" (Trichilia
havanensis ) ; Trichilia hirta; Savia ses-
siliflora; Mappiaracemosa; the "Ceib6n"
{Pachira emarginata) ; Elaphrium sima-
ruba, Citharexylum fruticosum, Zan-
thoxvlum martinicense, Z. elephantipes,
etc. Much rarer are the following.
Guayacum officinale, Macrocatalpa punc-
tata, Laurocerasus occidentalis, L. myrti-
folia, Ficus jacquinifolia, Portlandia
daphnoides, and Leptocereus leoni, this
usually on steep rocks. Thrinax micro-
carpa is forming usually extensive
patches which conceals the bareness of
the rocks; other calcivorous plants
abound, among them Philodendron lace-
rum and P. wrightii.

The birds usually found in these
Havana wooded hills, are, for instance,
several species of hawks: {Circus hud-

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

687

sonius, Falco doming ensis), the owl
(Glaucidnim siju) ; the "Mariposa" {Pas-
serina cyris); the "Zorzal real" {Mimo-
cichla rubripes); the "Toti" {Dives
atroviolaceus). The "Tocororo" {Priote-
lus temnurus) is found in all the Island
and may be approached easily; the
same may be said of the "Arriero"
(Saurothera mcrlini). The "Bobito"
(Blacicus caribaeus); the "Zunzun"
(Riccordia riccordii); the "Pedorrera"
{Todus multicolor), the "Jiidio" (Croto-
phagaani), the "Chinchinguaco" (Chal-
cophanes gundlachii), the "Sinsonte"
(Mimus polyglottus) , the well known
singing bird, are all very common. In
the caves which abound in these lime-
stone sierras, are living several species
of bats; more than twenty species are
found in Cuba. On the shaded rocks, a
big inoffensive milliped named "Alan-
caperro" is so common that one can
not avoid crushing a number of them.
A great variety of snails may also be
collected on these limestone hills. The
highest altitude of this Habana-Ma-
tanzas range is attained on Pan de
Matanzas, about 1300 ft. high; the hills
of Havana province reach hardly 1000 ft.

The flora of the coral reef east of
Havana is strongly xerophil, and among
the shrubby vegetation of "Guao"
(Comocladia platyphijlla) , "Guao de
costa" {Metopium toxijerum), "Man-
zanillo" {Hippomane mancinella),
"Yamaquey" ( Belairia spinosa) , Pisonia
aculeata, Ateleia cubensis, etc., are grow-
ing the characteristic Agave legrelliana,
A. furcroides and at least half a dozen
species of Cacti, as the tall Cephalocereus
bakeri, Dendrocereus nudiflorus, Lep-
tocereus assurgens, etc. There also is
found the very rare and long lost
Annona cascarilloides.

The plain of Habana-Matanzas is
different from that of Pinar del Rio,
not sandy and much more modified by
the planting of Sugar cane and other
economic plants. The "Palma cana"
is less abundant and replaced by the
"Palma Real" (Roystonea regia), the
most abundant palm of Cuba; the huge

Ceiba pentandra is also seen in many
places. As the soil of this plain, out
of the serpentinous "Cuabales," is
formed chiefly by the decomposition
of the limestone sierras, its flora, pre-
served only in a few places not under
cultivation, is partly that of the hills
and partly that of the coastal reef,
whose chief elements are actually:
Eugenia buxi folia, E. axillaris, Ateleia
cubensis, Espadaea amaena, Hebestigma
cubense, Picramnia pentandra, Dipholis
salicifolia, Momisia iguanea, Duranta
repens; the so common and appreciated
hardwood "Yaiti" {Gymnanthes lucida),
Cupania glabra, Hybanthus havanensis;
the fragrant Guettarda calyptrata, G.
combsii, G. elliptica, Zanthoxylumfagara,
Z. toedosium, Schoepfia chrysophylloides,
H elicteres jamaicensis and H. semitriloba,
Comocladia dentata and C. platyphylla,
Erithalis fruticosa, Icthyomethia hava-
nensis, Maba crassinervis, the large
drooping flowered Catesbaea spinosa;
Colubrina ferruginea and C. cubensis,
Exostemma caribaeum, the noxious Mal-
pighia cubensis, Citharexylum caudatum
and C. fruticosum, Casearia sylvestris
and C. hirsuta, Opuntia dillenii, Acrosti-
chum excelsum, Hibiscus cryptocarpus
and H. spiralis; the ornamental Malva-
viscus sagraeanus and Rondeletia odoraia
are common. Among the most abundant
vines are Chiococca alba, and the showy
flowered Bauhinia heterophylla and Big-
nonia sagraeana. In the swamps, Mala-
che scabra and Typha angustifolia. On
the northern sea shore are Suriana
mariiima, Borrichia arborescens, Mallo-
tonia gnaphalodes, Rachicallis maritima,
Iva cheiranthifolia and I. imbricata,
while on the wet south coast are rather
seen, in fields of Distichlis spicata, a
number of Aster, Crinum americanum,
Pluchea foetida, P. purpurascens,
Samolus ebracteatus, Acrostichum aitr-
eum, Agalinis spiciflora, Mariscus
jamaicensis and in places Casuarina
equisetifolia naturalized. The Man-
grove trees are, of course, the most
common on the south coast.
Many birds may be collected on the

688

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

coasts where lagoons or swamps are
often near the seashore, as is the case
a few mi. west of Havana, where have
been collected "Frailecillos" {Aegiali-
tis semipalmatus, Ochihodromius wilson-
ius); "Zarapicos" {Ereunetes pusillus,
Totanus flavipes, Oexychus vociferus);
the "Tomeguin de la tierra" (Euethia
lepida); Pisobia minutUla, Atitis
macvlaria; many "Bijiritas" (as Den-
droica dominica, D. coerulea, Protonota-
ria citrea, Wilsonia citrina) ; Zenaida
macroura; The "Crequete" {Chordeites
sp.);the "Chamberguito" {Coturniculus
paserinus), the "Garz6n" (Herodias
egretta); the "Aguaita Caimdn" {Buto-
rides virescens); the "Sevilla" {Ajaja
ajoja)', the "Guanabd. real" (Nijctanassa
violacea) ; the "Martm pescador" (Ceryle
alcyon); the "Golondrina" {Idroprocne
bicolor); the "Arriero chico" [Coccyzus
americanus) . Eastward, in mangroves
near Cardenas, Gundlach discovered
one of the smallest birds of the World,
the "Zunzuncito" {Calypte helenae).
A peculiar character of the southern
part of this Havana plain, are the sub-
terranean rivers and caves, as those of
the vicinity of Alquizar, where blind
fishes have been found, as, for instance,
Lucifuga subterraneus, likely in com-
munication with the sea by these under-
ground rivers.

Very little vegetation remains un-
disturbed in this region, even in the
"Cuabales" or barren serpentine hills,
intruded between the limestone chains;
some of them as the Lomas de Coca, del
Boticario, de la Pita, near Campo
Florido, support a dense growth of trees
or shrubs, as the "Cuabas" (Amyris
balsamifera and Leucocroton flavicans) ;
Harpalyce cubensis, Hieronyma cubana,
Rheedia aristata, Stenostomum lucidum,
Rauwolfia cubana, Simplocos strigillosa,
Lagetta valenzuelana, Rondeletia brachy-
carpa; sometimes their vegetation is
lower and more open, as in their vicinity
of Minas and Guanabacoa, with shrubs as
Reynosia mucronata, Eugenia sauvallei,
E. havanensis, Furcraea cubensis, Brya
ebenus, Annona bullata, Hibiscus costatus,

Orbicularia orbicularis; the growth is
sometimes chiefly herbaceous, with the
ornamental "Palma Jata" {Copernicia
macroglossa) , scattered along the rivu-
lets, and Paspalum rupestre carpetting
the ground. Vernonia gnaphalifolia is
also characteristic of these Cuabales.
In holes of the ground are living many
big spiders, the "Arana peluda," {My-
gale sp.) which the boys catch easily.
The largest of the Cuban lakes,
the Ariguanabo, in the Havana plain,
not far from San Antonio de los Banos,
but more easily reached from Havana,
is perhaps the best locality for the study
of the Cuban aquatic flora. There, is
the large flowered Nelumbo lutea, several
Casialia, among which the more common
are C. odorata and C. ampla; Nymphaea
advena is very abundant, as well as
Nymphaeoides humboldtiana, Utricularia
foliosa, Proserpinaca palustris Salvinia
auriculata, and, though not so abundant,
one of the most beautiful flowers is that
of a grass, Luziola spruceana; patches
of Salix occidentalis and Cephalanthus
occidentalis cover the shallow portions
of the lake; Sesbania occidentalis is
not rare. Near the shores is* the well
known Pistia strathiotes, several species
of Jussiaea, Persicaria portoricensis,
Marsilea polycarpa, and the beautiful
water hyacinths (Piaropus crassipes
and P. azureus). This locality is per-
haps better yet for making a collection
of aquatic birds: there is found the
"Guanana prieta" {Anser albifrons) ,
the "Gallinuelita" {Crybasius gossey) ,
the "Becasina" (Gallinago delicata) ,
the "Gallito" {Jacana spinosa) , the
"Garcita" (Ixobrychus exilis) , the "Gal-
linuela" (Rallus elegans) , the "Gal-
lareta" {Gallinuela galeata), the "Pato
negro" (Marila collaris) , the "Pato de
la Florida" (Querquedula discors) , the
"Pato cuchareta" {Spatula clypeata).

Col6n

This is a fertile plain, an enormous
Sugar Cane district, but so low, that it
has been sometimes flooded from coast
to coast. On the northern border of

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

689

that plain are the extensive marshes of
Bibanasi and Majagiiillar, and on its
southern the largest swamp of Cuba,
the Ci^naga de Zapata, covering the
southern part of Matanzas province,
and extending from the Gulf of Bataban6
eastwards nearly to the important town
of Cienfuegos.

The original vegetation north of
Cienaga de Zapata and south of the
northern swamps has nearly disap-
peared; among the remnants, are found
Pithecolobhim discolor, Pisonia rotun-
data; in the savannas are Guettarda
elliptica, Melanthera angustifolia, Tabe-
buia lepidota, Williamia discolor, Guet-
tarda calyptrata, Arundinella deppeana.
In the swamps, are found several Aster,
several Hyptis, Solidago stricia; and to
the south: Lysiloma bahamensis, Pithe-
colobium tortum, Davilla rugosa, Rheedia
brevipes, Banisteriopsis pauciflora, and
in places patches of the "Palma Corojo"
{Acrocomia crispa).

The Zapata swamps, south of this
region, are the home of the Crocodiles,
although they are found, in less abun-
dance, in many of the other swamps of
the Island. There are two species in
Cuba: the most valiant, commonly
named "Cocodrilo" {Crocodilus rhombi-
fer), lives in sweet waters, especially
in the Zapata swamps; the largest of
them, nearly 20 ft. long, are in Laguna
del Tesoro, the deepest lake of Cuba,
in the same Zapata region. The other
(Crocodilus americanus), wrongly named
"Caiman," lives usually in brackish
waters and is more timid, though it
attains, like the other species, a length
of 15 to 20 ft. It is so little feared, that
sometimes people are bathing where
several of them are roaming.

Zapata is the region of Cuba where
the greatest variety of birds may be
observed: the "Pato aliverde" [Netion
carolinensis) ; the "Sanjuanera" (Ze-
naida amabilis); Grus canadensis, Ardea
herodias, Audubonia occidentalis, Nyc-
tiardea gardeni, Platalea aja, Tantalus
loculator; a number of Pigeons, as
Chloroenas inornata; Patagioenas leuco-

cephala; other species of the genera
Starnoenas, Geotrygon, Chamaepelia,
Melopelia, Perissura, Ectopistes, are in
the Island. The Flamingo is becoming
rare. As to the beautiful "Guacamayo
de Cuba" (Ara tricolor), not rare in
Zapata in former times, it has surely
disappeared. Many species of ducks
are also common in those swamps, but
hunting in that wet region is not very
agreeable, on account of the swarming
mosquitoes.

The Zapata swamps are covered with
a mostly herbaceous vegetation, as
Typha angustifolia, Mariscus jamaicen-
sis and many other sedges, with a
patch of Mangrove trees here and there.
The vegetation of Zapata peninsula,
farther to the south, is a mixture of
Mangrove and other forests with many
different trees, as "Almdcigo" [Elaphri-
um simaruba) , Trema lamarckianum,
Krugiodendron ferreum, Fraxinus cu-
bensis, Bauhinia divaricata, Colubrina
asiatica, Alvaradoa amorphoides, etc.,
growing on a jaggy limestone with
many sinkholes. In these woods, an
interesting rodent, Capromys nana,
has been discovered in the recent years;
it is much smaller than the other
"Jutias" (C. poeyi and C. fournieri),
common in the Island; this last species
is so easily tamed, that sometimes it
is in liberty in the houses as a pet. Near
Bahia de Cochinos, are several Indian
mounds. This peculiar region is easily
reached through the branch connecting
Jovellanos with Jaguey Grande, where
are hotels, and from there to Bahia de
Cochinos through the Australia Sugar
Mill Railroad.

Las Villas

Behind the northern Mangrove
swamps or wet savannas of this region,
are two chains of limestone mountains ;
West of Sagua la Grande, the Sierra
Morena-Jumagua group of low, rather
dry hills, some of them steep, and with
a little disturbed vegetation, as that of
the Mogotes of Sagua much alike that of
Havana coastal limestone hills: Banis-
ieria laurifolia, Hybanthus havanensis,

690

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Alvaradoa amorphoides, Chascotheca ne-
opeltandra, Argythamnia candicans, Cel-
tis sivartzii, Plumiera obtusa, Diospyros
halesioides, Tabebuia saxicola. East of
Sagua la Grande, in the prolongation
of the first chain, is the Sabana Range,
reaching an altitude of 1000 to 2000 ft.
in the Sierras of Bamburanao, Mata-
hambre and Jatibonico, in the caves of
which have been found fossils of Mega-
locnus rodens and Crocodilus sp., by the
well known Cuban Naturalist, Dr.
Carlos de la Torre. In the Cays of the
north coast, may be seen a hawk,
feeding on fish, the "Guincho" (Pandion
carolinensis) . A rare owl, the "Tarab6"
{Asio accipitrinus) , has been found near
Camajuani.

The country south of Sierra Morena
chain, between Macagua and Santo
Domingo is a rather flat or undulated
and mostly barren region, of sandy or
gravelly savannas and low serpentine
hills. Good deer hunting can be had
here, and the flora is interesting, showing
evident relations to that of Pinar del
Rio, especially in the wet savannas of
Mordazo and Manacas, where grow
several species of Eriocaulon, Xyris,
Drosera rotundifolia, Rhexia cubensis.
The chief features are the peculiar
"Maboa" {Cameraria angusti folia), and
the "Jata" palms (Copernicia glabres-
cens, C. hospita, C. macroglossa) ; Ronde-
letia brachycarpa, Pictelia marginata,
Chrysobalanus pellocarpus, Tabebuia le-
pidota. That area has likely been
modified and deprived at least of its
pine groves. The existence of Pines
in Santa Clara province, in former times,
is proved by the finding of pine cones,
together with the fossils of Megalocnus
rodens. This central axis of serpentine
is prolonged eastward into the Oriente
province.

South of the Central Railroad is the
most mountainous part of Las Villas,
divided in two ranges. The first and
more central is the Cubanacdn Range of
serpentine formation and denuded ap-
pearance; it reaches in Sierra del Escam-
bray and Sierra Alta de Agabama alti-
tudes of 2500 ft. or more. Its flora is

quite rich in endemic elements. Fi-
nally, not far from the coast, and sep-
arated by Agabama river, are the two
groups of the Guamuhaya Range: the
Trinidad mountains and the Sancti
Spiritus group. The first is chiefly built
up of dolomites and attains an altitude
of more than 3500 ft., in Potrerillo and
Taguayabo peaks. The Sancti Spiritus
mountains are formed by serpentines,
micaschist and dolomites from north to
south in the same order; talc and rock
crystal are found in several places.
These mountains reach about the same
height as the Trinidad Range. As they
are sometimes rather inaccessible, there
are yet many little modified areas.
Most of the highest ridges and peaks
are moist from their contact with the
fog; many streams flow from those
heights and their numerous waterfalls
are one of their most interesting fea-
tures. The damp forest which cover the
slopes has chiefly the kind of flora
named 'Manacales," characterized by
the "Manaca" palm (Calyptrogyne
occidentali^); huge trees of Cedrela
odorata and Juglans insularis are seen
there, as also Citrus vulgaris, Svnetenia
mahogany, Magnolia cubensis, Ochroma
lagopus, Dendropanax arboreum and D.
cuneifolium, Paritium, tiliaceum, Ron-
deletia leoni and R. bicolor strongly
Coumarine scented. Begonia oblicua,
Mayepea domingensis, Sapium jamai-
cense, Ocotea cuneata, Guettarda valen-
zuelana, Rhamnidiurn rocanum, Rourea
glabra, wonderful specimens of Arthro-
stylidium urbanii are on river banks;
Taonabo obovalis is common; Ilex de-
mentis, and Senecio plmnbeus on the
ridges, and Machaeonia microphijlla
on high savannas; but the most interest-
ing botanical feature is the presence
of tree ferns up to thirty or forty feet
tall, likely the tallest of Cuba. Arr.ong
the tree ferns are: Cyathea arborea, C.
cubensis, Alsophila aspera. The floral
elements of the Guamuhaya Range are
of heterogenous origin, and the per-
centage of endemic plants usually low.
Flocks of "Cotorras" (Chrysothis
leucocephalus) and of "Cateyes" oi

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

691

"Periquitos" {Conurus evops) are often
seen in these mountains, as also in
Oriente and other places. A number
of species of hawks are also abundant,
making poultry breeding very difficult.
The "Caos" (Cor mis 7ni7iulus and C.
nasic.us) are not rare in those moun-
tains. The "Iguana" (Cyclura cari-
natn), 4 to 5 ft. long, is found on the
south coast of the Island and in
the cays.

The chief fresh water fishes, common
also in the other provinces are: the
"Viajaca," (Nandopsis telr acanthus),
the most common; the "Guabina"
{Phylipnus dormitator); the "Dajao"
(Dajaus sp.) and the "Joturo" {Jolurus
pichardi) which leap over the falls to
ascend the rivers; the Anquilla cubensis,
and the "Guajacones" of several genera:
Gambusia, Girardinus, Limia, Trifar-
cius, Rivulus.

A number of species of lobsters, some
of them of a large size are fished up in
the mountain rivers.

The Trinidad mountains are reached
from Cienfuegos by motor car; from the
Central Railroad by the Cumbre-
Trinidad branch; the Sancti Spiritus
mountains by this same line, and better
yet by the Zaza del Medio branch
through Sancti Spiritus.

Camaguey

This is a flat country with a longitu-
dinal zone of serpentine savannas in its
center. North and south of this zone
were, not long ago, extensive forests
which have been replaced, in the recent
years, by Sugar cane plantations.
These forests are much like those of the
plains westward, with the well known
following elements, which seem to be
predominant: Guazmna tomentosa, Bur-
sera simaruba, Pithecolobium arboreum,
Chrysophyllum oliviforme, Trichilia hirta
the "Yagruma hembra" (Cecropia pel-
lata); the "Yagruma macho" {Didymo-
panax morototoni); the "Palma Cana"
{Sabal florida^; and the spiny "Palma
Corojo" (Acrocomia crispa).

The large cays of the north coast are
flat and mostly with a mangrove vege-

tation; the travellers say that wild
horses and cattle roam in Cayo Romano.
The "Sinsonte prieto" (Mimus gundla-
chii) has been collected in those cays.

To the south, the country is more
swampy. There can be found the rare
saurian Anolisfernandinae, as also Anolis
equeslris which is common throughout
the Island.

The central zone of serpentine sa-
vannas, as to its flora, resembles closely
the same zone of Las Villas, of which
it is the prolongation. It is bordered
to the north by the limestone Sierra de
Cubitas chain, and to the south by the
Najasa chain of a similar formation;
they reach hardly altitudes of 1000 ft.
It is said that in that region, near
Chorrillo, a good number of yet upright
trunks of silicified trees are found; Ing
pieces of them have been brought to
Guanaliacoa about 40 years ago by the
Naruralist Father Pio Galtes, being
exhibited in the Escuelas Pias College
of that town. The north and south
coasts of Camaguey are connected by
the Mor6n-Jucaro branches, through
Ciego de Avila, and by the Nuevitas-
Santa Cruz del Sur branches through
Camaguey. The North Coast Railroad
connects Moron and Nuevitas.

Northern Oriente

There, landed Columbus and noted
among the mammals of the Island, the
"perro mudo" (dumb dog), which the
Cuban naturalist Felipe Poey says to be
the Procyon lotor or "Mapache" of
Mexico, the Racoon of Florida. After
the same author, the "Mohuy," of
Oviedo (Historia general de las Indias),
smaller than the "Jutias," and the most
exquisite dish, reserved to the Caciques,
could be the "Aguti" (Dasyprocta sp.);
the "Cori," our present "Curiel" (Cavia
cobaya), and the "Pilori" of French
authors, Mtis piloridcs F. Cuv. ; but
these indentifications of animals un-
known today in Cuba, are rather
uncertain.

This region includes one of the three
mountain systems of Oriente, the
Maniab6n Range, a group of rather low.

692

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

but steep and fantastically shaped
limestone hills on the north coast, and
sterile eruptive hills in the interior;
they reach their highest altitude
between 1000 and 1300 ft., in the barren
but botanically interesting serpentine
hills near Holguin. Most of the land in
this hilly region as well as in the undu-
lated central part of Northern Oriente,
including the basin of Cauto river, is
planted with Sugar Cane. The Carib-
bean sea coast is fringed with large
swamps, the largest of these, Cienaga de
Birama, north of the Cauto mouth, and
Cienaga de Buey south of it. Approach-
ing these are low woods and shrubby
savannas, little disturbed and with a
great variety of palms.

The two remaining systems of Oriente
mountains, the Sagua-Baracoa group
and the Sierra Maestra chain are the
most important in Cuba.

Sagua-Baracoa

The Sagua-Baracoa group, between
Mayari, Baracoa and Guantdnamo is
geologically much older than Sierra
Maestra and perhaps the oldest of Cuba;
its flora is, according to Dr. Ekman,
distinct from that of all the other regions
of Cuba or neighboring islands. This
group is drained by the swift Toa river,
whose waterfalls, perhaps the biggest
of Cuba, are so little accessible that they
are nearly unknown. On each side of
this river are leagues of forests very
little inhabited. Toa river runs likely
a larger volume of water than the Cauto
(the largest river of Cuba), which
gathers the waters from the north slope
of Sierra Maestra. These Sagua-Bara-
coa mountains are usually girdled by
lower limestone sierras, which are
generally very steep and craggy, as for
instance, the famous Yunque de Bara-
coa. Damp forests, abundant in Manaca
palms, alternate with open pinelands or
nearly impenetrable thorn forests, the
so called "Charrascales." On the top
of the highest of these mountains.
Sierra de Cristal (4300 ft.), its first and
only explorer, Dr. Ekman, found an
amazing number of new and strange

plants. According to Dr. Ekman, the
finest woodpecker of Cuba, the
"Carpintero real" {Campephilus hair-
dii), is abundant on this mountain,
though exceedingly rare in other parts
of Cuba. Sierra de Moa and Sierra de
Nipe are each about 3250 ft. high. The
last, despite its low altitude, has a
flora so marvelously rich in endemic
species, that it has yielded over 400
plants new to science in the recent
years. The "Sabina" (Juniperus lu-
cayana), the noxious "Palmilla" {Bac-
tris plumieriana), Carapa guianensis,
the splendid Spatheliae abound in these
mountains and rare ferns, orchids,
bromeliads, etc., are met with on every
step. The climbing bamboo (Arthro-
stylidium sarmcntosum) is often border-
ing the tracks in the woods with long
garlands hanging from branches, and
sometimes the waj^side is densely car-
peted with the beautifully flowered Be-
gonia Wrightiana. Rich as these moun-
tains are botanically, they are not less
interesting to the geologist. If any place,
in Cuba, should ever come into consid-
eration for a national reserve, it ought
to be this unique mountain, the Sierra de
Nipe. In caves of Cape Maisi cliffs, a
number of skeletons of Indian "Si-
boneyes," and also of Caribs who came
from the Lesser Antilles, have been
found by Dr. C. de la Torre. These
"Farallones" (vertical cliffs) are the
home of the finest Helix of the world
{H. picta), with its hundreds of vari-
eties of different colors. Not far away,
near Baracoa, other rare Helices (//.
imperaior), the largest Cuban species
and H. apollo have been discovered,
the first in INIata, the second on top of
Yunque de Baracoa. There is also the
elusive butterfly Chlosyne perezi; other
rare species of this order as Clothilda
cuhana, Cydimon poeyi may be found
north of Guantdnamo. South of this
town, near Caimanera Naval Station,
lives the wading bird Aegialitis nivosa
and the rare snail Pleurodonte emargi-
nata. Other rare species of snails, Brachy-
podellabrooksiana and B. turcasiana are
in Monte Taurus and Monte Libano'near

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

693

Guanttinamo. Of course, many natural
areas of this region remain undisturbed
for being inaccessible or nearly so.
One of the classic localities in Cuban
history of Science, the old Lescaille
Mansion, once the headquarters of the
great botanist Ch. Wright and of the
eminent zoologist Gundlach, lies in the
mountains north of Guantdnamo, at
more than 2000 ft. altitude. It is now
in ruins and not very easy to find in
the woods even with the aid of a guide,
but if prepared, it would be an excellent
site for a biological station. The rarest
of the Cuban mammals, the "Almiqui"
{Solenodon ctihanus^, insect eating, noc-
turnal and with its nest underground,
may be found in the mountains of
Sagua-Baracoa. Another mammal, not
so rare (Capromys melanvrus) , seems to
l)e confined also in Oriente province.
The south coast, between Cape MaisI
and Caimanera Naval Station, was
botanically unexplored in most of its
length until 1924. It appeared to be the
driest region of Cuba, and consequently,
in many places there is an abundant
growth of Cacti, as for instance, the
"Card6n" {Lemaireocereus hystrix), the
most abundant; the "Jijfras" (Cephalo-
cereus spp.); the globose "Melon de
costa" (Cactus harlov:ii), and the "Pa-
tana" (Opuntia hystrix). of Imias,
whose branches break off and stick to
the traveller, even when slightly touched.
The valued "Tebenque" (Evolvulus
arbuscula), several species of Croton,
Thyana, Tabebuia, Plumiera are also
abundant. The adjacent region is
mountainous and not so dry as the coast.
The highest and steepest of those moun-
tains is the Sierra de Imlas (4020 ft.),
not far from the coast. The huge "Juba"
{Dipholis spp.), the "Chote" {Alchornea
latifolia), the "Pahna boba" or "Palma
justa" [Euterpe globosa), are conspicuous
elements of the high zone of vegetation
named "Monte fresco" (Cool forest).
The top of the highest peaks is wooded
and of a difficult access, owing to a
dense growth of bamboo {Chusquea
abietijolia) . At the foot of those moun-
tains is plenty of "Mostacillo" {Cap-

paris si)p.) and of "Guayacdn" (Guaya-
cum officinale), as well as a great variety
of rare trees.

Sierra Maesira

The Sierra Maestra Range, the highest
of the Island, is divided in three groups
with a more or less similar flora. The
first lies east of Santiago and culminates
in the 4000 ft. high Gran Piedra. West of
Santiago is the Cobre Group, with its
highest peak in Loma del Gato, about
3700 ft. Features of its slopes are the
groves of "Caney" (Mayepeadomingen-
sis), "Palma Justa" (Euterpe globosa),
the"Pld,tano cimarr6n"(Heliconabihai),
and patches of Myrica cerifera and of
Ilex montana on the gravelly hillsides.
In the ravines and near the tops are
dense forests including here and there
some pines (Pinus cubensis), isolated or
in small groves. Here, near a place
named by the owners "Jardin des
fougcres," may be observed interesting
biotic phenomena, as a palm (Euterpe
globosa), 12 ft. tall, growing on the trunk
of a tree fern ; a large inclined Ficus tree,
sustained by its former adventitious
roots, transformed into several big
columns nearly one ft. in diameter. A
well fitted place for biological studies
is the La Salle Estate, on the crest of
Sierra Maestra, very near Loma del
Gato, at more than 3000 ft. alt.; probably
no other house in Cuba is at a higher
altitude. A number of habitations
and rooms for work are available there
during a great part of the year, on
application to Colegio Nra. Sra. de la
Caridad, Corona Alta 7, Santiago de
Cuba. Not far from this city, on the
south coast, 5 mi. to the East, has been
found the extremely beautiful butterfly
Papilla Gundlachianus.

The main group of the range,
where are the highest altitudes of
Cuba, is the Maestra proper, with Pico
Turquino 6630 ft. high, although
before its ascent by Dr. Ekman, it
was supposed to be at least 1000
ft. higher. There are also other high
peaks, for instance the Bayamesa,
south of Bayamo, about 5600 ft., and

694

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Loma Joaquin & Regino, of about
the same height. The vegetation up to
3000 ft. is mostly the moist forest of the
"Manacales" type, the same which is
found in other moist mountains of that
altitude; but from 3000 ft. up to the
highest summits, enveloped most of the
time in the fog, this is replaced by
another type of vegetation much differ-
ent from the preceding; instead of
"Manaca" palm is "Palma Justa;"
trees not seen in lower localities are
abundant, as Clethra cubensis, Weinman-
nia pinnata, Henianthus salicifolius;
the biggest trees are the "Barril" {Cy-
rilla racemiflora), Magnolia cubensis,
and species of Dipholis. The "Fang-
ales," as these forests are called are
furthermore characterized by a deep
cover of dead leaves on the ground,
where ferns of the genera Elaphoglos-
sum, Asplenium, etc., are growing in
abundance, occasionally replaced by
carpets of Sphagnum. In places where
the ground is more barren and rocky,
and supports only a shrubby growth or
low forest, the wind and sun penetrate
more freely, keep away the excess of
dampness, and there results instead
of the "Fangales" vegetation, that of
"Montefresco" ; this is characterized
by Garrya fadyenii, species of Xilosma,
Taonabo, Viburnum, etc., together with
many Melastomaceae, Lauraceae and
Myrtaceae, some Rubus and several
showy begonias. In open places are
fields of Dicranopteris named "Hele-
chales;" these fern fields, in drier situa-
tions of lower mountains of the Island,
are usually formed of Pteris caudata and
Odontosoria sp. As the high Sierra
Maestra is rarely visited by anybody,
the vegetation likely will not be dis-
turbed here in a near future. In those
high solitudes may be heard the melodi-
ous song of the Cuban nightingale
[Myiadestes elisabeth). The wild hogs
are abundant and rambling up to the
highest summits of the Turquino region.
Some wild dogs and cats escaped from
domestication are also met with some-
times, as well as the Cuban Boa, the
"Majd" (Epicrates angulifer); it reaches

sometimes twelve or fifteen feet and
feeds on "Jutias" and hens, but is not
dangerous to man; it is common in all
the Island. Among the other snakes
are the "Jubos" (the terrestrial ones)
as Dromimis angulifer and D. fugitivus,
and the aquatic "Cativos" {Tretanor-
hinus variabilis and Tropidonotus cuba-
nus). In Sierra Maestra, more than
anywhere else, the traveller can easily
find honey, not only of the common bee,
but also the sweeter one of the stingless
Cuban bee (Melipona fulvipes).

An interesting locality near the east-
ern end of Sierra Maestra is Cabo Cruz;
here are forests of Pimienta officinalis
and of Brosimum alicastrum. The "Ra-
bijunco" {Phaeton americanus), and
that very rare and most interesting of
Cuban reptiles {Criosaura typica) also
occur there, as do Helix prominula and
Liguus poeyanus.

REFERENCES

Hayes, Vaughan and Spencer. Informe
sobre un reconocimiento geol6gico
de Cuba. Boletin de Minas. 2.
Habana. 1917.

M. Sanchez Roig. La Fauna Jurdsica de
Vinales. Boletin especial de la
Secretaria de Agricultura. Habana.
1920.

M. Sanchez Roig. Escudlidos del Mio-
ceno y Plioceno de La Habana.
Boletin de Minas. 6, Habana. 1920.

Roque Allende. Estudio tecnico de los
yacimientos minerales de Isla de
Pinos. Boletin de Minas. 7. Ha-
bana. 1923.

Britton and Millspaugh. Bahama Flora.
New York. 1920.

Ign. Urban. Symbolae Antillanae.
IX. Lipsiae. 1923.

F. Poey. Memorias sobre la Historia
Natural de la Isla de Cuba. I.
Habana. 1851.

J. Gundlach. Ornitologia Cubana. Ha-
bana. 1876.

J. Gundlach. Mamalogia Cubana. Ha-
bana. 1877.

J. Gundlach. Erpetologia Cubana.
Habana. 1880.

C. de la Torre. Investigaciones
paleontologicas en las Sierras de
Vinales y de Jatibonico. Habana.
1910.

C. T. Ramsden. Vida y exploraciones
zool6gicas del Dr. Juan Gundlach
en Cuba. Memorias de la Sociedad
Poey. Habana. 1918.

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NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

695

4. HAITI AND SANTO DOMINGO
By G. Kingsley Noble
i. general conditions

/. Topography

The island of Hispaniola is divided
by four ranges which run in a general
east-west direction. These, by shutting
off the trade winds to a greater or less
extent, control the rainfall in most of
the country. The Monte Cristi range,
close to the northern coast, reaches a
maximum height of 1400 meters, the
high points being near Loma Diego
Campo and the easterly Quita Espuela
ridge. The central part of the island
is a great mass of ranges running in
various directions but chiefly east and
west. It is here that we find several
peaks running up to nearly 3000 meters
or over. Naturally, this mountain
range catches most of the rain. To the
southwest of the central Cordillera
there are two additional ranges — or
series of ranges — the most northern
very dry, the southern wet in part.

The rains falling to a greater or less
extent on these.

2. Rainfall

The great diversity in vegetation
zones is, of course, closely correlated
with distribution of the rains. With
such a diversity of topography and
vegetation zones in Hispaniola we would
expect a considerable difference in the
precipitation throughout the island. In
general it may he said that there are two
rainy seasons everywhere on the island.
The first is a short one in May and
June. Frequently it does not come at
all. The second and longer season may
occur in September, October or No-
vember. Almost every locality has
its own rainy season, and as this varies
from year to year, it is difficult for the
visitor to be sure of his weather before
starting for the island. The data in
the table given below are compiled in
part from statements supplied to me by
the former Military Governor of Santo
Domingo; they are based in part upon
charts in the office of the Chief Engineer
of Haiti.

INCHES OF

RAINF.VLL

>>

S

c

>>

a

3

8.62
3 00
3 92
8.10
2.18

?
3 25
3.75
0.38
3.25
3.25
3.25

a
<

C3

7.51
6.67
1.65
5.06
4.21

7.25

4.50

5.25

3.0

12.50

9.25

8.0

a

3
1-5

►-5

3

3
<

s

u

X!
O
.^

o

O

0)

Xi

g

o

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o
XI

s

a

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Sanchez, R. D.:
1921

11 09
?

2.98
0 20

2.88

?
6.50
5.0
0.25
3.25
0.90
0.90

4 20
4.21
1.07
4.71
4.03

?
4.0
4.50
0.25
3.25
1.75
1.75

4.12
0.59
6.90
4.75
5.46

8.0

7.0

3.0

1.0

7.50

1.25

6.75

3 22

6.86

8.06

6.70

12.17

3.75

3.75

3.50

3.50

5.25

3.50

4.0

10 65

10.95

6.35

7.86

13.64

1.0

1.75

1.75

2.75

4.50

3.0

2.75

6.86
15.26
5.55
2.79
7.61

8.0

1.87

1.87

2.0

8.75

4.25

4.50

6.16
8.69
6.54
5/3
4.49

?
3.50
3.50
3.50
9.50
4.0
7.33

4-01
4.80
9.14
5.87
4.19

?

7.50
9.25
1.50
14.50
4.50
2.50

3.34
5.17
10.02
4.29
8.42

?

14.50
12.0
1.50
7.50
3.0
2.75

6.48

1920

5.07

1919

6 46

1918

4 17

1917

4.72

Constanza, R. D.:

1919

?

Borgne, Haiti:

1919

Cap Haitien, Haiti:
1907-1919

7.0

8.75

Gonaives, Haiti:
1903-1919

0 ?.^

Cayes, Haiti:

1907-1919

3 75

Jacniel, Haiti:

1906-1919

1.0

Petionville, Haiti:
1900-1919

0 90

3. Vegetation areas

a. North slope of northern coast
range is heavily forested in the east,

where rain forest occurs sparsely so
in the west. Some pines occur on the
mountain crests.

b. Southern slope of northern range

696

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

is moderately forested. There are some
large stands in the east.

c. Cibao valley between northern
range and central Cordillera is a broad
well-settled plain. Some fine pastures
occur here.

d. Northern slope of central Cordil-
lera is heavily forested, at least the higher
portions. Pine forests cover most of
the ridges and some curve down to the
lowlands, as for example at La Vega.

e. Central plateau is made up of
rolling hills covered with grass and
broken stands of pine. Dense woods
choke the valleys, while thickets of
fern occur on the highest peaks.

/. Southern slope of the central
Cordillera is characterized by bare
hills sparsely covered with pine.

g. Southeastern coast is mostly scrub
country.

h. Southwestern mountain range of
coast. Some sections (in Santo Do-
mingoj very wet, others (in extreme
southwestern Santo Domingo and east-
ern Haiti) rather dry, a mixture of
ecological conditions.

i. The southwest north of the Sierra
de Bahoruco is very arid; true deserts
around the dead sea (Enriquillo) grade
into scrub land near Barahona.

j. Floristic relations. To the casual
observer the trees such as Lignum-
vitae, Haematoxylon of the lowlands,
and the ubiquitous Pinus occidentalis
of the hills are of interest. In the
southwestern part of Santo Domingo
we might expect Opuntia, Cereus,
Nopalea, Melocactus, besides several
species of Agave and other xerophytic
plants.

4. Animal life (Jaunislic account)

The fauna of Hispaniola is of interest
to the naturalist because of its peculiar
zoogeographic affinities and because
of the large number of indigenous forms,
the affinities of which have not yet been
determined. The island may have been
at one time connected with Cuba and
at another with Jamaica. The fauna
of Porto Rico seems to be merely an
extension of that of Santo Domingo.

For example, among the reptiles and
amphibians of Hispaniola, Bujo, Gona-
todes, Leiocephalus and Amphisbaena
are all found in Cuba and most of them
in Porto Rico, while not a single one
occurs in Jamaica. On the other hand,
Aristelliger and Mabuya are found in
Hispaniola and Jamaica, the latter in
Porto Rico and neither in Cuba. An-
other illustration of this probable
duplex origin of the fauna of Hispaniola
is found among the large shiny scaled
lizards usually called "Lucia" by the
natives of Santo Domingo. There is
one species of this genus {Celestus) on
Cuba, three on Jamaica, while on His-
paniola there are four, these four rep-
resenting both Cuban and Jamaican
elements. In addition to this Cuban
and Jamaican facies to the Hispaniola
fauna, there is a touch of Bahaman
forms — no less than six species of rep-
tiles and amphibians being common to
the two regions.

Mention has already been made of
the large number of peculiar forms on
the island. The fauna may be sum-
marized as follows:

Mammals. Very few; Solenodon, pos-
sibly Capromys and several species
of bats.

Birds. A large and varied fauna.
Perhaps the most interesting are an
enormous piculid, Nesoctites, a peculiar
nightjar, several Todys, a crossbill, a
Brachyspiza and several birds of very
uncertain affinities, such as Microlegia,
Phoenicophilus, Calyptophilus, and
lastly Dulus, which looks something
like a cowbird but builds enormous
colonial nests.

Reptiles and amphibians. A large
fauna having affinities with other West
Indian genera and species; some very
spectacular forms among the tree frogs
and large iguanids. No poisonous snakes
occur on the island.

Fishes. Not well known, mostly West
Indian; Lima, a viviparous poeciliid
seems to be the dominant group through-
out the island occurring in such diverse
habitats as mountain brooks and brack-
ish lakes.

NATURAL AREAS Ar: RrGT XS

697

Invertebrates. A large fauna; insect
pests not numerous; spectacular forms
such as tarantulas, whip scorpions
and gaudy land Crustacea and molluscs
are frequently found.

II. NATURAL AREAS

There is very little "virgin country"
left in Hispaniola. The Haitians have
destroyed practically all of their natural
areas, while most of Santo Domingo,
except the dense forests, wet valleys,
gullies and hilltops, have been burnt
over at one time or another. It is very
discouraging to the naturalist to roam
over the wonderful central Cordillera
of the island and to never pass a day
without meeting a forest fire. The
arrieros make a point of burning these
fine forests of the interior in order to
make pasture lands they say, but it is
really for the fun of seeing the forests
burn.

Virgin areas

As a result of these fires the onlj' areas
which retain more or less of their original
biota are the rain forests, the wet moun-
tain gullies and the inaccessible deserts.
The following wet regions would deserve
special study. (1) The Quita Espuela
range in the north; (2) the gullies on
the north side of the central Cordillera
from Paso Bajito north to Jarabacoa;
(3j the rain forests of the Samana penin-
sula; (4) the northeastern parts of
Seibo Province; (5) the southern Baho-
ruco range (near Paradis) and (6) certain
parts of the southern peninsula of
Haiti. Certain deserts would be of
interest to the botanist. The largest
desert stretches from just east of Du-
vergc, north and west to Monte Cristi.

Travel routes

Travel in Hispaniola is now an easy
matter. The Clyde Steamship Com-
pany runs the most regular steamship
service to the island. At Monte Cristi,
the first point of call, one may dis-
embark and hire an auto to take one to
most any of the larger towns on the

island. '' iiio is not the least expensive
way to travel. The naturalist will
probably prefer hiring two mules and a
guide (the whole for about five dollars
a day) and striking off from the beaten
trail. If one is burdened with much
baggage, the Clj'^de boat will take it to
any of the seaports of Santo Domingo.
At Sanchez a Scotch railroad runs west
to La Vega. One may transfer to San
Francisco de Macoris if one intends to
investigate the northern mountains.
This northern range may also be entered
at Puerto Plata where a government
railroad running to Santiago has its
terminal. Since the United States Ma-
rines have entered the island one travels
usually by auto from town to town,
and then employs mules for ascending
the more difficult trails. Travel in
the island should not average more
than ten dollars a day per person.
Lastly, it may be added that the island
is now practically free from bandits.
N'avassa Island, West Indies. Belongs
to the United States, which maintains
a lighthouse. Reached from Guanta-
nomo, Cuba, by lighthouse tender.
Extremely arid conditions prevail, but
an unusually rich fauna for the size
of the island is preserved. A genus
of lizards, Chamaelinorops, is confined
to it. K. P. Schmidt.

in. LITERATURE

A traveler in Hispaniola should fa-
miliarize himself with such authoritative
accounts as Vaughan, Cooke, Condit,
Ross, Woodring and Calkins on "A
Geological Reconnaissance of the Domin-
ican Republic," 1921 (Washington).
There is only one map that approaches
accuracy. This is a French map (1908,
by A. Poujol and H. Thommasset),
handled by C. S. Hammond & Co.,
New York. The United States Marine
Corps have been engaged for some time
in a survey of the island, and it will
not be long before an accurate map will
be available. No ecological account
of the island has been published. The
various handbooks which have appeared
are of little use.

698

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

5. JAMAICA

By Forrest Shreve

The island of Jamaica lies between
17° and 18° N. latitude and 76 and 78° W.
longitude, 90 mi. south of the eastern
end of Cuba and almost equidistant
from the nearest portions of the main-
land of North, Central, and South
America. The extreme length of the
island is 144 mi., the extreme width
49 mi., and the area 4207 sq. mi. The
axis of the eastern end of the island is
formed by the Blue Mountains, which
are the youngest and highest range,
attaining 7428 ft. in Blue Mountain
Peak. In the center of the island a
limestone peak, Mt. Diablo, reaches an
elevation of 2300 ft., and just west of
it Bull Head is 2885 ft. in elevation. In
the southwestern part of the island are
the Mocho, Carpenter and Santa Cruz
Mountains, all less than 2500 ft. in
elevation. Just north of the center of
the island is a region nearly 40 mi.
long, in which there is an unbroken
succession of small limestone hills of
nearly uniform height, separated by
narrow anastomosing valleys in which
lime-sinks are abundant, giving to a
portion of the region the name of "Cock-
pit Country." The remainder of the
island is rolling or hilly, with the ex-
ception of the extensive alluvial plains
in the south-central portion, the swamps
in the south-western corner, and the
narrow alluvial plain which follows
parts of the coast line.

With respect to temperature the
climate of Jamaica is that typical of its
tropical latitude. The rainfall is great-
est in May and October and least in
July and August. Its distribution over
the island is determined by the prevail-
ing northeast trade wind and by the
local topography. At Port Antonio,
on the coast north of the Blue Moun-
tains, the total is 130 in., at Kingston,
on the coast south of the Blue Moun-
tains the annual total is 37 in. On the
summit of the Blue Mountains the total
is 168 in., an amount which is probably

greatly exceeded at about 4000 to 5000
ft. on the north slopes of the Blue
Mountains. The rainfall for other lo-
calities in the island ranges from 30
to 100 in.

VEGETATION

The original vegetation of Jamaica
has long been destroj'ed in the plain?
and valleys devoted to the cultivation
of sugar, bananas and coffee, but there
still remain in virgin condition extensive
areas of forest on the higher mountains
and on the relatively arid hills of the
south and southwest, as well as in the
Cockpit Country. There are also large
areas of swamp and savanna and smaller
ones of semi-desert that have not been
disturbed. Many of these areas which
are without economic value, but of the
greatest scientific interest, are held in
perpetuity as Crown Lands, which
assures their continuance in an undis-
turbed state. In the most frequented
portions of Jamaica the character of the
vegetation is largely determined by
introduced plants, such as the bamboo
and royal palm, the mango, tamarind
and breadfruit, the grass Arimdo donax,
and the large leguminous tree Pitheco-
lobhim saman.

The vegetation of Jamaica may be
very roughly divided into lowland rain-
forest, montane rain-forest, lowland
monsoon-forest, savanna, semi-desert,
grass swamps and mangrove swamps.

The lowland rain-forest covered the
northeastern corner of the island and
higher elevations and windward ex-
posures in the central parishes. What-
ever may have been the character of the
finest of the original rain-forests, there
exist today only suggestions of such
forests as may be seen in Vera Cruz or
Demarara. The height and density
of the canopy are seldom such as to
preclude a dense growth of subordinate
trees and shrubs, herbaceous plants,
lianes and epiphytes. There is, as usual,
a large number of species of trees, in-
cluding the silk cotton {Ceiha pentan-
dra), the Santa Maria tree {C alophyllum

i

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

699

calaha), the West Indian Cedar [Cedrela
odorata), the hog plum (Symphonin
glohulifera) and one or more species of
Eugenia, Nectandra, Solanum, Mj-rsine,
Miconia, Symplocos, Sciadophyllum,
Cecropia and Terminalia. The shrubs
are numerous in individuals and species,
belonging chiefly to the Melastomaceae,
Rubiaceae and Piperaceae. Two small
palms enter the forest and species of
Heliconia, as well as tree ferns, and
other large terrestrial, epiphytic and
climbing ferns.

The montane rain-forest lies above
4500 ft. It is not so tall as the lowland
forest, has a more open canopy, is
frequently broken by thickets of ferns
such as Gleichenia and Davallia or by
the slender bamboo Chusquea. The
composition of the forest is simpler
than on the lowlands, the dominant
trees being species of Clethra, Vac-
cinium, Podocarpus, Ilex, Cyrilla, and
Cleyera. The undergrowth is domi-
nated by ferns and Piperaceae, members
of both alliances showing a great diver-
sity of size and habit. Tree-ferns are
abundant, and the terrestrial and climb-
ing ferns and epiphytic ferns and mosses
are more numerous than the flowering
plants.

The lowland monsoon-forest is best
developed in the south-eastern parishes,
in the lee of the Blue Mountains, but it
merges into the lowland rain-forest in
the central portion of the island. Ex-
tensive cultivated areas were probably
covered with this type of forest under
their original condition. The stature of
the forest varies greatly from place
to place, but the canopy is always rela-
tively open. Lianes are frequent and
also climbing aroids, while the epiphytic
vegetation is almost confined to Brome-
lia, several species of Tillandsia, and
a few orchids and large ferns. Among
the commonest trees in the monsoon-
forest are Bursera simaruha, Haematoxy-
lon campechianum, Guiacum officinale,
Ardisia tinifolia and Bucida buceras.
The savannas of Jamaica have like-
wise been very largely brought under
cultivation, and have yielded much of

the sugar and banana land in the south-
ern parishes. They occupied alluvial
or very gently rolling areas, and were
characterized by a rainfall of 35 to 50
in. The formation consisted of a cover-
ing of coarse grasses and scattered
shrubs, with a very open stand of trees,
mostly either possessing very small
leaflets or having the drought-deciduous
habit. Characteristic trees are the
cashew (Prosopis juliflora), the logwood
(Haematoxylon campechianum), and Pi-
thecolobium unguis-cacti. In the vicinity
of Kingston large areas of former sa-
vanna and monsoon forest are now
occupied by open groves of the intro-
duced guango tree (Pithecolobium sa-
man), in the shade of which is grown
guinea grass {Panicum viaximum), the
principal forage plant of the island.

The semi-desert areas lie along the
south coast, chiefly on limestone in the
vicinity of the Healthshire Hills and
on Portland Point. The vegetation is
chiefly shrubs and small trees, growing
in open formation or more frequently
in closed thickets from 4 to 12 ft. in
height. The commonest shrubs are
several species of Acacia, Cassia, Inga,
and other leguminous forms, together
with Ardisia, Croton, and a number of
compositae. With them, and often in
considerable abundance, grow several
types of cacti, including the tall co-
lumnar "dildoe" {Cephalocereus swart-
zii), the slender Harrisia gracilis and
the massive turks head {Cactus me-
locactus).

The principal swamp areas are in the
parish of St. Elizabeth, with smaller
areas in Clarendon and Westmoreland.
These are formed chiefly of grasses and
coarse sedges and ferns, and are wholly
unlike the arborescent swamps of man-
grove {Rhizophora mangle and Avicennia
nitida) which skirt the coast of the
island at many localities.

Areas

The lowland rain-forest may best be
seen by driving up the Rio Grande from
St. Margaret's Bay or up the Buff Bay

700

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

River from Buff Bay, and by making
short excursions from the road into the
adjacent valleys. Less accessible but
more interesting examples can be seen
in Cunhacunha Pass, between the Blue
Mountain Peak and the John Crow Mts.,
reached by road from Bath. More
accessible lowland forest of the type
covering the central limestone areas
may be easily visited on Mt. Diablo,
reached by train to Ewarton, driving
road to a point between there and
Moneague, and by saddle or on foot to
Hollymount, a plantation near the sum-
mit. The Cockpit Country is best
seen by taking a train to Balaclava,
and driving thence to Troy.

The Montane rain-forest may be
reached in the saddle from Gordon
Town, using Cinchona as a base. Mor-
ces Gap and New Haven Gap, on the
main ridge, can be easily reached within
2 hours from Cinchona, either locality
affording typical virgin conditions.

A few typical remnants of the mon-
soon forest may be found along the coast
east of Kingston, between the mouth of
Hope River and the mouth of the Yal-
lahs, being easily accessible by driving
road, supplemented by excursions on
foot.

Typical remnants of the savanna may
be seen at a number of localities near
the railway between Kingston and May
Pen.

The semi-desert is most easily seen
by driving to Port Henderson, at the
mouth of Kingston Harbor, from Span-
ish Town.

The grassy swamps are most acces-
sible along the Black River, by driving
from Appleton or Ipswich, on the
Montego Bay Branch of the railway.
The mangrove swamps are well devel-
oped around the western end of Kings-
ton Harbor, near the railway station of
Gregory Park.

REFEKENCES

Goose, Philip Henry. Naturalist's So-
journ in Jamaica.

Shreve, Forrest. A Montane Rain-
Forest. Pub'n 199. Carnegie
Inst. Wash.

6. PORTO RICO AND THE VIRGIN
ISLAND 81

By N. L. Britton and Geo. N. Wolcott

I. General Conditions

A. general geography and geology

Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands,
forming the eastern part of the northern
axis of the West Indies, constitute a
geographical, geological and biological
province with many natural features in
common. The region with a total land
area somewhat less than that of the
State of Connecticut, lies within the
geographical area of west longitude
67° 56' (Mona Island) to west longitude
64° 16' (Anegada Island) north lati-
tude 17° 40' (St. Croix); 18° 33' (North-
ern coast of Porto Rico) and 18° 43'
(Anegada).

Porto Rico is traversed from west to
east by a mountain chain, composed of
highly tilted stratified rocks of cretace-
ous age and of great variety, largely of
volcanic ashes (tuffs) shales and some
hard, sparingly fossiliferous limestones,
with many intrusions of eruptive igneous
rocks also of many kinds. These moun-
tains reach altitudes of some 4200 ft.
in the Cordillera Central in the central
and western parts and of about 3500 ft.

1 It has been quite accurately studied during the
scientific survey of the region by the New York
Academy of Sciences, still in progress, in cooperation
with the insular government of Porto Rico, the
United States Naval government of the Virgin
Islands, the American Museum of Natural History,
the New York Botanical Garden, the geological and
anthropological departments of Columbia Univer-
sity and other cooperating institutions and individ-
uals. The publication and preparation of the re-
sults of this survey, as of July 1, 1925, may be
reported as follows :

Vol. I, Geology of Porto Rico, complete in four
parts, with maps and illustrations, pp. 384. Vol. II,
Geology of Porto Rico, parts 1 and 2, published,
with maps and illustrations; parts 3 and 4 in prep-
aration. Vol. Ill, Palaeontology of Porto Rico,
parts 1 and 2, published, with illustrations of Ter-
tiary Mollusca; other parts in preparation; Vol. IV,
Geology and Palaeontology of the Virgin Islands,
nearly completed for publication. Vol. V, Botany of
Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands, Spermatophyta,
complete in four parts, pp. 626; Vol. VI, Botany of
Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands, part 1, Sperma-
tophyta, published ; part 2, Spermatophyta, in press ;
parts 3 and 4, Pteridophj'ta, Bryophyta, nearly com-
plete for publication; Vols. VII and VIII, Botany of
Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands, Bryophyta,
Thallophyta, partly completed for publication;
Vol. IX, Zoology of Porto Rico, parts 1 and 2, Mam-
malia, with illustrations, in press; parts 3 and 4;
Aves, Reptilia, Amphibia, in preparation; Vols.
X-XII, reserved for Pisces and Invertebrata. —
N. L. B.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

701

in the Sierra de Luquillo in the eastern
portion; this cretaceous mountain axis,
broken and reaching much lower eleva-
tions, forms the Virgin Islands to the
east, the crown of St. Thomas being
about 1500 ft. altitude, the hills of St.
Jan about 1300 ft. Tortola about 1600
ft.; Virgin Gorda perhaps 1400. St.
Croix reaches about 1250 ft. on tlie
summit of Alt. Eagle.

East of the Virgin Passage the islands
of St. Thomas; St. Jan; Tortola and
Virgin Gorda have many dependent
bays and islets forming altogether the
most beautiful archipelago within the
American tropics; the marine views
from the hills are wonderfully attractive
and the climate is most enjoyable.
Anegada, the most eastern of the archi-
pelago, is a low aeolian limestone and
sand island, with considerable differ-
ences from all the others in its plant
and animal population. St. Croix lies
some miles south of the rest of the
archipelago and is also somewhat differ-
entiated biologically.

Lying unconformably on the upturned
edges of these cretaceous strata on the
northern and southern sides of Porto
Rico, except eastward, are Tertiary
shales and limestones locally heavily
fossiliferous, often cavernous, only
slightly tilted, deeply eroded into char-
acteristic peaked hills and mountains,
with many vertical escarpments; these
limestones attain great thickness in
western Porto Rico, thinning out east-
ward and seen only as isolated hills
and finally disappearing toward the
eastern end of that island and not rep-
resented at all in the Virgin Islands
from Culebra eastward; on St. Croix,
however, these Tertiary strata underlie
large areas.

The distribution of rainfall is widely
unequal in different parts of the prov-
ince, and especially in Porto Rico,
and is the most potent factor in the
natural distribution of plants. It is
greatest in the northeastern mountains
of the Sierra de Luquillo and in the
Cordillera Central, and least in the

southwestern parts of Porto Rico, w-here
desert conditions obtain, characterized
locally by the abundant growth of
several species of cacti and numerous
other xerophytic types.

B. POLITICAL RELATIONS AND
COMMUNICATION

Porto Rico; St. Croix (Santa Cruz);
St. Thomas and St. Jan are United
States Islands. Tortola, Virgin Gorda
and Anegada are British.

Porto Rico includes politically the
island dependencies Mona and Desecheo
to the west in the Mona Passage; Cayo
Muertos off the southern coast; Vieques
(Crab Island); Icacos; Culebra (Snake
Island); Culebrita and some other
islets to the east.

Porto Rico is reached by steamships
from New York in from three and one-
half to five days; St. Thomas and St.
Croix by steamers from New York in
five or six days, and there is regular
weekly interinsular steamship communi-
cation between Porto Rico, St. Thomas
and St. Croix. Excellent hotel and
boarding house accommodations are to
be had in all three of these islands.
The other islands of the archipelago are
reached only by motor-boats or sail
boats and accommodations for visitors
are meagre, and in order to study some
of them living on boats or camping is
necessary. — N. L. B.

II. Present Biotic Conditions
(N. L. B. AND G. N. W.)

The littoral halophytic flora and
fauna of the province remains in its
pristine condition; it contains but few
species not found widely distributed on
the coasts of the other West Indies and
of continental tropical America. Ex-
cept locally, the original vegetation of
most of the area has been profoundly
modified, and many of the species have
become either very rare, or eliminated.

Portions of the southwestern dry
districts are essentially in natural

702

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

conditions; natural rain forests are
now restricted to limited areas at high
elevations not very easily accessible.
Extensive reforestation is an acute need
for water conservation and for firewood
and other forest products; it has been
commenced in Porto Rico, with good
prospects of extension (but not in the
Virgin Islands).

All accessible agricultural areas in
Porto Rico, and many that elsewhere
would not be considered agricultural,
have been exploited to their maximum
because of the density of human popula-
tion. There are not now and never
were any large wild mammals in Porto
Rico. Native lizards and bats, the
mongoose, intentionally, and rats, acci-
dentally introduced, probably constitute
nine-tenths of the vertebrate life. The
Agouti, armadillo, boa, giant turtle
and several lizards are practically
extinct. There are no unpolluted
streams of any size in Porto Rico, as one
or two sugar-mills (Centrals) use water
from and drain into each one. The
largest unpolluted stream is Rio Gua-
jataca near Quebradillas (poor hotels
at Camuy and Isabela) with smaller
ones near Rio Grande and Mameyes. —
G.N.W.

The Rio Blanco, a stream of fair size
formed from several rivers draining the
greater portion of the south slopes of
the Luquillo Mountain Range is unpol-
luted except for the few miles of its
lower course through the municipality
of Naguabo. — E. M. Bruner.

Porto Rico does not ofTer the oppor-
tunity for studying natural areas in the
tropics that the comparatively little
exploited island of Hispaniola, especially
the part which is Santo Domingo,
Republica Domonicana, does. — G. N. W.

III. Travel and Areas Available
FOR Study

Porto Rico has a splendid system of
motor-car roads, paralleling the coasts
and crossing the mountains at several
points at elevations from about 2000
ft. to about 2800 ft. and there are numer-
ous vecinal roads reaching out in all

directions usually possible to Fords
in dry weather. A railroad extends
nearly all around the island. — A'^. L. B.

available areas
Lagoons, Limon or La Plata (B2)

Of interest because of wild fowl con-
gregating there. Considerable bodies of
water at times, at others not much
more than mud flats. Reached afoot
(one or two mi.) from the mentioned
R. R. stations, which are merely stations
and not towns, or by bus and horseback
from Yauco (hotels), or automobiles
(through cane roads) from Ensenada. —
G. N. W.
Lagunas, San Jose, Torrecilla, Pinones

Salt water lakes connecting with San
Juan Bay at Martin Pena Bridge in
Santurce and also directly with the
Ocean at Cangrejos some 8 or 10 mi.
east of Santurce. The three lakes are
connected by canals and can be navi-
gated at all times by small motor boats.
They are almost entirely surrounded by
mangrove forests which are included
in the Insular Forest system. Fish
and water fowl abound. The waters
present unusually vivid displays of
phorphoresence at night. — E. M. Bruner.

Laguna Tortuguero Sand Areas

Highly characteristic natural area
of white silicious sand occurs on the
northern coastal plain of Porto Rico,
especially about Laguna Tortuguero, a
large freshwater lake.

Reached by foot from stop "Algar-
roba" on the American R. R. and by
vecinal road from the vicinity of Vega
Baja or Manati; somewhat disturbed;
worthy of being made a nature reser-
vation.— A''. L. B.
Chaparral of Drij Deciduous Forest (B4)

"Ballena" near Yauco and "Vertera"
near Boqueron. Rough rocky areas
receiving too little rainfall and with too
little soil to be cultivated.— C. A^. W.

Tropical Rain Forest or Moist Deciduous
Forest (C4)

"Indiera," area unknown, altitude
about 2500 ft., consisting mostly of an

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

703

aliandoned coffee plantation now return-
ing to original conditions, with an
abundance of tree fern, orchids, etc.
Will doubtless soon have tree ferns,
etc., so cut as to be of little interest.
25 meters along the road now theoreti-
cally protected by law. Of greatest
value at present because it can be
reached so easily, and in climl)ing the
mountain from Yauco all gradations of
rainfall received can be noted.

Reached by auto from Yauco, 23 km.
on the new road to Lares and from
Lares.— (?. A^. W.

Steep Rocky Hills

Considerable area of dry deciduous
forest, that except for having some of
the larger trees cut and being grazed
by goats and cattle, will probably re-
main unchanged. Between Yauco and
Ponce, readily accessible by R. R.,
auto road, or by foot, from either city. —
G. N. W.

EXISTING AND PROPOSED INSULAR

FORESTS

Luquillo National Forest (A3)

See in Eastern Forest District.

*Maricao Insular Forest

Contains approximately 5000 acres.
Is situated in the mountainous region
embracing the headwaters of several
important streams within the munici-
palities of Maricao, San German, and
Sabana Grande. About 2000 acres are
deforested lands upon which very in-
teresting reforestation projects are being
conducted. More than half of the total
area consists of one body of typical
tropical rain forest which has been but
slightly disturbed from its original
condition. It is quite similar in general
characteristics to the Luquillo National
Forest and is the second largest area of
orignal or virgin forest growth in the
island, the Luquillo Forest being by
far the largest virgin forest area. —
E. M. Bruner.

*Guanica Harbor Forest

An area of some 5000 acres covering
low ridges along the south coast imme-
diately east of Guanica Harbor. Ex-
ceedingly rocky, thin-soiled land and
characterized by semi-arid climate.
Original forest practically destroyed.
Accessible to the towns of Guanica and
Yauco. There are numerous trails mak-
ing the entire area accessible. A few
guinea may still be found. One of the
few places in Porto Rico where lignum
vitae still occurs. — E. M. Bruner.

*Point Barraco Forest

Contains about 500 acres covering a
narrow rocky ridge protruding into the
Carribean at the west side of Guayanilla
Bay. Is in every respect similar to the
Guanica Harbor Forest from the eastern
end of which it is separated only by a
narrow strip of land. Is easily acces-
sible from the Sugar Central of Lluveras
Hermanos between the towns of Gua-
yanilla and Yauco. — E. M. Bruner.

Mona Island Forest

Situated in Mona Passage, midway
between Porto Rico and Santo Domingo,
and belonging to the former. The con-
ditions of climate and vegetation are in
many ways unique, representing an
extreme of aridity and of development
of the cactus flora on nearly bare lime-
stones. Except for the relatively small
amount of coastal plain, which has
already been more or less cleared of its
original forest growth, the entire Island
of Mona will I)e preserved in a natural
condition. The few trails on the island
are nothing more than dim paths which
can be followed only by one thoroughly
familiar with them. The forest growth
of the elevated land hardly attains tree
size at all but is merely a brush forest
over the greater portion of the area,
though tree sizes may be attained by a
few species in some small scattered spots
having a comparatively fair depth of
soil. Over most of the area the scrubby
forest cover is quite dense and is made

704

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

up of both woody and herbaceous plants.
Many species of cacti, varying from the
creeping and low or ground forms to the
true tree cactus, abound and add greatly
to the discomforts and difficulty of
travel. The occurrence of the large
lizard, Cyclura stejnegeri, and of a West
Indian boa, Epicrates monensis, in con-
siderable numbers is notable. The
Cijclura is extinct in Porto Rico, the
boa nearly so.

35 mi. slightly southwest of the city of
Mayaguez. Reached by the motor
boat or sail boat of the Light House
Service which maintains a more or less
regular service between Mayaguez and
the Light House situated on Mona
Island. There are usually about two
sailings per week. Small parties can
find accommodations at the light house,
though food and army cots should be
carried. From 6 to 24 hours are re-
quired for the trip either way between
Mayaguez and the lighthouse. — G. N. W.
E. M. B.. and K. P. Schmidt.

*Insular Mangrove Forests

These consist of numerous parcels of
tidal swamp lands supporting mangrove
forests with an aggregate area of about
15,000 acres. They occur on the north,
east, south and west coasts and in no
less than 20 different localities. In
addition to the true mangrove, Rhizo-
phora mangle, three other species and
sometimes four are found. All five
species are locally called mangrove
(mangle in Spanish). — E. M. Bruner.

*Porto Rico's Small Islands

Desecheo in the Mona Passage, is
already a bird preserve; it is xerophytic,
its rocks cretaceous, and it exhibits
highly interesting elevated beaches
similar to those at points on the coast
of Porto Ilico. Cayo Muertos is also
limestone, with natural scrub vegetation
of great density. Vieques is a long
narrow island, largely occupied by
sugar-cane fields but with some unmod-
ified areas, partly underlain by creta-

ceous rock partly by Tertiary lime-
stones. Icacos consists of a pure white
soft limestone, with highly interesting
natural low vegetation. Culebra and
Culebrita are xerophytic and but little
modified, their rocks cretaceous. — N.
L. B.

Luquillo National Forest {Porto Rico)

Area 12,443 acres. Is typical tropical
rain-forest comprising large variety of
hardwood species, some of which in the
more favored locations attain great
size. On the headwaters of the Ma-
meyes River trees of Dacryodes excelsa,
locally called tabonuco, reach heights
of approximately 100 ft. and diameters
up to 60 in., and occur in fair sized
stands. On the higher mountain tops,
and particularly on the crest of El
Yunque Mountain forests occur as
extremely dense stands of dwarfed
trees from 6 to 10 ft. in height and 2 to 4
in. in diameter, and made up for the
most part of the same species which
attain fair sizes at lower altitudes and
on more favorable locations. These
dwarf forests are characterized by the
presence of mosses almost completely
enveloping the trunks and branches of
the trees and hanging from the crowns
in short thick bunches. Because of the
high humidity and excessive rainfall
these mosses are at all times throughout
the year completely saturated with
moisture and dripping water. The
Luquillo is essentially a protective
forest because of its excessive rainfall
which averages about 140 in. per year,
the exceedingly rugged topography of
the Luquillo Range, and on account of
the necessity of stream-flow protection
for the benefit of the surrounding rich
agricultural lands. A complete forest
cover will be preserved and over most
of the area this will be kept in its original
condition. El Yunque, the highest peak,
is 3483 ft. Other high and well known
peaks are El Cacique, El Duque and
El Toro.

Of particular interest are the series
of falls and cascades of the four main

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

705

tributaries of the Rio Blanco (White
River), viz, Rio Hicaco, Rio Camuy,
Rio Prieto and Rio Sabana. These
streams which drain the greater portion
of the south slope of the Luquillo Range
fall some 2000 ft. in a horizontal dis-
tance of about two mi., and form the Rio
Blanco by their confluence just above
the Preston Ranch which is situated
about 5 mi. from Naguabo and from
which it is accessible by automobile.

Some 30 mi. of bridle trail have re-
cently been built through and about the
Forest, the one fron) Hacienda Catalina
to the peak of El Yunque being surfaced
by loose broken stone and laid out on a
very easy grade.

Supervisor's headquarters at Rio
Piedrasl. Forest may be reached by
auto from San Juan to Mameyes Hac-
ienda Santa Catalina (one hr.) thence
afoot by trail to summit of the peaks.
A public shelter just below El Yunque;
nearest hotel at Rio Grande.— £^. M.
Bruner.

REFERENCES (n. L. B.)

Bello y Espinosa, Domingo. Apuntes
para la Flora de Puerto-Rico. Ann.
Soc. Espanola Hist. Nat., Vol. 10,
pp. 231-304 (1881); Vol. 12, pp. 103-
130 (1883).

Britton, N. L. The Vegetation of Mona
Island. Mem. Missouri Bot. Gard.,
, Vol. 2, pp. 33-55, pi. 1 (1915).

Britton, N. L. and Wilson, Percy. Bot-
any of Porto Rico and the Virgin
Islands.— Spermatophyta, Sci. Sur
Porto Rico and Virg. Ids., Vol. 5;
Vol. 6, parts 1 and 2 (1923-1925) New
York Academy of Sciences.

Cook, O. F. and Collins, G. N. Eco-
nomic Plants of Porto Rico. Contr.
U. S. Nat. Herb., Vol. 8, pp. 57-269,
plates 13-55, 1903.

Howe, Marshall A. Report on a visit to
Porto Rico for collecting Marine
Algae. Bull. N. Y. Bot. Gard., Vol.
16, pp. 219-225 (1915).

Stahl, Agustin. Estudios sobre la Flora
de Puerto-Rico. Published in six
parts, 1883-1888.

Stevenson, John A. A Check List of
Porto Rican Fungi and a Host Index.
Journ. Dep. Agric. Porto Rico, Vol.
2, pp. 125-264 (1918).

Urban, Ign. Flora Portoricensis. Sym-
bolae Antillanae, Vol. 4, pp. 771,
1903-1911.

Wilson, Percy. The Vegetation of
Vieques Island. Bull. N. Y Bot
Gard., Vol. 8, pp. 379-410 (1917).

REFERENCES (g. N. W.)

Allen, G. M. Mammals of the West
Indies. Bull. Museum Comp. Zool.,
Vol. 54, July, 1911, pp. 175-263.

Anthony, H. E. Indigenous Land Mam-
mals of Porto Rico, Living and
Extinct. Memoirs, American Mu-
seum of Natural History, N. S.. Vol
2, pt. 2.

Gundlach, Juan. Fauna Puerto-
Riquena. In Ann. Soc. Espanola
Hist. Nat. (Vol. 16-22, May, 1887-
January, 1894. Insects.) Madrid.

Investigation of the Aquatic Resource
Fisheries of Porto Rico. On the
U. S. Fish Commission Steamer Fish
Hawk in 1899. Bull. U. S. Fish
Commission, Vol. 20, pt. 102, 1900
(lfi02), pp. 1416.

Murphy, Louis S. Forests of Porto
Rico, Past, Present and Future.
U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. No. 354,
October 20, 1916.

Schmidt, K. P. Contributions to the
Herpetology of Porto Rico. Annals
of the New York Academy of
Sciences, Vol. 28, pp. 167-200,
September 8, 1920.

Stejneger, Leonhard. Herpetologv of
Porto Rico. Report U. S. National
Museum, 1902, pp. 549-724. (No.
129, 1904.)

Wetmore, Alex. Birds of Porto Rico
U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. No. 326.

Wolcott, G. N. Insectae Portoricensis.
Jour. Dept. Agr. P. R., Vol. 7, No. 1,
January, 1923 (to be issued about
February, 1924.) Insular Experi-
ment Station, Rio Piedras, P. R.

IV. Virgin Islands (N. L. B.)

ST. CROIX (S.\NTA CRTJZ)

Lying isolated in the sea about 40
mi. south of the Virgin Passage, with one
contiguous islet, St. Croix is visible
in clear weather from the hills of Porto
Rico and St. Thomas. There is a range
of hills and low mountains of stratified
and eruptive cretaceous rocks along its
highly picturesque north-western coast,
and a few hundred acres of forest exist
here at higher elevations; otherwise this
island has been deforested; these hills
cause a moderate rainfall in the central
and western districts; they should be

706

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

reforested, at least, in part. East-
ward the land is low undulating locally
hilly and nearly level, underlain by the
cretaceous strata, the rainfall less and
xerophytic conditions evidenced by
abundant cacti and Agaves, obtain over
large areas. South of the northwestern
hills, extending eastward into the cen-
tral districts, slightly tilted, heavily
fossiliferous Tertiary limestones overlie
the older strata, which locally appear
as erosion areas in isolated hills. There
are numerous water-courses on St.
Croix, which may for the most part
run dry in periods of drought; along
these, locally, and along the coasts,
areas of natural vegetation are found.
Most of the arable soil of the island is
occupied by sugar-cane plantations.
St. Croix has an excellent system of
roads, except in its dry eastern parts,
which are not easily accessible.

ST. THOMAS

Forming the eastern coast of the
Virgin Passage, the rocky cretaceous
hills of St. Thomas rise abruptly; there
is very little level land and steep slopes
preponderate. Except for a few hun-
dred acres in detached areas at the
higher elevations, the original forests
disappeared long ago; the denuded steep
hillsides do not retain much of the
moderate rainfall, the run-off being
very rapid. Considerable areas at lower
elevations are rather densely covered
with scrub vegetation, among which
occasional larger trees exist, but truly
undisturbed natural conditions are
scarcely to be found., except locally,
along and near the coasts. As would be
expected, many species recorded by
early authors as found on St. Thomas,
have not been observed there in recent
times; a few of these are endemic, not
known from elsewhere, and have prob-
ably been exterminated.

There is a limited amount of good
driving road on St. Thomas, most parts
of the island being reached only on foot
or by horse; the irregular coast line is
indented with many beautiful bays and

coves, accessible l)y boats, sailing in
these waters and eastward through the
rest of the archipelago being highly
enjoyable.

ST. JAN

St. Jan or St. John, lies immedately
east of St. Thomas and forms the eastern
frontier of the United States in the
West Indies. Like St. Thomas, it is
almost wholly hilly, its rocks similar;
its coast line is less indented, but there
are bays at both the west end and the
east. This island presents a more
luxuriant appearance, however, on ac-
count of its forests of the bay tree or
bay-rum tree, covering extensive areas,
and yielding by distillation oil of bay
of superior quality; these forests or
groves are carefully maintained nearly
pure, by cutting out other trees and
shrubs, but there are also some small
areas of mixed natural forest, one of
them near the western end of the island
protecting a ravine of great beauty,
with a mossy brook.

To study St. Jan the visitor must
proceed on foot, by horse and boat;
there are no driving roads.

TORTOLA

Separated from St. Jan by a narrow
strait, Tortola much resembles St.
Thomas in its hilly topography, and its
irregular rocky coast line. It is a little
higher, however, and one gets the
impression that its slopes, on the whole,
are scarcely as steep. A few hundred
acres of the highest hill are still in
forests, known as "High Bush" and at
the time of my visit in 1913 were essen-
tially undisturbed and made up of
characteristic West Indian tree species,
wholly suitable for a nature reservation,
and as a nucleus for reforestation.
Here, as on contiguous islands, little-
disturbed areas occur in places along
the coasts, most conveniently reached
by water. Tortola has several island
dependencies of considerable area,
rather heavily wooded, or at least so
appearing.

:;atural areas and regions

707

VIRGIN GORDA

The cretaceous mountain axis ter-
minates eastward in the hills of Virgin
Gorda. Tlais island lies a few miles east
of Tortola and is but sparsely inhabited.
The hills along its northern coast are
similar to those of Tortola, St. Jan and
St. Thomas and they are more forested
and less disturbed. The lower part of
Virgin Gorda is largely composed of
great masses of coarse granite rocks,
forming rectangular blocks as large as
houses, giving one the impression from
the sea of a ruined city; a contiguous
islet of the same structure is known
indeed as "Broken Jerusalem." This
physiographic feature is very striking
and unusual.

ANEGADA

Anegada is about ten mi. long and a
little over two mi. wide at about the
middle. It rises only a few feet above
the sea; the eastern and central parts
are a nearly level plain of aeolian lime-
stone; the western part is a plain of
sand, with saline areas and salt ponds.
Its vegetation includes a number of
species not known to grow on other
Virgin Islands.

REFERENCES (N. L, B.)

Borgesen, F. The Marine Algae of the
Danish West Indies. Vol. 1, pp. 226,
fig. 1-170 (Copenhagen, 1913, 1914);
Vol. 2, pp. 498, fig. 1-435 (Copen-
hagen, 1915-1920).

Borgesen, F., and Paulsen, Ove. Om
Vegetationen paa de Dansk-Ves-
tindiske Oer. Bot. Tidsskr., Vol. 22,
pp. 1-114 (1898).

Britton, N. L. The Flora of the Ameri-
can Virgin Islands. Mem. Brooklyn
Bot. Card., Vol.1, pp. 19-117 (1918).

Britton, N. L. The Vegetation of Ane-
gada. Mem. N. Y. Bot. Card., Vol.
6, pp. 565-580 (1916).

Eggers, H. F. A. Flora of St. Croix and
the Virgin Islands, West Indies.
Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 13, pp.
133 (1879).

Millspaugh, C. F. Flora of the Island of
St. Croix. Field Mus. Bot. Vol. 1,
pp. 441-546 (1902).

Seaver, Fred J. The Fungous Flora of
St. Thomas. Mycologia, Vol. 16,
pp. 1-15. 1924.

Seaver, Fred J. The Fungous Flora of
St. Croix. Mycologia, Vol. 17, pp.
1-18. 1925.

7. DUTCH WEST INDIES

By H. Burrington Baker

I. general conditions

Topography

The five islands of this group, Curagao,
Klein-Curagao, Bonaire, Klein-Bonaire,
and Aruba lie just off the north coast
of Venezuela, but all of them except the
last are separated from the mainland
by great depths (1400 meters) of water.
Physiographically, these islands are
very similar to the coastal strip of
Venezuela, although the soil is more
calcareous, due to the large exposures
of coral-reef limestone.

Superficially, each of these islands is a
canoe-anticline, with the thick, late
Tertiary, coral-formations at the sur-
face. Erosion has removed the crest
of the fold, so that the central region
exposes the older, metamorphic and
igneous rocks, while the narrowed
limestone rim is broken into bold,
triangular monadnocks, often separated
from each other by narrow-mouthed
bays (sunken stream valleys), and with
precipitous escarpments on their eastern
sides.

Climate

These islands are very arid; the
mean annual precipitation at Willems-
tad, Curagao, is 561 mm.; at Oranjestad,
Aruba, 435 mm.; at Kralendijk, Bonaire,
516 mm. The driest month is May with
a mean precipitation, at Willemstad,
of 11 mm., while the wettest is No-
vember, with a mean of 118 mm. How-
ever, the rainfall is very variable; a
rainy month may record precipitation
much greater than that of a dry year,
and a goodly proportion arrives in a
few, torrential storms. The eastern
sides of the islands are more arid than
the western ones; the desiccating trades,
where they first touch land, produce a
landscape that resembles that of moun-
tain peaks, at and above timberline,
but with occasional dunes of dazzingly
white, coral sand. The temperature
(mean annual (1903-1921) at Willemstad,
27°C.; extremes 20° to 33°) and the wind

708

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

direction (85.7 per cent from the east)
are as constant as the rainfall is variable.
The mean daily variation in temperature
(24.9° to 29.5°), although small, is twice
that of the mean monthly records
(25.9°, January to March, to 28.3°,
September).

II. BIOTA

The flora is characterized by the
abundance of Croton. Commonly the
omnipresent thorn-trees are dwarfed
and distorted by the trade winds; the
foliage of the dividivi usually consists
of a flat, matted fan, which only spreads
out to the leeward of the trunk. The
giant, organpipe cacti are among the
most conspicuous features of the vege-
tation, while the flat-jointed cacti
(jOpuntia) are almost everywhere, and
the large "niggerheads" of Melocactus
and the spiked rosettes of Agave may
be about the only plant life near the
summits of the larger, limestone monad-
nocks. Nowhere can the vegetation
truly be called a forest, although, in
protected places, especially on the
leeward slopes of the higher hills, larger
trees {Bursera, Casearia, Bumelia, Ma-
chaonia, Guaiacum, etc.) do form small,
or even quite extensive, open groves.
Quite a few of the trees and shrubs shed
their leaves during the driest portion of
the year, although evergreen plants are
also prevalent. On the leeward slopes
of the highest peaklets (Sint Christoffel-
berg; 372.4 meters), are the most heavily
wooded valleys in the islands; especially
conspicuous are the large mats of Bro-
melia lasiantha, while a few epiphytes
(Tillandsia, Ficus, etc.) somewhat in-
crease the luxuriance of the arboreal
foliage.

These islands are naturally without
large mammals, although deer have been
introduced on Curagao; the monotonous
avifauna is especially characterized by
the gray mockingbirds and shrikes,
although parrakeets lend a touch of
color in the more protected cliffs. A
large, nesting colony of flamingos lives
among the salt-pans of southern Bonaire.

Ground lizards (Cnemidophorus) are
very abundant everywhere and the cliffs
are often infested by large iguanas.
Terrestrial molluscs are almost lacking
in the central region, but the limestone
rim, although poor in generic diversity,
support an individual abundance, of
such genera as Cerion and Tudora,
that I have never seen surpassed.
Due to the isolation of the islands,
practically all of the native species
(also the genera Stoastomo-ps and Cistu-
lops) are endemic, and the frequent
breaks in the limestone rim are coin-
cident with a remarkable diversity of
closely related species, subspecies and
local races. The affinities of this mol-
luscan population are with that of the
northern Antilles, rather than with that
known from the adjacent mainland, but,
as already indicated, the coastal fauna
of A^enezuela has been little studied.
Although the larger trees are cut for
charcoal, and the aloes fields of Aruba
have replaced the natural vegetation
of some of the limestone plains, the
aridity of these islands, and of the
coastal strip of Venezuela, has safe-
guarded the preservation of natural
conditions throughout these semi-
deserts. However, thriving coco-plan-
tations are maintained wherever the
ground water is near the surface or
irrigation is possible. A few springs
comprise most of the freshwater in the
islands, although sink-holes in the lime-
stone commonly form natural wells
with varying degrees of salinity. De-
spite the dry climate, protected embay-
ments are usually lined by mangrove-
thickets, both on the islands and along
the mainland; these are infested by an
abundance of large, burrowing crabs.
Another peculiar phenomenon of this
region is presented by the large armies of
"soldasjis" (hermit-crabs) which march
down from the highlands, during the
rains, to "wash their eggs" in the ocean.

III. GUIDE AREAS

Included in account of Venezuela.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

709

IV. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baker, H. Burrington. 1924. Occ. Pa-
pers Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich., No.
152. Land and Freshwater Mol-
luscs of the Dutch Leeward Islands.
Notes on topography and climate,
with brief descriptions of most por-
tions of the limestone rims of all of
the islands. Small maps and photo-
graphs.

Bcldingh, I. 1914. The Flora of
Curagao, Aruba and Bonaire. Lei-
den. Detailed account, with notes
on formations, regions, and topog-
raphy. Bibliography.

Lorie, J. 1887-9. Samml. Geol. Reichs-

mus. Leiden, 2 se., Bd. I., pp. 111-
149. Geology.

Martin, K. 1887-8. Bericht ubor eine
Reise nach Niederlandisch West In-
dien;vols. I and II. Leiden. Very
detailed account, copiously illus-
trated, of topograph}', geology and
history. Geological maps, rather
indefinite.

Ruthven, A. G. 1923. Occ. Papers
Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich., no. 143.
Reptiles of the Dutch Leeward
Islands.

N.B.: Large scale, accurate, contour-
maps of Curasao, Aruba, and Bonaire
and Klein-Bonaire can be obtained from
Government Secretaries, Willemstad,
Curagao.

D. Pacific Islands

1. GALAPAGOS ISLANDS

They consist of 5 larger and 10 smaller
islands about 600 mi. west of the coast of
Ecuador. The largest island has an
area of 1560 sq. mi., and an extreme
elevation of 5000 ft. The area of the
entire group is 2870 sq. mi.

As a rule the shore and lower eleva-
tions are parched and rocky presenting
only a few thickets of Peruvian cactus
and stunted shrubs, up to an elevation
of 800 ft. Above this height and occa-
sionally coming down to the shore, are
trees with deep green bushes covered
with orchids and trailing moss. The
shores of the larger island are fringed
in some parts with a dense growth of
mangrove.

There were probably 15 species of
giant land tortoise at the time of the
discovery of the island. Seven of these
are known to science and each is confined
to its particular island. A peculiar
genus of lizard has one shore species and
one distinctly land species (extracted
from Encyclopaedia Briiannica).

BEFERENCES

Dall, W. H. 1896. Insular Landshell
Faunas, especially as illustrated by
the data obtained by Dr. G. Baur in
the Galapagos Islands. Proc. Phil.
Acad. Nat. Sci., 1896, pp. 395-459.

Beebe, William. 1924. Galapagos:

World's End. G. P. Putnam's Sons.

2. PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

MOUNT MAKILING AS A STATION
FOR BIOLOGICAL STUDY

By F. T. McLean

One of the most accessible areas of
natural tropical forest near Manila is
about 40 mi. (70 km.) southeast, on the
slopes of Mount Makiling, an extinct
volcanic cone about 3500 ft. (1143
meters) high and 2\ mi. from the town of
Los Bafios. This mountain, covering an
area of 10,000 acres, and its immediate
surroundings provide examples of nearly
all of the principal types of natural
habitats common in the Philippine
Islands; Los Bailos borders on Lake Bay,
the largest body of fresh water in the
archipelago, and near the town may be
found shallow lake and shore vegetation,
fresh water swamps, and both hot and
cool saline bogs surrounding the mineral
springs, which give to the town its
Spanish name of "The Baths." Be-
tween the lake and the mountain are
some cultivated and some abandoned
fields in almost all stages of reforesta-
tion— first the mixed growth of weeds,
then rank growths of tall grasses, con-
stituting the "Congonales," and scrul:)
growths of short-lived trees. On the
lower slopes of the mountains, and to the
east extending out onto comparatively
flat lands, are areas of High Forest

710

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

quite typical of those parts of the
Philippine lowlands with a seasonal
distribution of rainfall. Beween 1500
ft. (500 meters) and 2700 ft. (900 meters)
elevation the forest is classed as rain
forest, and is quite similar in appearance
and composition to that of the northern
and eastern slopes of the Islands gener-
ally, where the rainfall is non-seasonal.
The elevations above 2700 ft. to the
summit are mainly covered with ex-
tremely moist forest, called the mossy
forest, on account of the heavy coating
of moss on most of the tree trunks.
Interspersed in openings and exposed
areas of shallow soil within this region
are patches of rank growths of grasses —
Miscanthus, Saccharum and Imperala
(Cogon). Thus all of the principal
types of habitats, except the mangrove
swamps, strand forests, and subalpine
scrub, are represented in the Mount
Makiling area.

Because of its accessibility from
Manila from which it may be reached
by train or auto in about two hours, or
by boat, the wild life has been more
thoroughly studied on this mountain
than on many other areas of similar
diversity in the tropics. Extensive
collections have been made here of the
insects, reptiles, birds and plants par-
ticularly. Further, the Colleges of
Agriculture and Veterinary Science and
the Forest School of the University of
the Philippines are located at the foot of
Mount Makiling, and the mountain
has been set aside as a natural botanic
garden. It has been opened up by a
system of trails constructed and main-
tained by the Forest School, and all
forms of wild life are protected. The
facilities of the school laboratories and
the assistance of capable student assist-
ants have always been available for
visiting scientists.

FRESH WATER LAKE

The lake and swamp vegetation
bordering on Lake Bay at Los Banos
have been studied by Gates, ^ and his

' Gates, C. F. Swamp vegetation in hot springs
^rea in Los Banos, Laguna, P. I. Phil. Jour. Sci., 9:

paper has been consulted with reference
to them. The lake is shallow for the
most part, and in many places supports
a growth of eel grass, Vallisneria gi-
gantea Graebn.; inata, Ceratophyllum
demersum L.; and pondweed, Polcmio-
geton malainus Miq. attached to the
bottom. Floating aquatics, such as
quiapo, Pistia stratioies L. lia, Lemna
sp. and the introduced water hyacinth,
Eichhornia crassipes Solms, are abun-
dant. A number of migratory aquatic
and shore birds are found on and around
the lake during the winter. Fish of many
species occur in the lake, notwithstand-
ing the fact that the natives get a large
part of their subsistence from lake
fishing, and some of these fish are curious
in that they are normally salt water
forms, which have wandered in from
Manila Bay and have apparently become
accustomed to the fresh water habitat.
Small clams are also found in the
lake and some of the tributary streams.

FRESH WATER MARSH

In the shallow water along the eastern
shore of the lake, particularly, are large
areas of lotus, Nelumbium speciosus
Willd; in a similar location near Los
Banos the white water lily, Castalia
sellata (Willd.) Blume occurs. In shal-
lower water and in wet marsh occur
Typha angustifolia L. var. javanica
Schnizl. and the equally cosmopolitan
Pragmites vulgaris Trin. On the satu-
rated soils bordering these, and occa-
sionally flooded occur the blue flowered
Monochoria spp.; Polygonum spp. and
Ipomea; a sedge, Fimhristylis miliacea
(L.) Vahl. There appear to be no
indigenous shore birds characteristic
of this area, though there are many
migrants. As in all open ground areas
of the Philippines, life forms of wide
distribution predominate here, the only
important exception being among the
frogs, of which the common species such
as Rana Vettigera Wiegmann are indige-
nous to the Philippines.

SALINE MARSHES NEAR THE HOT SPRINGS

In the salty waters flowing from the
hot mineral springs there are in the

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

711

hotter parts a number of interesting
algae and bacteria, some of them occur-
ring at temperatures as high as 60°C.
In the areas saturated with the cooled
salt water are plants usually associated
with the seashore swamps, such as the
large, coarse fern, Achroslichum aureum
L. The salty areas are too restricted
to support characteristic salt water
animal life.

BEACH

The pioneer vegetation of the drier,
more sandy lake shores is dominated by
two cosmopolitan species of vines, the
pataning dagat or "Sea bean," Canavalia
lineata (Thunb.) DC, and Ipomea pes
caprae L. Both of these are widely
distributed on exposed shore lines
throughout the tropics.

GRASSLANDS AND OPEN BRUSH

The vegetation of the abandoned
fields of the lowlands consists largely of
introduced forms and species of very
wide distribution throughout the trop-
ics. This area, extending from the lake
to well into the foothills of Mount
Makiling, is therefore primarily of
interest to students of plant succession,
for many of the steps from the cultivated
fields to high forest may be seen here.
The first growth immediately after an
area is abandoned is composed of herbs,
herbaceous vines and grasses: Ageratum
conyzoides L., Cor chorus acutangulus
Lam., Amaranthus spp.. Mimosa pudica,
L., Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn.;
Paspalum conjugatum Berg., Cynodon
dactylon (L.) Pers. and Eleusine indica
(L.) Gaertn., are some of the com-
monest forms. These and most of the
grassland species are either introduced
or widely distributed species, there being
comparatively few endemic forms. A
few low shrubs also appear early in the
revegetation of cleared areas; notably
Blumea balsamifera (L.) DC., Sida
retiisa L, Urena lobata L. and Desmodium
spp.

A second step is the conversion of the
weed areas into more nearly pure grass,
by the entry and spread of such rank

grasses as Cogon, Impereta cylindrica
(L.) Beauv., talahib, Saccharum sponla-
neum L., etc. These are usually ac-
companied by such shrubs as Flemingia
strobilfcra (L.) R. Br., Mallotus muri-
catus, Mussaenda phillipica L. C. Rich,
with its conspicuous white leaflike
floral bracts and Tabernaemontana pan-
dacaqui Poir., an endemic species with
clusters of conspicuous white, jasmine-
like flowers and brilliant red and yellow
seed pods. Among these are the fore-
runners of the arborescent flora; several
introduced forms, such as aroma, Acacia
farnesiana (L.) Willd., Psidium guajava,
Linn., Averrhoabilimbi, L., A. carambola,
L., and Laucaena glauca (L.) Benth.,
all of American origin; Bauhinia niala-
barica Roxb., Leea manillensis Walp.
and Laportea spp., the giant stinging
nettles.

These grasslands or "Congonales"
are of great extent in the Philippines,
and indeed through the entire Indoma-
layan region. They are a result of a
sj'stem of temporary and shifting cul-
tivation by the Malays, who with
their primitive implements are poorly
equipped to combat in their fields such
vigorous grasses as the cogon, Imperata
cylindrica (L.) Beuv. These abandoned
cogonales would quickly grow up to
trees, as such areas are doing around
the college lands, if it were not for
frequent fires, which destroy all but the
more resistant trees, such as the aroma.
Acacia Farnesiana (L.) Willd., the
binayuyu, Aniidesma ghaesembilla
Gaertn., and the alibangbang, Bauhinia
malabarica Roxb., and even these are
stunted by the frequent burning, as
the natives usually fire these patches
three or four times a year.

The next development in the suc-
cession is the brush forest or "Parang,"
composed of numerous species of small,
rapid-growing trees, such as Macaranga
spp., Mallohis spp., labayo, Melochia
umhellata Stapf., Premna spp., Ficus
nota Merr. (tibig), Ficus hauili Blanco
(Hauili), Ficus ulmifolia Lam. (isis),
Ficus pseudopaJma Blanco, and bayag-
usa Voacanga globosa Merr. Among

712

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

these occur a few species of larger
stature; anilao. Columbia serratiJoUa
Merr., anabion, Trema orientalis Blume,
alim, Mallotus moluccanus Muell. —
Arg., Duhat, Eugenia cumini (Linn.)
Merr., anubing, Actocarpus cumingiana
Tree, and many others. Beneath these
the first evidences of shade-loving
undergrowth appear; such herbs as
pungapung, Amorphophalus companula-
tus (Roxb.) Blume, with its huge, ill-
smelling flowers with purple and yellow
spathes in May, Sida humilis Willd. and
Syndrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn., alpinia
spp., Donax cannaeformis , K. Shum.,
Flagellaria indica, Linn., Nephrolepis
hirsutula (Forst.) Pr., and Kolowralia
elegans Presl. Many vines are also in
evidence; Lygodium circinnatum Sw.,
with twining fronds 15 or more ft.
long, and with occasional branches from
the axils of the pinnae nearly as long
as the main rachis; Aristolochia tagala
Cham., Bridelia stipularis (L.) Blume,
a trim, hemispherical shrub in youth
and later developing into a scrambling
vine; several species of Convolvulaceae,
of the genera Hewittia and Merrimia,
and species of Piper, close relatives of
the betel and black peper and Schefflera
spp., which is more properly an epiphy-
tic shrub, with its roots finally extending
to the ground; also species of root-
climbing aroids of the genus Raphido-
phora, and the climbing bamboo,
Schizostachium diffusum Merr. The
Philippine mistletoe, Loranthus philip-
pinensis, Cham and Schlecht, which is
abundant on a number of the parange
trees, is of special interest, because it in
turn is frequently parasitized by another
member of the Loranthaceae, a species of
Viscum, which is likewise a green-
leaved hemiparasite. The structural
and physiological relations of these two
parasites to one another would be an
interesting study.

The animal life in these lowland grass
and brush lands is, like the plant life,
largely made up of cosmopolitan or
widely distributed species. Of the
larger mammals, most of the common
forms are abundant here, though they

are largely nocturnal and are infre-
quently seen. The Philippine deer,
Rusa philippinus Smith, wild pigs, Sus
philippinensis Nehring, and monkeys,
Macacus cymologus var. cummingii Gray
are so abundant in the areas bordering
on the forest as to become a nuisance.
The alemoose or civet cat, Viverra
tangalunga Gray, is a frequent noc-
turnal marauder of the hen roost.
Fruit bats of all sizes are also common,
the larger ones being very destructive
of bananas, while some of the smaller
ones seem to specially relish the wild
figs, Ficus noia, etc., and have the un-
pleasant habit of bringing their feasts
to dwellings and scattering bits of fig
on one's floor. Among the common
birds of the grassland and parang are
the guava bulbul, Pycnonotus goivieri
Scopali, the brilliant yellow and black,
harsh-voiced oriole, Oriolus acrorhynchus
Vigors, a large black cuckoo, Centropus
viridis Scopali, which has a long tail,
iridescent feathers and a low, chuckling
call; kingfishers. Halcyon gularis Kuhl,
H. chloris Bodd. and Alcedo bengalensis
Briss. are frequent. Swifts, Tachornis
pallidior McGregor, and species of
Collocali are conspicuous at dusk, and
later the nightjar, Caprimulgus manil-
lensis Walden, emerges from the
thickets. Its curious call, resembling
the whip-poor-will, gives it its native
name of "Tucaroc." The brown rice
bird, or weaver finch, Munia jagori
Martens, congregates in flocks and
creates havoc in the maturing rice
fields. In dense thickets and bamboo
clumps are found a small migratory
green dove, Calcophaps indica L., two
black and white birds, a thrush, Copsy-
chus mindanensis Boddaert and a fly-
catcher, Rhidipura nigritorquis Vigors,
and a beautiful blue flycatcher, Hypo-
thymis occipialis Vigors. The imported
Chinese quail and the Philippine red
and black wild jungle-fowl, Gallus
gallus L., are also found commonly in
the grassland during the dry season.
Insect life is abundant and varied,
as elsewhere in the tropics. Locusts,
cicadas, katydids, crickets, mole crick-

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

713

ets, beetles, moths and butterflies are
both abundant and varied. Perhaps the
most conspicuous forms are the ants and
termites. Ants of many sorts seem
omnipresent. They and the termites
are the chief scavengers of the tropics.
The ants gather up all waste food around
the houses, carry away dead insects,
and frequently remove planted seeds
from the seedbeds. It is necessary to
protect all food and nursery beds from
these pests. There are also many sorts
of termites, and they are such efficient
wood destroyers that one seldom sees
dead trees either standing or fallen in
the forest, they are so promptly con-
sumed by the termites. A common
mound-building termite is Termes phi-
lippinensis Oshima. This insect is
wood-destroying, and builds large clay
mounds, filled with tunnels made of a
sort of papier mach6. These tunnels
are damp and on them grows a fungus
mycelium, of a species not found any-
where else except on termite mounds.
The young termites appear to feed on
the little white buttons produced by
this fungus, and it is thought by some
that the fungus is planted and cared
for by the termites. At all events,
the fungus is found on all of the nests
of this species of termite. The caste
S3'stem is possibly even better developed
among the termites than among the
ants, there frequently being among the
soldiers alone two distinct forms. The
winged adult males and females migrate
in large swarms at the beginning of
the rainy season, in May, such flights
often starting at about seven in the
evening and continuing for an hour or
more, often interrupting the dinner
hour by completely covering table and
food with a writhing mass of insects
shedding their long wings. Associated
with the termites in their mounds are
frequently several other insects: a red
ant, Solenopsis geminata Fabr., which
is destructive to the termites, and
several species of beetles or earwigs,
cockroaches, springtails and myriopods,
which serve as scavengers to the ter-

mites. They avoid the light, traveling
in tunnels inside timbers or in earthern
tunnels built over the surface of bark,
rocks, etc.^ This is but one of several
species of termites in the Philippines,
as the order Isoptera is highly developed
there. At least forty species have been
reported from the Islands, and Los
Baiios is the type locality of five of
these. These are in addition to the
above mentioned form, Termes Cope-
landi Oshima, one of the common earth
mound building forms, its mounds being
low and broad; Eutermes luzonicus
Oshima; Microtermes los-banosensis
Oshima, which builds hard nests at the
bases of trees, bamboos, etc., and ex-
tends earthern tunnels over them; and
Coptotermes flavicephalus . AH of these
appear to require contact with the earth
to secure sufficient moisture, and may
be kept out of houses by careful guarding
of the foundations. The situation is
quite different with the small, beetle-
like bucbuc, which are classed by Light'
as "House termites," and placed in
the genera Cryplotermes and Piano-
cry ptotermes. These work in cured
timber and bamboo, without any con-
nection with the ground. One species
of termite, Leucotermes philippinensis,
has been reported as attacking sugar
cane plants as well as wood.

Another group of insects of interest
are the fig-pollinating insects, Blasto-
phagus, of which there appears to be a
distinct species of insect for each of the
seventy or more species of Ficus found
wild on Mount Makiling. Probably
more extensive and complete collections
of insects have been made on and around
Mount Makiling than in any other
similar area in the tropics. This has
been due largely to the activities of
Dean C. F. Baker and the students of
the Philippine College of Agriculture.
Vast numbers of new species of tropical
insects have been described from Baker's

' See Uichanco, Leopoldo. General facts in the
biology of Philippine mound building termites.
Phil. Jour. Sci., 15: 59.

' Light, S. F. Notes on Philippine Termites.
Phil. Jour. Sci., 19: p. 41 (1921).

714

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

collections, published in the Philippine
Journal of Science and elsewhere.
Extensive studies of the parasitic in-
sects of this region have also been made
by F. Muir and other members of the
scientific staff of the Hawaiian Sugar
Planters' Association.

Among the reptiles, the largest now
found in this locality is the iguana-like
biauac, a large terrestrial lizard living
near the water courses, the crocodile
having been exterminated in this thickly
populated district. The large house
lizard or Gecko gecko L., naturally
arboreal and common in broken bam-
boos, is apparently nocturnal, and makes
the night hideous with his raucous call
of "Gecko, Geck-ko, Geck-ko-ko-ko."
This common species is possibly intro-
duced, though there are many native
species. There is also a small, brown,
house lizard, more numerous and much
less timid. The skinks are less frequent
in the houses, but common in moist
thickets and forest.

Common lizards at low elevations
around Mount Makiling are according
to Taylor:* Sphenormorphus curtirostris
Taylor; S. steer ei Stejneger, a small
species. Other species found there are
Leilopasma pulchelhim Gray, Tropido-
phorus Gravi Giinther, etc.

Competing with the larger lizards
in the capture of mice and insects are
numerous species of snakes; pythons
and cobras, of which the king cobra is
the largest and probably the most
poisonous. He is frequently found
in the grasslands, but less often fre-
quents dwellings than do the pythons
and larger snakes.

In the mountain streams are found
several species of frogs: Rana magna
Stejneger, which is one of the largest
forms and much prized for food; Rana
woodworthi Taylor, which is described
from Los Banos material; and Rana
similis Giinther.

^ Taylor, Edward H. Additions to the herpeto-
logical fauna of the Philippine Islands. I — ^Phil.
Jour. Sci., 21: 161-206; II— Phil. Jour. Sci., 21: 257-
303; III— Phil. Jour. Sci., 22: 515-555.

See also for further herpetological data: Philip-
pine Amphibia, Phil. Jour. Sci. 16: 213; Snakes of the
Philippine Islands, 1922.

HIGH FOREST

The assertion has frequently been
made that the Philippines were origi-
nally a practically unbroken forest, and
this assumption is made the more prob-
able by the fact that most of the en-
demic forms of both plant and animal
life are either confined to or closely as-
sociated with the natural, dense forest.
Fortunately the lumbering on Mount
Makiling has not been sufficiently
intensive to destroy the natural forest
cover. Therefore all, or nearly all,
of the original species of plants and
animals have persisted here, though
the proportion of some of the tree species
in particular has been greatly modified
by the selective cutting of the more
valuable woods, rattans, etc.

Whereas we have seen that the grass-
lands and parang contained many intro-
duced species, in the forest introduced
species are exceptional and have gained
little foothold. Thus the traveler seek-
ing distinctively Philippine wild life
may well neglect the open country and
immediately go into the dense forest
areas.

The High Forest, which forms a zone
around the base of Mount Makiling up
to an elevation of about 500 meters, is
characterized by its dominant canopy
of very tall, large trees, beneath which
are successive layers of shorter trees and
finally shrubs, each layer containing its
own particular group of species. This
makes up the so-called "three-story
forest" of the eastern tropics. The
general contour is not unlike the hard-
wood forests of the eastern United
States, where the dominant trees may
consist of large oaks, etc., while in the
more open places are trees of smaller
stature, such as sassafras, and below
these in turn are the dogwoods, and
then the large shrubs. But in the
Philippine forests the composition is
much more complex, consisting of scores
of species, on a single acre, and the
number of distinct layers or "stories"
of vegetation is greater.
Among the top story trees, the most

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

715

conspicuous and largest are meml)ers
of the family Dipierocarpacene: Bagti-
can lauan Parashorea malaanonan Merr.,
the trunk of which like many of the
large tropical trees, is often heavily
buttressed; White lauan, Pentacme con-
torla M. and R., which like the last
yields a soft, easily worked but perish-
able wood; guijo, Shorcn guiso (Blanco)
Blume, which has been much cut for
use in construction and is less abundant;
and several trees of other families as
Malaikmo, Celtis philippinensis Blanco,
the fruits of which are flavored like the
serviceberry, but are larger; (pili)
Canarium luzonicum A. Gray, which
yields the pili nut of commerce and a
valuable resin. Several species of
strangling fig also attain to the top
story of this forest.

About 70 species of figs occur on
Makiling; of these 15 have the strangling
habit. The strangling fig, or balite,
starts as an epiphyte in the top of a
tall tree. Its root system descends to
the ground and spreads laterally, form-
ing a network about the trunk of its
host. The roots that reach the ground
perform the ordinary functions of roots.
After the network enveloping the host
has coalesced, the strangling fig becomes
self-supporting by its trunk which com-
pletely surrounds and strangles or
crushes the tree upon which it started.
The genus Ficus is one of the largest in
this region. In the Makiling flora there
are about seventy species of Ficus, in-
cluding nearly half of the total number
known in the Philippines. ^

The tallest trees in the top story of the
Makiling High Forest are about 50
meters tall, and have a diameter of
about I5 meters.

The second story is composed of a
larger number of species than occur in
the first or top story, and they are in
general shorter, having a height of from
15 to 25 meters. One of the most numer-
ous of these is the balobo, Diplodiscus
paniculatus Turcz. Several species of
Aglaia and Palaquium also are common,
as well as the bulala, Nephelium mutabile
Blume; and the catmon, Dillema phil-

5 Trelease, S. F. and McLean, F. T. Mount Maki-
ling as a station for botanical research. Philippine
Agriculturist, 8: 6-16, 1919.

ippinensis Rolfe, which produces acrid
spherical green edible fruits, with
spirally twisted segments, enclosed in
thick flesh scales, also edible. Other
interesting trees are the camagon,
Diospyros discolor Willd., an ebony with
mottled black and light colored wood;
the calingag, Cinnamomum mercadoi
Vid. ; and tangisang biauac, Ficus
variegata Blume, with conspicuous
smooth scurfy cinnamon-colored bark.
Palms are also frequent, the fan palm
or anahau, Livistona sp., being par-
ticularly abundant toward the upper
limits of this zone; also the jougahan or
fishtail palm, Caryola cummingii Lodd.;
Pinanga insignis Becc. and Orania
palindan. Arenga pinnata Merr., the
sugar palm or cabo negro is one of the
few introduced species to find a place
in this forest.

Trees and tall shrubs which attain a
height of 10 to 15 meters or less are
considered as constituting a third story.
In this class belong Thea lanceolata
(Blume) Poir; species of Leea; Oreocnide
trinervis Miq. ; Aglaia spp. Under-
neath these are shrubs Callicarpa spp. ;
Ixora longistipula Merr. ; Melastomri
fusca Merr., with its pink flowers re-
minding one of a wild rose in size and
color; and Strobilanthcs pluriformis C.
B. Clarke, which occurs at all elevations
in the forests of Mount Makiling. Ferns
and herbs are few on the floor of the
forest, specially at low altitude, and
the earth is characteristically bare of
litter.

Climbers are a conspicuous element
in the vegetation, among the most
prominent being the rattans or climb-
ing palms, species of Calamus and
Daemonorops, which usually have thorny
leaf petioles and long slender trailing
flagellae with stout, recurved spines,
which make progress through rattan
thickets both awkward and painful.
Climbing bamboos Schizostachyum diffu-
su7n (Blume) Merr. are also abundant.

Together with the strangling figs,
these climbing monocotyledonous plants
seem the most characteristic members of
the general vegetation to one who is

716

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

unacquainted with tropical forests.
Climbing aroids also attract attention.
Several species of Rhaphidophora, with
large, often deeply-lobed leaves, are
among the most remarkable of these.
Pothoidium and Pothos are aroids which
cling to the trunks of trees by means of
horizontal adventitious roots. They
have linear leaves that stand at right
angles to the stem; the leaf is joined near
the middle, the distal portion being the
blade and the proximal portion an ex-
panded leaf base, having the photosyn-
thetic function. Large climbing ferns of
the genus Stenochlaena are also con-
spicuous on exposed tree trunks. Dicot-
yledonous vines form a very prominent
part of the vegetation. They attain
great lengths, and hang suspended like
long ropes from the branches of the high
trees. These vines resemble somewhat
the grapevines of the woods of the
eastern United States, but differ in their
greater size and abundance and in the
fact that many of them are twiners.
A number of stems will often be twisted
tightly together, forming a spirally-
twisted, rope-like mass. Among the
most characteristic of the larger vines
are Siimphorema luzonicum (Blanco) F.
Vill. belonging to the Verbenaceae, and
several species of the genus Mucuna, of
the family Leguminosae, including vines
that bear purple or white evil-smelling
flowers, whose calyxes and young pods
are covered with extremely irritating
spines. Strongylodon macrobotrys A.
Gray, also of the Leguminosae, which
has greenish-blue flowers on large
panicles one meter long, is frequently
found in moist places. Among the other
vines that may be mentioned are several
species of Tetrasiigma and Cisus of the
Vitaceae, Bauhinia cumingiana (Benth.)
F. Vill. of the Leguminosae, Uvaria
scandens C. B. Rob, and other species of
Uvaria of the Anonaceae, and Merremia
nyviphaeifolia (Blume) Hallier of the
Convolvulaceae.

Epiphytes are not so prominent in the
High Forest as in the other two zones.
But a number of kinds may be seen on
the horizontal branches and in the forks
of the trees. Among these epiphytes
are several species of ferns; probably
the most numerous are Drynaria querci-
folia L. Sm. and Aspleniuni nidus L.,
the bird's nest fern. The former has
leaves of two sorts; one is the ordinary
foliage leaf, and the other is a scale that
collects decaying leaves. Roots pene-
trate this mass of decaying matter and
apparently absorb water and other
substances from it. Orchids of many
species occur as epiphytes in this forest;
but they are relatively scarce, and most

of them do not have either conspicuous or
beautiful flowers. The orchid with
showy flowers that is most frequently
collected is Phalaenopsis amabilis Blume,
the butterfly orchid, which has green
leaves and large white flowers.

A grotesque member of the flora of
Mount Makiling is Rafflesia manillana
Teschem. This is found usually in the
transition zone, in passing from the High
Forest into the Rain Forest, although it
also occurs in the High Forest. The
mature plant of Rafflesia consists prin-
cipally of a reddish-brown flower, from
fifteen to twenty centimeters in diame-
ter, found growing as a parasite on the
root of Cissus, a vine. The morphology
of Rafflesia manillana Tesche M. has
been carefully studied by Brown.'
The root of Cissus upon which the plant
grows often bears a number of young
buds in addition to a series of mature,
open flowers. Five or six specimens
may sometimes be found growing near
the surface of the soil in a very small
area. There is usually no difficulty in
locating specimens of Rafflesia, some
being found within a meter of the trail.

Another strange plant is Taeniophyl-
lum, an epiphytic orchid that has flat,
green roots, about 3 mm. wide and 30
cm. long. The stem and leaves of this
orchid are very much reduced, and the
photosynthetic process takes place in
the root. This is a case of an extreme
modification of the root. A number of
orchids, of course, contain chlorophyll in
long cylindrical roots ; but this_ orchid
performs all of its photosynthetic work
in these long, flat, leaf-like roots.

The mammals of the High Forest are
for the most part also found in the grass-
land and parang occasionally, and have
already been mentioned — the Philippine
deer, Rusa philippinus Smith; wild
pigs, Sus philippinensis Nehring; mon-
keys, Macacus cymologus var. cummingii
Gray and the alemoose or civet cat,
Viverra tangalunga Gray. There are
several conspicuous birds found in this
and in the rain forest, which seldom if
ever leave the dense forest cover. The
noisy great hornbill or calao, Hydrocorax
hydrocorax L., with its red head and bill,
and black and brown plumage, noisy
flight and raucous call of "Au, calao,
au, au" demands attention, as does its

8 Brown, W. H. The relation of Rafflesia manil-
lana to its host. Philippine Journ. Sci., Sec. C, 7:
209-226. ph. 10. 1912.

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

717

smaller relative, the tarictic, Penelop-
ides manillae Boddaert. The balud or
imperial pigeon, Muscadivores chalyhura
Bonaparte, and the smaller Phapitreron
leucotis Temminck are not uncommon.
The little black and yellow titmouse,
Pardaliparus elegans Lesson, often
breaks the stillness of the forest with
his chickadee song. These are but a
few of the birds to be met with. Mount
Makiling is neither high nor extensive
enough to harbor the truly high moun-
tain birds; all of the forest forms may
be found more or less abundant through-
out the mountain in all types of vegeta-
tion, so far as their food supplies occur.
The snakes appear less prominent in the
forest than in the brush and grassland.
Insects are undoubtedly as abundant,
but are apt to be in the foliage high
over head, except for the ants and ter-
mites, which appear as active here as
elsewhere. Conspicuous in the dense
forest is the great variety of snails,
some of them quite large. Leaches of
a number of sorts are abundant as they
are unpleasant, and attach themselves
to man or beast indiscriminately. The
leaches demand moist conditions and
are not troublesome in the High Forest
of Mount Makiling during the dry
season, in April or early May.

EAIN FOREST

The transition from the High Forest
to the Rain or Midmountain Forest is
a gradual one, occasioned by the greater
rainfall and more uniform seasonal
distribution of moisture at higher ele-
vations. Toward the upper part of
the High Forest, ferns and herbaceous
plants become more abundant on the
forest floor, the heights of the trees
become less, and epiphytes become more
abundant and varied in character. The
trees characteristic of the top story
of the High Forest gradually drop out
of the composition, and the tree canopy
thus becomes a two storied one, with a
heavy undergrowth.

Ferns are such a conspicuous element
in the Rain Forest that they are deserv-
ing of special consideration. Tree ferns

of the genus Cyalhea are prominent.
Species of Selaginella are found both
in the moist soil and as epiphytes in
the tree tops. Other common ter-
restrial ferns are Tectaria irregularis
(Pr.) Copel., which also occurs abun-
dantly in the moister parts of the High
Forest, Dennstaettia elmeri Copel., a
giant fern with finely dissected fronds
occupying the opener locations, and
mingled with species of Dryopteris,
Pteridium aquilina (L.) Kuhn., etc.
On open cliffs and rock ledges occur the
giant Marraiia and species of Gleichenia.
Among the numerous epiphytes, ferns
are also prominent; several species of
Nephrolepis, some of them with very
large fronds; a number of forms of the
Asplenium nidus group; Aglaomorpha
Meyeniana, with its huge, coarse pin-
nate fronds; Odontosoria chinensis J.
Sm. and the pale green Davallodcs
hirsutum. Among the smaller, curious
forms are Polypodium sinuosum Wal-
lich., with channeled, ant-harboring
rhizomes and the diminutive grass-like
M onogramma trichoidea J. Sm. Near
the upper limits of the Rain Forest,
and in moist ravines, where the humidity
approaches that of the Mossy Forest,
are found the graceful, pendant epi-
phytic Lycopodium carinatum Desv.,
and several species of Hymenophyllaceae.

The trees of the Rain Forest may be
considered as forming two stories in-
stead of three, as in the High Forest.
These stories correspond approximately
in height to the second and third stories
found in the High Forest. The top
story trees in the Rain Forest have a
height of from 15 to 20 meters. Among
the trees in this story may be mentioned
Astronia spp., Eugenia spp. (which are
here top story trees instead of second
story trees as in the High Forest),
Quercus spp., Weinmannia luzonensis
Vid., Palaquium spp., Cratoxylon celebi-
cum Bl., Dillenia reifferscheidia F. Vill.
and D. philippinensis Rolfe. Strangling
figs are rather prominent members of
the tallest trees in this forest. The
lower story in the Rain Forest is com-
posed of trees and shrubs, reaching a
height of about eight meters. Among
these may be mentioned Neolitsea villosa
Merr., Thea lanceolata (Blume) Poir.,
Saurauia spp., Oreocnide trinervis Miq.

718

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Tree ferns belonging to the genus
Cyathca are conspicuous in the Rain
Forest, and these become more numer-
ous as the summit is approached. Tree
erns require a very moist environment,
and their presence serves as the most
obvious indication of the transition from
the High to the rain-forest vegetation on
this mountain. A tall palm with divided
leaves, Pinnnga insignis Becc, and a
species with slender stems, Pinanga
harnesii Becc, and fan leaf palms,
called by the natives "Anahao," Livis-
tona sp., form prominent components of
the vegetation in this zone.

Among the vines the climbing pandans
{Freijcinetia spp.) are very conspicuous
in many parts of this forest; also rattans
(Calamus spp. and Daemonorops spp.,
bejuco or uway), climbing bamboos
{Schizostachijuin spp.), and aroids es-
pecially a large-leaved Rhaphidophora.
Long, rope-like, dicotyledonous climb-
ers, which occur so abundantly in the
High Forest, are less numerous in the
Rain Forest, though they form a notice-
able component. Begonia aequata A.
Gray, a dainty little creeping vine, with
pink flowers, is quite common.

The floor of the forest is covered with
various herbs, especially Elatostema spp.,
and shrubby plants, of which Hedyolis
and Strohilanthes pluriformis C. B.
Clarke are prominent; and rattans and
ferns also occur abundantly in the
ground cover. Along the ridges, the
rattans form an extremely dense growth
at a height of from one to two meters
above the ground. They have leaves
that bear long, whip-like structures
covered with recurved spines; these
make it difficult to walk through the
forest.

Epiphytes seem to be more numerous
in the Rain Forest than in the High
Forest. Among those found abundantly
are epiphytic vines, orchids and ferns.
The showy, pin-flowered Medinilla
magmfica Lindl. is found here and also
in the Mossy Forest, though not in the
High Forest. Specimens of Nepen-
thes, the pitcher plant, may also be
found growing here, though they are
scarce along the trail. It is interesting
to note that epiphytic Bromeliacea,
which are prominent in tropical America,
do not occur in the Indo-Malayan
region.

MOSSY FOREST

The trees and large shrubs that form
the canopy of the Mossy Forest may be
regarded as forming a single story.
The larger specimens of trees have a
height of about 12 meters; but in many
places the forest is considerably lower

than this. Among the prominent trees
are Cleihra lancifoliaTurcz., Iteamaesae-
folia Elm., Symplocos sp., Rapanea
philippinensis Mez., Dillenia reiffer-
ncheidia F. Vill., Neolitsea villosa Merr.,
Homolanlhus, and Eurya japonica.
Amonj; the common shrubby plants may
be mentioned Strohilanthus pluriformis
C. B. Clarke; Melastoma polyanthum Bl.,
Medinilla myriantha, Vaccinium spp.
and Rubus fraxinifolius Poir. Large
specimens of tree ferns, Cyathea spp.,
are conspicuous in the Mossy Forest.

Vines are in this zone but do not ap-
pear to be so numerous as in the Rain
Forest and in the High Forest. One of
the conspicuous vines is Hoya odorala
Schlt., which has waxy white flowers
that are very fragrant. Medinilla mag-
nifica Lindl. is abundant in the lower
part of this forest. It is an epiphytic
shrubby vine with broad shining leaves
and pendulous pyramidal clusters of
rose-pink flowers. Other vines that oc-
cur are Trichosporum philippinensis O.
Ktze., Conocephalus sp., Dichrotrichum
chorisepalum Clarke, Medinilla myrti-
formis Triana., Alyxia monilifera Vid.,
and the fern, Oleandra colubrina, Copel.
Two large sprawling ferns, Gleichenia
and Pteridium are rather common.
Ficiis repens, common in moist places at
lower elevations, is also found here.
Epiphytic mosses and liverworts, which
form dense growths on the trunks of
most of the trees, aid in distinguishing
this forest from the two at lower alti-
tudes.

Many forms of mosses, liverworts and
lichens cover the smaller branches of
the trees, and several kinds of these
plants grow on the surfaces of the leaves.
About 15 species of filmy ferns, Hymeno-
phyllaceae, are found growing in fair
abundance on the trunks of trees; these
also occur in the upper part of the
rain-forest, but more sparingly; their
leaves are often covered with moisture.
Nepenthes, the pitcher plant is found as
an epiphyte in the Mossy Forest as well
as in the rain-forest. Several species of
Begonia are found here ; among these are
Begonia aequata A. Gray, Begonia
lagunensis Elm. and Begonia oxysperma
with large clusters of coral-red flowers.
Epiphytic species of Rhododendron
also occur here. The soil in the Mossy
Forest is covered principally with vari-
ous species of dicotyledonous herbs,
including Coleus multiflorus Benth. and
species of Elatostema, and Hedyotis.
Hymenophyllaceae and several other
kinds of ferns, Selaginella, Lycopodium,
and a few species of beautiful orchids
also occur.

Among the most striking members of

NATURAL AREAS AND REGIONS

719

this forest are the large epiphytic ferns,
Aglaoinorpha, Leucostegia, Nephrolepis,
and Davallia. Another curious epiphy-
tic fern is the ant-harboring Lecanop-
teris, with its large channeled base.
Other ant-harboring plants are Hyduo-
phijtuvi and Myrmecodia belonging to
the Rubiaceae.

The forest of Mount Makiling is
recommended for study, because both
its flora and fauna have been studied
more in detail than has any other nat-
ural forest area in the Philippines.
There are more than 1800 species of
vascular plants known in the Makiling
flora, a few of them being confined to
this single mountain. Extensive col-
lections have also been made here of the
fungi, mosses and liverworts, insects,
reptiles and birds. According to Muir,^
55 of the 68 species of derbids found in
Luzon have been taken on Mount
Makiling and the neighboring locality
of Los Baiios.

Mount Banajao, nearly 7500 ft. high
(2300 meters) is an easy journey from
Los Baiios, and has a much wetter
climate as well as a greater height. The
vegetation at its foot is accordingly
essentially rain forest. The transition
to mossy forest is more gradual than on
Mount Makiling, and there is a distinct
type, of coniferous forest, of nearly pure
Podocarpus imbricatus Bl. and P. costalis
C. Presl. at its summit. Associated
with these are a number of truly alpine
forms. The flora is much richer in
ferns and mosses than is Mount Makil-
ing, but the animal life seems less
abundant.

REFERENCES

Brown, W. H. The vegetation of
Philippine Mountains. Phil. Bur.
Sci., Manila, 1919. This gives a
detailed account of the climate and
forest vegetation of Mount Makiling

' Muir, F. The Derbidae of the Philippine
Islands. Phil. .Jour. Sci., D., 12: 50-52, 1917. Maki-
liiiK as a biological station. Phil. Agr., 8: 17-18.
1919.

and a brief account of Mount
Banajao.
Brown, VVm. H., and Mathews, Donald
M. Philippine dipterocarp forests,
Phil. Jour. Sci., 9: 413-561. 1914.
Gates, Frank C. Swamp vegetation in
hot springs area at Los Baiios,
Laguna, P. L Phil. Jour. Sci. C, 9:
495-516. 1914.

Muir, F. The Derbidae of the Philip-
pine Islands. Phil. Jour. Sci. D,
12: 50-52. 1917.

Muir, F. Makiling as a biological sta-
tion. Phil. Agric. 8: 17-18. 1919.

Trelease, Sam F., and McLean, Forman
T. Mount Makiling as a station for
botanical research. Phil. Agric. 8:
6-16. 1919.

McGregor, R. C. Some features of the
Philippine ornis. Phil. Jour. Sci.,
16: 361-437. 1920.

Taylor, E. H. Additions to the herpito-
logical fauna of the Philippine
Islands. I— Phil. Jour. Sci., 21:
161-206. 1922: II— ibid., 21: 257-
303. 1922; III— ibid.. 22: 515-557.
1923.

Taylor, E. H. Amphibians and turtles
of the Philippine Islands. Philip-
pine Bureau of Science. 1922.

Taylor, E. H. Lizards of the Philippine
Islands. Philippine Bureau of
Science. 1922.

Taylor, E. H. Snakes of the Philip-
pine Islands. Philippine Bureau
of Science. 1922.

Hollister, Ned. A list of the mammals
of the Philippine Islands, exclusive
of the Cetacea. Phil. Jour. Sci., 7:
1-64. 1912.

Light, S. F. Notes on Philippine ter-
mites. I— Phil. Jour. Sci., 18: 243-
257. 1921; II— ibid. ,19: 23-63. 1921.

Copeland, E. B. The Polypodiacea of
the Philippine Islands. Manila.
1905.

Uichanco, L. General facts in the
biology of the Philippine mound-
building termites. Phil. Jour. Sci.,
15: 59.

Merrill, E. D. Flora of Manila. Philij)-
pine Bureau of Science, Manila, 1912;
also, numerous papers by Merrill on
classification of Philippine plants.

Foxworthy, F. W. Philippine gymno-
sperms. Phil. Jour. Sci., 6: 149-177.
1911.

Foxworthy, F. W. Philippine Diptero-
carpaceae. I — Phil. Jour. Sci., 6:
231-287. 1911; II— ibid., S: 16;M99.
1918.

V. LIST OF ORGANIZATIONS INTER

ESTED IN THE PRESERVATION OF

NATURAL CONDITIONS

A. LIST OF STATE AND TERRITORIAL REPRESENTATIVES

By W. G. Waterman

In the lists of state, provincial, and extra-territorial representatives are included
the names of Ecological Society representatives and in a few cases the names of
actively interested state bureau ofEcials. The latter are in parentheses. The plan
contemplates having both a botanist and a zoologist in each territory.

Abbreviations, etc.: Chmn., chairman of committee on the conservation of natural
conditions ; *, negotiations not completed, or no recent reply ; Z, primarily interested
in animals; B, primarily interested in plants; G, primarily interested in geography.

I. United States

A. FOREST DISTRICTS

District 1 : J. A. Larsen, United States
Forest Service, Missoula, Mont.

District 2: Director, Fremont Forest
Experiment Station, Colorado Springs,
Colo.

District 3:G. A. Pearson, Southwestern
Forest Experiment Station, Flag-
staff, Ariz.

District 4: F. S. Baker, United States
Forest Service, Ogden, Utah.

District 5: E. N. Munns, United States
Forest Service, San Francisco, Calif.

District 6: Director Wind River Forest
Experiment Station, Stabler, Wash.

District 7: E. H. Frothingham, Appala-
chian Forest Experiment Station,
Asheville, N. C.

District 8: District Forester, Juneau,
Alaska.

B. STATES

Alabama
Prof. R. M. Harper, (G), University,

Ala.
Peter A. Brannon, Curator, Department
of Archives and History, Montgomery,
Ala.

Alaska

R. F. Griggs, National Geographic
Society, Washington, D. C.

Arizona

Prof. G. A. Pearson, (B), United States
Forest Service, Flagstaff, Ariz.

Arkansas

Prof. John T. Buchholz, (B), Depart-
ment of Botany, University of
Arkansas, Fayetteville, Ark.

California

Prof. H. C. Bryant, (B), University

Museum, Berkeley, Calif.
Prof. T. I. Storer, (Z), University Farm,

Davis, Calif.

Colorado
Prof. F. Ramaley, (B), University of
Colorado, Boulder, Colo.

Connecticut

Prof. G. E. Nichols, (B), Yale Uni-
versity, New Haven, Conn.

Connecticut State Park and Forest Com-
missioner, A. M. Turner, Drawer
1402, Hartford, Conn.

Delaware

Frank Morton Jones, 2000 Riverview

Avenue, Wilmington, Del.
Mrs. Arthur W. Spruance, 2502 Willard

Street, Wilmington, Del.

Florida

Prof. J. R. Watson, (Z), University of
Florida, Gainesville, Fla.

Georgia
Dr. Henry Fox, (Z), Department of

Biology, Mercer University, Macon,

Ga.
J. M. Reade, (B), University of Georgia,

Athens, Ga.

723

724

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Idaho
Prof. R. A. Muttkowski, Department of
Zoology and Entomology, University
of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho.
A. S. Piper, (G), Bureau of Mines, Mos-
cow, Idaho.

Illinois

Prof. H. C. Cowles, (B), University of

Chicago, Chicago, 111.
Prof. W. C. AUee, (Z), University of

Chicago, Chicago, 111.

Indiana
Prof. Will Scott, (Z), University of

Indiana, Bloomington, Ind.
C. C. Deam, (B), State Forester, State

House, Indianapolis, Ind.

Iowa
Prof. L. H. Pammell, (B), Department

of Botany, Ames, Iowa.
Dr. T, C. Stephens, (Z), Morningside,

College, Sioux City, Iowa.

Kansas

Prof. James W. McColloch, (Z), Agricul-
tural College, Manhattan, Kan.

Prof. F. U. G. Agrelius, (B), Kansas
State Teachers College, Emporia, Kan.

Kentucky
Dr. Austin R. Middleton, (Z), Univer-
sity of Louisville, Louisville, Ky.

Louisiana
Hine, Willard R., 323 Custom House,

New Orleans, La.
Kopman, H. H., (Z), Louisiana Depart-
ment of Conservation, New Orleans,
La.

Maine

Prof. A. O. Gross, (Z), Bowdoin College,
Brunswick, Me.

Maryland

Prof. C. C. Hamilton, (Z), Maryland
State College, College Park, Md.

Massachusetts
Dr. Anna Starr, (B), Mt. Holyoke Col-
lege, South Hadley, Mass.

Michigan
Dr. Lee R. Dice, (Z), Museum of Zool-
ogy, University of Michigan, Ann
Arbor, Mich.

Minnesota
Prof. C. O. Rosendahl, (B), University
of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn.

Mississippi
*Prof. Harrison R. Hunt, (Z), Biology
Department, University of Mis-
sissippi.

Missouri

Prof. K. C. Sullivan, (Z), University of
Missouri, Columbia, Mo.

Montana
Prof. M. J. Elrod, (Z), University of
Montana, Missoula, Mont.

Nebraska

Prof. R. H. Wolcott, (Z), University of
Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr.

Nevada
Dr. F. S. Baker, (B), United States

Forest Service, Ogden, Utah.
C. W. Glover, State Fish and Game

Warden, Carson City, Nevada.

Neiv Hampshire

Prof. K. W. Woodward, (B), State For-
ester, University of New Hampshire,
Durham, N. H.

Prof. C. F. Jackson, (Z), University of
New Hampshire, Durham, N. H.

Neiv Jersey

Prof. T. C. Nelson, (Z), Rutgers College,
New Brunswick, N. J.

Charles P. Wilber, (B), State Forester,
State House, Trenton, N. J., Depart-
ment of Conservation and Develop-
ment.

New Mexico

John Woodgate, Jemez Springs, New
Mexico.

New York

Prof. W. L. Bray, (B), Syracuse Univer-
sity, Syracuse, N. Y.

North Carolina

Prof. Z. P. Metcalf, (Z), Raleigh, N. C.
Prof. B. W. Wells, (B), State College
Station, N. C.

North Dakota

Prof. J. T. Sarvis, (B), Field Station,
Mandan, N. D.
* Not yet accepted.

ORGANIZATIONS INTERESTED IN PRESERVATION

725

Ohio
Dr. E. Lucy Braun, (B), Department of
Botanj^, University of Cincinnati,
Cincinnati, Ohio.

Oklahoma

Prof. C. O. Chambers, (B), Department
of Botany, Oklahoma Agricultural and
Mechanical College, Stillwater, Okla.

Oregon

Dr. Thornton T. Munger, (B), United

States Forest Service, Portland, Ore.
Wm. N. Finley, Jennings Lodge, Ore.

Pennsylvania

Prof. J. W. Ilarshberger, (B), 4839
Walton Avenue, Philadelphia, Pa.

Rhode Island

Dr. Marion D. Weston, (B), Rhode
Island College of Education, Provi-
dence, Rhode Island.

Henry E. Childs, 864 Broadway, East
Providence, R. I.

South Carolina

Dr. Philip Luginbill, United States

Entomological Station, Columbia,

S. C.
Prof. A. C. Moore, Department of

Biology, University of South Carolina,

Columbia, S. C.

South Dakota

Prof. E. J. Petry, (B), South Dakota
State College, Brookings, S. D.

Tennessee

*Prof. Edwin B. Powers, (Z), University
of Tenn., Knoxville, Tenn.

Texas

Prof. A. R. Cahn, (Z), 117 West Nevada
Street, Urbana, 111.

Utah

F. S. Baker, (B), United States Forest
Service, Ogden, Utah.

Vermont

Prof. Geo. F. Burns, (B), University of
Vermont, Burlington, Vt.

Virginia

Dr. I. F. Lewis, (B), Department of
Biology, University of Virginia, Uni-
versity, Va.

Washington
Prof. G. B. Rigg, (B), University of

Washington, Seattle, Wash.
Prof. Horace Gunthrop, (Z), University

of Washington, Seattle, Wash.

West Virginia

Prof. W. E. Rumsey, (Z), Experiment
Station, Morgantown, W. Va.

Wisconsin

Clyde B. Terrell, (Z), Oshkosh, Wis.
Dr. Huron Smith, (B), Milwaukee Public
Museum, Milwaukee, Wis.

Wyoming
Prof. John W\ Scott, (Z), University of

Wyoming, Laramie, Wyo.
Dr. E. B. Payson, (B), University of

Wyoming, Laramie, Wyo.

II. Canada

ALBERTA

Miss Annie Norrington, (B), University
of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta.

Dr. Wm. Rowan, (Z), University of
Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta.

BRITISH COLUMBIA

Prof. John Davidson, (B), University of
British Columbia, Vancouver, B. C.

MANITOBA

Prof. C. H. O'Donoghue, (Z), Univer-
sity of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba.

*Prof. V. W. Jackson, University of
Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba.

NEW BRUNSWICK

John D. Tothill, Fredericton, N. B.
Wm. Mcintosh, Museum of Natural
History, Saint John, N. B.

NEW rOUNDLAND

Arthur Mew?', Deputy Colonial Secre-
tary, Saint John, New Foundland.

*Mr. George E. Turner, I. S. O., Saint
Johns, New Foundland.

726

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

NOVA SCOTIA

A. H. Mackay, (B), 61 Queen Street,

Dartmouth, Nova Scotia.

ONTARIO

Dr. C. D. Howe, (B), Dean of Forestry,

University, Toronto, Ont.
J. R. Dymond, (Z), Department of

Biology, Toronto University, Toronto,

Ont.
James B. Harkin, (Dominion Parks

Branch), Ottawa, Ont.

QUEBEC

Mr. Edward Wilson, Grand Mere,

Quebec.
Mr. C. G. Piche, Department of Lands

and Forests, Quebec.

SASKATCHEWAN

Dr. A. E. Cameron, (Z), University of
Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Sask.

Prof. W. P. Thompson, Biology Depart-
ment, University of Saskatchewan,
Saskatoon, Sask.

Extra Territorial

HAWAII

C. S. Judd, Superintendent of Forestry,
Honolulu.

PANAMA

Dr. James Zetek, (Z), Ancon, Canal
Zone.

PORTO RICO

Prof. D. E. Durland, College of Agri-
cultural and Mechanical Arts.

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

Wm. H. Brown, Bureau of Science,
Manila, Philippine Islands.

B. LOCAL ORGANIZATIONS

By W. G. Waterman

The following is a list of local or state organizations interested in various forms of
conservation.

United States

ALABAMA

Alabama Anthropological Society, Mont-
gomery, Ala.

Alabama State Department Archives
and History, Montgomery, Ala.

Baldwin County Historical Society,
Fairhope, Ala.

*Bartram Natural History Society, Mont-
gomery, Ala.

Charles Mohr Society, H. P. Loding,
Gem Floral Garden, Mobile, Ala.

Moundville Historical Society, Mound-
ville, Ala.

*Russell County Historical Society,
Scale, Ala.

Tennessee Valley Historical Society,
Tuscumbia, Ala.

ARIZONA

Arizona Natural History Society, Uni"
versity Station, Tucson, Ariz.

Arizona State Forestry Association,
University of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz.

Fort Valley Forest Experiment Sta-
tion, Flagstaff, Ariz.

ARKANSAS

Arkansas Federation of Women's Clubs,
Mrs. Edwin Bevens, Helena, Ark.

Department of Zoology, University of
Arkansas, Prof. S. C. Dellinger, Uni-
versity of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Ark.

State Forestry, Fish, and Game Associa-
tion, Hamp Williams, President, Hot
Springs, L. L. Kimball, Secretary,
Russelville, Ark.

CALIFORNIA

American Society for the Advancement of
Science, in care of California Academy
of Sciences, San Francisco, Calif.

• Written but letters returned.

Audubon Association of the Pacific,
A. S. Kibbe, 1534 Grove Street,
Berkeley, Calif.

California Academy of Sciences, Golden
Gate Park, San Francisco, Calif.

California Alpine Club, Helen Wild,
1645 Hyde Street, San Francisco,
Calif.

California Audubon Society, Mrs. Har-
riet W. Myers, 311 No. Normandie,
Los Angeles, Calif.

California Fish and Game Commission,
Postal Telegraph Building, San Fran-
cisco, Calif.

California Nature Study League, Mr.
C. M. Goethe, Capital National Bank
Building, Sacramento, Calif.

California Wild Flower Protective So-
ciety, Mrs. Bertha Rice, President,
Saratoga, Calif.

California Wild Life Defenders, Box 15,
Capitola, Calif.

Cooper Ornithological Club, Museum of
Vertebrate Zoology, Berkeley, Calif.

Forest, Fish and Game Protective So-
ciety, Mr. J. B. Hauer, President, 338,
Pine Street, San Francisco, Calif.

San Diego Natural History Museum,
Balboa Park, San Diego, Calif.

Sierra Club, (North Chapter), San Fran-
cisco, Calif.

Sierra Club, (South Chapter), Los
Angeles, Calif.

Southwest Museum, Marmion Way and
Avenue, 46 Los Angeles, Calif.

State Forester, Sacramento, Calif.

Western Society of Naturalists, Occi-
dental College, Los Angeles, Calif.

CONNECTICtlT

Connecticut Botanical Society, Miss
Annie Lorens, Secretary, 96 Garden
Street, Hartford, Conn.

727

728

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Connecticut Forestry Association, P.L.
Butterick, Secretary, Yale Forest
School, New Haven, Conn.

COLORADO

Colorado Academy of Sciences, State
Museum, Denver, Colo.

Colorado Mountain Club, 202 Chamber
of Commerce Building, Denver, Colo.

Colorado Society of Economic Biology,
in care of Professor of Zoology, Colo-
rado Agriculture College, Fort Collins,
Colo.

History and Natural History Society,
State Museum, Denver, Colo.

Rocky Mountain Climbers Club,
Boulder, Colo.

DELAWARE

Garden Club of Wilmington, Dela-
ware, Wilmington, Del.

New Century Club (Committee on
Conservation), Wilmington, Del.

Society of Natural History of Delaware,
Wilmington, Del.

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA

American Civic Association, Washing-
ton, D. C.

Audubon Society of the District of
Columbia, Miss Helen Childs, Secre-
tary, Chevy Chase, Md.

Biological Society of Washington, Wash-
ington, D. C.

*Botanical Society of Washington, Wash-
ington, D. C.

National Geographic Society, Wash-
ington, D. C.

Wild Flower Preservation Society
(Chapter), 3740 Oliver Street, Wash-
ington, D. C.

FLORIDA

Audubon Society, Mrs. Katherine A.

Tibbets, Secretary, The Belmont,

Saint Petersburg, Fla.
Florida Federation of Women's Clubs,

Mrs. N. F. Blackman, Orlando, Fla.
The Florida Entomological Society.

GEORGIA

Biological Department, Mercer Univer-
sity, Macon, Ga.

Georgia Academy of Science, Henry
Fox, Secretary, Mercer University,
Macon, Ga.

HAWAII

Hawaiian Trail and Mountain Club,
Honolulu, Hawaii.

IDAHO

Benewah County Rod and Gun Club,

Saint Maries, Idaho.
Clark County Rod and Gun Club,

Dubois, Idaho.
Fremont County Rod and Gun Club, J.

B. Quayle, Secretary, Saint Anthony,

Idaho.
Gooding Rod and Gun Club, Gooding,

Idaho.
Latah County Rod and Gun Club, Mos-
cow, Idaho.
Minnidoka County Fish and Game

Association, H. V. Cresson, Rupert,

Idaho.
Pocatello Rod and Gun Club, C. G.

Summer, President, Pocatello, Idaho.
Preston Rod and Gun Club, Milo A.

Wheeler, Preston, Idaho.
Soda Springs Rod and Gun Club, S. E,

Mathews, Soda Springs, Idaho.
Washington County Rod and Gun

Club, F. D. Stover, Secretary, Weiser,

Idaho.

ILLINOIS

Chicago Academy of Sciences, Lincoln
Park, Chicago, 111.

Chicago Geographic Society, Field
Museum, Chicago, 111.

Forestry Department Chicago Women's
Clubs, Mrs. Russell Opdike, Chair-
man, 902 Oakwood Blvd., Chicago, 111.

Friends of Our Native Landscape, Mr.
Edison Wheeler, Secretary, 215 West
Huron Street, Chicago, 111.

Illinois Audubon Society, O. M. Schantz,
President, 1649 Otis Building, Chi-
cago, 111.

Illinois State Academy of Sciences, C. F.
Phipps, Secretary, State Teachers Col-
lege, Dekalb, 111.

Illinois Federation of Women's Clubs,
Conservation Committee and Com-
mittees of 333 Districts, Mrs. Theron
Colton, 936 E. 46th Street, Chicago,
111.

ORGANIZATIONS INTERESTED IN PRESERVATION

729

llinois Forestry Association, Mr. E. F.
Dodge, Secretary, Box 8, 69 West
Jackson Blvd., Chicago, 111.

Illinois Natural History Survey, Dr. S.
A. Forbes, Chief Natural History
Building, Urbana, 111.

Izaak Walton League, Chicago Chapter,
Frank K. Reilly, President, 1006 S.
Michigan Avenue, Chicago, 111.

Kenilworth Garden Club, Miss Mar-
garet Harris, Secretary, Kenilworth,
111.

League of Cook County Women's Clubs,
Mrs. J. M. Lazarski, Secretary, 11340
Prairie Avenue, Chicago, 111.

Municipal Art League, Mrs. H. A. Tyler,
Secretary, 909 Leland Avenue, Chi-
cago, 111.

North Shore Garden Club, Mrs. Ber-
trand J. Cahn, President, Lake Forest,
111.

Oak Park and River Forest Garden
Club, Miss Jane Porter, President,
Oak Park, 111.

Prairie Club, Miss A. E. Hathaway,
Secretary, 537 First National Build-
ing, Chicago, 111.

Riverside Wild Flower Preservation
Society, C. M. Mclntyre, Secretary,
Riverside, 111.

Public Affairs Committee, Union League
Club, A. C. Crane, Secretary, 69 W.
Jackson Boulevard, Chicago, 111.

Wild Flower Preservation Society, Illi-
nois Chapter, Mrs. Chas. Eaton,
Secretary, 5744 Kimbark Avenue,
Chicago. 111.

Woodlawn Woman's Club, Mrs. DeWitt
Foster, Chairman, 1653 E. 67th Street,
Chicago, 111.

INDIANA

Archeological Society, Eli Lilly, In-
dianapolis, Ind.

Audubon Society, Samuel Perkins III,
Indianapolis, Ind.

Department of Conservation of the State
of Indiana, R. Lieber, Indianapolis,
Ind.

Indiana Academy of Science, Flora
Anderson, Bloomington, Ind.

Indiana Historical Society, Logan Esary,
Bloomington, Ind.

National Dunes Park Association, Mrs.

F. J. Sheehan, Gary, Ind.
Nature Study Club of Indiana, Samuel

Perkins III, Indianapolis, Ind.
Pottawatomie Chapter, D. A. R., Hazel

W. Leary, Secretary, Garj'^, Ind.

IOWA

Botanical Seminar, State College, Ames,
Iowa, C. M. King, Secretary.

Davenport Academy of Science, Daven-
port, Iowa.

Iowa Academy of Science, J. H. Lees,
Secretary, Des Moines, Iowa.

Iowa Conservation Association, G. B.
MacDonald, Secretary, Ames, Iowa.

Iowa State Horticultural Society, R. S.
Herrick, Secretarj^, Des Moines, Iowa.

Iowa Ornithologists' Union, W. IM.
Rosen, President, Ogden, Iowa.

Sioux City Academj^ of Science, Sioux
City, Iowa.

KANSAS

Kansas Academy of Sciences, in care of
Univerity of Kansas, Lawrence, Kan.

McPherson Science Club, Prof. Chas.
Morris, Secretary, College Hill, Mc-
Pherson, Kan.

KENTUCKY

Kentucky Academy of Sciences, A. M.
Peter, Kentucky Agricultural Experi-
ment Station, Lexington, Ky.

Wild Flower Preservation Society
(Chapter), Miss Ada Crosweller, Sec-
retary, Covington, Ky.

LOUISIANA

Baton Rouge Park Association.

Biological Club, Louisiana State Univer-
sity, Dr. E. H. Behre, Biology Depart-
ment, Louisiana State University,
Baton Rouge, La.

Louisiana State Parks Association,
Harold Neal, Audubon Park, New
Orleans, La.

New Orleans Academy of Sciences,
H. E. Buchanan, Tulane University,
New Orleans, La.

Rapides Park Association, Mrs. L. J.
Hackenjos, Alexandria, La.

730

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

MAINE

Portland Society of Natural History,

A. H. Norton, Curator, Elm Street,

Portland, Me.
Jocelyn Botanical Society, Elm Street,

Portland, Me.
Knox County Natural History Society,

Belfast, Me.

MARYLAND

Maryland Academy of Science, 105 W.
Franklin Street, Baltimore, Md.

Maryland Conservation Commission,
Munsey Building, Baltimore, Md.

Maryland Forestry Association, Calvert
Building, Baltimore, Md.

Maryland State Board of Forestry,
F. W. Besley, Forester, Calvert
Building, Baltimore, Md.

Maryland State Game and Fish Pro-
tective Association, Mr. Wm. H.
Fisher, Secretary, 210 E. Redwood
Street, Baltimore, Md.

Wild Flower Preservation Society (Chap-
ter), 100 Club Road, Baltimore, Md.

MASSACHUSETTS

Appalachian Mountain Club, Harlan P.

Kelsey, Tremont Building, 1050 Tre-

mont Street, Boston, Mass.
Boston Society of Natural History, 234

Berkeley Street, Boston, Mass.
Massachusetts Audubon Society, 66

Newbury Street, Boston, Mass., Win-

throp Packard, Secretary.
Massachusetts Daughters of American

Revolution, Mrs. James C. Peabody, 21

AUston Street, Boston, Mass.
Massachusetts Forestry Association,

Harris A. Reynolds, Secretary, 4

Joy Street, Boston, Mass.
Massachusetts State Federation of

Women's Clubs, Mrs. Frederick G.

Bauer, clerk, Pleasant Street, South

Weymouth, Mass.
New England Botanical Club, 246

Devonshire Street, Boston, Mass.,

Robert A. Ware, Secretary.
Society for the Protection of Native

New England Plants, Horticultural

Hall, 300 Massachusetts Avenue, Bos-
ton, ]\Iass.
Trustees of Public Reservations, 14

Beacon Street, Boston, Mass.

MICHIGAN

Civic League (Saginaw), May Turner,

1702 Court Street, Saginaw, Mich.
Detroit Audubon Society, Ralph Beebe,

2920 Hillgen Avenue, Detroit, Mich.
*Detroit Bird Protecting Club, Agnes

Sherman, 572 Lavin Avenue, Detroit,

Mich.
Detroit Zoological Society, Richard E.

Follett, Dime Bank Building, Detroit,

Mich.
Michigan Academy of Science, Arts and

Letters, L. R. Dice, University of

Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Michigan Audubon Society, Geneva

Smithe, 106 Summit Street, Ypsilanti,

Mich.
South Haven Bird Club, Florence T.

Gregory, South Haven, Mich.

MINNESOTA

Minnesota Academy of Science, Prof.
O. W. Oestlund, Secretary, University
of Minnesota, Minn.

Minnesota Chapter of Wild Flower
Preservation Society, Mrs. Erroll K.
Naftalin, Maryland Hotel, Minne-
apolis, Minn.

*Minnesota Game Protective League,
Room 18, Court House Building,
Minneapolis, Minn.

State Forestry Board, W. T. Cox, State
Capital, St. Paul, Minn.

State Game and Fish Department, J. F.
Gould, Commissioner, Old Capital
Building, St. Paul, Minn.

Ten Thousand Lakes of Minnesota Asso-
ciation, Ryan Building, St. Paul,
Minn.

MISSISSIPPI

No representative.

MISSOURI

Wild Flower Preservation Society, Miss
Mary Gilmer, Secretary, 2415 Inde-
pendence Avenue, Kansas City, Mo.

MONTANA

Montana Experiment Station, Bozeman,

Mont.
Montana State Sportsmen's Association,

Headquarters, Missoula, Mont.
State Fish and Game Commission,

Helena, Mont.

ORGANIZATIONS INTERESTED IN PRESERVATION

731

United States Forest Service, District

No. 1. Missoula. Mont.
Missoula Bird Club, Missoula, Mont.

NEBRASKA

Bruner Bird Club, Mrs. G. A. Loveland,
1130 S. 20th Street, Lincoln, Nebr.

Fontenelle Forest Reserve Association,
Roy Towl, 524 Peters Trust Building,
Omaha, Nebr.

Nebraska Academy of Science, Miss
Virginia Zimmer, University of Ne-
braska, Lincoln, Nebr.

Nebraska Audubon Society, Mrs. Mar-
garet Hamilton, 592 N. 40th Street,
Omaha, Nebr.

Nebraska Ornithologists' Union, Prof,
Myron H. Swenk, Agricultural College
University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr.

State Federation, of Women's Clubs,
Miss Harriet Summers, Beatrice,
Nebr.

NEVADA

Nevada Science Club, University of
Nevada, Reno, Nev. Dr. L. W. Hart-
man, President, Miss Margaret E.
Mack, Secretary.

NEW HAMPSHIRE

Society for the Protection of New Hamp-
shire Forests, P. W. Ayres, Forester,
4 Joy Street, Boston, Mass.

The New Hampshire Academy of
Sciences, W. C. O'Kane, Secretary,
Durham, N. H.

The New England Section of the Society
of American Foresters, H. O. Cook,
Secretary, State House, Boston, Mass.

NEW JERSEY

*Apgar Club, Trenton, N. J.

Department of Conservation and De-
velopment, State House, Trenton, N. J.

Haddonfield Natural Science Club, Had-
donfield, N. J.

Moorestown Natural History Society,
Moorestown, N. J.

Newark Entomological Society, Free
Public Library, Newark, N. J.

New Jersey Audubon Society, 164 Market
Street, Newark, N. J.

*Salem Naturalists Field Club, Salem,
N.J.

State Fish and Game Commission, Tren-
ton, N. J.

The Montclair Bird Club, R. H. How-
land, Montclair, N. J.

The Paterson Ramblers, Mr. F. Ward,
Secretary, 225 Marion St., Paterson,
N.J.

The New Jersey Geography Teachers,
Miss Helen Steele, Passaic High
School, Passaic, N. J.

Woodstown Naturalists' Field Club,
Woodstown, N. J.

NEW MEXICO

New Mexico Game Protective Associa-
tion, Albuquerque, N. M.

Southwest Section Society of American
Foresters, Albuquerque, N. M.

NEW YORK

Adirondack Camp and Trail Club, T.
M. Longstreth, Lake Placid Club,
New York City.

Adirondack Mountain Club, T. M.
Longstreth, Lake Placid Club, New
York. (Publicity of Adirondack
Company resources.)

The American Geographical Society of
New York, Isaiah Bowman, Director,
156 Broadway, New York City.

*Appalachian Mountain Clubs, New
York City.

Buffalo Academy of Science, Frank W.
Johnson, Chairman, Botanical Sec-
tion, Buffalo, N. Y.

Explorers Club, New York City

*Fresh Air Club, New York Cit '

New York Academy of Scienc,
W. Tower, Secretary,
Museum of Natural History

New York Conservation Co''

C.

jcott
rn

alph
ican

S<U

3ion,

H. F. Prescott, Secretary ibany,
N. Y. ^^^-j

New York State Forestry A^ .aation,
J. R. Simmons, Secretary^^ilbany,
N. Y. ^j

Rochester Academy of Science jRoches-
ter, N. Y. /

Torrey Botanical Club, Marshall A.
Howe, Secretary, N. Y. Botanical
Garden, Bronx Park, N. Y.

Victory Mountain Park Committee,
John H. Finley, Chairman, in care of
N. Y. Times, New York City.

732

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

Wild Flower Preservation Society of
New York, Mrs. Elizabeth G. Britton,
Secretary, New York Botanical Gar-
den, Bronx Park, N. Y,

NORTH CAROLINA

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, Uni-
versity of North Carolina, Chapel
Hill, N. C.

North Carolina Academy of Sciences,
Bert Cunningham, Secretary, Trinity
College, Durham, N. C.

North Carolina Forestry Association,
I. S. Holmes, State Forester, Raleigh,
N. C.

NORTH DAKOTA

State Game and Fish Commission, Com-
missioner, Bismarck, N. Dak.

State Historial Society, Curator, Bis-
marck, N. Dak.

State Park Board, Chairman, Bismarck,
N. Dak.

OHIO

Audubon Society, Miss Lucy B. Stone,
Secretary, Columbus, Ohio.

Blue Hydra Society, University of Cin-
cinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio.

Cincinnati Society of Natural History,
312 Broadway, Cincinnati, Ohio.

Cleveland Museum of Natural History,
2717 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, Ohio.

Ohio Academy of Sciences, Wm. Alexan-
der, Secretary, Weather Bureau, Co-
lurrl ^, Ohio.

Ohi'., ^ 3 Archaeological and Historical

^y'TlIto ^™" ^' ^^^^^' ^^^^ ^*^*^
T^'Sfl , tj) Columbus, Ohio.

'C Q p |-V ' '

Wilh-w, . er Preservation Society, Cin-
Arris
ciii (I Dhapter, Morton Carlisle, 7.1

E.lis'. , ter Street, Cincinnati, Ohio,
^cni

luen
ier

OKLAHOMA

Oklaha', ' Academy of Science, L. B.

'm

Nice^(* jrman, Okla.

y OREGON

Angora iViking Club, Astoria, Ore.
Audubon Society, in care of Central

Library, Portland, Ore.
Isaak Walton League, in care of j,W. S.

Raker, Northwestern Bank Building,

Portland, Ore.

Nature Study Club, in care of Mrs. A.

L. Stevenson, Corvallis, Ore.
Oregon State Game Commission, Pittock

Block, Portland, Ore.
Society of American Foresters, Pacific

Northwest Section, 403 Post Office

Building, Portland, Ore.
The Mazamas, Chamber of Commerce

Building, Portland, Ore.
The Oregon State Board of Forestry,

State Forester, Salem, Ore.
The Oregon Historical Society, Court

House, Portland, Ore.
The Trails Club, Portland, Ore.
Western Naturalists, in care of Prof. H.

P. Torrey, University of Oregon,

Eugene, Ore.
Wiyeast Club, in care of C. E. Graves,

Hood River, Ore.

PENNSYLVANIA

*American Alpine Club, Philadelphia,
Pa.

Biological Club of the Philadelphia
Schools, 13th and Spring Garden
Streets, Philadelphia, Pa.

Botanical Society of Pennsylvania,
University of Pennsylvania, Philadel-
phia, Pa.

Botanical Society of Western Pennsyl-
vania, O. E. Jennings, Carnegie Mu-
seum, Pittsburgh, Pa.

*Bucks County Natural Science Club,
Doylestown, Pa.

Delaware Valley Naturalists Union,
124 North 18th Street, Philadelphia,
Pa.

Doylestown Nature Club, Doylestown,
Pa.

Everhart Museum, Scranton, Pa.

Geographical Society of Philadelphia,
Witherspoon Building, Philadelphia,
Pa.

Harrisburg Natural History Society,
Harrisburg, Pa.

Historical Society of Frankfort, Frank-
fort, Philadelphia, Pa.

Lansdowne Natural History Club, Lans-
downe, Delaware County, Pa.

*Manoa Natural History Society,
Manoa, Delaware County, Pa.

Naturalists Field Club, University of
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.

ORGANIZATIONS INTERESTED IN PRESERVATION

733

Natural History Club of the German-
town High School, Germantown,
Philadelphia, Pa.

Natural History Society of Philadelphia,
Wagner Institute, 17th and Mont-
gomery Avenue, Philadelphia, Pa.

Pennsylvania Forestry Association, 130
S. loth Street, Philadelphia, Pa.

Philadelphia Academy of Sciences, Phil-
adelphia, Pa.

Philadelphia New Century Club, 124 S.
12th Street, Philadelphia, Pa.

Science Club, Lebanon "Valley College,
Annville, Pa.

*State Federation of Pennsylvania
Women, Committee of Forestry and
Horticulture, Philadelphia, Pa.

The Audubon Societies, Academy of
Natural Science, 19th and Pace
Streets, Philadelphia, Pa.

The Delaware County Institute, Media,
Pa.

The Pennsylvania Alpine Club, H. W.
Shoemaker, 71 Broadway, New York
City.

The Pennsylvania State Conservation
Council, 315 Commonwealth Building,
Harrisburg, Pa.

The Wild Flower Preservation Society of
America, 4B Gunter Apartments, 41st
and Baltimore Avenue, West Philadel-
phia, Pa.

RHODE ISLAND

Appalachian Club (Narragansett
Branch) Edward C. Parkhurst, 148
Melrose Street, Providence, R. I.

Civic Improvement and Park Associa-
tion, John H. Cady, 127 Power Street,
Providence, R. I.

Rhode Island Botanical Club, Prof.
Walter Snell, Department of Botany,
Brown Universitj^, Providence, R. I.

Rhode Island Entomological Society,
Martin Bowe, 27 Gladstone Street,
Providence, R. I.

Rhode Island Field Naturalists Club,
Inc., Miss Ida Arnold, 17 Lake View
Road, Meschanticut, R. I.

Rhode Island Horticultural Society,
Ernest K. Thomas, R. I. Hospital
Trust Company, Providence, R. I.

SOUTH CAROLINA

Conservation Society of South Carolina,
James Henry Rice, Secretary, Hotel
Jerome, Colombia, S. C.

SOUTH DAKOTA

South Dakota Academy of Science,
Secretary, Prof. A. L. Haines, Univer-
sity of South Dakota, Vermillion, S. D.

South Dakota Federation of Women's
Clubs, Dept. of Conservation of
Natural Resources, Mrs. A. D. Clift,
Secretary, Rapid City, S. D.

South Dakota Horticultural Society,
Dr. N. E. Hansen, Secretary, South
Dakota State College, Brookings,
S. D.

TENNESSEE

East Tennessee Audubon Society
(Knoxville), Mrs. Walter Barton,
President, 701 11th Street, Knox-
ville, Tenn.

East Tennessee Ornithological Society
(Knoxville), H. P. Ijams, President,
R. D. No. 9, Knoxville, Tenn., S. A.
Agden, Secretary, Fountain City,
Tenn.

Humane Society of Chattanooga, Mrs.
Richard Hardy, President, Chatta-
nooga, Tenn.

Smoky Mountain Conservation Associa-
tion, W. P. Davis, Chairman, 400 17th
Street, Knoxville, Tenn.

Smoky Mountain Hiking Club, Bruce A.
Rodgers, Secretary, Y. M. C. A.,
Knoxville, Tenn.

Tennessee Academy of Science, Scott C.
Lyon, President, Southwestern Uni-
versity, Clarksville, Tennessee; Rosco
Nunn, Secretary, United States
Weather Bureau, Nashville, Tenn.

Tennessee Ornithological Society (Nash-
ville), Albert F. Gainer, President,
2507 Ashwood Ave., Nashville, Tenn.

TEXAS

Outdoor Nature Club, Department of
Zoology, University of Texas, Austin,
Tex.

Hollands Magazine, Dallas, Tex.

Texas Fish Game and Oyster Com-
mission, Austin, Tex.

734

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMERICAS

UTAH

Utah Academy of Science, C. Arthur

Smith, Secretary, East High School,

Salt Lake City, Utah.
Utah Mountain Club, J. E. Broaddus,

312 Walker Boulevard, Salt Lake

City, Utah.

VERMONT

Green Mountain Club, Rutland, Vt.
Vermont Botanical Club, Burlington,

Vt.
Vermont Bird Club, Burlington, Vt.
Vermont Forestry Association, Mont-

pelier, Vt.
Vermont Fish and Game League, Mont-

pelier, Vt.

VIBGINIA

Agricultural Experiment Station,
Blacksburg, Va.

Miller School of Biology, University of
Virginia, Charlottesville, Va.

Oflfice of the State Forester, University
of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va.

The Biological Society in care of Prof.
W. D. Hoyt, Washington and Lee
University, Lexington, Va.

The Biological Club, in care of Prof. H.
E. Hayden, Jr., University of Rich-
mond, Richmond, Va.

The Grimes Natural History Club, in
care of Prof. Donald W. Davis, College
of William and Mary, Williamsburg,
Va.

The State Department of Game and
Fisheries, Hon. W. MacDonald Lee,
Commissioner, Richmond, Va.

Virginia Academy of Science, I. F.
Lewis, President, Dr. E. C. L. Miller,
Secretary, Medical College of Virginia,
Richmond, Va.

WASHINGTON (STATE)

Cascadians, Clarence True, Yakima,
Wash.

Klahhane Club, Port Angeles, Wash.

Mountaineers, Seattle, Tacoma, Bremer-
ton, and Everett, Wash.

Natural Parks Association of Washing-
ton, 4102 Arcade Building, Seattle,
Wash.

Pacific Northwest Bird and Mammal
Society, State Museum, University of
Washington, Seattle, Wash.

Sagebrush and Pine Club, J. H. Wright,

Yakima, Wash.
Spokane Mountain Club, A. Glasgow, N.

1221 Monroe Street, Spokane, Wash.

WEST VIRGINIA

Agricultural Experiment Station, H. G.
Knight, Director, Morgantown, W. Va.

West Virginia Geological Survey, I. C.
White, Geologist, Morgantown, W. Va.

West Virginia Scientific Society, Secre-
tary, Morgantown, West Va.

West Virginia Wild Life League, Howard
H. Cleaves, 727 Goff Building, Clarks-
burg, West Va.

WISCONSIN

Friends of our Native Landscape, F. A.
Aust, University of Wisconsin, Madi-
son, Wis.

Isaak Walton League, State Capitol,
Madison, Wis.

*Milwaukee Garden Club, Milwaukee,
Wis.

*Milwaukee Mushroom Club, Milwau-
kee, Wis.

Outdoor Section of City Club, Mil-
waukee, Wis.

Wauwatosa Garden Club, Wauwatosa,
Wis.

Wild Life Protective Society, Mrs.
Nelson M. Black, Secretary Public
Museum, Milwaukee, Wis.

Wisconsin Academy of Science, Arts and
Letters, Chauncey Juday, 35 Lathrop
Streets, Madison, Wis.

Wisconsin Archaeological Society, Chas.
E. Brown, Secretary, Historical Mu-
seum, Madison, Wis.

Wisconsin Conservation Commission,
State Capitol, Madison, Wis.

Wisconsin Federation of Women's Clubs,
Madison, Wis.

Wild Flower Preservation Society, Mrs.
Wm. Finger, President, 177— 34th
Street, Milwaukee, Wis.

Canada

ALBERTA

Northern Alberta Game and Fish Pro-
tective League, W. F. H. Mason,
Court House, Edmonton, Alberta.

ORGANIZATIONS INTERESTED IN PRESERVATION

735

BRITISH COLUMBIA

Alpine Club of Canada, Vancouver and
Victoria sections in care of Mrs. S. H.
Mitchell, Secretary-Treasurer, Sydney,
B.C.

British Columbia Mountaineering Club,
J. H. Speer, 2426 Seventh Avenue, W.,
Vancouver, B. C.

British Columbia Ornithologists Union,
in care of Provincial Museum, Vic-
toria, B. C.

Cowichan Field Naturalists Club, Dun-
can, B. C.

The Vancouver Natural History Society,
in care of University of British Colum-
bia, British Columbia, Vancouver,

B. C.

British Columbia Ornithologists Union,
J. W. Winson, Huntingdon, B. C.

Natural Historj^ Society of British
Columbia, H. T. Nation, in care of

C. C. Pemberton 323 Sayward Build-
ing, Victoria, B. C.

MANITOBA

Federation of Women's Clubs, Mrs.

Lennox, 90 Kenora St., Winnipeg,

Man.
Fish and Game Conservation League of

Manitoba, W. G. Scott, Box 577,

Winnipeg, Man.
Manitoba Game Protective Association,

J. P. Turaner, 403 Merchant Bank

Building, Winnipeg, Man.
Manitoba Game Protection League,

H. J. Merkeley, 706 Somerset Block,

Winnipeg, Man.
Natural History Society of Manitoba,

A. M. Davidson, M. D., 6. Medical

Arts Building, Winnipeg, Man.

NEW BRUNSWICK

Fredericton Science Club, Secretary,
Entomological Laboratory, Frederic-
ton, New Brunswick.

Miramichi Natural History Society,
Secretary, Chatham, New Brunswick.

Natural History Society of New Bruns-
wick, Mr. Wm. Macintosh, in care of
Natural History Museum, Saint John,
New Brunswick.

ONTARIO

Clandeboye Bird and Game Protective
Association, Eslie Carter, R. R. L,
Clandeboye, Out,

Clyde N. Leavitt, Forester, Railway
Commission, Ottawa, Ont.

Commission of the Dominions Park
Branch, J. B. Harkin, Ottawa, Ont.

Ontario Entomological Society, A. W.
Baker, Ontario Agricultural College,
Guelph, Ont.

Ontario Forest, Fish and Game Protec-
tive Association, Lieut. Col. A. Kelley
Evan, Toronto Club, Toronto, Ont.

Ontario Women's Institute, G. A. Put-
man, Parliament Building, Toronto,
Ont.

Ontario Sportsmen's Game and Fish
Protective Association, Sam Harris,
113 Sterling Road, Toronto, Ont.

Ottawa Field Naturalists Club, Dr. J.
Frank Wright, Victoria Memorial
Museum, Ottawa, Ont.

Royal Canadian Institute, Prof. J. C.
Fields, President, 198 College Street,
Toronto, Ont.

QUEBEC

Laurentian Club, Lac la Peche, via

Shawinegan Falls, P. Q.
Province of Quebec Society for the

Protection of Birds, W. S. Hart, P. O.

Box 1185, Montreal, P. Q.
Province of Quebec Association for the

Protection of Fish and Game, J. R.

Innes, 286 Saint James Street, Imperial

Bank Building, Montreal, Que.
Sportsmen's Fish and Game Protective

Association of the Province of Quebec,

Chas. Fremont, K. C, 81 Saint Peter

Street, Quebec, P. Q.

SASKATCHEWAN

Saskatchewan Game Protective Associa-
tion, W. M. Van Valkenburg, Regina,
Sask.

NOVA SCOTIA

Nova Scotia Institute of Science, Hali-
fax, N. S.

Nova Scotia Inland Game and Fishery
Protection Association.

PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND

Prince Edward Island Game and Fish
Protective Association, A. R. B. Duck,
Charlottetown, P. E. I.

C. NATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

By C. F. Jackson

The following is a list of national organizations interested in various forms of con-
servation. Where information was available the name of the organization is followed
by the name and address of the secretary, the phase of conservation in which the
organization is most interested and the approximate total membership.

American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science, Burton E. Livingston,
Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
D. C. Preservation wild life and
national parks.
American Association of Museums, L. V.
Coleman, American Association of
Museums, Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D. C. Museum work.
American Institute of Park Executives,
Will O. Doolittle, Secretary-Treasurer,
Rockford, 111.
American Society of Mammalogists,
Hartley H. T. Jackson, United States
Biological Survey, Washington, D. C.
Conservation of mammals. 600.
American Ornithologists' Union, J. S.
Palmer, 1939 Biltmore Street, N. W.,
Washington, D. C. Birds. 1900.
American Phytopathological Society,
R. J. Haskell, Bureau Plant Indus-
try, Washington, D. C. Conservation
plants and crops. 635.
American Society of Naturalists, A.
Franklin ShuU, University of Michi-
gan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Fundamental
and general biology; natural history.
420.
American Anthropological Association,
The, A. V. Kidder, Andover, Mass.,
American Indian life. 550.
Archeological Institute of America,
David M. Robinson, John Hopkins
University, Baltimore, Md. Indian
mounds.
American Society of Zoologists, W. C.
AUee, University of Chicago, Chicago,
111. Wild life in general.
Association of American Geographers,
Richard E. Dodge, Storrs, Conn.
Scenic America. . , , , ......

._ . . . ..'w/iv^-oJ.-JO 736

American Fern Society, Charles S.
Lewis, 835 Edgewood Avenue, Tren-

r ton, N. J. Ferns.

American Nature-Study Society, Mrs.
Anna B. Comstock, 123 Roberts
Place, Ithaca, N. Y. Wild life.

American Association of Economic En-
tomologists, C. W, Collins, Melrose
Highlands, Mass., Control of noxious
insects protection and increase bene-
ficial insects. 773.

American Geographical Society, Isaiah
Bowman, Broadway at 156th Street,
New York. Geography and scenic
assets of America. 4000.

Alberta Natural History Society, Mrs.
S. Pamely, Red Deer, Canada.
Protection birds and game.

American Civic Association, Harlean
James, 905-907 Union Trust Building,
Washington, D. C, National parks,
forests and scenic assets of America.
1500.

American Museum of Natural History,
Percy R. Pyne, Museum 77th Street
and Central Park West, New York.
Forestry and wild life. 7325.

American Forestry Association, O. M.
Butler, The Lenox Building, 1523 L
Street N. W., Washington, D. C. All
phases pertaining to natural resources.
14,000.
American Scenic and Historic Preserva-
tion Society, Edward Hagaman Hall,
Old Tribune Building, 154 Nassau
Street, New York. Scenic and his-
toric places and forests. 500.
Alpine Club of Canada, S. H. Mitchell,
Sidney, Vancouver Island, B. C,
Canada. Exploration, education as to
scenic value^ national playgrounds,

ORGANIZATIONS INTERESTED IN PRESERVATION

737

preservation of scenic beauties,
659.

American Alpine Club, Walter D. Wil-
cox, 1526 New Hampshire Avenue,
Washington, D. C. Scenic beauty.
128.

American Nature Association, P. S.
Ridsdale, 1214— 16th Street N.W.,
Washington, D. C. Scenic beauty and
wild life.

Associated Mountaineering Clubs of
North America, LeRoy Jeffers, 65
Central Park West, New York City.
Scenic beauty.

American Game Protective Association,
J. B. Burnham, 233 Broadway, New
York. Wild life.

Alpine Club of Canada, S. H. Mitchell,
Sidney, B. C. Scenic beauty and
natural condition.

Boone and Crockett Club, Kermit Roose-
velt, 44 Beaver Street, New York.
Big game. 164.

Botanical Society of America, I. F.
Lewis, University, Va. Undisturbed
plant conditions.

Botanists of the Central States, Edward
A. Burt, Missouri Botanical Garden,
St. Louis, Mo. Undisturbed plant
conditions.

British Columbia Ornithologists Union,
J. W. Winson, Huntingdon, B. C.
Protection of birds and game.

British Columbia Mountaineering Club,
J. H. Speer, 2426 Seventh Avenue, W.,
Vancouver, B. C, Canada.

Canadian Society for the Protection of
Birds, Inc. Miss Laura B. Durand,
McLean Building, 153 University
Avenue, Toronto, Ont., Canada. Con-
servation birds.

Camp Director Association of America,

F. L. Bryant, 466 E. 17th Street,

Brooklyn, N. Y. Scenic and wild life

conservation.

Canadian National Parks, J. B. Harkin,

178 Queen Street, Ottawa, Canada.

National parks.

Co-operative Campers, Margaret Bliss,

45-47 Brooklyn Avenue, Seattle, Wash.

Scenic conditions, parks and wild life.

Council on National Parks, Forests, and

Wild Life, G. B. Grinnell, 238 E. 15th

Street, New York City. Parks, for-
ests, and wild life.

Dominion Parks Branch, F. H. William-
son, 178 Queen Street, Ottawa, On-
tario. National parks.

Entomological Society of America, C. L.
Metcalf, University of Illinois, Ur-
bana. 111. Preservation of natural
areas. 650.

Ecological Society of America, A. O.
Weese, James Millikin University,
Decatur, 111. Preservation of natural
areas.

Explorer's Club of Mexico, Otis Mc-
Allister, Apartado Postal 1908, Mexico,
D. F. Scenic conditions in Mexico.

Essex Wild Life Conservation Associa-
tion, Edward R. Kerr, Walkerville,
Ontario, Canada. Protection birds
and game.

Forest and Stream Society, T. H.
Mearns, 231 West 57 Street, New
York City. Preservation of forests,
streams, and wild life 14,000.

Field and Forests Club, F. M. Brooks,
12 Pemberton Square, Boston, Mass.
Wild life and forests.

Fresh Air Club, Mortimer Bishop, 88
Nassau Street, New York City.
Outdoor America.

Forest Service, W. B. Greeley, 930 F
Street N.W., Washington, D. C.

Geological Society of America, Charles
P. Berkey, Columbia University, New
York City, N. Y. Unwasteful pro-
duction of coal and useful metal re-
sources in North America. 507.

Hawaiian Trail and Mountain Club,
Miss Zarel Jones, 418 Hawaiian Trust
Building, Honolulu, Hawaii. For-
ests and scenic beaut,y.
Hamilton Bird Protection Society, Ruby
R. Mills, Public Library, Hamilton,
Ontario, Canada. Conservation of
birds.
Isaak Walton League of America, M. S.
Heiss, 536 Lake Shore Drive, Chicago,
111. Forests and wild life. 100,000.
Mcllwraith Ornithological Club, C. G.
Watson, 201 Ridout Street, South,
London, Ontario, Canada. Protec-
tion birds and game.
Manitoba Game Protection League,

738

NATURALIST'S GUIDE TO THE AMEKIGAS

H. J. Merkeley, 706 Somerset Block,
Winnipeg, Man., Canada. Conserva-
tion birds and game.

Manitoba Game Protective Association,
J. P. Turaner, 403 Merchant Bank
Building, Winnipeg, Canada. Con-
servation birds and game.

Mineralogical Society of America,
Frank R. Van Horn, Case School
Applied Science, Cleveland, Ohio.
Natural resources. 280.

National Association of Audubon Socie-
ties, T. Gilbert Pearson, 1974 Broad-
way, New York City, N. Y. Protec-
tion wild birds and animals. 150
associated clubs and organizations.
7500 members.

Natural History of New Brunswick,
St. John, N.B. Protection birds
and game.

Natural History Society of British
Columbia, H. T. Nation, in care of
C. C. Pemberton, 323 Sayward Build-
ing, Victoria, B.C. Protection birds
and game.

Natural History Society of Manitoba,
A. M. Davidson, M.D., 6 Medical
Arts Building, Winnipeg, Man. Con-
servation birds and game.

Northern Alberta Game and Fish Pro-
tective League, W. F. H. Mason,
Court House, Edmonton, Alta, Can-
ada. Protection birds and game.

New York Zoological Society, Madison
Grant, 111 Broadway, New York City.
Conservation of forests and wild life
in America, South Africa and Aus-
tralia. 2725.

National Parks Association, Robert
Sterling Yard, 1512 H Street, N.W.,
Washington, D. C. Conservation Na-
tional Parks vs. inimical legislation;
preservation parks for scientific ob-
servation and to promote their use for
education. 2000.

National Academy of Sciences, David
White, United States Geological Sur-
vey, Washington, D. C. Forests and
wild life. 249.

National Parks Association of Canada,
A. C. Wheeler, Sidney, British Colum-
bia, Canada.

National Park Service, S. T. Mather,
National Park Service, Washington,
D.C. National parks.

Ontario Entomological Society, A. W.
Baker, Ontario Agricultural College,
Guelph, Ont. Canada. Protection
birds and game.

Ontario Sportsmen's Game and Fish
Protective Association, Sam Harris,
113 Sterling Road, Toronto, Ont.,
Canada. Protection of fish and game.

Ottawa Field Naturalists' Club, Dr. J.
Frank Wright, Victoria Memorial
Museum, Ottawa, Canada.

Ontario Forest, Fish and Game Pro-
tective Association, Lieut. Col. A.
Kelley Evan, Toronto Club, Toronto,
Ont. Canada. Game and birds.

Permanent Wild Life Foundation, W. T.
Hornaday, New York City.

Province of Quebec Society for the
Protection of Birds. W. S. Hart,
P. O. Box 1185, Montreal, P. Q. Pro-
tection birds.

Province of Quebec Association for the
Protection of Fish and Game, J. R.
Innes, 286 Saint Jaines Street, Im-
perial Bank Building, Montreal. Fish
and game.

Prince Edward Island Game and Fish
Protective Association, A. R. B. Duck,
Charlottetown, P. E. I. Protection
fish and game.

Paleontological Society, R. Bassler,
United States National Museum,
Washington, D.C. Conservation nat-
ural resources.

Save the Redwoods League, N. B.
Drury, 298 Monadnock Block, San
Francisco, Calif. Redwood forests.

Societe Provancher d'Historie Naturelle
du Canada, Jos. Matte, 18 Masion-
neuve Avenue, Quebec, P. Q. Birds
and game.

Saskatchewan Game Protective Associa-
tion, W. M. Van Valkenburg, Regina,
Sask. Fish and game.

Sportsmen's Fish and Game Protective
Association of the Province of Quebec,
Chas. Fremont, K. C. 81 Saint Peter
Street, Quebec, P. Q. Protection
game.

ORGANIZATIONS INTERESTED IN PRESERVATION

739

Sullivan Moss Society, Edward B.
Chamberlain, 18 West 89th Street,
New York City. Hepatics, mosses,
lichens. 150.

Sierra Club, William Colby, Mills Build-
ing, San Francisco, Calif. National
parks and forests. 2500.

Tramp and Trail Club, G. L. Bickel,
750 Park Avenue, Portland, Ore.
Mountains and forests.

Travel Club of America, F. Straith-
Miller, 114 Grand Central Palace, New
York City. Scenic beauty, parks,
and forests.

Utah Mountain Club, J. E. Broadlus, 312
Walker Bank Building, Salt Lake City,
Utah. Mountains and forests.

Vancouver Natural History Society, C.
F. Connor, M.A., 3529 W. Second
Avenue, Vancouver, B. C. Conserva-
tion of wild life.

Wilson Ornithological Club, Gordan
Wilson, 1434 Chestnut Street, Bowling
Green, Ky. 650.

Wild Flower Preservation Society. P.
L. Ricker, President, 3740 Oliver
Street, Washington, D. C.

VI. INDICES

LIST OF BIRD NAMES

Giving the common and scientific names of the birds of the United States accord-
ing to the Check List of the American Ornithological Union.

Albatross, Black-footed, Diomedea

nigripes
Albatross, Laysan, Diomedea immutabilis
Albatross, Short-tailed, Diomedea alba-

trus
Albatross, Sooty, Phwhciria palpebrata

auduboni
Albatross, Yellow-nosed, Thalassogeron

culminatus
Ani, Crotophaga ani
Ani, Groove-billed, Crotophaga sulci-

rostris
Auk, Great, Plautiis impennis
Auk, Razor-billed, Alca torda
Auklet, Cassin's, Ptychoramphus

aleuticus
Auklet, Crested, Mthia cristatella
Auklet, Least, /Ethia pusilla
Auklet, Paroquet, Phaleris psittacula
Auklet, Rhinoceros, Cerorhinca mono-

cerata
Auklet, Whiskered, .Ethia pygm'iea
Avocet, Recurvirostra americana

Baldpate, Mareca americana

Becard, Xantus's, Platypsaris aglaise

albiventris
Bittern, Botaurus lentiginosus
Bittern, Least, Ixobrychus exilis
Blackbird, Brewer's, Euphagus cyano-

cephalus
Blackbird, Red-winged, Agelaius pha-

niceus pha^niceus
Blackbird, Rusty, Euphagus carolinus
Blackbird, Yellow-headed, Xantho-

cephalus xanthocephalus
Bluebird, Sialia sialis sialis
Bluebird, Azure, Sialia sialis fulva
Bluebird, Chestnut-backed, Sialia

mexicana bairdi
Bluebird, Mountain, Sialia currucoides
Bluebird, San Pedro, Sialia mexicana

anabelw
Bluebird, Western, Sialia mexicana

occidentalis
Blue-throat, Siberian Red-spotted,

Cyanosyh'ia suecica robusta
Bobolink, Dolichonyx oryzivorus
Bob-white, Colinus virginianus vir-

ginianus
Bob-white, Florida, Colinus virginianus

floridanus
Bob-white, Masked, Colinus ridgwayi

Bob-white, Texas, Colinus virginianus

texanus
Boo])y, Sula leucogastra
Booby, Blue-faced, Sula dactylatra
Booby, Blue-footed, Sula nebouxi
Booby, Brewster's, Sula brewsteri
Booby, Red-footed, Sula piscator
Brant, Black, Branta nigricans
Buffle-head, Charitonetta albeola
Bullfinch, Cassin's, Pyrrhula cassini
Bunting, Beautiful, Passerina versicolor

pulchra
Bunting, Indigo, Passerina cyanea
Bunting, Lark, Calamospiza melanocorys
Bunting, Lazuli, Passerina amsena
Bunting, McKay's Snow, Plectrophenax

hyperboreus
Bunting, Painted, Passerina ciris
Bunting, Pribilof Snow, Plectrophenax

nivalis townsendi
Bunting, Snow, Plectrophenax nivalis

nivalis
Bunting, Varied, Passerina versicolor

versicolor
Bush-Tit, Psaltriparus minimum min-
imus
Bush-Tit, California, Psaltriparus min-
imus californicus
Bush-Tit, Grinda's, Psaltriparus min-
imus grindoe
Bush-Tit, Lead-colored, Psaltriparus

plumbeus
Bush-Tit, Lloyd's, Psaltriparus mela-
notis lloydi

Canvas-back, Marila valisineria
Caracara, Audubon's, Polyborus cheri-

way
Caracara, Guadalupe, Polyborus lutosus
Cardinal, Cardinalis cardinalis car-

dinalis
Cardinal, Arizona, Cardinalis cardinalis

superbus
Cardinal, Florida, Cardinalis cardinalis

floridanus
Cardinal, Gray-tailed, Cardinalis car-
dinalis canicaudus
Cardinal, San Lucas, Cardinalis cardi-
nalis igneus
Catbird, Dumetella carolinensis
Chachalaca, Ortalis vetula mccalli
Chat, Long-tailed, Icteria virens longi'
Cauda

743

744

INDICES

Chat, Yellow-breasted, Icteria virens
virens

Chickadee, Penthestes atricapillus alri-
capillus

Chickadee, Acadian, Penthestes hud-
sonicus littoralis

Chickadee, Alaska, Penthestes ductus
alascensis

Chickadee, Bailey's Mountain, Pen-
thestes gambeli haileyx

Chickadee, Barlow's, Penthestes rufe-
scens barlowi

Chickadee, California, Penthestes
rufescens neglectus

Chickadee, Carolina, Penthestes caro-
linensis carolinensis

Chickadee, Chestnut-backed, Penthestes
rufescens rufescens

Chickadee, Florida, Penthestes caroli-
nensis impiger

Chickadee, Hudsonian, Penthestes hud-
sonicus hudsonicus

Chickadee, Long-tailed, Penthestes atri-
capillus septentrionalis

Chickadee, Mexican, Penthestes sclateri

Chickadee, Mountain, Penthestes gam-
beli gambeli

Chickadee, Oregon, Penthestes atricapil-
lus occidentalis

Chickadee, Plumbeous, Penthestes caro-
linensis agilis

Chickadee, Valdez, Chestnut-backed,
Penthestes rufescens vivax

Chickadee, Yukon, Penthestes atricapil-
lus turneri

Chicken, Attwater's Prairie, Tympa-
nuchus americanus attwdteri

Chicken, Lesser Prairie, Tympanuchus
pallidicinctus

Chicken, Prairie, Tympanuchus ameri-
canus americanus

Chuck-will's widow, Anstrostoinus caro-
linensis

Coot, Fulica americana

Coot, European, Fulica atra

Cormorant, Phalacrocorax carbo

Cormorant, Baird's, Phalacrocorax
pelagicus resplendens

Cormorant, Brandt's, Phalacrocorax
penicillatus

CoiTnorant, Double-crested, Phalacro-
corax auritus auritus

Cormorant, Farallon, Phalacrocorax
auritus albociliatus

Cormorant, Florida, Phalacrocorax
auritus floridanus

Cormorant, Mexican, Phalacrocorax
vigua mexicanus

Cormorant, Pelagic, Phalacrocorax
pelagicus pelagicus

Cormorant, Red-faced, Phalacrocorax
urile

Cormorant, Violet-green, Phalacrocorax
pelagicus robustus

Cormorant, White-crested, Phalacro-
corax auritus cincinatus

Cowbird, Molothrus ater ater

Cowbird, Bronzed, Tangavius aeneus
oeneus

Cowbird, Dwarf, Molothrus ater obscurus

Cowbird, Red-eyed, Tangavius aeneus
involucratus

Crake, Corn, Crex crex

Crake, Spotted, Porzana porzana

Crane, Little Brown, Grus canadensis

Crane, Sandhill, Grus mexicana

Crane, Whooping, Cfrus americana

Creeper, Bahama Honey, Caereba baha-
mensis

Creeper, Brown, Certhia familiaris
americana

Creeper, California, Certhia familiaris
occidentalis

Creeper, Mexican, Certhia familiaris
albescens

Creeper, Rocky Mountain, Certhia
familiaris montana

Creeper, Sierra, Certhia familiaris
zelotes

Crossbill, Loxia curvirostra minor

Crossbill, Mexican, Loxis curvirostra
stricklandi

Crossbill, Newfoundland, Loxia curvi-
rostra perena

Crossbill, White-winged, Loxia leu-
coptera

Crow, Corvus brachyrhynchos brachy-
rhynchos

Crow, Fish, Corvus ossifragus

Crow, Florida, Corvus brachyrhynchos
pascuus

Crow, Hooded, Corvus comix

Crow, Northwestern, Corvus brachy-
rhynchos caurinus

Crow, Southern, Corvus brachyrhynchos
paulus

Crow, Western, Corvus brachyrhynchos
hesperis

Cuckoo, Black-billed, Coccyzus erythro-
phthalmus

Cuckoo, California, Coccyzus americanus
occidentalis

Cuckoo, Kamchatka, Cuculus canorus
telephonus

Cuckoo, Maynard's, Coccyzus minor
maynardi

Cuckoo, Yellow-billed, Coccyzus ameri-
canus americanus

Curlew, Bristle-thighed, Numenius
tahitiensis

Curlew, Eskimo, Numenius borealis

Curlew, Hudsonian, Numenius hud-
sonicus

Curlew, Long-billed, Numenius ameri-
canus

Dickcissel, Spiza americana
Dipper, Cinclus mexicanus unicolor
Dotterel, Eudromias morinellus
Dovekie, Alle alle

Dove, Bermuda Ground, Choemepelia
passerina bermudiana

INDICES

745

Dove, Dusky Mourning, Zenaidura

macroxiva caurina
Dove, Ground, Choemepelia passerina

passerina
Dove, Inca, Scardafella inca
Dove, Mexican Ground, Choemepelia

passerina pallescens
Dove, Mourning, Zenaidura macroura

carolinensis
Dove, Western Mourning, Zenaidura

macroura marginella
Dove, West Indian White-winged,

Melopelia asiatica asiatica
Dove, White-fronted, Leptotila fulvi-

ventris brachyptera
Dove, White-winged, Melopelia asiatica

trudea%ii
Dove, Zenaida, Zenaida zenaida
Dowitcher, Limnidromus griseus griseus
Dowitcher, Long-billed, Limnidromus

griseus scolopaceus
Duck, Black, Anas ruhripes
Duck, Florida, Anas fulvigula Julvigula
Duck, Harlequin, Histrionicus histri-

onicus
Duck, Labrador, Camptorhynchus Labra-
dor ins
Duck, Lesser Scapu, Marila affinis
Duck, Masked, Nomonyx dominicus
Duck, Mottled, Anas Julvigula maculosa
Duck, Ring-necked, Marila collaris
Duck, Ruddy, Erismatura janiaicensis
Duck, Rufous-crested, Netta rufina
Duck, Scaup, Marila marila
Duck, Western Harlequin, Histrionicus

histrionicus pacifiens
Duck, Wood, Aix sponsa
Dunlin, Pelidna alpina alpina

Eagle, Bald, Halioeetus leucocephalus

leucocephalus
Eagle, Gray Sea, Halia;etus albicilla
Eagle, Golden, Aquila chrysaetos
Eagle, Northern Bald, Halioeetus leuco-
cephalus alascanus
Egret, Casmerodius egretta
Egret, Brewster's, Egretta candidissima

brewsteri
Egret, Reddish, Dichromanassa rufescens
Egret, Snowy, Egretta candidissima

candidissima
Eider, Somateria mollissima dresseri
Eider, King, Somateria spectabilis
Eider, Northern, Somateria mollissima

borealis
Eider, Pacific, Somateria v-nigra
Eider, Spectacled, Arctonetta fischeri
Eider, Steller's, Polysticta stelleri

Falcon, Aplomado, Falco fusco-cseru-

lescens
Falcon, Peale's, Falco peregrinus pealei
Falcon, Peregrine, Falco peregrinus

peregrinus
Falcon, Prairie, Falco mexicanus

Finch, Aleutian Rosy, Leucosticte

griseonucha
Finch, Black Rosy, Leucosticte atrata
Finch, Brown-capped Rosy, Leucostricte

australis
Finch, California Purple, Carpodacus

purpureus californicus
Finch, Cassin's Purple, Carpodacus

cassini
Finch, Gray-crowned Rosy, Leucosticte

tephrocotis tephrocotis
Finch, Guadalupe House, Carpodacus

amplus
Finch, Hepburn's Rosy, Leucosticte

tephrocotis littoralis
Finch, House, Carpodacus mexicanus

frontalis
Finch, McGregor's House, Carpodacus

mcgregori
Finch, Purple, Carpodacus purpureus

purpureus
Finch, San Clemente House, Carpodacus

mexicanus dementis
Finch, San Lucas House, Carpodacus

mexicanus ruberrimus
Finch, Sierra Nevada Rosy, Leucosticte

tephrocotis dawsoni
Flamingo, Phsenicopterus ruber
Flicker, Boreal, Colaptes auratus borsalis
Flicker, Colaptes auratus auratus
Flicker, Gilded, Colaptes chrysoides

chrysoides
Flicker, Guadalupe, Colaptes rufipileus
Flicker, Mearns, Colaptes chrysoides

mearnsi
Flicker, Northern, Colaptes auratus

luteus
Flicker, Northwestern, Colaptes cafer

cafer
Flicker, Red-shafted, Colaptes cafer

collaris
Flicker, San Fernando, Colaptes chry-
soides brunnescens
Flycatcher, Acadian, Empidonax vir-

escens
Flycatcher, Alder, Empidonax trailli

alnorum
Flycatcher, Arizona Crested, Myiarchus

magister rnagister
Flycatcher, Ash-throated, Myiarchus

cinerascens cinerascens
Flycatcher, Beardless, Camptostoma

imberbe
Flycatcher, Buff-breasted, Empidonax

fulvifrons pygmseus
Flycatcher, Coues's, Myiochanes perli-

nax pallidiventris
Flycatcher, Crested, Myiarchus crinitus
Flycatcher, Derby, Pitangus sulphuratus

derbianus
Flycatcher, Fork-tailed, Muscivora tyr-

annus
Flycatcher, Gray, Empidonax griseus
Flycatcher, Hammond's, Empidonax

hammondi

746

INDICES

Flycatcher^ Least, Empidonax minimus
Flycatcher, Mexican Crested, Myiarchus

magister nelsoni
Flycatcher, Lower California, Myiarchus

cinerascens pertinax
Flycatcher, Olivaceous, Myiarchus law-

rencei olivascens
Flycatcher, Olive-sided, Nuttallornis

borealis
Flycatcher, San Lucas, Empidonax dif-

ficilis cineritius
Flycatcher, Scissor-tailed, Muscivora

forficata
Flycatcher, Sulphur-bellied, Myiody-

nasies luteiventris
Flycatcher, Traill's, Empidonax trailli

trailli
Flycatcher, Vermilion, Pyrocephalus

rubinus mexicanus
Flycatcher, Western, Empidonax diffi,-

cilis difficilis
Flycatcher, Wright's, Empidonax wrighii
Flycatcher, Yellow-bellied, Empidonax

flaviventris
Fulmar, Fulmarus glacialis glacialis
Fulmar, Giant, Macronectes giganteus
Fulmar, Pacific, Fulmarus glacialis

glupischa
Fulmar, Rodgers's, Fulmarus rodgersi
Fulmar, Slender-billed, Priocella

aniarctica

Gadwall, Chaulelasmus streperus
Gallinule, Florida, Gallinula chloropus

cachinnans
Gallinule, Purple, lonornis martinicus
Gannet, Moris bassana
Gnatcatcher, Black-tailed, Polioptila

californica
Gnatcatcher, Blue-gray, Polioptila

cserulea cxrulea
Gnatcatcher, Plumbeous, Polioptila

plumbea
Gnatcatcher, Western, Polioptila

crseulea obscura
Godwit, Black-tailed, Limosa limosa
Godwit, Hudsonian, Limosa hxmastica
Godwit, Marbled, Limosa fedoa
Godwit, Pacific, Limosa lapponica baueri
Golden-eye, Glaucionetta clangula ameri-

cana
Golden-eye, Barrow's, Glancionetta

islandica
Goldfinch, Astragalinus tristis tristis
Goldfinch, Arkansas, Astragalinus

psaltria psaltria
Goldfinch, Black-headed, Spinus notatus
Goldfinch, Green-backed, Astragalinus

psaltria hesperophilus
Goldfinch, Lawrence's, Astragalinus law-

rencei
Goldfinch, Pale, Astragalinus tristis

pallidus
Goldfinch, Willow, Astragalinus tristis

salicarnans

Goose, Barnacle, Branta leucopsis
Goose, Bean, Anser f abatis
Goose, Blue, Chen cxrulescens
Goose, Cackling, Branta canadensis

minima
Goose, Canada, Branta canadensis cana-
densis
Goose, Emperor, Philacte canagica
Goose, European White-fronted, Anser

albifrons albifrons
Goose, Hutchins's, Branta canadensis

hutchinsi
Goose, Pink-footed, Anser brachyrhyn-

chus
Goose, Ross's, Chen rossi
Goose, Snow, Chen hyperboreus hyper-

boreus
Goose, White-cheeked, Branta cana-
densis occidentalis
Goose, White-fronted, Anser albifrons

gambeli
Goshawk, Astur atricapillus atricapillus
Goshawk, Mexican Asturina plagiata
Goshawk, Western, Astur atricapillus

striatulus
Crackle, Boat-tailed, Megaquiscalus

major major
Crackle, Bronzed, Quiscalus quiscula

aeneus
Crackle, Florida, Quiscalus quiscula

aglxus
Crackle, Great-tailed, Megaquiscalus

major macrourus
Crackle, Purple, Quiscalus quiscula

quiscula
Crassquit, Tiaris bicolor
Grassquit, Melodious, Tiaris canora
Grebe, Eared, Colymbus nigricollis cali-

fornicus
Grebe, Holboell's, Colymbus holboelli
Grebe, Horned, Colymbus auritus
Grebe, Mexican, Colymbus dominicus

brachypterus
Grebe, Pied-billed, Podilymbus podiceps
Grebe, Western, jEchmophorus occi-
dentalis
Green-shank, Glottis nebularia
Grosbeak, Alaska Pine, Pinicola enu-

cleator alascensis
Grosbeak, Black-headed, Hedymeles

melanocephata
Grosbeak, Blue, Guiraca cserulea cxrulea
Grosbeak, California Pine, Pinicola

enucleator californica
Grosbeak, Evening, Hesperiphona ves-

pertina vespestina
Grosbeak, Kadiak Pine, Pinicola enu-
cleator flammula
Grosbeak, Newfoundland Pine, Pinicola

enucleator eschatosus
Grosbeak, Pine, Pinicola enucleator

leucura
Grosbeak, Rocky Mountain Pine, Pin-
icola enucleator montana
Grosbeak, Rose-breasted, Hedymeles
ludouiciana

INDICES

747

Grosbeak, Western Blue, Guiraca cserulea

lazula
Grosbeak, Western Evening, Hesperi-

phona vesper tina montana
Grouse, Canada Ruffed, Bonasa umhel-

lus togata
Grouse, Columbian Sharp-tailed, Pedise-

cetes phasianellus columhianus
Grouse, Dusky, Dendragapus obscurus

obscurus
Grouse, Fleming's Dendragapus, obscu-
rus flemingi
Grouse, Franklin's, Canachites franklini
Grouse, Gray Ruffed, Bonasa umbellus

umbeUoides
Grouse, Oregon Ruffed, Bonasa umbellus

sabini
Grouse, Nova Scotia Ruffed, Bonasa

umbellus thayeri
Grouse, Prairie Sharp-tailed, Pedimcetes

phasianellus campestris
Grouse, Richardson's, Dendragapus

obscurus richardsoni
Grouse, Ruffed, Bonasa umbellus umbel-
lus
Grouse, Sharp-tailed, Pediccceies pha-
sianellus phasianellus
Grouse, Sierra, Dendragapus obsc2irus

sierrse
Grouse, Sooty, Dendragapus obscurus

fuliginosus
Grouse, Yukon Ruffed, Bonasa umbellus

yukonensis
Guillemot, Black, Cepphus grylle
Guillemot, Mandt's, Cepphus mandti
Guillemot, Pigeon, Cepphus columba
Gull, Bonaparte's, Larus Philadelphia
Gull, California, Larus californicus
Gull, Franklin's, Larus franklini
Gull, Glaucous, Larus hyperboreris
Gull, Glaucous-winged, Larus glauces-

cens
Gull, Great Black-backed, Larus

marinus
Gull, Heermann's, Larus heermanni
Gull, Herring, Larus argentatus
Gull, Iceland, Larus leucopterus
Gull, Ivory, Pagophila alba
Gull, Kumlien's, Larus kumlieni
Gull, Laughing, Larus, atricilla
Gull, Little, Larus minutus
Gull, Mew, Larus canus
Gull, Nelson's, Larus nelsoni
Gull, Ring-billed, Larus delawarensis
Gull, Ross's, Rhodostethia rosea
Gull, Sabine's, Xemia sabini
Gull, Short-billed, Larus brachyrhynchus
Gull, Siberian, Larus affinis
Gull, Slaty-backed, Larus schistisagus
Gull, Vega, Larus vegss
Gull, Western, Larus occidentalis
Gyrfalcon, Falco rusticolus gyrfalco
Gyrfalcon, Black, Falco rusticolus obso-

letus
Gyrfalcon, Gray, Falco rusticolus rusti-
colus

Gyrfalcon, White, Falco islandus

Hawk, Black Pigeon, Falco columbarius

suckleyi
Hawk, Broad-winged, Buteo platypterus
Hawk, Cooper's, Accipiter cooperi
Hawk, Cuban Sparrow, Cerchneis spar-

veroides
Hawk, Desert Sparrow, Cerchneis spar-

verius phalsena
Hawk, Duck, Falco peregrinus anatum
Hawk, Florida Red-shouldered, Buteo

lineatus alleni
Hawk, Harlan's, Buteo borealis harlani
Hawk, Harris's, Parabuteo unicinctus

harrisi
Hawk, Krider's, Buteo borealis krideri
Hawk, Little Sparrow, Cerchneis spar-

verius paulus
Hawk, Marsh, Circus hudsonius
Hawk, Mexican Black, Urubitinga an-

thracina
Hawk, Pigeon, Falco columbarius colum-
barius
Hawk, Red-bellied, Buteo lineatus

elegans
Hawk, Red-shouldered, Buteo lineatus

lineatus
Hawk, Red-tailed, Buteo borealis borealis
Hawk, Richardson's Pigeon, Falco

columbarius richardsoni
Hawk, Rough-legged, Archibuteo lagopus

sancti-johannis
Hawk, San Lucas Sparrow, Cerchneis

sparverius peninsularis
Hawk, Sennett's White-tailed, Buteo

albicaudatus sennetti
Hawk, Sharp-shinned, Accipiter velox
Hawk, Short-tailed, Buteo brachyurus
Hawk, Sparrow, Cerchneis sparverius

sparverius
Hawk, Swainson's, Buteo swainsoni
Hawk, Texas, Red-shouldered, Buteo

lineatus texanus
Hawk, Zone-tailed, Buteo abbreviatus
Hen, Heath, Tympanuchus cupido
Hen, Sage, Centrocercus urophasianus
Heron, Anthony's Green, Butorides

virescens anthonyi
Heron, Black-crowned Night, Nycti-

corax nycticorax nxvius
Heron, California, Ardea herodias hype-

ronca
Heron, Espiritu Santo, Ardea herodias

sanctilucas
Heron, European, Ardea cinerea
Heron, Frazar's Green, Butorides vires-
cens frazari
Heron, Great Blue, Ardea herodias

herodias
Heron, Great White, Ardea occidentalis
Heron, Green, Butorides virescens vireS'

cens
Heron, Little Blue, Florida cxrulea
Heron, Louisiana, Hydranassa tricolor

ruficollis

748

INDICES

Heron, Northwestern, Coast Ardea he-

rodiai^ fannini
Heron, Treganza's, Ardea herodias tre-

ganzai
Heron, Ward's, Ardea herodias wardi
Heron, Yellow-crowned Night, Nyc-

tanassa violacea
Hummingbird, Allen's, Selasphorus al-

leni
Hummingbird, Anna's, Calypte anna
Hummingbird, Black-chinned, Archi-

lochus alexandri
Hummingbird, Blue-throated, Cyano-

Isemus clemencise
Hummingbird, Broad-billed, Cynanthus

latirostris
Hummingbird, Broad-tailed, Selas-
phorus platycercus
Hummingbird, Buff-bellied, Amizilis

cerviniventris chalconota
Hummingbird, Calliope, Stellula cal-
liope
Hummingliird, Costa's, Calypte costx
Hummingbird, Lucifer, Calothorax

lucifer
Hummingbird, Marcom's, Aithis mor-

comi
Hummingl)ird, Rieffer's, Amizilis tzacatl
Hummingbird, Rivoli's, Engenes fnlgens
Hummingbird, Ruby-throated, Archi-

lochus colubris
Hummingbird, Rufous, Selasphorus

ruf^is
Hummingbird, Salvin's Amizib'a salvini
Hummingbird, White-eared, Basilinna

leucofis
Hummingbird, Xantus's, Basilinna

xantusi

Ibis, Glossy, Plegadis autumnalis

Ibis, Scarlet, Guara rubra

Ibis, White, Guara alba

Ibis, White-faced Glossy, Plegadis

guarauna
Ibis, Wood, Mycteria americana

Jabiru, Jabiru mycteria

Jacana, Mexican, Jacana spinosa

Jaeger, Long-tailed, Stercorarius longi-

caudus
Jaeger, Parasitic, Stercorarius para-
siticus
Jaeger, Pomarine, Stercorarius poma-

rinus
Jay, Alaska, Perisoreus canadensis fumi-

frons
Jay, Arizona, Aphelocoma sieberi arizonse
Jay, Belding's, Aphelocoma californica

obscura
Jay, Black-headed, Cyanocitta stelleri

annectens
Jay, Blue, Cyanocitta crisiata cristata
Jay, Blue-eared, Aphelocoma cyanotis
Jay, Blue-fronted, Cyanocitta stelleri

frontalis

Jay, California, Aphelocoma californica

californica
Jay, Canada, Perisoreus canadensis

canadensis
Jay, Coast, Cyanocitta stelleri carbonacea
Jay, Couch's, Aphelocoma sieberi couchi
Jay, Florida, Aphelocoma cyanea
Jay, Florida Blue, Cyanocitta cristata

florincola
Jay, Gray, Perisoreus obscurus griseus
Jay, Green, Xanthoura luxuosa glau-

cescens
Jay, Labrador, Perisoreus canadensis

nigricapillus
Jay, Long-crested, Cyanocitta stelleri

diademata
Jay, Newfoundland, Perisoreus cana-
densis sanfordi
Jay, Oregon, Perisoreus obscurus ob-

scurtis
Jay, Pinon, Cyanocephalus cyanocephalus
Jay, Queen Charlotte, Cyanocitta stelleri

carlottse
Jay, Rocky Mountain, Perisoreus cana-
densis capitalis
Jay, Santa Cruz, Aphelocoma insularis
Jay, Steller's, Cyanocitta stelleri stelleri
Jay, Texas, Aphelocoma texana
Jay, Woodhouse's, Aphelocoma wood-

housei
Jay, Xantus's, Aphelocoma californica

hypoleuca
Junco, Arizona, Junco phseonotus pal-

liatus
Junco, Baird's, Junco bairdi
Junco, Carolina, Junco hyemalis caroli-

nensis
Junco, Gray-headed, Junco phseonotus

caniceps
Junco, Guadalupe, Junco insularis
Junco, Montana, Junco hyemalis mon-

tanus
Junco, Oregon, Junco hyemalis oreganus
Junco, Pink-sided, Junco hyemalis

mearnsi
Junco, Point Pinos, Junco hyemalis

pinosus.
Junco, Red-backed, Junco phseonotus

dorsalis
Junco, Ridgway's, Junco hyemalis an-
nectens
Junco, Slate-colored, Junco hyemalis

hyemalis
Junco, Shufeldt's, Junco hyemalis con-

nectens
Junco, Thurber's, Junco hyemalis

thurberi
Junco, Townsend's, Junco hyemalis

toivnsendi
Junco, White-winged, Junco aikeni

Kestrel, Cerchncis tinnunculus
Killdeer, Oxyechus vociferus
Kingbird, Tyrannus tyrannus
Kingbird, Arkansas, Tyrannus verticalis
Kingbird, Cassin's, Tyrannus vociferans

INDICES

749

Kingbird, Couch's, Tyrannus melan-
choliciis couchi

Kingl)ird, Gray, Tyrannus dominicensis

Kingfisher, Belted, Ceryle alcyon alcyon

Kingfisher, Northwestern Belted, Ceryle
alcyon caurina

Kingfisher, Ringed, Ceryle torquata

Kingfisher, Texas, Chloroceryle ameri-
cana septentrionalis

Kinglet, Dusky, Regulus calendula ob-
scurus

Kinglet, Golden-crowned, Regulus sa-
trapa satrapa

Kinglet, Ruby-crowned, Regulus calen-
dula calendula

Kinglet, Sitka, Regulus calendula grin-
nelli

Kinglet, Western Golden-crowned Reg-
ulus satrapa olivaceus

Kite, Everglade, Rostrhamus sociabilis

Kite, Mississippi, Ictinia mississippien-
sis

Kite, Swallow-tailed, Elanoides for-
ficatus

Kite, White-tailed, Elanus leucurus

Kittiwake, Rissa tridactyla tridactyla

Kittiwake, Pacific, Rissa tridactyla pol-
licaris

Kittiwake, Red-legged, Rissabrevirostris

Knot, Calidris canutus

Lapwing, Vanellus vanellus

Lark, California Horned, Otocoris al-

pestris adusta
Lark, Desert Horned, Otocoris alpestris

leucoloema
Lark, Dusky Horned, Otocoris alpestris

merrilli
Lark, Horned, Otocoris alpestris alpestris
Lark, Hoyt's Horned, Otocoris alpestris

hoyti
Lark, Island Horned, Otocoris alpestris

insularis
Lark, Montezuma Horned, Otocoris

alpestris occidentalis
Lark, Pallid Horned, Otocoris alpestris

arcticola
Lark, Prairie Horned, Otocoris alpestris

praticola
Lark, Ruddy Horned, Otocoris alpestris

rubea
Lark, Scorched Horned, Otocoris alpes-
tris adusta
Lark, Sonora Horned, Otocoris alpestris

pallida
Lark, Streaked Horned, Otocoris alpes-
tris strigata
Lark, Texas Horned, Otocoris alpestris

giraudi
Limpkin, Aramus vociferus
Longspur, Alaska, Calcarius lapponicus

alascensis
Longspur, Chestnut-collared, Calcarius

ornatus
Longspur, Lapland, Calcarius lapponicus

lapponicus

Longspur, McCown's, Rhynchophanes

mccowni
Longspur, Smith's, Calcarius pictus
Loon, Gavia immer
Loon, Black-throated, Gavia arctica
Loon, Pacific, Gavia pacifica
Loon, Red-throated, Gavia stellata
Loon, Yellow-billed, Gavia adamsi

Magpie, Pica pica hudsonia
Magpie, Yellow-billed, Pica nutlalli
Mallard, Anas platyrhynchos
Man-o'war-bird, Fregata aquila
Martin, Cuban, Progne cryptoleuca
Martin, European, Chelidonaria urbica
Martin, Gray-breasted, Progne chalybea
Martin, Purple, Progne subis subis
JNIartin, Western, Progne stibis hesperia
Meadowlark, Sturnella magna magna
Meadowlark, Rid Grande, Sturnella

magna hoopesi
Meadowlark, Southern, Sturnella magna

argutula
Meadowlark, Western, Sturnella neglecta
Merganser, Mergus americanus
Merganser, Hooded, Lophodyfes cucul-

latus
Merganser, Red-breasted, Mergus ser-

rator
Merlin, Falco cesalon
Mockingbird, Mimus polyglottos poly-

glottos
Mockingbird, Western, Mimus poly-
glottos leucopterus
Murre, Uria troille troille
Murre, Briinnich's, Uria lomvia lomvia
Murre, California, Uria troille califor-

nica
Murre, Pallas's, Uria lomvia arra
Murrelet, Ancient, Synthliborarnphus

antiquus
Murrelet, Craveri's, Brachyramphus

craverii
Murrelet, Kittlitz's, Brachyramphus

brevirostris
Murrelet, Marbled, Brachyramphus

marmoratus
Murrelet, Xantus's, Brachyramphus

hypoleucus

Nighthawk, Chordeiles virginianus vir-
ginianus

Nighthawk, Florida, Chordeiles vir-
ginianus chapmani

Nighthawk, Pacific, Chordeiles virgini-
anus hesperis

Nighthawk, San Lucas, Chordeiles acuti-
pennis inferior

Nighthawk, Sennett's, Chordeiles vir-
ginianus sennetti

Nighthawk, Texas, Chordeiles acutipen-
nis texensis

Nighthawk, Western, Chordeiles vir-
ginianus henryi

Noddy, Anoiis stolidus

760

INDICES

Nutcracker, Clarke's, Nucifraga colum-
biana

Nuthatch, Brown-headed, Sitta pusilla

Nuthatch, Florida White-breasted, Sitta
carolinensis atkinsi

Nuthatch, Pygmy, Sitta ■pygmsea pyg-
moea

Nuthatch, Red-breasted, Sitta cana-
densis

Nuthatch, Rocky Mountain, Sitta caroli-
nensis, nelsoni

Nuthatch, Slender-billed, Sitta caroli-
nensis aculeata

Nuthatch, San Lucas, Sitta carolinensis
lagunse

Nuthatch, White-breasted, Sitta caroli-
nensis carolinensis

Nuthatch, White-naped, Sitta pygmsea
leuconucha

Old-squaw, Clangula hyemalis

Oriole, Arizona Hooded, Icterus cuciil-

latus nelsoni
Oriole, Audubon's, Icterus melanoceph-

alus auduhoni
Oriole, Baltimore, Icterus galbula
Oriole, Bullock's, Icterus bullocki
Oriole, Orchard, Icterus spurius
Oriole, Scott's, Icterus parisorum
Oriole, Sennett's, Icterus cucullatus

sennetti
Osprey, Pandion haliaetus carolinensis
Oven-bird, Seiurus aurocapillus
Owl, Aiken's Screech, Otus asio aikeni
Owl, Arctic Horned, Bubo virginianus

subarcticus
Owl, American Barn, Tyto pratincola
Owl, Arizona Spotted, Strix occidentalis

lucida
Owl, Barred, Strix varia varia
Owl, Brewster's Screech, Otus asio

brewsteri
Owl, Burrowing, Speotyto cunicularia

hypogaea
Owl, California Pygmy, Glaucidium

gnoma californicum
Owl, California Screech, Otus asio

bendirei
Owl, Coast Horned, Bubo virginianus

icleus
Owl, Coast Pygmy, Glaucidium gnoma

grinnelli
Owl, Dusky Horned, Bubo virginianus

saturatus
Owl, Dwarf Horned, Bubo virginianus

elachistus
Owl, Elf, Micropallas whitneyi
Owl, European Hawk, Surnia uhila ulula
Owl, Ferruginous Pygmy, Glaucidium

phalanoides
Owl, Flammulated Screech, Otus flam-

meolus
Owl, Florida Barred, Strix varia alleni
Owl, Florida Burrowing, Speotyto flori-
dana

Owl, Florida Screech, Otus asio flori-

danus
Owl, Great Gray, Scotiaptex nebulosa

nebulosa
Owl, Great Horned, Bubo virginianus

virginianus
Owl, Hasbrouk's Screech, Otus asio

hasbrouki
Owl, Hawk, Surnia ulula caparoch
Owl, Hoskins's Pygmy, Glaucidium

hoskinsi
Owl, Island Saw-whet, Cryptoglaux

acadica brooksi
Owl, Kennicott's Screech, Otus asio

kennicotti
Owl, Labrador Horned, Bubo virginianus

heterocnemis
Owl, Lapp, Scotiaptex nebulosa lap-

ponica
Owl, Long-eared, Asio wilsonianus
Owl, MacFarlane's Screech, Otus asio

macfarlanei
Owl, Mexican Screech, Otus asio ciner-

aceus
Owl, Newfoundland Horned, Bubo vir-
ginianus neochorus
Owl, Northwestern Horned, Bubo vir-
ginianus lagophonus
Owl, Pacific Horned, Bubo virginianus

pacificus
Owl, Pasadena Screech, Otus asio

quercinus
Owl, Pale Horned, Bubo virginianus

occidentalis
Owl, Pygmy, Glaucidium gnoma pinicola
Owl, Richardson's, Cryptoglaux funerea

richardsoni
Owl, Rocky Mountain Screech, Otus asio

maxwelliae
Owl, Sahuaro Screech, Otus asio gilmani
Owl, Saint Michael Horned, Bubo vir-
ginianus algistus
Owl, Sanford's Elf, Micropallas whituei

sanfordi
Owl, Saw-whet, Cryptoglaux acadica

acadica
Owl, Screech, Otus asio asio
Owl, Short-eared, Asio flammeus
Owl, Snowy, Nyctea nyctea
Owl, Spotted, Strix occidentalis occi-
dentalis
Owl, Spotted Screech, Otus trichopsis
Owl, Texas Barred, Strix varia nelucola
Owl, Texas Screech, Otus asio mccalli
Owl, Vancouver Pygmy, Glaucidium

gnoma swarthi
Owl, Western Horned, Bubo virginianus

pallescens
Owl, Xantus's Screech, Otus xantusi
Oyster-catcher, Hsematopus palliatus
Oyster-catcher, Black, Hsematopus bach-

mani
Oyster-catcher, European, Hxmatopus

ostralegus
Oyster-catcher, Frazar's, Hsematopus
frazari

INDICES

751

Parauque, Merrill's, Nyctidromus albi-

collis merrilli
Paroquet, Carolina, Conuropsis caro-

linensis
Parrot, Thick-billed, Rhynchopsitta

pachyrhyncha
Patridge, Alaska Spruce, Canachites

canadensis osgoodi
Partridge, Canada Spruce, Canachites

canadensis canace
Partridge, Hudsonian Spruce, Canachites

canadensis canadensis
Pelican, Brown, Pelecanus occidentalis
Pelican, California Brown, Pelecanus

californicus
Pelican, White, Pelecanus erythrorhyn-

chos
Petrel, Ashy, Oceanodroma homochroa
Petrel, Black, Oceanodroma melania
Petrel, Black-capped, Pterodroma hasi-

tata
Petrel, Bulwer's, Bulweria bulweri
Petrel, Forked-tailed, Oceanodroma /ar-
eata
Petrel, Guadalupe, Oceanodroma macro-

dactyla
Petrel, Hawaiian, Oceanodroma castro
Petrel, Leach's, Oceanodroma leucorhoa
Petrel, Least, Halocyptena microsoyna
Petrel, Kaeding's, Oceanodroma leuco-
rhoa kaedingi
Petrel, Pintado, Daption capense
Petrel, Scaled, Pterodroma scalaris
Petrel, Socorro, Oceanodroma socorroen-

sis
Petrel, Storm, Hydrohates, pelagicus
Petrel, White-bellied, Fregetta grallaria
Petrel, White-faced, Pelagodroma marina
Petrel, Wilson's, Oceanites oceanicus
Pewee, Large-billed Wood, Myiochanes

richardsoni peninsulse
Pewee, Western Wood, Myiochanes rich-
ardsoni richardsoni
Pewee, Wood, Myiochanes virens
Phainopepla, Phainopepla nitens
Phalarope, Northern, Lobipes lobatus
Phalarope, Red, Phalaropus fulicarius
Phalarope, Wilson's, Steganopus tri-
color
Phoebe, Sayornis phxbe
Phoebe, Black, Sayornis nigricans
Phoebe, Say's, Sayornis sayus
Pigeon, Band-tailed, Columbia fasciata

fasciata
Pigeon, Passenger, Ectopistes migra-

torius
Pigeon, Red-billed, Columba flavirostris
Pigeon, Scaled, Columba squamosa
Pigeon, Viosca's, Columba fasciata vioscx
Pigeon, White-crowned, Columba leuco-

cephala
Pintail, Dafila acuta tzitzihoa
Pipit, Anthus rubescens
Pipit, Meadow, Anthus pratensis
Pipit, Red-throated, Anthus cervinus
Pipit, Sprague's, Anthus spraguei

Plover, Black-bellied, Squatarola squata-
rola cijnosurae

Plover, European Golden, Pluvialis
apricaria

Plover, Golden, Pluvialis dominica do-
minica

Plover, Little Ringed, Charadrius du-
bius

Plover, Mongolian, Charadrius mon-
golus

Plover, Mountain, Podasocys montanus

Plover, Pacific Golden, Pluvialis do-
minica fulva

Plover, Piping, Charadrius melodus

Plover, Ringed, Charadrius hiaticulus

Plover, Semipalmated, Charadrius semi-
palmatus

Plover, Snowy, Charadrius nivosus

Plover, Upland, Bartramia longicauda

Plover, Wilson's, Pagolla wilsonia wil-
sonia

Poor-will, Phalxnoptilus nuttalli nuttalli

Poor-will, Dusky, Phalsenoptilus nuttalli
californicus

Poor-will, Frosted, Phalsenoptilus nut-
talli nitidus

Ptarmigan, Adak, Lagopus rupestris
chamber laini

Ptarmigan, Alexander's, Lagopus lago-
pus alexandrx

Ptarmigan, Allen's, Lagopus lagopus
alleni

Ptarmigan, Dixon's, Lagopus rupestris
dixoni

Ptarmigan, Evermann's, Lagopus ever-
manni

Ptarmigan, Kenai White-tailed, Lagopus
leucurus peninsularis

Ptarmigan, Nelson's, Lagopus rupestris
nelsoni

Ptarmigan, Reinhardt's, Lagopus rupes-
tris reinhardi

Ptarmigan, Rock, Lagopus rtipestris
rupestris

Ptarmigan, Southern White-tailed,
Lagopus leucurus altipetens

Ptarmigan, Townsend's, Lagopus rupes-
tris townsendi

Ptarmigan, Turner's, Lagopus rupestris
atkensis

Ptarmigan, Ungara, Lagopus lagopus
ungavus

Ptarmigan, Welch's, Lagopus welchi

Ptarmigan, White-tailed, Lagopus leu-
curus leucurus

Ptarmigan, Willow, Lagopus lagopus
lagopus

Puffin, Fratercula arctica arctica

Puffin, Horned, Fratercula corniculata

Puffin, Large-billed, Fratercula arctica
naumanni

Puffin, Tufted, Lunda, cirrhata

Pyrrhuloxia, Arizona, Pyrrhuloxia sinu-
ata sinuata

Pyrrhuloxia, San Lucas, Pyrrhuloxia
sinuata peninsulas

752

INDICES

Pyrrhuloxia, Texas, Pyrrhuloxia sinuata
texana

Quail, California, Lophortyx calif ornica

californica
Quail, Chestnut-bellied Scaled, Calli-

pepla squamata castanogastris
Quail, Gambel's, Lophortyx gambeli
Quail, Colorado Gambel's, Lophortyx

gambeli sanus
Quail, Mearns's, Cyrtonyx montezumce

mearnsi
Quail, Mountain, Oreortyx picta picta
Quail, Plumed, Oreortyx picta plumifera
Quail, San Pedro, Oreortyx picta confinis
Quail, Arizona Scaled, Callipepla squa-
mata pallida
Quail, Valley, Lophortyx californica

vallicola
Quail-dove, Blue-headed, Starnoenas

cyanocephala
Quail-Dove, Key West, Oreopelia chrysia
Quail-Dove, Ruddy, Oreopelia montana

Rail, Belding's, Rallus beldingi
Rail, Black, Creciscus jamaicensis
Rail, California Clapper, Rallus obso-

letus
Rail, Caribbean Clapper, Rallus longi-

rostris caribceus
Rail, Clapper, Rallus crepitans crepitans
Rail, Farallon, Creciscus coturniculus
Rail, Florida Clapper, Rallus crepitans

scotti
Rail, King, Rallus elegans
Rail, Louisiana Clapper, Rallus crepitans

saturatus
Rail, Light-footed, Rallus levipes
Rail, Virginia, Rallus virginianus
Rail, Wayne's Clapper, Rallus crepitans

waynei
Rail, Yellow, Coturnicops noveboracensis
Raven, Corvus corax sinuatus
Raven, Northern, Corvus corax prin-
cipalis
Raven, White-necked, Corvus crypto-

leucus
Redhead, Marila americana
Redpoll, Acanthis linaria linaria
Redpoll, Greenland, Acanthis horne-

manni hornemanni
Redpoll, Greater, Acanthis linaria ros-

trata
Redpoll, Hoary, Acanthis hornemanni

exilipes
Redpoll, Holboll's, Acanthis linaria

holbwlli
Redstart, Setophaga ruticilla
Redstart, Painted, Setophaga picta
Red-tail, Alaska, Buteo borealis alascen-

sis
Red-tail, Western, Buteo borealis calurus
Red-wing, Bahama, Agelaius phceniceus

bryanti
Red-wing, Bicolored, Agelaius guber-

nator californicus

Red-wing, Florida, Agelaius phceniceus
floridanus

Red-wing, Kern, Agelaius phceniceus
aciculatus

Red-wing, Nevada, Agelaius phceniceus
nevadensis

Red-wing, Northwestern, Agelaius phce-
niceus caurinus

Red-wing, San Diego, Agelaius phceni-
ceus neutralis

Red-wing, Sonora, Agelaius phceniceus
sonoriensis

Red-wing, Thick-billed, Agelaius phceni-
ceus fortis

Red-wing, Tricolored, Agelaius tricolor

Red-wing, Vera Cruz, Agelaius phce-
niceus richmondi

Road-runner, Geococcyx californianus

Robin, Planesiicusmigratoriusmigratorius

Robin, San Lucas, Planesticus confinis

Robin, Southern, Planesticus migra-
torius achrusterxis

Robin, Western, Planesticus migratorius
propinquus

Rook, Corvus frugilegus

Rough-leg, Ferruginous, Archibuteo fer-
rugineus

Ruff, Philomachus pugnax

Sanderling, Crocethia alba

Sandpiper, Aleutian, Arquatella mari-

tima couesi
Sandpiper, Baird's, Pisobia bairdi
Sandpiper, Buff -breasted, Tryngites sub-

ruficollis
Sandpiper, Curlew, Erolia ferruginea
Sandpiper, Green, Tringa, ocropha
Sandpiper, Least, Pisobia minutilla
Sandpiper, Pectoral, Pisobia maculata
Sandpiper, Pribilof, Arquatella mari-

tivia ptilocnemis
Sandpiper, Purple, Arquatella maritima

maritima
Sandpiper, Red-backed, Pelidna alpina

sakhalina
Sandpiper, Semipalmated, Ereunetes

pusillus
Sandpiper, Sharp-tailed, Pisobia acumi-
nata
Sandpiper, Solitary, Tringa solitaria

solitaria
Sandpiper, Spoon-bill, Eurynorhynchus

pygmeus
Sandpiper, Spotted, Actitis macularius
Sandpiper, Stilt, Micropalama himan-

topus
Sandpiper, Weatern, Ereunetes mauri
Sandpiper, Western Solitary, Tringa

solitaria cinnamomea
Sandpiper, White-rumped, Pisobia fus-

cicollis
Sandpiper, Wood, Rhyacophilus glareola
Sapsucker, Northern Red-breasted,

Sphyrapicus ruber notkensis
Sapsucker, Red-breasted, Sphyrapicus

ruber ruber

INDICES

763

Sapsucker, Red-naped, Sphyrapicus

varius nuchalis
Sapsucker, Williamson's, Sphyrapicus

thyroideus
Sapsucker, Yellow-bellied, Sphyrapicus

varius varius
Scoter, Oidemia americana
Scoter, Surf, Oidemia perspicillata
Scoter, Velvet, Oidemia fusca
Scoter, White-winged, Oidemia deglandi

deglandi
Seedeater, Sharpe's, Sporophila morel-

leti sharpei
Shearwater, Allied, Puffinus assimilis
Shearwater, Audubon's, Puffinus Iher-

minieri
Shearwater, Black-tailed, Priofinus cin-

ereus
Shearwater, Black-vented, Puffinus opis-

thomelas
Shearwater, Cory's, Puffinus borealis
Shearwater, Greater, Puffinus gravis
Shearwater, Manx, Puffinus puffimus
Shearwater, New Zealand, Puffinus

bulleri
Shearwater, Pink-footed, Puffimus cre-

atopus
Shearwater, Slender-billed, Puffinus

tenuirostris
Shearwater, Sooty, Puffinus griseus
Shearwater, Townsend's, Puffinus

auricularis
Shearwater, Wedge-tailed, Puffinus cune-

atus
Sheldrake, Ruddy, Casarca ferruginea
Shoveller, Spatula clypeata
Shrike, California, Lanius ludovicianus

gambeli
Shrike, Island, Lanius ludovicianus

anthonyi
Shrike, Loggerhead, Lanius ludovicianus

ludovicianus
Shrike, Migrant, Lanius ludovicianus

migrans
Shrike, Northern, Lanius borealis
Shrike, White-rumped, Lanius ludovi-
cianus excubitorides
Siskin, Pine, Spinus pinus
Skimmer, Black, Rynchops nigra
Skua, Catharacta skua
Skylark, Alauda arvensis
Smew, Mergellus albellus
Snipe, European, Gallinago gallinago
Snipe, Great, Gallinago media
Snipe, Wilson's, Gallinago delicata
Solitaire, Townsend's, Myadestes tovm-

sendi
Sora, Porzna Carolina
Sparrow, Acadian Sharp-tailed, Passer-

herbulus nelsoni subvirgatus
Sparrow, Alameda Song, Melospiza

melodia pusillula
Sparrow, Aleutian Savannah, Passer-

culus sandwich ensis sandwichensis
Sparrow, Aleutian Song, Melospiza

melodia sanaka

Sparrow, Bachman's, Peucasa aestivalis

bachmani
Sparrow, Baird's, Ammodramus bairdi
Sparrow, Belding's, Passer cuius beldingi
Sparrow, Bell's, Amphispiza belli
Sparrow, Bischoff's, Song, Melospiza

melodia insignis
Sparrow, Black-chinned, Spizalla atro-

gularis
Sparrow, Black-throated, Amphispiza

bilineata bilineata
Sparrow, Botteri's, Peucxa boiterii
Sparrow, Brewer's, Spizella breweri
Sparrow, Brown's Song, Melospiza

melodia rivularis
Sparrow, Bryant's, Passerculus sand-

wichensis bryanti
Sparrow, California Sage, Amphispiza

nevadensis canescens
Sparrow, Cassin's, Peucsea cassini
Sparrow, Chipping, Spizella passerina

passerina
Sparrow, Clay-colored, Spizella pallida
Sparrow, Dakota Song, Melospiza

melodia juddi
Sparrow, Desert, Amphispiza bilineata

deserticola
Sparrow, Desert Song, Melospiza melodia

fallax
Sparrow, Dusky Seaside, Passerherbulus

nigrescens
Sparrow, Field, Spizella pusilla pusilla
Sparrow, Florida Grasshopper, Am-
modramus savannarum floridanus
Sparrow, Forbush's, Melospiza lincolni

striata
Sparrow, Fox, Passerella iliaca iliaca
Sparrow, Gambel's, Zonotrichia leuco-

phrys gambeli
Sparrow, Golden-crowned, Zonotrichia

coronata
Sparrow, Grasshopper, Ammodramus

savannarum australis
Sparrow, Gray Sage, Amphispiza neva-
densis cinerea
Sparrow, Harris's, Zonotrichia querula
Sparrow, Heermann's Song, Melospiza

melodia heermanni
Sparrow, Henslow's, Passerherbulus

henslowi henslowi
Sparrow, Ipswich, Passerculus princeps
Sparrow, Ivadiak Fox, Passerella iliaca

insularis
Sparrow, Kenai Song, Melospiza melodia

kenaiensis
Sparrow, Laguna, Aimophila ruficeps

sororia
Sparrow, Large-billed, Passerculus ros-

tratus rostratus
Sparrow, Lark, Chondestes grammacus

grammacus
Sparrow, Leconte's, Passerherbulus

lecontei
Sparrow, Lincoln's, Melospiza lincolni

lincolni

754

INDICES

Sparrow, Louisiana Seaside, Passer-

herbulus maritivius fisheri
Sparrow, Macgillivray's Seaside, Passer-

herbulns maritimus macgUlivraii
Sparrow, Mendocino Song, Melospiza

melodia cleonensis
Sparrow, Merrill's Song, Melospiza

melodia merrilli
Sparrow, Mountain Song, Melospiza

melodia montana
Sparrow, Nelson's, Passerherbulus nel~

soni nelsoni
Sparrow, Nevada Savanna, Passerculus

sandwichensis nevadensis
Sparrow, Nuttall's, Zonotrichia leuco-

phrys nuttali
Sparrow, Oregon Vesper, Pooecetes gram-

ineus affinis
Sparrow, Pine-woods, Peucaea xstivalis

cestivalis
Sparrow, Rock, Aimophila ruficeps ere-

m,oeca
Sparrow, Rufous-crowned, Aimophila

ruficeps ruficeps
Sparrow, Rufous-winged, Aimophila

carpalis
Sparrow, Rusty Song, Melospiza melodia

viorphna
Sparrow, Sage, Amphispiza nevadensis

nevadensis
Sparrow, Samuels's Song, Melospiza

melodia samuelis
Sparrow, San Benito, Passerculus ros-

tratus sanctorum,
Sparrow, San Diego Song, Melospiza

melodia cooperi
Sparrow, San Clemente Song, Melospiza

melodia clemantx
Sparrow, San Lucas, Passerculus ros-

tratus guttatus
Sparrow, Santa Barbara Song, Melospiza

melodia graminea
Sparrow, Savannah, Passerculus sand-
wichensis savanna
Sparrow, Scott's, Aimophila ruficeps

scotti
Sparrow, Scott's Seaside, Passerherbulus

maritimus peninsulse
Sparrow, Seaside, Passerherbulus mari-
timus maritiinus
Sparrow, Sharp-tailed, Passerherbulus

caudacutus
Sparrow, Shumagin Fox, Passerella

iliaca unalaschcensis
Sparrow, Slate-colored Fox, Passerella

iliaca schistacea
Sparrow, Song, Melospiza melodia melo-
dia
Sparrow, Sooty Fox, Passerella iliaca

fuliginosa
Sparrow, Sooty Song, Melospiza melodia

rufina
Sparrow, Stephens's Fox, Passerella

iliaca stephensi
Sparrow, Suisun Song, Melospiza melodia

maxillaris

Sparrow, Swamp, Melospiza georgiana
Sparrow, Texas, Arremonops rufivirgatus
Sparrow, Texas Seaside, Passerherbulus

maritimus sennetti
Sparrow, Thick-billed Fox, Passerella

iliaca megarhyncha
Sparrow, Townsend's Fox, Passerella

iliaca townsendi
Sparrow, Tree, Spizella monticola monti-

cola
Sparrow, Vesper, Pocecetes gramineus

gramineus
Sparrow, Western Chipping, Spizella

passerina arizonx
Sparrow, Western Field, Spizella pusilla

arenacea
Sparrow, Western Grasshopper, Am-

modramus savannarum bimaculatus
Sparrow, Western Henslow's, Passer-
herbulus henslowi occidentalis
Sparrow, Western Lark, Chondestes

grammacus strigatus
Sparrow, Western Savannah, Passercu-
lus sandwichensis alaudinus
Sparrow, Western Tree, Spizella monti-
cola ochracea
Sparrow, Western Vesper, Pocecetes

gramineus confinis
Sparrow, White-crowned, Zonotrichia

leucophrys leucophrys
Sparrow, White-throated, Zonotrichia

albicollis
Sparrow, Worthen's, Spizella wortheni
Sparrow, Yakutat Song, Melospiza

melodia caurina
Spoonbill, Roseate, Ajaia ajaja
Starling, Sturnus vulgaris
Stilt, Black-necked, Himantopus mexi-

ca7ius
Stint, Long-toed, Pisobia damacensis
Surf-bird, Aphriza virgata
Swallow, Bahama, Callichelidon cyaneo-

viridis
Swallow, Bank, Riparia ripnria
Swallow, Barn, Hirundo erythrogastra
Swallow, Cliff, Petrochelidon lunifrons

lunifrons
Swallow, Coahuila Cliff, Petrochelidon

fulva pallida
Swallow, Cuban Cliff, Petrochelidon fulva
Swallow, European, Hirundo rustica
Swallow, Lesser Cliff, Petrochelidon

lunifrons tachina
Swallow, Mexican Cliff, Petrochelidon

lunifrons melanogastra
Swallow, Northern Violet-green,

Tachycineta thalassina lepida
Swallow, Rough-winged, Stelgidopteryx

serripennis
Swallow, San Lucas, Tachycine tathalas-

sina brachyptera
Swallow, Tree, Iridoprocne bicolor
Swan, Trumpeter, Cygnus buccinator
Swan, Whistling, Cygnus columbianus
Swan, Whooper, Cygnus cygnus
Swift, Black, Cypseloides niger borealis

INDICES

755

Swift, Chimney, Chxtura pelagica
Swift, Vaux's, Chsetura vauxi
Swift, White-throated, Aeronautes
melanoleucus

Tanager, Cooper's, Piranga rubra cooperi
Tanager, Hepatic, Piranga hepatica
Tanager, Scarlet, Piranga erythromelas
Tanager, Summer, Piranga rubra rubra
Tanager, Western, Piranga ludoviciana
Tattler, Wandering, Heteroscelus in-

canus
Teal, Blue-winged, Querquedula discors
Teal, Cinnamon, Querquedula cyanoptera
Teal, European, Nettion crecca
Teal, Green-winged, Nettion carolinense
Tern, Aleutian, Sterna aleuiica
Tern, Arctic, Sterna paradissea
Tern, Black, Clidonias nigra surinamen-

sis
Tern, Bridled, Sterna anastheia recognita
Tern, Cabot's, Sterna sandvicensis acu-

flavida
Tern, Caspian, Sterna caspiaimperator
Tern, Common, Sterna hirundo
Tern, Elegant, Sterna elegans
Tern, Forster's, Sterna forsieri
Tern, Gull-billed, Gelochelidon nilotica

aranea
Tern, Least, Sterna antillarum
Tern, Roseate, Sterna dougalli
Tern, Royal, Sterna maxima
Tern, Sooty, Sterna fuscata
Tern, Trudeau's, Sterna trudeaui
Tern, White-winged Black, Clidonias

leucoptera
Thrasher, Bendire's, Toxostoma bendirei
Thrasher, Brown, Toxostoma rufum
Thrasher, California, Toxostoma redi-

vivum
Thrasher, Crissal, Toxostoma crissale
Thrasher, Curve-billed, Toxostoma curvi-

rostre curvirostre
Thrasher, Desert, Toxostoma lecontei

arenicola
Thrasher, Leconte's, Toxostoma lecontei

lecontei
Thrasher, Mearns's, Toxostoma cinereum

mearnsi
Thrasher, Palmer's, Toxostoma curvi-
rostre palmeri
Thrasher, Sage, Oreoscoptes montanus
Thrasher, San Lucas, Toxostoma

cinereum cinereum
Thrasher, Sennett's, Toxostoma longi-

rostre sennetti
Thrush, Alaska Hermit, Hylocichla gut-
tata guttata
Thrush, Audubon's Hermit, Hylocichla

guttata auduboni
Thrush, Bicknell's, Hylocichla alicise

bicknelli
Thrush, Dwarf Hermit, Hylocichla gut-
tata nana
Thrush, Gray-cheeked, Hylocichla alicix
alicix

Thrush, Hermit, Hylocichla guttata pal-

lasi
Thrush, Monterey Hermit, Hylocichla

guttata slevini
Thrush, Northern Varied, Ixoreus noevius

meruloides
Thrush, Olive-backed, Hylocichla us-

tulata swainsoni
Thrush, Red-winged, Turdus musicus
Thrush, Russet-backed, Hylocichla us-

tulata ustulata
Thrush, Sierra Hermit, Hylocichla guttata

sequoiensis
Thrush, Varied, Ixoreus nxvius noevius
Thrush, Willow, Hylocichla fuscescens

salicicola
Thrush, Wood, Hylocichla mustelina
Titmouse, Ashy, Basolophus inornatus

cineraceus
Titmouse, Black-crested, Bseolophus

atricristatus atricristaius
Titmouse, Bridled, Bseolophus woll-

loeberi
Titmouse, Gray, Bseolophus inornatus

griseus
Titmouse, Plain, Bseolophus inornatus

inornatus
Titmouse, Sennett's, Bseolophus atri-
cristatus sennetti
Titmouse, Tufted, Bseolophus bicolor
Towhee, Pipilo erythrophlhalmus ery-

throphthalmus
Towhee, Abert's, Pipilo aberli
Towhee, Alabama, Pipilo erythroph-
lhalmus canaster
Towhee, Anthony's, Pipilo crissalis

senicula
Towhee, Arctic, Pipilo maculatus arc-

t icus
Towhee, California, Pipilo crissalis

crissalis
Towhee, Canon, Pipilo fuscus meso-

leucus
Towhee, Green-tailed, Oberholseria^
Towhee, Guadalupe, Pipilo consobrinus
Towhee, Large-billed, Pipilo maculatus

magnirostris
Towhee, Nevada, Pipilo maculatus cur-
tains
Towhee, Oregon, Pipilo maculatus

oregonus
Towhee, Sacramento, Pipilo maculatus

falcinellus
Towhee, San Clemente, Pipilo maculatus

clementce
Towhee, San Diego, Pipilo maculatus

megalonyx
Towhee, San Francisco, Pipilo maculatus

falcifer
Towhee, San Lucas, Pipilo fuscus

albigula
Towhee, Spurred, Pipilo maculatus mon-
tanus
Towhee, White-eyed, Pipilo erythroph-

ihalmus alleni

756

INDICES

Tree-duck, Black-bellied, Dendrocygna

autumnalis
Tree-duck, Fulvous, Dendrocygna hi-

color
Trogon, Coppery-tailed, Trogon am-

biguus
Tropic-bird, Red-billed, Phaethon

cethereus
Tropic-bird, Red-tailed, Phaethon rubri-

caudus
Tropic-bird, Yellow-billed, Phaethon

americanus
Turkey, Florida, Meleagris gallopavo

osceola
Turkey, Merriam's, Meleagris gallopavo

merriami
Turkey, Rio Grande, Meleagris gallapavo

intermedia
Turkey, Wild, Meleagris gallopavo sil-

vestris
Turnstone, Arenaria interpres interpres
Turnstone, Black, Arenaria melano-

cephala
Turnstone, Ruddy, Arenaria interpres

morinella

Veery, Hylocichla fuscescens fuscescens
Verdin, Auriparus flaviceps flaviceps
Verdin, Cape, Auriparus flaviceps lam-

procephalus
Vireo, Anthony's, Vireo huttoni obscurus
Vireo, Bell's, Vireo belli belli
Vireo, Black-capped, Vireo atricapillus
Vireo, Black-whiskered, Vireosylva cal-

idris barbatula
Vireo, Blue-headed, Lanivireo solitarius

solitarius
Vireo, Bermuda, Vireo griseus bermudi-

anus
Vireo, Cassin's, Lanivireo solitarius

cassini
Vireo, Frazar's, Vireo huttoni cognatus
Vireo, Gray, Vireo vicinior
Vireo, Button's, Vireo huttoni huttoni
Vireo, Key West, Vireo griseus may-

nardi
Vireo, Least, Vireo belli pusillus
Vireo, Mountain, Lanivireo solitarius

alticola
Vireo, Philadelphia, Vireosylva Phila-
delphia
Vireo, Plumbeous, Lanivireo solitarius

plumbeus
Vireo, Red-eyed, Vireosylva olivacea
Vireo, San Lucas, Lanivireo solitarius

lucasanus
Vireo, Small White-eyed, Vireo griseus

micrus
Vireo, Stephens's, Vir eo huttoni stephensi
Vireo, Texas, Vireo belli medius
Vireo, Warbling, Vireosylva gilva gilva
Vireo, Western Warbling, Vireosylva

gilva swainsoni
Vireo, White-eyed, Vireo griseus griseus
Vireo, Yellow-green, Vireosylva flavo-

viridis

Vireo, Yellow-throated, Lanivireo flavi-

frons
Vulture, Black, Coragyps urubu urubu
Vulture, California, Gymnogyps cali-

fornianus
Vulture, Turkey, Cathartes aura sep-

tentrionalis
Wagtail, Alaska Yellow, Budytes flavus

alascensis
Wagtail, Swinhoe's, Matacilla ocularis
Wagtail, White, Motacilla alba
Warbler, Alaska Yellow, Dendroica

cestiva rubiginosa
Warbler, Audubon's, Dendroica auduboni

auduboni
Warbler, Bachman's, Vermivora bach-

mani
Warbler, Bay-breasted, Dendroica cas-

tanea
Warbler, Black and White, Mniotilta

varia
Warbler, Blackburnian, Dendroica fusca
Warbler, Black-fronted, Dendroica audu-
boni nigrifrons
Warbler, Black-poll, Dendroica striata
Warbler, Black-throated Blue, Den-
droica cxrulescens cxrulescens
Warbler, Black-throated Gray, Den-
droica nigrescens
Warbler, Black-throated Green, Den-
droica virens
Warbler, Blue-winged, Vermivora pinus
Warbler, Cairns's, Dendroica coerulescens

cairnsi
Warbler, Calaveras, Vermivora rufi-

capilla gutturalis
Warbler, California Yellow, Dendroica

cestiva brewsteri
Warbler, Canada, Wilsonia canadensis
Warbler, Cape May, Dendroica tigrina
Warbler, Cerulean, Dendroica cerulea
Warbler, Chestnut-sided, Dendroica pen-

sylvanica
Warbler, Connecticut, Oporornis agilis
Warbler, Dusky, Vermivora celata sor-

dida
Warbler, Golden-cheeked, Dendroica

chrysoparia
Warbler, Golden Pileolated, Wilsonia

pusilla chryseola
Warbler, Golden-winged, Vermivora

chrysoptera
Warbler, Grace's, Dendroica gracioe
Warbler, Hermit, Dendroica occidentalis
Warbler, Hooded, Wilsonia citrina
Warbler, Hoover's, Dendroica coronata

hooveri
Warbler, Kennicott's Willow, Acan-

thopneuste borealis
Warbler, Kentucky, Oporornis formosus
Warbler, Kirtland's, Dendroica kirtlandi
Warbler, Lucy's, Vermivora lucioe
Warbler, Lutescent, Vermivora celata

lutescens
Warbler, Macgillivray's, Oporornis tol-

miei

INDICES

767

Warbler, Magnolia, Dendroica magnolia

Warbler, Mangrove, Dendroica bryanti
casteneiceps

Warbler, Mourning, Oporornis Phila-
delphia

Warbler, Myrtle, Dendroica caronata

Warbler, Nashville, Vermivora ruficap-
illa ruficapilla

Warbler, Northern Parula, Compsoth-
lypis americana pusilla

Warbler, Olive, Peucedramus olivaceus

Warbler, Orange-crowned, Vermivora
celata celata

Warbler, Palm, Dendroica pahnarum
palmarum

Warbler, Parula, Compsothlypis ameri-
cana americana

Warbler, Pileolated, Wilsonia pusilla
pileolata

Warbler, Pine, Dendroica vigorsi

Warbler, Prairie, Dendroica discolor

Warbler, Prothonotary, Protonotaria
citrea

Warbler, Red-faced, Cardellina ruhri-
frons

Warbler, Sennett's, Compsothlypis
pitiayumi nigrilora

Warbler, Sonora Yellow, Dendroica
a;stiva sonorana

Warbler, Swainson's, Limniothlypis
swainsoni

Warbler, Sycamore, Dendroica dominica
albilora

Warber, Tennessee, Vermivora peregrina

Warbler, Townsend's, Dendroica town-
sendi

Warbler, Virginia's, Vermivora virginioe

Warbler, Wilson's, Wilsonia pusilla
pusilla

Warbler, Worm-eating, Helmitheros ver-
mivorus

Warbler, Yellow, Dendroica cestiva cestiva

Warbler, Yellow Palm, Dendroica pal-
marum hypochrysea

Warbler, Yellow-throated, Dendroica
dominica dominica

Water-Thrush, Seiurus noveboracensis
noveboracensis

Water-Thrush, Grinnell's, Seiurus nove-
boracensis notabilis

Water-Thrush, Louisiana, Seiurus mota-
cilla

Water-Turkey, Anhinga anhinga

Waxwing, Bohemian, Bombycilla gar-
rula

Waxwing, Cedar, Bombycilla cedrorum

Wheatear, Oenanthe ftnanthe (rnanthe

Wheatear, Greenland, Oenanthe cenanthe
leucorhoa

Whimbrel, Numenius phoeopus

Whip-poor-will, Antrostomus vociferus
voc.iferus

Whip-poor-will, Stephens's, Antrostomus

vociferus macromystax
Widgeon, European, Mareca penelope

Willet, Catoptrophorus semipalmatus

semipalmatus
Willet, Western, Catoptrophorus semi-
palmatus inornatus
Woodcock, Rubicola minor
Woodcock, European, Scolopax rusticola
Woodpecker, Alaska Three-toed, Pic-

oides americanus fasciatus
Woodpecker, Alpine Three-toed, Pic-

oides americanus dorsalis
Woodpecker, Arctic Three-toed, Pic-

oides arcticus
Woodpecker, Arizona, Dryobates arizonce
Woodpecker, Ant-eating, Melanerpes

formicivorus formicivorus
Woodpecker, Batchelder's, Dryobates

pubescens homorus
Woodpecker, Cabanis's, Dryobates vil-

losus hyloscopus
Woodpecker, Cactus, Dryobates scalaris

cactophilus
Woodpecker, California, Melanerpes

formicivorus bairdi
Woodpecker, Chihuahua, Dryobates vil-

losus icastus
Woodpecker, Downy, Dryobates pubes-
cens medianus
Woodpecker, Florida Pileated, Phloeo-

omus pileatus floridanus
Woodpecker, Gairdner's, Dryobates

pubescens gairdneri
Woodpecker, Gila, Centurus uropygialis
Woodpecker, Golden-fronted, Centurus

aurifrons
Woodpecker, Hairy, Dryobates villosus

villosus
Woodpecker, Harris's, Dryobates' villosus

harrisi
Woodpecker, Ivory-billed, Campephilus

principalis
Woodpecker, Narrow-fronted, Melan-
erpes formicivorus angustifrons
Woodpecker, Lewis's, Asyndesmus lewisi
Woodpecker, Nelson's Downy, Dryobates

pubescens nelsoni
Woodpecker, Newfoundland, Dryobates

villosus terraenovx
Woodpecker, Newfoundland Downy,

Dryobates pubescens microleucus
Woodpecker, Northern Hairy, Dryobates

vilosus leucoinelas
Woodpecker, Northern Pileated, Phoeo-

tomus pileatus abieticola
Woodpecker, Nuttall's, Dryobates nuttalli
Woodpecker, Pileated, Phlceotomus pile-
atus pileatus
Woodpecker, Queen Charlotte, Dryobates

villosus picoideus
Woodpecker, Red-bellied, Centurus caro-

linus
Woodpecker, Red-cockaded, Dryobates

borealis
Woodpecker, Red-headed, Melanerpes

erthrocephalus
Woodpecker, Rocky Mountain Hairy,
Dryobates villosus monlicola

758

INDICES

Woodpecker, San Fernando, Dryobates

scalaris eremicus
Woodpecker, San Lucas, Dryobates

scalaris lucasanus
Woodpecker, Sierra, Dryobates villosus

orius
Woodpecker, Sitka Hairy, Dryobates

villosus sitkensis
Woodpecker, Southern Downy, Dryo-
bates pubescens pubescens
Woodpecker, Southern Hairy, Dryobates

villosus auduboni
Woodpecker, Southern White-headed,

Xenopicus albolarvatus gravirostris
Woodpecker, Texas, Dryobates scalaris

symplectus
Woodpecker, Western Pileated, Phloe-

otomus pileatus picinus
Woodpecker, Three-toed, Picoides

americanus americanus
Woodpecker, Valdez, Dryobates pu-
bescens glacialis
Woodpecker, White-breasted, Dryobates

villosus leucothorictis
Woodpecker, White-headed, Xenopicus

albolarvatus albolarvatus
Woodpecker, Willow, Dryobates pu-
bescens turati
Wren, Alaska, Nannus alascensis
Wren, Aleutian, Nannus meliger
Wren, Baird's, Thryomanes bewicki

bairdi
Wren, Bewick's, Thryomanes bewicki

bewicki
Wren, Bryant's Cactus, Heleodytes brun-

neicapillus bryanti
Wren, Cactus, Heleodytes brunneicapil-

lus couesi
Wren, Canon, Catherpes mexicanus con-

spersus
Wren, Carolina, Thryothorus ludovi-

cianus ludovicianus
Wren, Dotted Canon, Catherpes mexi-
canus punctulatus
Wren, Florida, Thryothorus ludovicianus

miamensis
Wren, Guadalupe, Thryomanes brevi-

cauda
Wren, Guadalupe Rock, Salpinctes

guadeloupensis
Wren, House, Troglodytes aedon aedon
Wren, Kodiak Winter, Nannus hiemalis

helleri
Wren, Lomita, Thryothorus ludovicianus

lomitensis
Wren, Long-billed Marsh, Telmatodytes

palustris palustris
Wren, Marian's Marsh, Telmatodytes

palustris mariame
Wren, Prairie Marsh, Telmatodytes

palustris iliacus

Wren, Rock, Salpinctes obsoletus ob-
soletus

Wren, San Clemente, Thryomanes leuco-
phrys

Wren, San Diego, Thryomanes bewicki
charienturus

Wren, San Lucas Cactus, Heleodytes
brunneicapillus ajjinis

Wren, San Martin Rock, Salpinctes
obsoletus proximus

Wren, Seattle, Thryomanes bewicki
calophonus

Wren, San Nicolas Rock, Salpinctes
obsoletus pulverius

Wren, Short-billed Marsh, Cistothorus
stellaris

Wren, Texas, Thryomanes bewicki cryp-
tus

Wren, Tule, Telmatodytes palustris
paludicola

Wren, Vigors's, Thryomanes bewicki
spilurus

Wren, Western House, Troglodytes aedon
parkmani

Wren, Western Marsh, Telmatodytes
palustris plesius

Wren, Western Winter, Nannus hiemalis
pacificus

Wren, White-throated, Catherpes mexi-
canus albifrons

Wren, Winter, Nannus hiemalis hiemalis

Wren, Worthington's Marsh, Telmato-
dytes palustris griseus

Wren-Tit, Chamcea fasciata fasciata

Wren-Tit, Coast, Chamcea fasciata phoea

Wren-Tit, Pallid, Chamsea fasciata hens-
haw i

Wren-Tit, Ruddy, Chamasa fasciata rufula

Yellow-legs, Totanus jlavipes
Yellow-legs, Greater, Totanus melano-

leucus
Yellow-throat, Belding's, Geothlypis bel-

dingi
Yellow-throat, Florida, Geothlypis

trichas ignota
Yellow-throat, Maryland, Geothlypis

trichas trichas
Yellow-throat, Northern, Geothlypis

trichas brachydactila
Yellow-throat, Pacific, Geothlypis trichas

arizela
Yellow-throat, Rio Grande, Chamse-

thlypis poliocephala
Yellow-throat, Salt Marsh, Geothlypis

trichas sinuosa
Yellow-throat, Tule, Geothlypis trichas

scirpicola
Yellow-throat, Western, Geothlypis

trichas occidentalis

INDEX TO AUTHORS AND LOCALITIES

Adams, C. C, 45
Administration of Wild Lifo, 45
Agriculture, Importance to, 13
Alabama, 440
Alaska, 141

AlasV in National Forests, 147
Alberta, 253
Amazon Valley, 674
Anderson, W. A., Jr., 349
Anthony, H. E., 662
Aquatic Preserves, 11
Arctic Islands, 98, 115
Arizona, 562
Arkansas, 464
Art, Value to, 7
Ashe, W. W., 10

Bahamas, 682

Baker, F. C, 27, 38

Baker, F. S., 224

Baker, H. B., 637, 707

Bates, C. G., 237

Beebe, W., 649

Bermuda, 681

Bibliography, 81

Biology, Importance to, 13

Biota, Descriptive List, 60

Biota of Middle America, 77

Biota of the Americas^ 57

Birds, Relation to Vegetation, 31

Braun, E. Lucy, 20, 354

Bray, W. E., 332

British Columbia, 150

British Honduras, 600

Britton, N. L.,700

Bryant, H. C, 193

Buchholz, J. T., 464

Burns, G. P., 316

Burill, A. C, 485

Cahn, A. R., 502
California, 193
Caverhill, P. Z., 150
Claridge, B. E., 299
Colombia, 623
Colorado, 524

Connecticut, 326
Connell, A. B., 253, 263
Conservation, Duty to, 52
Costa Rica, 607
Cuba, 682

Davidson, J., 150
Delaware, 398
Dexter, J. S., 258
Dice, L. R., 60, 168, 377
Dutch West Indies, 707
Dymond, J. R., 288

Ecuador, 662

Ekblaw, W. E., 87, 90, 98, 102, 111

Elrod, M. J., 537

Fires, Relation to Biota, 34
Florida, 427
Forest Laws, 15
Fox, H., 422
Frison, T. H., 469
Frothingham, E. H., 387
Fuller, G. D., 293

Gaige, Helen T., 168, 377

Galapagos Islands, 709

Game Refuges of Pennsylvania, 28

Geography, Importance to, 12

Georgia, 422

Gleason, H. A., 649

Goldman, E. A., 562, 574, 612

Goldsmith, G. W., 460

Graves, H. S., 52

Greenland, Danish, 90

Greenland, Northwest, 87

Griscom, L., 604, 607

Gross, A. O... 305

Guatemala, 596

Guiana, 649

Gunthorp, H., 168

Guthrie, J. D., 147

Haiti, 695

Hamilton, C. C, 401
Harper, R. M., 440

759

760

INDEX

Harshberger, J. W., 338
Hofmann, J. V., 202
Hoke, Gladys, 454
Honduras, 601
Howe, C. D., 288
Howell, A. H., 440
Hudson Bay, 115
Hutchinson, A. H., 150

Idaho, 249
Illinois, 469
Indiana, 372
Iowa, 480

Jackson, C. F., 314
Jamaica, 698
Jillson,W. R.,349
Johnson, M. S., 440
Jones, F. M., 398
Jones, G. T., 75
Jones, E., 60, 354, 377

Kansas, 515

Kentucky, 349

Kopman, H. H., 460

Korstian, C. F., 17, 19, 33, 557, 560

Labrador, 102
Landscape Architecture, 8
Landscape Aspects, 80
Lane, H. H., 490
Larsen, J. A., 208
Lawrence, W. E., 181
Leon, Brother, 682
Lewis, I. F., 410
Life Zones, 75, 80
Literature, Value to, 7
Locke, S. B., 224
Louisiana, 460
Luginbill, P., 418

McColloch, J. W., 515
McFarland, F. T., 349
McLean, F. T., 709
Mackay, A. H., 303
Mackenzie Watershed, 115
Maddox, R. S., 347
Maine, 305
Makiling, Mt., 709
Management of Natural Areas, 42
Manitoba, 263

Marie-Victorin, Brother, 293
Maryland, 401

Massachusetts, 318
Metcalf, Z. P., 413
Mexico, 574
Michigan, 377
Middleton, A. R., 349
Miller, R. B., 14, 469
Minnesota, 267
Mississippi, 454
Missouri, 485
Montana, 537
Munger, T. T., 181
Munns, E. N., 216
Museums and Nature, 27
Muttkowski, R. A., 249

National Forests:
Alaska, 147
California, 216
Eastern District, 387
Grazing in, 33
Intermountain District, 224
Northern District, 208
North Pacific District, 202
Rocky Mountain District, 237
Southwestern District, 232
National Monuments, 20

National Parks, 20, 45

National Regions, 83, 87

Nebraska, 519

Nelson, E. W., 574

Nelson, T. C, 394

Nevada, 560

New Brunswick, 299

Newfoundland, 111

New Hampshire, 314

New Jersey, 394

New Mexico, 570

New York, 332

Nicaragua, 604

Nichols, G. E., 326

Noble, G.K., 695

North Carolina, 413

North Dakota, 544

Norton, A. H., 305

Nova Scotia, 303

Ohio, 354
Oklahoma, 490
Ontario, 288
Oregon, 181

Organizations, List of, 727
Osgood, W. H., 141

INDEX

761

Pammel, L. H., 480

Panama, 612

Pearse, A. S., 11, 284

Pearson, G. A., 232, 562

Pennell, F. W., 623

Pennsylvania, 338

Petry, E. J., 548

Philippine Islands, 709

Phillips, J. M., 28

Pittier, H., 637

Pollution, on Animal Life, 38

Popenoe, W., 596, 662

Porto Rico, 700

Preble, E. A., 115, 150

Preservation in National Forests, 17

Prince Edward Island, 302

Quebec, 293

Ramaley, F., 524
Representatives, List of, 723
Rhode Island, 330
Rigg, G. B., 168
Robbins, W. W.,524
Rosendahl, C. O., 267
Rumsey, W. E., 341

Salvador, 602

Sample Plots in Forests, 19

Santo Domingo, 695

Sarvis, J. T., 544

Saskatchewan, 258

Schmidt, K. P., 600, 601

Scott, J. W., 529

Scott, W., 372

Shelf ord, V. E., 13, 42, 57, 60, 75, 77, 81, 85

Shreve, Forrest, 77, 562, 69S

Silviculture of Reserves, 10

Smith, F., 31

South Carolina, 418
South Dakota, 548
Standley, P. C., 602
Starr, AnnaM., 318
Switzer, J. E., 544

Tennessee, 347
Texas, 502

Ungava, 102
Utah, 557

Venezuela, 637
Vermont, 316
Virginia, 410
Virgin Islands, 700
Visher, S. S., 12, 548
Vorhies, C. T., 562

Washington, 168
Watson, J. R., 427
Weese, A. O., 570
Wells, B. W., 413
Weston, M. D., 330
West Virginia, 341
Whitcomb, S. L., 7
White, O. E., 674
White, S., 8
Wight, H. M., 181
Wisconsin, 284
Wolcott, G. N., 700
Wolcott, R. H., 34, 519
Woodward, K. W., 314
Wyman, L., 460
Wyoming, 529

Yukon Region, 115

Zetek, J., 612

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