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HELMINTHOPHAGA LEUGOBRONGHIALIS, Brewster, ADULT MALE, Late 1 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE IN COLLECTING AND PRESERVING CPEs OF NATURAL HISTORY, WITH A COMPLETE CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS OF EASTERN MASSACHUSETTS. Br Ce J--MAYNARD- WITH ILLUSTRATIONS BY EK. L. WEEKS. REVISED EDITION. BOSTON: SEO oC ENO. CO. 1883. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1870, by FIELDS, OSGOOD, & CO., in the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. CoPpyRIGHT, S. E. CASSINO, 1877. ENE RODU CLION, THE great need of a good illustrated work to guide young naturalists in collecting and preserving objects of natural history has induced me to prepare the present Manual. In this attempt I hope I have been in some degree successful. I have spared no pains to bring to- gether, in a comprehensive form, the results of many years of experience in collecting and preserving objects of natu- ral history, both for private cabinets and for scientific museums. No popular work of this kind has before been published in America. Throughout the present work I have endeay- ored to encourage the young to engage in the ennobling study of Natural History, and to join the band of young naturalists so rapidly increasing in our land. I trust the reader will not by any means keep the teach- ings of this book secret, as some taxidermists are wont to counsel, but spread it broadcast among those who would profit by the information I have herein attempted to con- vey. It is intended for the Naturanist, whoever and wherever he may be; and as it comes from a colaborer in the common field, it will, perhaps, be well received. aw INTRODUCTION. All of Part First is original. In preparing objects of natural history I have in a great degree invented methods of my own, and have not given in this work a single one that I have not tested and proved equal to all oth- ers, if not superior. To avoid confusion, I have given only the method which experience has taught me to be the best. In this connection my thanks are due to Mr. EK. L. Weeks, whose excellent illustrations will be found to add greatly to the value of the work. In Part Second I have thought proper to add a cata- logue of the birds of Eastern Massachusetts, with notes, as tending to enable the collector to obtain the rarer spe- cies more readily, by specifying the localities and peculiar haunts in which they have been found by others. The critical notes may, perhaps, be perused with interest by the more experienced ornithologist. DSI CONTENTS. — PARI. . : - : nae II. PREPARING SKELETONS . - - ° 2 . 4 73 MountInG SKELETONS : S ° e e ° e meee} Cb PAH. Vel COLLECTING AND PRESERVING EaGcs : : A : ‘ Ae ke METHOD OF PREPARING A Book FOR RECORDING THE MEASURE- MENTS OF EGGs ° 5 , 4 - ° < . . eae | fod od Weel By Bs CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS OF EASTERN MASSACHUSETTS . ~ ol INTRODUCTION ° . ° . . . . e Fi 83 APPENDIX ° ° . e e ° e ’ ° ot 268 INDEX . . e e e e e ° e e e e 169 LIST AND EXPLANATION OF PLATES, FRONTISPIECE. Centronyx Bairdii, Baird. — Baird’s Sparrow, taken at Ipswich, Mass. Puate I.* InNstRuMENTS used in preparing birds, etc., and for blowing eggs. #%g.1, Common Pliers; /%g. 2, Cutting Pliers ; Fig. 3, Tweezers; Fig. 4, Scalpel; Figs. 5 and 6, Egg-drills; Fig. 7, Blow-pipe; /%g. 8, Hook for removing embryos from eggs. Priate II. — Winas, showing the positions of the different feathers, as follows : — Fig. 1. Wing of a Red tailed Hawk (Buteo borealis, Vieill.).— a indicates the primaries, or quills; b, secondaries; c¢, tertiaries; d, scapularies ; g, greater wing-coyverts ; f, lesser wing-coverts ; e, spuri- ous wing, or quills. Fig. 2. Wing of a Coot, or Mud Hen (Fulica Americana, Gmelin). — a indicates the primaries, or quills; b, secondaries; c, tertiaries ; d, scapularies ; e, spurious wing, or quills. The tertiaries and scapularies are elongated in most of the aquatic birds, and in some of the Waders. They are always prominent, if not elongated, on long-winged birds, such as the Eagles, Hawks, Owls, Vuitures, etc. ; while they are only rudimentary on short-winged birds, such as the Thrushes, Warblers, Sparrows, etc. Pruate II. Heap or tue Batp Eactre (Halictus leucocephalus, Savigny), showing the different parts, as follows: —a, the throat; b, chin; c, commissure, or the folding edges of the mandibles; d, under mandible; s, gonys; p, gape; g, upper mandible; h, culmen ; i, tip; j, base of bill; k, cere (naked skin at the base of the upper mandible, prominent in the rapacious birds); 1, frontal feathers; m, lores; n, crown; 0, occiput. * Plates I, IV., V., VI., VIII., IX , X., and the frontispiece will be more fully explained hereafter. Vill LIST OF PLATES. The irides are the colored circles that surround the pupil. The color of these decides the so-called ‘color of the eye.” Prate IV. ILLusTRATES PREPARING SxKins.— Figs. 1 and 2. Corrugated board, used in drying skins; d, skin on the board, in the proper position. F%g.3. A “skin” prepared for scientific use; @, la- bel, on which is marked the number and sex. Piate V. DissecteD Sone Sparrow (Melospiza melodia, Baird), illustrating the sexes in the breeding season, as follows : — Fug. 1. An adult female (Q); 1,1, peculiar yellow glands; 2, ovary; 3, oviduct ; 4,lungs. Fig. 2. An adult male ( ); 1, lungs; 2, peculiar yellow glands; 3, 3, testicles. Pirate VI. Dissecrep Sone Sparrow, illustrating the sexes of the young-of-the-year, in autumn, as follows: —/7%g.1. A young male ( ¢); 1, lungs; 2, 2, yellow glands; 3, 3, testicles. Fig. 2. A young female (9); 1,1, yellow glands; 2, ovary; 3, lungs; 4, ovi- duct. PratE VII. Ovrtine or Grouse, showing the position of the different parts, as follows:—a, the back; b, rump; c, upper tail- coverts; d, under tail-coverts ; e, vent; f, tibia; g, tarsi; h, breast; i, side; j, neck; k, hind neck; 1, abdomen ; m, feet ; n, throat. Puate VIII. ILLustrates MounTING Birps. — Figs. 1,2. Arti- ficial body; a, bone of leg; b, wire bent; c¢, wire clenched; f, h, tail wire. f%g. 3. Mounted bird; a, perpendicular line, showing the position of the head compared with the feet and base of the stand; b, b, wires for retaining the upper part of the wing in position ; ¢, c wires for retaining the lower part of the wing in position; e, e, wires for the tail; d, showing the tail-feathers plaited; f, stand. Fv. 4. Stand for mounting birds with the wings extended ; b, b, parallel wires ; c, wires bent; a, block of wood for the bottom of the stand, Fig. 5. Head of Cedar-Bird, to illustrate the elevating of the crest; g, cotton on the pin; b, feathers of the crest in position on the cotton. Pruate IX. ILiustrates Mounting MamMats.— Fig. 1. A, plank for supporting iron rods; 8, iron rod for supporting head; 14, cap, nut, and screw for fastening the end of the rod in the skull; 7,7,7, 7, iron rods to support the body ; 5, 6, 5, 6, caps, ete. for fastening the upper ends of the rods to the plank; 17, 17, 17, 17, caps, ete. for fastening the lower part of the rods to the stand (10); 15, wire for supporting the tail; 16, 16,16, 16, 16, 16, 16, 16, artificial sections of LIST OF PLATES. 1b :< hemp, grass, or plaster used as a substitute for the natural body. Fig. 2. A, nut; B, cap; C, thread. PiLaTE X. SKELETON OF A GROUSE, OR PRAIRIE HEN (Cupi- donia cupido, Baird), showing the different bones, as follows: — a, the skull; b, vertebra of the neck; c, humerus; d, forearm; f, pha- langes; g, furcula; h, sternum; i, marginal indentations; j, thigh; k, tarsus; y, tibia; m, rump; n, coccygus; A, ribs; B, lower joint of thigh. . | Po cal el as i —_e— DIRE e EEON S FOR COLLECTING, PRESERVING, AND MOUNTING BIRDS, MAMMALS, FISHES, ETC., ETC., KTC. Peale a, Ee COLLECTING AND PRESERVING BIRDS. Section I. How to collect. — Personal experience is a good, and in fact the only adequate, teacher we can have in learning any art. The need of such a teacher is felt by none more than by the naturalist who wishes to bring to- gether a complete collection of the birds of even his own immediate district. Hence I trust I shall not be accused of egotism, if, in this section, I endeavor to impart to the reader some things that experience has taught me. It is of first importance for the collector to gain as com- plete a knowledge as possible of the notes and habits of birds, and of the localities frequented by those he wishes to procure. This knowledge may be gained by carefully studying the writings of men who have paid particular attention to the subject. Zoo much dependence must not be placed on books, as the best of these contain error as well as truth ; besides, birds are very variable in their hab- its in different localities. The collector must then depend mainly upon himself. He must visit every locality, — the mountain-top and the dark swampy thicket, as well as the meadow, the plain, or the open forest, as in each of these localities he will find species that he may no. meet else- where. A little patience will help any one through the worst of places. The quaking bog, where a misstep may plunge the adven- turer into the slimy ooze, is also an excellent locality for 4 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. certain species. But when the collector returns home wet and hungry, fatigued and disheartened,—as he now and then will, —let him not be discouraged. Try again! the next day, and even the next, if need be, until the desired specimen is obtained. After all, the earnest naturalist will be amply rewarded for the exercise of patience and perse- verance by securing a rare specimen. The true naturalist never thinks of cold and disappoint- ment, of days of fatigue and hours of patient watching, when at last he holds in his hand the long-searched-for bird. Ample reward is this for all his former trials ; he is now ready to go into bog and through brier. And thus the enthusiastic naturalist travels on, not discouraged by toil and trouble, laughed to scorn by the so-called “practical” men, who are unable to appreciate his high motive. This, however, he forgets when in field or study he meets with the cordial greeting of his brother naturalist, as they with mutual interest relate their discoveries and adventures. To the travelling collector a few special hints are neces- sary. While visiting a remote region, but little known, one should not neglect to shoot numbers of every bird met with, even if they are common species at home, as they will not only furnish data on the distribution of the species, but they may present interesting characters peculiar to that locality. Ifa certain species appears common, do not delay collecting specimens, for peculiar circumstances may have brought them together in unusual numbers ; at some future time they may be rare. A well-trained dog is of great value while collecting birds, especially the Quails, Marsh Wrens, Sea-side and Sharp-tailed Finches, —in fact, all birds that are difficult to start in open meadows and grassy places. While search- ing thickets, great watchfulness should be observed, espe- cially in the autumn, when many birds have no conspicuous note, otherwise many of the more wary of the Warblers DST’ THE ART OF COLLECTING BIRDS. 5 will escape notice. The slightest chirp should be care- fully followed ; the slightest motion of the branches closely watched. If a bird is seen that is not fully recognized, it should be shot at once, for in no other way can it be de- termined whether it is not a rara avis. By carefully watching the motions of birds, the coliector will soon become so expert as to be able generally to dis- tinguish the different species of Warblers, even at a dis- tance. Carefully scrutinize also the tops of tall forest- trees, as I have there taken, in autumn, some of the rarest Warblers. In spring male birds are quite readily found, as they are then in full song; but the same caution must be used in collecting females that is practised in autumn, as they are generally shy and difficult to find. Hence it is a good rule always to secure the female jirst, when she is seen with the male; for, in spite of all the collector’s efforts, he will find that there wiil be four males to one female in his collection. During winter some birds may be found in the thick woods that one would hardly expect to find at this season, such as the Robin, Golden-winged Woodpecker, etc. The open fields should not be neglected even during snow- storms, as it is then that such ordinarily cautious birds as the Snowy Owl may be approached quite readily ; or the capture of a Jerfalcon may reward the collector for a disagreeable tramp. The salt marshes and sandy sea- shores are the resort of a great many winter birds, and the collector will perhaps find himself amply repaid for a few visits to these localities at this season. Do not neglect to collect the young of birds; by pro- curing specimens of these from the time they become fully fledged until they attain the perfectly mature plumage, one becomes familiar with all the stages through which a given species passes, and will thus avoid many errors into which some of our eminent ornithologists have fallen, — 6 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. that of mistaking the young of certain well-known birds for a different species from the adult, from not being ac- quainted with the immature stages. All birds should be taken that exhibit any unusual characters, such as unusu- ally large or small bills or feet; or change of plumage, such as very pale, or very bright, cases of albinism, ete. The gun used by a collector should have a small bore, not larger than No. 14, for shooting small birds ; for Ducks, and other large water-birds, one of larger calibre will be found more effectual. The best shot to use for small birds is “ Dust shot,” if it can be procured ; if not, No. 12 will answer. No. 8 will do for Ducks and large birds. For Hawks and Eagles, Ealy’s wire cartridges are the best. In shooting small birds, load as lightly as possible. Put in no more shot than is required to kill the bird. As you can approach very near most small birds, you will find, by experiment, that you can kill them with very little shot. If too much powder is used, it will impel the shot with so much force as to send it completely throngh the bird, thereby making two holes, when less powder, by causing less force, would have made only one, and the bird would have been killed just as effectually. When shot goes into the body of a bird, it generally carries feathers with it, and in a measure plugs the hole ; but when it is forced through and comes out, it often carries away a small patch of feath- ers and skin, leaving an open wound, from which the blood flows freely. If the bird is not instantly killed by shooting, the thumb and forefinger should be placed with a firm pres- sure on each side of its body under the wings, when it will soon die. This operation compresses the lungs and _ pre- vents the bird’s breathing. Besides mercifully ending its suffering, its death causes the flow of blood in a great measure to cease, for this reason it should be killed as quickly as possible. THE ART OF COLLECTING BIRDS. rf The mouth, nostrils, and vent should now be plugged with cotton or tow. By blowing aside the feathers the shot- holes may be detected ; if they bleed, or are in the abdo- men or rump, a pinch of calcined plaster * should be placed upon them ; this absorbs the blood, or any fluid that may ooze out. When shot enters either the abdomen or rump, it is apt to cut the intestines and set free the fluids con- tained therein. If the blood has already soiled the feath- ers, remove as much as is possible with a knife, then sprinkle plaster on the spot, and rub the soiled feathers gently be- tween the thumb and fingers; this, if repeated, will gen- erally remove any spots of blood, etc., if the operation is performed before the blood becomes dry. When the blood is dry, it is removed after the bird is skinned, as will be hereafter described. Next make a note of the color of the eyes, feet, and bill of the specimens, also note the color of the cere in birds of prey, and the naked skin of the lores and about the bill of the Herons, also about the heads of the Vultures. After smoothing the feathers carefully, place the bird in a paper cone,f head first, then pin or twist up the larger end, tak- ing care not to injure the tail-feathers. The blood can be washed from the feathers of all the swimmers, but the bird, in this case, should be allowed to dry before packing in paper. If grease or oily matter has oozed out upon the feathers, the bird should not be washed, but the plaster be used as before, only in larger quantities. All traces of blood should be instantly removed from white feathers, as it is very apt to stain them if it remains upon them long. The paper containing the bird should * This is burned plaster or gypsum, and is used by stucco-makers. If it cannot be procured, the unburned plaster or common ground gypsum used by farmers, or air-slacked lime, pulverized chalk, or ashes, — in fact, anything that will absorb the blood, — will answer. t+ The leaves of an old pamphlet are about the right size for making cones for small birds, and can be easily obtained. 8 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. be placed in a light basket, —a willow fish-basket is the best for this purpose, —suspended by a strap over the shoul- der, and resting upon the hip. If there are but one or two birds in the basket, it should be filled with grass, or loose paper, to keep them steady, as otherwise they might re- ceive injury by rolling from side to side. In packing birds, avoid putting the largest at the top, as their weight will cause the smallest to bleed. Do not hold a bird in the hand any longer than is necessary ; if possible, take it by the feet or bill, for the perspiration from the hand tends to impair the gloss of the plumage. A good collector must practise, in order to become a good shot. He must always keep his gun in readiness, for at any moment a bird that he desires may start up at his feet, or peer out from the bushes for only an instant before flying away; by being ready, he will thus secure many birds that he would otherwise lose. To be in readiness at all times, the gun should be car- ried in the hollow of the left arm, with the muzzle pointed backwards, or with the stock under the right arm, with the muzzle pointed towards the ground, which is undoubtedly the safest way, especially if you are hunting with a com- panion. Too much caution cannot be used in handling a loaded gun, especially by a professional collector, who may spend two thirds of his time with a gun in his hand. A gun should never be carried in other than three ways, — the two above mentioned and directly over the shoulder. If the collector becomes accustomed to these ways, which are all perfectly safe, he will never think of any other. Surely, this caution is necessary to one who is travelling through all sorts of places, when a slip or a fall with a care- lessly held gun might cripple him for life, by an accidental discharge. While passing through thick bushes, always carry the gun under the arm, as this prevents its accidental dis- THE ART OF COLLECTING BIRDS. 2 charge by the bushes catching the trigger or hammer. Never allow the muzzle of the gun to point at any one, even for an instant. All these things depend upon habit, and will cause a thoughtful man, who has handled a gun for a long time, to be much more careful than a person who seldom takes one in his hands. The thoughtful man prefers rather to avoid accidents to himself and others— by care in advance —than to risk the chance of having to mourn his carelessness afterwards. The various devices for snaring birds are undoubtedly the best ways to secure them without injuring their plumage. But the collector will have to rely mainly upon his gun; and by following the above instruction regarding the light charges, he will find that he will generally kill a bird without injuring its plumage seriously. If he carefully attends to it afterward in the way described, he will save himself much trouble when he wishes to preserve it. In an old French cook-book may be found a receipt for a rabbit-stew, commencing with, “ First, catch your rabbit,” etc., —which rule is applicable to the collector. First, study with attention the art of collecting. Many and long have been the lessons in collecting that I have taken in long tramps through sunshine and storm, in the bracing air among the mountains of Northern Maine and New Hampshire, on sandy islands and rocky shores, amid the luxuriant forests and along the rivers and lagoons of semi-tropical Florida. Hours of danger and perplexity have been mingled with days of inexpressible pleasure, which all must experience who study from the Great Book of Nature. Not easily, then, I may add, have I learned what I am trying to im- part to others in these pages. Since writing the preceding, I have been informed by my friend, Mr. W. Brewster, of Cambridge, that in collect- ing such small birds as the Warblers, Sparrows, Wrens, etc., he has used a “‘blow-gun” to great advantage, constructed 1* 10 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. somewhat after the pattern of the celebrated instrument that is used by the natives of some portions of South America to shoot poisoned arrows. His “gun” is made of pine-wood, and is about four feet anda half long; it is bored smoothly the whole length with a quarter-inch hole. For ammunition Mr. Brewster uses balls made of soft putty. These, blown at birds, will hit them hard enough to kill, if the gun be aimed rightly, which art can be acquired by practice. This is certainly the preferable way to collect small birds, as it does the plumage no harm. I would suggest, however, that a tube of thin brass be used in place of wood; if it were longer, say six feet, it would carry with greater force and more accuracy. Glass would be still better, if it could be supported by wood to prevent break- age, as it would be much smoother. The balls of putty should be made to fit moderately tight. I have never tried this method myself, but Mr. Brewster has, in a satis- factory manner, as described above. I only wait an oppor- tunity to test them myself, and trust that others will do the same. Section II. How to prepare Specimens. Instruments, Materials, etc.* —The instruments needed in preserving birds and mammals are: a pair of common pliers, Plate I. Fig. 1; a pair of cutting pliers, Fig. 2; a pair of tweezers, Fig. 3; a scalpel, Fig. 4; two brushes, —one soft, the other stiff; a flat file, and needles and thread. The materials needed are: wire of annealed iron of sizes between 26 and 10, also some very fine copper wire ; common thread, coarse and fine, also some very fine, soft thread from the cotton-factories, —this is wound on what are called “bobbins”; it is used in the manufacture of cloth,—cotton tow or hemp, and fine grass ; for the latter the long tough kind that grows in the woods is the best. * All the instruments and the wire may be procured at the hardware stores in the cities or larger towns. MATERIALS, ETC. Fig. 2 a | | Fig. 5 | Fig? Big 4 Hig6 Plate I. a 12 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. Arsenic is the best substance that can be used in preserv- ing skins, and the only one necessary. Other preparations are no better, and often much worse. Strange as it may ap- pear to some, I would say avoid especially all the so-called arsenical soaps; they are at best but filthy preparations ; beside, it is a fact to which I can bear painful testimony, that they are — especially when applied to a greasy skin — poisonous in the extreme. I have been so badly poisoned, while working upon the skins of some fat water-birds that had been preserved with arsenical soap, as to be made seriously ill, the poison having worked into the system through some small wounds or scratches on my hands. Had pure arsenic been used in preparing the skins the effect would not have been as bad, although grease and arsenic are generally a blood poison in some degree ; but when combined with ‘“ soap,” the effect — at least, as far as my experience goes —is much more injurious. Arsenic alone will sometimes poison slightly the wound with which it comes in contact, but no more than com- mon salt. There will be a slight festering and nothing more ; but, on the contrary, when combined with fat, a poison is generated that must be carefully guarded against. It sometimes works under the nails of the fingers and thumbs, while one is at work skinning (especially if the birds are fat). Rubber cots should be put upon the fingers or thumbs the instant the slightest wound is detected, whereby much pain may be avoided at a small cost. The cots alluded to can be procured of almost any druggist for ten cents each. Arsenic, however, cannot be used with too great care, as it is a deadly poison. In no case should it be left in the way of children. I have a drawer, wide, long, and shallow, in the bench at which I work upon birds, where my arsenic is kept safely, and it is always accessible. But there is probably not so much danger attending the use MATERIALS, ETC. | es: of pure dry arsenic as people generally suppose. I have been told repeatedly, by competent physicians, that the small quantity taken, either by inhalation while using it, or by numerous other accidental ways, would be beneficial, rather than injurious; but be that as it may, I have used dry arsenic constantly for ten years, and have not yet, I think, experienced any injurious effects from it. It must be remembered that I have, of course, used it carefully. When used with care, in the ordinary manner, it is un- doubtedly the safest and the best material that can be used in preparing skins for the cabinet. I have never yet had a skin decay, or attacked by moths, that was well pre- served by the use of arsenic. Arsenic is very cheap, vary- ing from five to ten cents per pound by the wholesale, and retailed at twenty-five cents by druggists, but when bought by the ounce the price is enormous. There is, however, another poison to which one is exposed while skinning animals, which cannot be too carefully guarded against, for it is much more injurious in its effects than fat ard arsenic. I speak of the animal poison that results from the first stage of decomposition. If on a warm day one skins birds from which an offensive odor arises, and a peculiar livid or purplish appearance of the skin upon the abdomen is seen, and the intestines are distended with an extremely poisonous gas, — which is the source of the offensive, sickening odor,—there is danger of be- ing poisoned. When this gas is inhaled, or penetrates the skin through the pores (which are generally open on a warm day), a powerful and highly dangerous poison is apt to be the result. In a few days numerous pimples, which are exceedingly painful, appear upon the skin of the face and other parts of the person, and upon those parts where there is a chaf- ing or rubbing become large and deep sores. There is a general languor, and, if badly poisoned, complete prostration 14 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. results; the slightest scratch upon the skin becomes a fes- tering sore. Once poisoned in this manner (and I speak from experience), one is never afterwards able to skin any animal that has become in the least putrid, without ex- periencing some of the symptoms above described. Even birds that you handled before with impunity, you cannot now skin without great care. The best remedy in this case is, as the Hibernian would say, not to get poisoned, — to avoid skinning all birds that exhibit the slightest signs of putrescence ; this is especially to be guarded against in warm weather, and in hot cli- mates, where I have seen a single hour’s work upon putrid birds nearly prove fatal to the careless individual. If you get poisoned, bathe the parts frequently in cold water ; and if chafed, sprinkle the parts, after bathing, with wheat flour. These remedies, if persisted in, will effect a cure, if not too bad; then, medical advice should be pro- cured without delay. It is Just as easy to skin fresh birds as putrid ones, and much pleasanter, and in this way the evil will be avoided. If it is necessary to skin a putrid bird, — as in the case of a rare specimen, —a good bath of the hands and face in clear, cold water will entirely prevent the poison from taking effect, provided the skinning is not protracted too long. But generally, if the bird is putrid, I would advise the collector to throw it away, and obtain others that are safer to skin. If birds and mammals are injected, by means of a small glass syringe, with a small quantity of carbolic acid at the mouth and vent, it will prevent decomposition from taking place immediately. After injecting, the mouth and vent should be plugged to prevent the acid from staining the feathers. Birds injected in this way for three successive days will continue fresh for a long time, and, if kept in a dry place, will harden completely without decomposing. MATERIALS, ETC. 15 They may afterwards be skinned, as will be described here- after. Impure carbolic acid will answer as well as the refined, and it is much cheaper. The cost of this acid is trifling, and it will often prove beneficial in preserving birds in warm weather when they cannot be skinned immediately. But I would not advise its use in preserving birds when it can possibly be avoided, as it dulls the plumage, and is offensive in its odor in con- nection with the juices of the birds while they are being skinned. It is, perhaps, needless to add that this acid is a dangerous internal poison; it also burns the skin badly when allowed to come in contact with it, but all injurious effects may be removed by applying oil to the spot. As a collector walks much, he must have something on his feet that is easy and at the same time serviceable. [ have found that in stony countries like New England the best things are canvas shoes that lace up in front, tightly about the ankles and over the instep, to prevent slipping up and down, which is the worst possible thing that could happen while on a long tramp ; the soles should be broad, so that the toes may have room enough without crowding. With such shoes I have found that I could walk farther than with anything else, and be less wearied in the end. If the feet are wet from walking in water, with canvas shoes on them they will soon dry, as the water will all run out upon walking a short time on dry ground. Anything that is water-proof will be much too heavy to travel in, besides being injurious to the feet. In sandy localities, or on marshes, or in winter when the snow covers the ground, Indian moccasons are the easiest and best things that can possibly be worn; but in stony places they are not of sufficient thickness to protect the feet from receiving injury from the hard surface, other- wise they are exceedingly easy. They are not water-proof, 16 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. so that unless the snow is frozen in winter they are of no use. These moccasons can be procured almost anywhere in Maine and New Hampshire, and sometimes in Boston. They are manufactured mostly in Canada. For clothes, perhaps the best that can be worn in summer is a suit of fine canvas of some dark color, to correspond with the foliage; in winter, white, to correspond with the snow ; in both cases the wearer is less conspicuous, and can ap- proach his game much more readily. This cloth will not wear out or tear easily, and is every way fitted for travel- ling in the woods. I would next call attention to making stands on which to put birds after they have been mounted, as one of the necessities of the cabinet. Simple stands in the form of the letter T (Plate VIII. Fig. 3, f) are generally wanted. Any carpenter can make them. Different sizes will be needed, from one with the standard two inches high with a cross-piece one inch long, to a foot standard with a six-inch cross-piece, with bottoms to match. If made of pine, these stands may be painted white, of a very pure unchanging color, in the followmg manner. Buy white zine at thirty cents per pound, and nice frozen glue at from twenty-five to thirty cents per pound ; dissolve the glue thoroughly in hot water, then strain; to a pint and a half of water use a quarter of a pound of glue, to this add one pound of zine, stir well, with the vessel that contains it in boiling water, then, with a brush, apply to the stands; put on two coats. If the paint has a yellowish cast, put in a few drops of bluing; it will change it at once. Thus you will find that you have a nice white coat of paint that will remain unchanged longer than oil colors. Any other color can be used, if preferred, in the same manner. Fancy stands are made in the following way. For mossy stands, select a wooden bottom of suitable shape and size, — those with the edges bevelled are generally used, —and MATERIALS, ETC. LF with the pliers force a piece of wire into it in the centre, then bend the wire in imitation of a branch or small tree, then wind it with hemp to give it the required shape ; additional wires may be fastened on to represent the smaller twigs. The whole is now to be covered with a coating of glue, and sprinkled with pulverized moss, or small pieces of moss are placed upon it smoothly. If the work is per- formed neatly, a perfect imitation of a little tree will be the result, upon which the bird is placed. If artificial leaves are to be used, they may be placed upon the twigs with glue. If, instead of a wire, a twig bent in the required form can be procured, and fastened to the bottom with wire, it may be covered with moss without winding with hemp. The fancy stands seen with dealers in birds are generally made of a substance called papier-maché, that is, manu- factured of paper pulp and glue as follows: Tear paper in small pieces and place it in water, let it stand over- night. Then, as it will be entirely soaked, reduce it~ to a perfect pulp, either by forcing it through a sieve or by stirring it. When reduced to a pulp, drain the water away. Dissolve a quarter of a pound of glue in a pint of water ; mix with this a pint of pulp, heat it, and stir it well; then it is ready for use. Prepare a stand as de- scribed. Mould the pulp upon it in any shape to suit the fancy. It should have the consistency of putty, in orler to work well. If it is too thin, put in more of the pulp , if too dry, more water. With this substance you can imitate almost anything in the shape of miniature trees, with hollows, knots, crooked limbs, etc. By drawing over the whole, when finished, a comb, the bark of a tree can be imitated exactly. When perfectly dry, the limbs of the tree can be painted brown in the manner described. The bottom of the stand is B 18 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. painted green, and sprinkled with a substance resembling green sand, called “smolt,” which may be procured at the painter’s; over this is sometimes sprinkled thin glass, broken fine, which is called “frosting,” and is also used by painters. Rocks can be imitated well with papier-maché. If stud- ded with small pieces of quartz the effect is heightened ; they then may be painted in imitation of granite, sand- stone, etc. The sandstone is easily imitated by sprinkling on sand before the pulp is dry. There are many other things that may be imitated with this wonderful substance, but, having given the preceding hints, I leave the reader to experiment at his leisure upon them. For the scientific cabinet I would advise the use of the plain white stands as beimg much neater. The others are only fit for ornament. One other thing is necessary. Take a thin board, and at intervals of two inches tack transversely strips of wood (Plate IV. Fig. 1); then cut a strip of paper as wide as the board, and with glue make it adhere at the top of the strips and at the middle of the intervening space, so as to form a corrugated appearance (Fig. 2). These are used im drying skins of birds. Each board should have about twelve such spaces, varying in width from two to four inches, the boards varying in width from four inches to one foot. These boards, with careful use, will last a long time. Section III. Measuring, Skinning, and Preserving Birds. — For measuring, a pair of dividers, or compasses, a steel rule, divided into hundredths of an inch, and a longer rule, divided into inches and half-inches, will be wanted. To measure the bird, proceed as follows: Place the bird upon its back upon the longer rule, with the end of the tail at the end of the rule; the neck is stretched at full length, without straining; the bill must be pointed with THE ART OF PRESERVING BIRDS. aN Ze fi ( ti bi Lay e dis a 7 es Le Pig hie ui) ay) yy 19 20 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. the rule. Record the number of inches upon a strip of paper ; if there is a fractional part of an inch, measure it with the dividers, and find how many hundredths it con- tains upon the smaller rule, and record it. This is “the length of the bird.” Stretch the wings out to the full length, with the bird still upon its back; measure these from tip to tip as “the stretch of wing.” Measure the wing from the tip to the carpel joint, or bend, with the dividers (Plate X. d), for “the leneth of the wing.” The tail is to be measured —also with the dividers—from the tip to the root for “the length of the tail.” Measure the tarsus (Plate VII. g) as “the leneth of the tarsus.” Measure the bill, from the tip of the upper mandible to the base (if the base is not well defined, as in the Ducks, measure to the feathers) ; this is “the length of bill along the culmen” (Plate III. h). Measure from the tip of the upper mandible to the gape (e) for “the length from gape”; also from the tip of the lower mandible to the angle of the gonys (s) for “the length of gonys”(c). In the Hawks, measure to the cere. The color of the eyes, feet, and bill is now observed and recorded, also the date of collection and the locality in which the bird was collected. If the bird is in worn plu- mage, the fact should be recorded, as this will affect the measurements ; also if it is moulting or in perfect plu- mage. As the records now made are only temporary, signs may be used to save time, such as X would denote an adult bird in perfect plumage, Y|———- would denote a young bird in worn plumage, YY| | would denote a young bird not a year old and moulting,—this stage in the life of the bird is called the “young-of-the-year.” By using some such signs as these much time will be saved. When the collector becomes expert at measuring, he will find that all small birds can be measured and recorded in THE ART OF PRESERVING BIRDS. Plate III. oF THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. about three minutes, and the larger ones in a little longer time. Skinning. — First, have plenty of plaster near at hand. temove the cotton from the mouth and vent, and place a fresh plug in the mouth alone. The method now about to be described is one that will apply to all birds, excepting those to be hereafter named. Place the bird upon its back; with the forefinger and thumb part the feathers on the abdomen, and a bare longi- tudinal space will be discovered, extending from the breast to the vent. With the scalpel divide the skin in the centre of this bare space, commencing at the lower part of the breast-bone, or sternum (Plate X. 0), and ending at the vent. Now peel the skin off to the right and left, and sprinkle plaster upon the exposed abdomen. Force the leg on the right side up wader the skin, at the same time drawing the skin down until the joint (p) appears; cut through this joint and draw the leg out as far as the tarsus or first joint (k); with the point of the knife sever the tendons on the lower part of the leg, then by a single scraping motion upwards they may all be removed, com- pletely baring the bone ; treat the other leg in a like man- ner, leaving both turned out as they were skinned. Place the finger under the rump near the tail, then with the scalpel cut through the backbone just in front of the coc- cygus (n) entirely through the flesh to the skin, — the finger beneath is a guide to prevent cutting the skin. This may be done very quickly after long practice, and there is no danger of severing the skin if proper care be used. Put on a fresh supply of plaster. Now grasp the end of the backbone firmly between the thumb and _ forefinger, and with the other hand pull the skin down on all sides towards the head, until the joint of the wing, where the last bone, or humerus (r), is joined to the body, appears ; sever the bones at this joint, and draw the skin down THE ART OF PRESERVING BIRDS. Zo over the neck and head. When the ears appear, with the thumb-nail remove the skin that adheres closely to the skull without breaking it, pull down to the eyes, then cut the skin off close to the eyelids, taking care not to cut or injure them; but be sure and cut close enough to remove the nictating membrane, as it will otherwise cause trouble. Skin well down to the base of the bill Re move the eye with the point of the knife by thrusting it down at the side between the eye and the socket, then with a motion upward it can be removed without breaking ; cut off enough of the back part of the skull to remove the brains easily. Proceed to skin the wings; draw them out until the forearm (Plate X. d) appears, to which the seo- ondaries are attached; with the thumb-nail detach then by pressing downward forcibly. Remove the museles and tendons — as explained on the leg — to the Joint, where the forearm joins the humerus (B), then divide, removing the humerus entirely. Now open the drawer containing the arsenic, and with a small flat piece of wood cover the skin completely with it; be sure that the cavities from which the brains and eyes were removed are filled) Take up the skin and shake it gently. The arsenic that remains adhering to it is sufficient to preserve it, provided the skin is damp enough ; if not, it may be moistened slightly. Now fill the eye-holes * with cotton, tie the wing-bones with thread, as near together as the back of the bird was broad, then turn the skin back into its former position. Smooth the feathers of the head and wings with the fingers. With a few strokes of the feather duster, holding the skin up by the bill, remove the plaster and arsenic that may be ad- hering to the feathers. If there is blood upon the feathers, it may be removed —if there is not much of it, and if it is dry — with the * By which I mean the holes occupied by the eyes in the skull. 24. THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. stiff brush by gontinuous brushing, assisted by scraping with the thumb-nail. The sex of a mammal distance between the fore-flippers.’ is easily determined without dissecting. These measure- ments are to be first recorded upon a strip of paper, as in the birds, and afterwards copied into a book, as seen on the next page. Skinning. — To skin a mammal, place it upon its back ; make a longitudinal incision in the skin over the abdo- men, extending from the root of the tail about one fourth of the length of the body. Peel down each side, as in skinning a bird, pushing forward the leg so as to expose the knee-joint; sever the leg from the body at this place, and clean the bone ; proceed in this manner with the other leg. In small animals, sever the tail as close to the body as possible, leaving the bone in; but in large animals it can generally be removed by placing two pieces of wood on each side of the bone against the skin, holding them firmly in place with one hand, and after giving a strong pull with the other the tail will slip out easily. With some animals, such as the Beaver, Muskrat, Skunk, etc., this cannot be done ; then the skin of the tail has to be opened the whole length, and the bone removed. Proceed to draw the skin AT COLLECTING AND PRESERVING MAMMALS. Arctomys monax. Nose to Tail to Hand. Skull.* &0 o eI 3 Locality.| Age. |Sex.! Date. |No. = £ e Remarks. BB NER lie BSc Gye i 8 a A =) ‘ a) S wo I i) Ge es ~ - an D A S F 5 =) r) Pa Ge Se ] ae] a 43 3 : fable x : a 4 n S A 3 cd =n sel S| q |S Saleceylieralirte ep ieSte a dla eal elie dl eae alten Meee a nee geal SP Ie coy ty Gol reyec | eae eee: ale) (ieee Veet et ec (hese 1868. Ipswich /Adult | g# | Aug. 22 58 | 150) 2.95 | 2.30 | 18.00 | 15.00 | 4.98 | 6.00 | 8.10 | 2.10 | .78 | .85 |.20; — |—|—} Light colored. Us ss g ‘ 20 | 55 | 1.57 | 2.80 | 3.45 | 15.50 | 20.15 | 4.50 | 6.75 | 2.80 | 1.85 | .92 | .75 | — | 14.50 | —| — oe ee of re g ‘¢ 13) 48 | 1.82 | 2.94 | 3.45 | 15.25 | 19.50 | 5.45 | 7.60 | 2.95 | 2.05 | .70 | .65 |.15| 9.75 |—|—| Top of head black. * This measurement is taken after the animal is skinned; the width of skull is measured on the widest part, the length on the lon- gest part. ; 48 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. down towards the head, until the forelegs appear; sever these at the knee-joint, and clean the bone as before. Draw the skin over the head, cutting off the ears close to the skull. Use caution in cutting the skin from the eyelids and in severing the lips from the skull, so as not to in- jure their outward appearance. The skull is to be detached entirely. Cover the inside of the skin well with arsenic, and, if large, rub it in well with the hand; but be sure that every part is poisoned. If there is any blood upon the hair, after the skin is turned into its former position, if it is dry, remove it with the stiff brush; if wet or very bloody, wash and dry with plaster, as explained in birds. Wind the leg-bones with sufficient hemp or cotton to supply the place of the muscles; then fill out the head, neck, and the rest of the body to their natural size. Sew up the orifice through which the body was removed neatly over and over, drawing the edges of the skin together nicely. Label the skin by sewing a bit of card-board upon one of the feet, or, if the animal is large, upon the ear, with the number of the specimen and the sex marked upon it. Clean the skull as much as possible with the scalpel ; if it is a large animal, the brains may be removed through the orifice where the spinal cord enters the skull. If this opening is not large enough to remove them, they should be left in. Roll the skull in arsenic, then label it with a number corresponding to the one upon the skin, and lay it by for future cleaning. The arsenic prevents insects from attacking it. | Place the skin, if a small one, upon its side, with the legs bent neatly ; if a large one, upon its breast, with the legs stretched out on each side, the forelegs pointing for- ward, the hind ones backward. This is what is technically called a “ mammal’s skin.” COLLECTING AND PRESERVING MAMMALS. 49 Very large animals, such as Deer or Bears, should not be filled out in this way, but placed flat. In skinning large animals, make an incision in the form of a double cross, by making a longitudinal cut between the hind legs, from the root of the tail to the breast, between the forelegs ; then a transverse cut from the knee of the foreleg down the inside of the leg to the opposite knee. The same operation is repeated upon the hind legs. Then proceed as before, only, when the skin has been removed from the flanks, the animal must be suspended to facilitate the re- moval of the rest. In skinning a mammal with horns, make a longitudinal incision from the back of the neck to the occiput, or back of the head ; then make a transverse cut across the head, commencing about four inches beyond the right horn, and ending about four inches to the left of the left horn, the cut passing close to the base of the horns, thus forming a T. Remove the skin from the body as far as the neck, which is cut at its Junction with the body. The skull, horns, and neck are drawn through the above-mentioned orifice. In skinning large animals, it is well to take the diameter of the eye before it is removed, so that an artificial one may be inserted of the same size, if the animal is to be mounted, as the eyelids shrink very much while drying. All mammals should be skinned as soon as possible after they are killed, especially small ones, as in a few hours decomposition will commence ; then the hair will come out. While skinning the legs of ruminants, such as Deer, Sheep, ete., it will be found that the skin cannot be drawn over the knee-joint ; then cut longitudinally through the skin below the knee, and after severing the bone at the hoof and knee, remove it through this incision. The in- cision should be about one fourth the length of the dis- tance from the knee to the hoof. Bats are to be skinned in the ordinary manner, remov- 3 D 5O THE NATURALIS1’S GUIDE. ing the skin even to the tip of the phalanges of the wings 5 then tie the wing-bones together, as explained in birds. Place the bat upon a flat board to dry, and pin its wings, in the proper position for flight. When dry, stitch it upon a piece of card-board. While skinning mammals, it is sometimes necessary to use plaster to absorb the blood and other juices that are apt to flow ; but if care is taken not to cut the inner skin over the abdomen it will not be needed. It is also some- times necessary to plug the mouth and nostrils, especially if blood flows from them. Section II]. Mounting Mammals. — The art of mount- ing mammals in lifelike attitudes can only be acquired by experience. Hence the learner must practise the utmost degree of patience and perseverance. As in the first chapter I earnestly advised those who would be perfect to study nature, I would here repeat that advice. And if necessary while endeavcring to mount a bird, where the feathers cover the minor defects, it is essentially much more of a necessity to study nature carefully while striv- ing to imitate the graceful attitudes and delicately formed limbs of the smaller species of mammalia, or the full rounded muscles and imposing attitudes of the larger ones ; for in mammals the thin coat of hair will tend rather to expose than hide the most minute imperfections. Perfectly stuffed specimens can only be obtained by care- ful measurements of all the parts, such as the size of the legs, body, etc. In skinning mammals to mount, it is best not to remove the skull. Open it on the occipital bone, so as to remove the brains ; clean well; cover with arsenic ; then supply the muscles removed, by using hemp wound tightly on with thread. As the skin will shrink badly if it is stuffed loosely, carefully fill out the space occupied by the mus- cles of the legs in the same manner. Cut wires for the THE WAY TO MOUNT MAMMALS. 51 feet, head, and tail, sharpen them on one end as directed in mounting birds; now roll up grass until it is not quite as large round as the body, and about one third as long. Fill the fore part of the skin with bran or cut hemp as far back as the shoulders, and place the ball of grass against this fillmg, inside the skin. Now force the wires through the soles of the feet and top of the head into this ball ; clinch them firmly. After filling the skin of the tail with bran, force the wire through the grass ball to the very end ; then clinch the opposite end in the ball by cutting off the part that protrudes and turning it in. Fill the remaining parts of the skin with bran to the natural size, and sew up the orifice carefully ; place the animal in the proper position by passing the protruding wires of the feet through holes in a board, clinching them firmly on the under side. The skin may now be moulded into shape with the hands, the hair carefully smoothed, the eyes set in the head with putty, the protruding wires cut off, and the specimen set away to dry. There are but few rules to be followed in placing animals in posi- tion, because they are almost infinite in variety. The most imperative rule applies to the positions of the legs, which are almost always the same; and it should be studied with particular care, as a slight deviation from it will impair the lifelike attitude of the specimen. The rule is: Never place the bones of the first joint (Plate IX. No. 1) and those of the second joint (2) of the hind legs in a straight fine, but always at an angle, more or less ; while the two- bones of the forelegs (3, 4) should almost always be placed in a straight line, — always when the animal is standing upon them. In imitating that peculiarly graceful attitude assumed by the squirrels while sitting upon their hind legs feeding, after imitating the curve of the back, — which not one in a hundred can do naturally, — place the joints of the hind 52 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. legs so far up, and at such an acute angle, and the jomts of the forelegs down at such an angle, that the two will almost touch. This rule should always be followed. The preceding method may be applied when mounting all animals below the size of a Newfoundland dog. Larger animals are mounted in the following manner: Fill out the space occupied by the muscles of the head and legs in the manner already described. Procure five iron rods, with a shoulder cut at each end, upon which fit a cap (Plate IX. Fig. 2, B); on the extreme end have a thread cut with a nut to fit (A), — the distance between the nut and cap should be about an inch and a half. Cut a piece of piank, an inch and a half thick, about two thirds as long and wide as the body of the mammal to be mounted ; bore five holes in it, as indicated in Fig. 1, A. Fasten one rod (8) firmly to the skull by drilling a hole through the top and placing the cap in the proper position. Screw the nut on well (14), and place the lower end of the rod in the hole in the plank prepared for it (11); fasten it firmly. Now stuff the neck out with hemp to the proper size. Drill a hole through the hoofs, or bottom of the feet, into the hollow of the bones (2, 4); force the rod (7, 7, 7, 7) up through this hole, through the stuffing of the legs, and fasten them into the plank (5, 6). Force a wire into the tail and clinch it firmly in the wood (15). By winding up grass or hemp, imitate the various sections of the body taken out, and place them in the proper positions (16), making allowance for the plank and rods. Or a better way is to take casts in plaster of the different parts and place them in the proper position. Everything must be solid, to avoid sinkings and depres- sions in the skin. In this way the student can mount an anunal of any size by increasing the size of the reds and plank. The ends of the rods must be fastened into a plank stand (10) by passing them through holes drilled WA Ys ta as es) 8 THE WAY TO MOUNT MAMMALS. Plate IX. 53 54 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. To mount a dried skin, first soak it in alum-water until it is perfectly pliable, and then mount as before. The water should not be tev strong.y impregnated with alum, or it will crystallize upon the hair. About a quarter of a pound of alum to a gallon of water are the proper propor- tions. Ifthe skull has been detached, replace it, or make an artificial one of grass or plaster to take its place. Mam- mals that have been preserved in alcohol may be skinned in the usual manner and mounted. To skin mammals for the fur alone, cut in a straight line from the inside of the knee of one hind leg to the other. Skin as before explained, only cut off the feet and detach the skull. Stretch smoothly on a thin board, with the wrong side out. The skin should be lengthened rather than widened. CHAP TE PE: COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS FOR THE CABINET, Tus interesting class of animals has for a long time engaged the attention of students, yet it is surprising how comparatively little has been written about those of Amer- ica. The almost infinite number of species still affords the young naturalist a wide field for careful investigation. In collecting insects, the instruments used are : An insect- net, made of fine muslin or of silk gauze, and stretched upon a light steel wire frame, with a light handle, about four feet long, attached ; several wide-mouthed bottles and phials filled with strong alcohol; insect-pins of the best quality, which can be procured at natural-history stores ; tweezers smaller than those used for birds (Plate I. Fig. 3); also, a small pair of pliers (Fig. 1) ; several soft-pine boards about twelve by twenty-four inches, planed perfectly smooth, will also be needed. Boxes or drawers are necessary for the reception of the dried specimens, lined with thick felting or cork to receive the point of the pin that holds the insect and keeps it upright. An excellent box lined with paper is sometimes used to advantage, a description of which may be found in the “American Naturalist,” Vol. I. p. 156. I hardly need state that a good microscope is indispensa- ble in prosecuting the stuay of insects, although it may be commenced without one. I shall take each order of insects separately, and endeavor to explain how they are collected and preserved, commencing with the Beetles, or Coleoptera.—The best way to preserve bee- tles temporarily is by putting them instantly into strong 56 THE NATURALISI’S GUIDE. alcohol; and as the collector will meet with specimens everywhere, he should never be without a phial ready for instant use. During spring and early summer thousands of minute species may be captured in the air with the net, especially just at night. During summer and autumn a great many nocturnal species may be captured near a light placed at an open window, or in the open air, Vari- ous species may be found feeding upon plants during the summer and autumn. A great many of the so-called car- rion-beetles may be taken, during the same seasons, by ex- posing the carcass of an animal. Some species inhabit decayed wood, where diligent search should be made for them, especially in the woods, under old stumps or in them. Numbers of very beautiful beetles may be found in the excrements of animals, and under them, also under stones and logs of wood ; they are found beneath the bark of trees and on sandy places, or in dusty roads. There are also a few aquatic species to be found in the water or near it. To mount large beetles, force the pin through the right wing-covert near the thorax, and place the point in the cork, with the beetle’s feet resting on it; place the feet in the attitude of life, with the antennz in the proper position, with a pin on each side of them to keep them in place until dry. If the wings are to be extended, place the beetle on the pin as described; then, with an awl, bore a hole in the pine board ; lay the insect upon its back, with the head of the pin in the hole ; now open the wing-coverts, and spread the wings; over the latter lay a piece of card-board, and fasten it by placing pins through it into the wood on each side. The wing-cov- erts should not be fastened with a card, as it will flatten them. When dry, remove the card, and the wings will retain their position, when the beetle can be put in the proper position in the insect-box. Smaller beetles, less than an eighth of an inch long, BUGS, OR HEMIPTERA. 57 should be fastened to a piece of mica or to a round bit of card-board with a little gum-arabic, and the pin placed through the mica or card, or they may be transfixed with very fine silver wire; this wire must then be inserted in a bit of cork, through which the common insect-pin is placed. Beetles that are collected in remote countries should always be transported in alcohol. When they are to re- main long in alcohol it should be changed once, then they will keep for years uninjured. After they have been in alcohol for two or three weeks there is no need of its covering them, as a little in the bottom of the bottle will keep them sufficiently moist; but they should never be allowed to dry. Beetles may be preserved in a weak solution of carbolic acid as readily as in alcohol. This has the additional ad- vantage of preserving the specimens that have been im- mersed in it from the ravages of noxious insects for some time. Glycerine can be used to advantage in preserving beetles that have delicate colors which fade in alcohol ; but they cannot be pinned without cleansing. Bugs, or Hemiptera, may be found generally upon plants. The common thistle (Cirstwm lanceolatum) furnishes a pas- ture for several species. Numerous representatives of this order may be found on low bushes, and in the grass during summer and autumn. At least one species may be found in cheap boarding-houses during the midnight hours. The almost endless variety of Plant Lice come under this head, and may be taken everywhere on plants during summer and autumn. These insects, like the beetle, are first immersed in alcohol, and afterwards placed upon pins, with the legs arranged in natural positions, and the peculiar sucking- tube, with which they are all provided, brought well for- ward so as to be more easily examined. The numerous 3* 58 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. aquatic species may be secured with a net ; they should be carefully handled, however, to avoid the sharp sting, or piercer, with which some of them are armed. Grasshoppers, Crickets, ete., or Orthoptera. —- Members of this order may be found everywhere, — the grasshoppers in the open fields and woods, where they may be caught in nets. The best way to kill them is to prick them on the under side of the thorax with the point of a quill that has been dipped in a solution of oxalic acid. If they are not to be mounted instantly, wrap them in paper. Crickets may be found in the ground in holes or burrows, under stones, and in the grass ; a few species may be taken on the leaves of trees or bushes; some species of the well- known Cockroach may be found in houses, and some under stones and beneath the bark of trees. All of the above may be mounted by placing the pin through the thorax, and arranging the legs as before de- scribed. The wings are also extended in the same man- ner as the beetles’, with the exception of the wing-coverts, which are fastened with cards like the wings. Walking-Sticks are found on low bushes or on trees, some- times upon the ground. They are to be put into alcohol to kill them, then mounted like the beetles. These in- sects, when dry, require delicate manipulation while being moved, as they are very fragile. When the colors of the Orthoptera are to be preserved perfectly, place them in pure glycerine. This is especially necessary in preserving the larvee of grasshoppers. Grasshoppers may be put into alcohol if convenient, but it must be very strong. This method will generally change the colors completely. Cock- roaches and crickets should always be killed by placing them in strong alcohol. Moths and Butterflies, or Lepidoptera. — All butterflies are diurnal, and are generally caught with the net. They may be killed by pinching the body just below the wings, MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES, OR LEPIDOPTERA. 59 or by pricking between the forelegs with the quill and oxalic acid used in killing grasshoppers. If they are not to be mounted instantly, they should be packed in pieces of paper doubled in a triangular shape, with the edges folded. Butterflies may be reared from the egg by capturing the impregnated female and confining her in a box pierced with holes to allow fresh air to enter. In this box she will deposit her eggs ; these are allowed to hatch, and the larve fed upon the leaves that they natu- rally subsist upon. When sufficient time has expired they will cease to feed, and form a pupa or chrysalis, and either in a few weeks or the ensuing year come forth perfect insects, when they should be instantly killed. In this man- ner the collector will be able to secure fine specimens. Although some few of the moths are diurnal in their habits, the greater part are strictly nocturnal. But they may be skinned in the follow- ing manner: Open the mouth as wide as possible, and cut through the bone of the neck or back from the inside; do not cut the skin; then separate the flesh on the inside all around. Take hold with the thumb and forefinger, or with a pair of pliers, of the backbone, and press the skin downwards, and draw the body out. When the forelegs appear, cut the bone and flesh off to the toe-nails, and pro- ceed to perform the same operation with the hind legs. Cover the skin with arsenic, and turn it back, —the legs may be easily turned by blowing into them with the breath. Fill the body with bran, and support the head in a natural position with cotton until dry. Remove the eyes from the outside, and supply their place with artificial REPTILES. 67 ones, but be sure to place them in the proper position. To place a frog or toad in a fancy attitude, place a ball of gracs in the body, and wire the legs as described in small mammals. The best time to collect toads and frogs is during the breeding-season in spring. ) The salamanders may be found under stones and logs in damp places ; also some species in springs and clear running brooks, under stones. (_ They must be placed in alcohol at once. Lizards and alligators may be skinned in the following manner: Make an incision the whole length of the belly, and skin as described in mammals, leaving the skull in. Do not try to remove the skin from the top of the head, as it will be likely to tear. The leg-bones should be cleaned and left in. The reptile is then mounted in the same manner as a mammal. Lizards and small alligators may be put in alcohol. (The eggs of frogs and of salamanders may be preserved in alcohol. ) The eggs of lizards, alligators, and turtles may be blown in the same manner as birds’ eggs ; but it is well to place some in alcohol if they are in an advanced state of incubation, as they will serve to illustrate the growth of the embryo. { But the egg must be broken slightly to admit the alcohol to the embryo. ) Last winter I accidentally made a discovery relative to the preservation of fish and reptiles. While travelling in Florida, I accidentally lost some alcohol. Being unable to replace it, and having some reptiles to preserve, I put about an ounce of carbolic acid into a glass jar, with half a pound of arsenic ; to this I added a quart of water, — I will here remark that the waters of Florida are strongly impregnated with lime. Into this composition I put some reptiles and a few young mammals. After two weeks, the jar was packed with others in a box, and sent North by express. 68 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. Upon arriving home, and opening the box, I found that the jar had become broken, and the liquid had escaped. The smaller reptiles, etc. I placed in alcohol; but a rep- tile known as the ‘Glass Snake” and a young Rabbit were left out for want of room, set away and forgotten. Upon looking them up about a month afterwards, I found, to my surprise, that the “snake” had dried completely without shrinking in the least, and, moreover, it retained all the peculiar glossiness of life! The Rabbit had not shrunk any more than if it had been in strong alcohol. Such is the result of an accident. Whether this discov- ery will prove of general practical use in preserving reptiles is yet to be proven. CHAP hav. MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS. Section I. Crustacea. — But few of these interesting objects of natural history live away from the salt water. The Crawfishes and a few others form the exceptions to the rule. All Lobsters, Crabs, Shrimps, and Crawfishes may be preserved dry. Wash them in fresh water, and, if the specimen is large, remove the flesh as much as possible by lifting the shield, or upper part of the shell. The specimens should be placed in as natural an attitude as possible to dry. When dry they should be handled with care, as they break easily. If arsenic is put into the body, it will help to preserve it and keep away noxious insects. Small Crabs, Shrimps, etc. should be injected with car- bolic acid and dried carefully. Never place a specimen in the sun to dry, but always in a draught of air in the shade. A great many kinds of Shrimps or Sand-Fleas may be col- lected from under sea-weeds on sandy beaches. Collecting Mollusks. — Many shells may be collected on the sea-shore among the rocks at low tide. Some of the more minute species may be found clinging to the sea-weed that grows on the rocks. These require delicate manipulation, as they are very fragile; they are best re- moved with the tweezers, and should be placed in wide- mouthed bottles containing alcohol. Some species of cone- shaped, univalve shells may be found clinging closely to the rocks. They should be seized suddenly with the hand, and, before the animal has time to contract itself, — which it will do very quickly, and then it adheres so closely as 70 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. to render its separation from the rock without injuring the shell extremely difficult, —removed with a sliding motion. Many species may be found buried in the mud and sand below high-water mark. The exact locality where these are hidden may be determined by searching for their breathing-holes on the surface of the mud or sand ; then, by carefully removing a few inches of the soil, the shell may be detected. Numerous species may be taken in’ deep water by dredging, or with a rake, such as is used in gathering oysters, etc. A great many shells may be procured just as they are cast on shore from the action of the waves; these must be washed in fresh water and dried. The different species of smaller fresh-water shells may be found upon rocks, aquatic plants, and on the surface of the mud. They should be placed in alcohol. The larger species — such as the mussels —may be taken by dredging. Numerous shells of mussels may be found at the entrances of the holes of the muskrats ; of these the collector may take his choice, as many of them are in excellent condition for the cabinet. The land shells, or snails, may be taken from the differ- ent plants upon which they feed, or from under stones or logs, especially in damp places. The smaller species should be carefully removed with tweezers, as they are very fragile, and placed in alcohol. Preserving Shells. —It is well to preserve in alcohol numbers of all species of shells containing the animal. To remove the contents from shells that are to be dried for the cabinet, boil them a few moments, and clean them with a bent pin or wire. The contents of the different species of bivalves may be removed with a knife without boiling, as by this method the shell retains its color much better. The bivalves should have their shells closed and MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS. T1 tied until dry. If the shells of mussels have a chalky ap- pearance, it may be removed by immersing the specimen for a few moments in a bath of diluted muriatic acid. All shells should be carefully washed in fresh water with a tooth-brush. Never varnish a shell; it shows bad taste to try to im- prove upon nature in this way, besides injuring the speci- men for scientific use. As some of the more fragile land shells are liable to crack when drying, it is well to apply a slight coating of gum-arabic dissolved in water. This at some future time may be easily removed. There are also some species from which the epidermis is liable to peel ; to prevent this, Mr. F. W. Putnam informs me that they should be immersed in oil for a short time. Worms. — Marine worms may be found in the sand or mud.and under stones. They should be kept in strong alcohol. Earthworms, Leeches, etc. must also be kept in alcohol. Many species of marine worms may be found in the hulls of ships, or in wood that has been immersed in salt water for some time. Animal Parasites. — Recently in this country, and for some time in Europe, attention has been directed by emi- nent naturalists to the parasites found on birds and other animals, and in their intestines. These should be placed in alcohol. The parasites from each bird or animal should be kept separate, in small phials, with the name of the bird or animal from which it was taken attached, also the date and locality. The Jelly-Fishes may be found in deep water or near the shore in countless numbers. There are a great many spe- cies. They may be preserved in the following manner: After catching them in a bucket, pour off the water, and add strong alcohol, a little at a time. The animal will give out water continually during this operation, and alcohol 72 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. should be added until it dies, when the water will cease flowing. It should then be removed from this solution and placed in strong alcohol, where it must be kept permanently. Corals — which generally grow at some distance from the shore, and sometimes in deep water — should be se- cured with nets. They must first be washed in fresh water, then dried in the shade. It is also desirable to preserve specimens in alcohol. Sea-Anemones are found attached to the rocks or buried in the mud; they should be plunged in strong alcohol when fully expanded, but the alcohol should afterwards be changed, as they give out large quantities of water. Hydroids and Bryozoa. — Incrustations on the rocks, sea- weeds, and delicate tufts found growing on rocks, etc., are called by these names. ‘They may be dried or pre- served in alcohol like the Corals. Star-Fishes may be found among the rocks at low tide. They should be killed by immersing in alcohol or fresh water. Some species should be preserved in alcohol, where they should be placed in as natural attitudes as possi- ble, as when they become rigid it is impossible to alter the position of the arms. They may be dried i the shade by placing them in natural positions upon a board. When dead, they should be dried instantly, as they will decompose in a few hours if kept in a damp place. Sea-Urchins may be taken in rocky pools at low water. They may also be found under the sand on beaches, from which they are frequently washed by the waves. They may be preserved in alcohol, or dried like the Star-Fishes. Holothurias, or Sea-Cucumbers, are found on flats or under stones. They must be preserved in alcohol. Sponges and Seaweeds should be dried ina draught. Very pretty ornaments are made of the sea-mosses by washing them in fresh water, and spreading upon dampened paper PREPARING SKELETONS. 7 ey) with a fine needle; the glutinous matter contained in the plants will cause them to adhere so firmly to the paper when dried and pressed as to look like a very fine engray- ing or painting. When a collection of these are executed by a skilful and artistic hand, and bound in a book, they form a beautiful and interesting volume.* Section If. Preparing Skeletons. —I will give the meth- ods by which bones may be cleaned. To clean the bones of large animals, first take off as much of the flesh as is possible with a knife ; then put them in slatted boxes, and place the boxes in a running stream, or between tide-marks on the sea-shore. The boxes, being open, will allow the entrance of Shrimps, other aquatic animals, and_ insects, who will devour the meat, while the water, having free passage through, will perform its part. When well cleaned, wash them in warm soap-suds, and, after rinsing, dry in the sun and air; this will tend to bleach them. The bones of smaller animals may also be cleansed in this manner ; but the better way is either to boil them until the flesh comes off easily, or to put them into water that has been impregnated with chloride of lime; in both cases the bones will have to be cleaned afterwards with a knife and a stiff brush; they should be scraped as little as possible. If kept in a dry place, exposed to the action of the air, the bones will bleach constantly. Mounting Skeletons. —To mount the skeleton of a bird, place a wire through the hole occupied by the spinal cord, and fasten it in the skull; this will hold the vertebra of * As there is not a general interest manifested in the objects alluded to in this section, I have given but few directions for collecting and preserv- ing them, but such as will, perhaps, satisfy the general collector. Those who are particularly interested in them will find in the pages of the vari- ous numbers of the ‘‘ American Naturalist’? more particular directions for collecting and preserving each branch of this truly interesting class of animals, written by the most competent and well-informed men in our country | 74 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. the neck and tail, and other bones of the back, in position, Next, force a wire through the hollows in the bones of the tarsi, tibia, and hips (Plate X. k, y, j) by drilling a hole through each end; now fasten this wire to the broad bone that covers the back (m), by drilling a hole through on each side and bending the wire down firmly (x), first over then under the bone, where it meets the end of the oppo- site wire; twist the ends together. The wing, breast, and other bones are now fastened on by drilling holes trans- versely through the ends and running wires through and twisting them (r, d). The skeletons of mammals, fishes, etc. are mounted in much the same manner. If large, they are supported on iron rods. ‘The wire used must be composed of brass or copper, as iron corrodes easily. The fleshy or cartilaginous parts of the feet should be removed, but not the outer or horny portion of the bill. PREPARING SKELETONS. Plate X. CHAP TE vo. COLLECTINS AND PRESERVING EGGS, No portion of natural history has received more atten- tion than the science of Odlogy ; yet in very many cases collections of eggs are made in such a careless manner as to render them worthless, except as ornaments, on account of the collector’s not paying sufficient attention to edentifi- cation and authentication. Let identification, then, be the collector’s first care ; let him make it a rule never to take an egg or nest until he can surely tell to what species it belongs. The best method of learning the name of the owner of the nest is to shoot her, especially by collectors who have had but little experience in studying birds; while the more practised ornithologist can generally tell at a glance, if the bird is large, what it is. While collecting the eggs of the War- blers and other small birds, the most experienced odlogist should never neglect to shoot the bird, even if he has to watch for it a long time. Nests and eggs should never be labelled on the author- ity of a person who has found them, and only seen the birds, but who is in a comparative degree unacquainted with them. The nest should be seen zz stu, and the bird identified. I have known a great many errors to arise from this source. Commence early in spring to look for the nests of the rapacious birds, and continue the search for these and other nests until late in summer. I know of no rule to be followed in finding nests. Search long and diligently in every locality frequented by birds; and watch them while COLLECTING AND PRESERVING EGGS. CE building. Place straw, hay, cotton, hemp, or any of the materials that birds use in constructing their nests, in an exposed situation in a swamp or wood, then by watch- ing the birds when they come to take it, and following them, many nests will be found that would otherwise escape notice. To remove the contents of an egg, drill a small hole in one side with a drill made for this purpose (Plate I. Figs. 5, 6); two sizes of these drills will be required. Now, with the blow-pipe —of which two sizes are also needed, (Fig. 7)— applied to the lips, force a small stream of air into the hole; this will cause the contents, if fresh, to escape at the cne hole. To prevent breakage while drill- ing the eges of the Humming-Birds, or other small birds, it is well to cover the outer surface with thin paper, gummed securely on, and dried. To remove the contents of an egg that has the embryo partially developed, drill as before, only a larger hole is necessary ; then with a small hook (Fig. 8) remove the embryo in small pieces; after which introduce water with the blow-pipe to rinse the interior of the egg. If the con- tents are allowed to remain in a few days, it will facilitate their removal. If the ege is covered with paper, as in the case of the Humming-Birds, the edges of the hole will be less able to be injured by the shell being broken while using the hook. Never make holes at the end of the egg, or on opposite sides , but if this old method is still preferred, they should both be made on one side, with the larger one nearest the greater end. The best method that I know of for authenticating eggs is the following: After the egg is blown, place a number, written with ink, upon it, corresponding with one placed in the nest, then draw a line beneath it; under this line 29 place the number of the egg in the nest: thus ? would 78 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. mean that the nest is No. 29, and the egg is the No. 4 of that nest; both of these numbers will refer to a book, where all the particulars of the finding of the nest, the locality, measurements of the nest, eggs, etc. in inches, are recorded. The method of preparing a book like that referred to above may be seen in the following specimen : — 6 te Z, fo . = to mn —° a oss of oSP I 23o8 ra ee BS = Ree ovo a gAx = Oe qi ade _ 3 Yes} 2 os 7 ES = Oo = Oo S eH mS = oe Be OLS 2 Bas S = © tt ess = ® ad ce) x s op a SS “ : sS = | E g 4 nm =) Q, = © Ss Bm Oo a Ea nN ne cs S = ° Cont ~ 5 ® o ° = — a eke No) m mrs i~ I~ au mi CON fe rt ae Yen) ie} an) pee ri re oOo © ie aon oe a 1D. ON mon re fo} om to a . oO be] om a Zz a OE — COLLECTING AND PRESERVING EGGS. 79 The measurements of an egg are taken with the dividers in hundredths of an inch. The number is attached to the nest. Nests, if composed of loose materials, must be kept in boxes, separated from each other ; if lined with feathers, benzine should frequently be applied, to prevent their being attacked by moths. Ach tel i. CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS OF EASTERN MASSACHUSETTS, WITH NOTES RELATIVE TO THEIR MIGRATION, HABITS, ETC., ETC., ETO. 4% Aol WE: ENERO DWC. ELON, OrNITHOLOGISTS of the present day are much indebted to the earnest and enthusiastic men who studied the habits of our birds in years past ; but truthful and careful though they may have been, being but men, they were fallible. As this is an age of advancement, it behooves us of the present day, while we are in a measure guided by these teachings, not to be biased by their conclusions, that we may detect the errors which they unconsciously committed. If, while endeavoring to correct some deeply seated error of the past, we disagree with our brother ornithologists, let us, with the spirit of the true naturalist, who would advance the study of Natural History, bring infallible proofs of its being an error, thereby convincing without offending. If in the following pages I unwittingly make mistakes, I am ready to be convinced by sufficient proof. In separating birds into species, too much dependence has been placed upon exceedingly variable characters as valid specific distinctions. For instance, the bill, although in the main retaining its shape, is sometimes subject to wide differences; this is well illustrated in the Terns, where they are extremely changeable in the length and curve of the culmen; they also vary in coloration; yet in determining species, these points are now, and always have been, considered of value. The comparative length of the quills is another very 84 INTRODUCTION. inconstant character, and in but few cases can it be de: pended upon. This has been used as a distinguishing mark in separating some of the smaller Flycatchers. I have tested it, and found it to be valueless, as there is no rule relative to age or sex by which this is governed. Again, intensity and paleness of color have been almost unanimously considered of specific value. Indeed, some species have been formed wholly upon this peculiarity! (Witness Z’urdus Alicie.) Spots and bars on the wings, and streaks on the rump, are characters changing with age and season, and should never be depended upon. Another thing is the difference in size; any one who has collected, and carefully measured, birds of one species from one locality, in any numbers, will at once be con- vinced of the absurdity of paying any attention to this particular in determining specific characters.