~f a 2A cs ‘a oss Pe pes S; eee a hae J ete hoe 2 ee PPS 0 lana ees a hata ae - 7; 12 3 Fanless : ~ SEs ed : RM ent Seal px = A%s se Ee 25 mage — : reg Ly — wee A \ We = = GZ = NS = N = So = 2 ie W = ” a Tas S SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI NVINOSHLINS S31YY S A 4 NAR RARIES SMITHSO? -RARIES IN.LILSNI YY LNLILSNI ~Z y. fw y the J WAZ ! NVINOSHLINS S3IYVYSITLIBRARIE NI FARAEASA William Healey Dall NIN = = ee Toi 3 Division of Mollusks [ee = Sectional Library ee = | a S SS 2 Ss ial So | MP er. u : Fe >, ISEB ECR EREE SEG & — Y, Th _> _— - ° N!I_NVINOSHLINS S3!IYWYSIT_LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTIT 4 ems = a= x = < xs JAZ A wel sy s NS =f = WS es T ZA. 0 XY. S&S Sy NO : BGI BNR 2 aN = = “iy = NK = = \ = > “ar = “ > Ss 7) Zz 7) Bot ae a =$ SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI NVINOSHLINS S314) w S on S Lae “) uJ li OX os tul a a = ee a i) <3 = < = ANN z J ce = 0 Ss AY 5 = 3 z a iS aig — am S ax§ NI NVINOSHLIWS —S31YVUGI7 LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTIT ~~ OA eit) PERO callllieg Vegi pede SMITHSON: NVINOSHLI| \s | a SMITHSON Yr, GU y NVINOSHL Y/; : ABRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI NYINOSHLIV \ ey BK X\ SMITHSONIA LIBRARIES LIBRARIES se INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI JOLLNLILSNI NVINOSHLINS S3I¥vVudIT LIBRARIES 5 2 NY SX AS INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI saiuvad f Salyvygit IBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI_ NVINOSHLIV NVINOSHLIWS SMITHSONIAN NYINOSHLIWS SMITHSONIAN NVINOSHLINS S3IhYVYSIT LIBRARIES SMITHSONIA = 4s 3 an “ 2 = = YY c .< c < « = . ABRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOMLNLILSNIT 5 = S = ‘Ee i = a = = = Ee A = = | a = se 2 m 2 m — — wo ‘s NOILALILSNI nos tuVvyg Hu BRARI ES |, SMITHSON, < = <2 es «= é 4 z= oO 3 iy = oO = 2G E Z a 2 | a » 2 LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOILNLILSNI NVINOSHLI n” = 7) _ = Y a a @ ad & ‘ eg Agh a = o a. = GH = < 4 % a Gy, oe ox = a Y% ro] S = a=J Fn ae a Xx NOILALILSNI _NVINOSHLINS 33 }YVug i Ba LIBRARI ES_ SMITHSONI. 1 Sa ae Oo .oamTNlUlUmUlUCOOON.U COO ee ca A i i 5 Naat, ne io we a i i ' ay) i, ae 5a Ye an : a vail Le ‘ OA Pr ' Nene Mi a Pi ' ‘i a iy ny Wy i Division of Mp ae Thusk wectonal library 9 THE Naturalists Pocket-Book, OR TOURIST’S COMPANION, BEING A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO THE DIFFERENT BRANCHES OF Natural Pistory, WITH APPROVED METHODS FOR COLLECTING ann PRESERVING The Various Producteons of Nature. By GEORGE GRAVES, F.L.S. Author of BRITISH ORNITHOLOGY, OVARIUM BRITANNICUM, And Editor of the New Edition of CURTIS'S FLORA LONDINENSIS. London: . PRINTED BY W. anv S. GRAVES, And Sold by SHERWOOD, NEELY AND JONES, PAYTERNOSTRR ROW. . ’ +S ae rs AGT ES; sa, iG APR 14 194 : “gt Rh? Ma ie ae Do: da must: had Preface, a T HE want of practical instructions for obtaining and preserving the various productions of Nature has long prevailed, and in endeavouring to supply this desidera- tum, the Author has been anxious to combine amusing and instructive information, with the results of practical experience, without encreasing the bulk of this volume beyond that of a Pocket Book, and at the same time form acompcndious introduction to each branch of Natural History. In performing this task, he has prefixed a general outline of the characters of each Class and Order, with the essential or generic characters of the different fami- lies ; generally accompanied with a bricf sketch of the habits, a@conomy, places of resort, food, and probable modes of procuring the various species ; for the gencric characters he is principally indebted to Authors who have written on the respective branches of the Science, having in most cases only rendered the original in more familiar language, avoiding as much as possible all technical phrases ; and where these are unavoidable, he trusts the © accompanying Plates will render them intelligible ; as well as more completely fix on the memory of the Stu- dent the peculiar forms of the genera delineated. 1V. PREFACE. The Instructions for obtaining and preserving the various subjects, will, he presumes, be found casily reduced to practice, and particularly adapted for the use of those, whose business or pleasures may lead them to make excursions in our own, or to visit foreign countries ; to promote the application of the leisure of such persons, to the useful and rational study of the Wonders of the Creation, and to enable them to preserve and transport the proceeds of their studies, with a probability of their arriving in good condition, are the principal designs of the following pages. Fully impressed with a conviction, that however con- versant any person may be with the various branches of this Science, yet, that a long life studiously devoted to any one branch, will not command perfection, but much wll be left for future enquirers. The Author will thankfully receive any communica- lion on the subject of preserving any particular branch of the study, differing from those herein recommended, more especially from persons who have-devoted their attention to any one science, as such are more likely to obtain perfection, than others, whose pursuits are more general. . In submitting this little Volume to the Scientific Reader, the Author solicits his indulgence, it having been written during the few hours of leisure, afforded by _a laborious profession, which he hopes will be accepted as an apology for such errors as may have occurred. Welworth, June, 1817. Contents. LNTRODUCTION. Seahine eee iet eo co%e & le aioe eke eacuale esis a. 6/0 as 1 ZOOLOGY. Introduction to the Mammalia....... atts aie ed BAS Enumeration of the characters of the genera composing the. 1st. Order, Primates. sleet: teres 2 oS Sage. 2) TS Enumeration of the characters of the 2nd Order, Brute. 21 — — — 3rd Order, Fere.. 25 — — o Ath Order, Glires. 30 — — -~ 5th Order; Pecora 35 a — — 6th Order, Bellule 39 — — — 7th Order, Cete... 42 Instructions for preserving the foregoing............ 43 Table of particulars, to be attended to in eee any new species of Quadrupeds.............-- ges Mah halla i Introduction to Birds........ 9h SOAR e Se oles sic ame Enumeration of the characters of the genera composing the Ist Order, Accipitres............ owes deislyc. OF Enumeration of the characters of the genera in the Orden 2, Picea. dadayint 7, Agua zeta: 69 ae ems — Order 3, Passeres.. 84 _ — — Order 4, Columbine. 95 — ao — Order 5, Galline .. 96 — Order 6, Struthiones 101 “— — —- Order 7, Grallz.... 103 —- — -- Order 8,Pinnatipedes 112 — — — Order 9, Paimapedes 114 — — Vi. CONTENTS, General ‘outlingofthabits, So). 4 ties, . aul oeelc 4 Instructions relative to Nests and Eggs.........+ eee. 127 Ditto for skinning, stuffing, and preserving Birds..... 136 Table of particulars to be observed relative to any new Species Of Birds se cee «6 cle Pelé oleie eon ehieacie shag Introduction to the Amphibea.............0 2.000008 13 Enumeration of the characters in Order 1, Reptilia.... 141 Introduction to Order 2, Serpentes............0.200. 146 Enumeration of the characters of ditto.............. 148 Anecdote’ of the Slow-Worm.. ........cccncccs cece 150 Instructions for the preserving of the Animals in this CIMASE Sic Sine gate tale a elem 'ele sliclete otdtais e etsle eels ela ier) 152 Anecdote of a species of Boa..... Ss aeeniee Ri Soe 154 Table of particulars to be observed on procuring any new species of Amphibea.......... aE ase ae 159 Introduction to Fishes.............0.4. emuien cee LOO Enumeration of the characters of the genera in Order 1, PR QGMHE's sion nee aie oes aicisled Keer salsa ee shaw am Ae O4 we == — in Order 2, Jugulares 167 Rot — — in Order 3, Thoraci 169 Bae ee — in Order 4, Abdo- minales....... Sis cic: a: clelelieie sieiriavele afetate Gre ae ano Enumeration of the characters of the genera in the Branchiostegous Order.......2+.+ecee. coseces 179 Instructions for procuring and preserving Fishes...... 183 Table of particulars to be observed in procuring any MOW SPECICSeccseeices sc view oss Soe ot iae 186 Introduction to the class Insecta.......eeseeeeeseee . 187 Anecdote of the Common Dragon Fly.............0. 193 Enumeration of the characters of the genera composing the Coleopterous Order.... 2... 0-0 cece eneces 197 ee a — Hemipterous Order. 206 CONTENTS. Vil. Enumeration of the characters of the genera composing the Lepidopterous Order ......----e+++-: wibloree Le — = — Neuropterous Order .. 212 —_ == — Hymenopterous Order 215 —_ — — Dipterous Order...... 219 —_ os — Apterous Order ...... 222 Methods of collecting and rearing Insects ........-. 227 Methods of procuring and preserving Coleopterous Hasects) . citeis o<'-1+(n\ctetere alslel ofets chslole' eter 255 Enumeration of the genera of Zoophytes....... ae oo at — a PIMOS OTIB ci» 16 else inreiors tes 269 Instructions for preserving the Animals in the first and second Orders of the Class Vermes ............ 271 Instructions for obtaining, cleansing, polishing, and preserving Shells........ fers siialeis Maun iolsieie.s sie! ae « 272 — — —_ Zoophytes ..... cooee 276 vill. CONTENTS: y BOTANY. ; Edttodnction.q Botany... iraeetk ea Stal a bigus.ae 278 Classes antl-Ordersssta si... states Cele Greve oceans sisca.ak OO Description of the component parts of Flowers...... 287 Instructions for packing Seeds ...... ap Tea kes, oc coos 290 Of the uses to which the various Vegetable productions of other countries are applicable ............-. 291 Instructions for packing Plants, Bulbs, &c. ......... 293 Instructions for drying Plants..... eh ite oie 295 Method of preserving Fungi, &c. in Spirits.......... 296 Instructions for preventing the attacks of Insects..... 297 Particulars tu be attended to in drawing or describing Plants ... Botanical Nicnoranaunie As sci Sk ss os ars BS se OT — = —~ ee ed stances . MISCELLANEOUS ... MINERALOGY. Introduction to Mineralogy ....... Bers) aM ajahe ahve my coe Enumeration of Earthy Minerals............+-0+++ 303 Alkaline Minerals ....e..seceeeses. 306 Mc alS crtpalstas =) a,0,.© pialvelsln Cuglawe.ehe-a\nle (eaele Combustible Minerals ..........+.-. 318 Instructions for procuring and preserving Mineral sub- © eeee@recveee eer Geet es toe eeve ees ays ERRATA. Page 46, line 18, 95, 19 203, —— 17 210, —— 14 211, —— 20 218, —— 28 228, —— 1 — 8 229, —— 10 230. 233, —— 1 for [EPP eS let sialal name, read mane. Pincren, read PipGEON. Bupertis, read Buprestis. Cocous, read Coccus. Phalene, read Phalene. Formicula, read Fomica. Lipedopterous, read Lepidopterous. Lipedoptera, read Lepidoptera. Lipedoptera, read Lepidoptera. Lipedopterous, read Lepidopterous. Ditte, zead Ditto. Hafitee HN i v ia it Bi 5 ys 4, f x a i; PY a & Geo: Graves, Sure L817. | PLATE I. Fig. 1.—A Hooked Bill, as in the genus Falco. Cere,a bare soft skin at the base of the Bill, fig. 15. Fig. 2.—A Serrated or Notched Bill, as in the genus Ramphastos. Fig. 3.—A Cultrated Bill, asin the genus Corvus. Reflected Vibrisse, fig. 16. ‘Fig. 4.—A Cuneated or Wedge-shaped Bill, as in the genus Picus. A cylindrical extensile tongue, 17. Fig. 5.—A Curvated Bill. An erected Crest, fig. 18. Fig. 6.— Nostrils covered by or contained in a tube, as in the. genus Procellaria. Fig. 7.—A Strait, compressed, cultrated Bill. Lore a bare skin surrounded the eyes, fig. 20. Projecting edge of the upper mandible, by means of which, the Birds whose Bills are thus constructed, cut their food as with scissors, fig. 24. Fig. 8A Hooked notched Bill, asin the genus Lanius; the notch, fig. 21. Fig. 9.—A Recurved Bill, as in the genus Recurvirostra. Fig. 10.—A Grooved Bill, asin the genus Alca. - Fig. 11.—-A Spoon-shaped Bill, as in the genus Platalea. Nail at the tip of the Bill, fig. 22. Fig. 12.—A compressed Bill, as in Geese. Fig. 13.—A depressed Bill, as in Ducks. Fig. 14.—A Serrated or Toothed Bill, as in the genus Mergus. a PLATE Il, Fig. 1.—A Foot formed for walking and perching, | claws, retractile ; as in the genus Falco. . Fig. 2.—A Foot formed for walking and perching, claws not retractile, as in the Gallinaceous tribe. Fig. 3.—A climbing foot, as in the genera Picus, Cuculus, &c. Fig. 4.—A walking foot, as in the genus Corvus. Fig. 5.—Foot of the King-Fisher, shewing the situation and connection of the Toes. Fig. 6.—A Spurred leg, as in the genus Phasianus. Fig. 7.—A leg bare above the knee, as in all the Waders. Fig. 8.—A Semi-palmated Foot, as in the genera Ardea, Platalea, &c. Fig. 9.—A Pinnated Foot, with the edges of the toes scal- ‘loped, as inthe genera Fulica, Phalaropus, &c. Fig. 10.—A Lobated Foot, the toes margined with a mem- branous edgeing, as in the genus Podiceps. Fig. 11.—A Three-toed Webbed Foot, as in the genus Alca, Uria. Fig. 12.—A Palmated Foot; asin the genera Anas, Recur- virostra. Fig. 13.—A Palmated Foot, with the four toes connected, as in the genus Pellicanus. \\ ‘Wi \\ AN «a hae) \y 1h Mend it : By) y Lub by G. Graves, June 1&1] « = | - » e/) 7 4 = : ; i ‘ a Fee eet) 43 - é ai » Wa: ae ™ y ¥ a 7 y @ Ca, a ‘= NPA "5 Vo a, : . a hh te aa 7 + ,&a -@ 4 er 7 eave ine nf ee *: rs : my i” a am m~ 6 » = a hind Rhy (ae eer = f ee” ee ee ie Te Ul ae , 2 . > ae = ~ 7 t ere te 4 yt: Ber Ge ae 4 i : ; 24 ’ a 7 : all e Z a my — \ , : 7 Si ‘ z ; Var Q ; 3 ae +4? 2 ~ - ' a z aid 0 a ‘ a 2 7 _ = 4 oy. . as gf se = a Fy : ie z a ; 4 & "i : i we i | La ' 7, hee =< z faded Ns _— : = tl 7 ne. p : & Pid tat Z ; : Me: = i — ‘ a 4 2 Nil * ¢ fet 4 “ ‘ ve ioe bee 4 ~~, & Ae - . “Sag ct J D e - o~ in - : > 7 : 7 Lead s ad ’ . a © 9 1 = . +, é - 4 im — » “ 7 A 4 7 a 7 iF* . ; : bs é | We 7 i ee : = ms ig 4 . - i a -. 5 i q a i}, =. — — : * a » - = cr | “ c i ar ~ gee » é %. ts =a ¥ a” T9 - ™ =~ - b e v 7 — 7 >is - - a : v 4 a : ’ a , « oil + : 5 es ‘ 3a a ee : ; Pe ee end 7-3 ° ‘ _ 6 is a ve ie ~ = ae a - i —_ a 7 \ « my ~~ @ime « 7 . f ' a al 7 ‘ o _ : 7 3 x Fig. 14.—Fringilla Carduelis ; the Goldfinch; a, bill; 5, forehead ; c, cheek ; d, hind-head; e¢, breast; f, back ; g, spurious wing; h, shoulder, and lesser wing coverts; 7@, secondary quill-feathers; 7, 7, greater quill-feathers ; k, tertials; 7, tail-coverts ; m. tail; , great-wing coverts; o, auricles; p, throat. Fig. 15.—A Spur. Fig. 16.—A Pectinated Foot, as in the genus Tetrao. Og PLATE III. A.—An Insect of the Coleopterous Order, with its wings, &c. distended on the setting board. B.— + Pa Ke =I pee Aa Pp, "9 pee t ? FM, LAAT = } a mee, ; wf enn oN ay wi N } Nrid

a : ad 4) bi le: ae 4 fe a So ne Gee Fi aie at - » wey: * ae n) 5 i. _ a ae in) Tilers " ef _ pee weit a — ! aN ” 7 , Ris , a. 4 ae “1h a - He en) es cee i: nee ee _ roe ly yee an” es re ? i r. mn, & \ a a By te A at " ae | ve . hs > “if iy wet . 4 ria wit Me ry * a . .) % my ” bs, Py ney — : mt " ak A *e i , a . , " 4 7 ss “ae >’ “a me ry ial a .. — © 4 ae = 0 vag, a oh ee ' A a * iil on ia ort | oe Oe Ae © re (a a 4 I aT a oF . ae a a? ie ae Sas i. va ‘ee an or Stan ' a yd Pi. dau vt ae oe ‘ id ie ve a iy ay: a i cell ne i ae a a bi ue, e Hie gs ie et ity ; ey ky ee ae a mn i “a ‘ A ey ph) 2 2 A a 7) : hit af = ¥ a) aa ./ a By Py oy “a id ; “we ay _ Dae as vie Sin: 7» ee Ts) a. * ‘ cae a. » Pes a hy * ,. Ph M4 Pf ' ’ at 4 Bi REX » hae EE ji \. ‘| a Oia ae = sa , Dae cou - a Lon ‘Wr irae + ‘ ro. , \ ’ Lal , oie 4) i “a aj y _ a : as a, ‘ ee ae f i ‘ oe 7 . ¥ mp) ae ¥ To inal “< rege iy } a es iio is p A J ee oy sili am Bi, 7.) a ‘hy ; i my 7. bg, ? i HI) } NU ul) ~ MUI Pub. by Geo: Graves, June 1317. Pe, Wag co. Graves, June, 1371 ¥ FT Pub: by 6 “ay Or ae ul Tt h 1 fi fit ‘Sal fee ore i == = : il i! Yi mui UEP LOETUEUT TET i € HHT] 2 WT HH 1] | | 222 IH HANIF WH real |] WATT | | i HHT HHH NWN] WT ie Lg NH] | | WAH] NIH} | | WA SUTRA OULLL Va | NTH] | TOT R ne HHT Z | | 1] | | i Aft | | | ane i PLATE VI. . 1.—Breeding Box for rearing Caterpillars. Fig Fig, 2.—Insect Net. Fig. 3.—Forceps for securing Insects armed with stings. Fig. 4.—A Forcep Net. Fig. 5.—A Setting Needle. Fig. 6.—A Box for Seeds or Bulbs. Fig. 7.—A Ditto Ditto _ Hooped. Fig. 8.—A Ditto Ditto Ditto and Netied. PLATE Vii. Fig. 1.—A Box, with Plants packed in Moss, ina fit state Fig. Fig. Fig, for transporting. 2,—A Herborizing Box. PLATE VIIL. 1.—A Box of Plants packed and shut down in incle- ment weather. A, a part made to slide out for the admission of Air; a, b, c, apertures for the admission of light and air in inclement weather. 2.--A Cask prepared for transporting Plants. eR een ERA, vi nee pay si perfect. This numerous genus is widely extended, but few places being without seme species or other; some burrow in the ground where they lay up provision for the winter, others seek holes in roeks and trees for the same purpose, several species attach themselves to man, and live entirely on his labours ; some kinds become dormant or torpid during winter. Their foodis various, as fruit, roots, grain, flesh, crabs,and many of the smaller quadrupeds, even of their own kind ; also young poultry, eggs, and in fact some of the species will devour almost every descriptlon of animal substance; some are migratory, and others nearly amphibious; they are all extremely prolific, often producing eight to twelve at a birth, and this several times in the year, they are devoured by their own kinds, the Fox, Cat and Weesel tribes, as also by Birds of Prey, Snakes; and the aquatic species are destroyed by Pike and other predaceous fishes, ZOOLOGY. 33 5. Arctomys. Marmot. Front teeth wedge-shaped, two in each jaw; upper grinders five on each side, lower four ; clavicles perfect. A cleanly shy family, the individuals of which all become torpid during winter; their habitations are formed under ground of several feet in extent, and lined with moss, dry grass, and other soft substances, which are placed at the ex- tremity of their caves; these they rarely quit during wet weather; their food is grain and vegetables. 6. Scturus. Sgurrret. Upper front teeth cuneated, the loweracute; upper grinders five on each side, lower four; clavicles perfect; hair on the tail long, spread on each side: whiskers long. Some of this genus are furnished with a membranaceous appendage, capable of considerable extention, which assists to support them when leaping, as with wings. This is a lively, active, elegant tribe, of gentle manners, easily tamed, but of a shy temper; they form their nests in the hollows or forked branches of trees, and compose them of moss, dry grass, and leaves; their food is the seeds of forest trees and fruit; they are mostly natives of woody situations, and except taken from the nest while young, they are not easily obtained but by the gun. 1. Myozus. Dormousr. Upper front teeth two, wedge- shaped, the lower ones compressed sideways; grinders four in each jaw; ¢ai/ hairy, round, thickened towards the tip; front tees four. n SA ZOOLOGY. A very docile tribe, particularly lethargic, of very similar habits with the last genus, but less active; food and nests the same; may frequently be found in their dormant state in the decaying hollows of trees, together with quantities of nuts, acorns, beechemast, &c. which are hoarded by these little animals, for food during wet and cold weather, as they rarely quit their nests but when the sun shines warm. 8. Dipus. Jerzoa. Front teeth two in each jaw; fore legs short, hinder ones very long; ¢ail tufted at the tip. This is a very shy and timid genus, feeds entirely on-vege- tables, they are exceedingly swift, and make such amazing bounds as to bid defiance to all pursuit; like the last genus they sleep during the winter, in burrows which they form, extending many feet beneath the surface of the ground; at the extremity of these they place their beds or nests, which are composed of dry grass. In the cold weather they are readily obtained, by digging them out of their dormitories ; they most usually prefer sandy plains, as this soil is easily excavated. 9. Lepus. Hare. Front teeth two, upper ones double, having two smaller ones placed at the interior bases of the larger teeth. A timid persecuted tribe, being considered as animals father created for the diversion of the indolent, than as filling up and forming a link in the great chain of nature : perhaps in no country are these poor harmless animals more maltreated than in this, where they are considered as the ZOOLOGY. 5 G9 property only of the rich and great; and many expensive establishments are kept up, for the express purpose of hunt- ing them “ Detested Sport, That owes its pleasures to another’s pain.” All these animals are herbivorous, and are exceedingly swift of foot; the species are not numerous, though widely dispersed, but are most abundant in temperate climates; their flesh is in considerable request by most European na- tions, whilst the Arabians, Turks, and Persians, entirely rejectit. Some of the kinds burrow in the ground, others form nests in the hollows or in the holes at the bettoms of trees, and our native Hare nestles on the ground in a clump of furze or dry grass. The skins of all the species are of considerable value, the fur or down being a principal ingre- dient in the composition of what are usually termed Beaver hats. 10. Hyrax. Upper front tecth two, broad, distant, lower four contiguous, Broad, flat, notched; grinders large, four on each side of each jaw; front feet four-toed, hind feet three-toed; tail and clavicles wanting. This genus burrows in the ground, and feeds entirely on vegetables; they are ofa cleanly active disposition, extremely shy and timid, but when taken young, they soon become tame; they generally associate in large communities. Orver V. PECORA. Front tecth in the upper jaw wanting; in the Jower six or sight, remote from the grinders; feet hoofed; teats ingui- n2 36 ZOOLOGY. nial ; several of the genera are furnished with horns, but such do not possess tusks ; and those that have tusks, are without horns: there are eight genera in the order, the whole of which are herbivorous. 1, Camelus. CAmet. Horns wanting; lower front teeth six, spathiform; fusks distant, in the upper jaw three, in the lower two; upper lip cleft. An exceedingly useful tribe, the individuals of which are mostly natives of warm climates, and are generally used as beasts of burthen. Without the Camel, the sandy deserts of Asia and Africa would be impassable to Man. The power of abstaining from, or rather of existing without drink, with which these animals are endued is almost past belief; instan- ces are upon record, where Camels have passed eight or nine days, travelling over the burning sands of Arabia, with- out once allaying their thirst. Their food is vegetables and grain: neither the Camel nor Dromedary are at the present day found in a wild state; all the other species are very shy and timid, and are confined to the mountainous parts of South America. ¥ 2. Moschus. Musk. Horns wanting; lower front teeth eight; upper fusks solitary projecting. A wild and extremely shy genus, most of the species are natives of mountainous countries, feeding on vegetables, the flesh of the young is esteemed as food; from these Animals is obtained the perfume called Musk, from the value of which article, they are constantly the objects of pursuit. As soon ZOOLOGY. 37 as any of the species can be obtained, the musk bag should be removed, as, should it be permitted to remain with the skin, the Musk will soon be absorbed, which, though it will contribute to preserve the skin from the atiacks of insects, the perfume will beso strong as to be quite offensive. 3. Cervus, Stac. Horns annual, solid, branched, the tips thicker and covered with a downy skin; lower front teeth eight ; tusks wanting, or solitary in the upper jaw. The Animals called Deer, contribute largely to the com. fort of Man, all the species are useable as food, and the skins and horns are convertible into various useful purposes ; they are natives of mountainous and woody situations ; seve- ral of the species are easily domesticated ; their food is grass, the young shoots, branches, and bark of trees, also Mosses and Lichens. They are found in countries in the extremes of heat and cold. 4. Cameleopardalis. Girarre. Horn-like projections two, simple, covered with skin; lower front teeth eight, broad, thin, the outer one on each side deeply bilobate. The best account we have of this gigantic Animal, isin the travels of Mons. Le Vaillant, who found it in the interior of Southern Africa, it is the tallest of all known Quadru- peds, individuals having been seen, measuring seventeen feet in height. Its pace is an awkward amble, but it is so exceedingly quick, as easily to outrun the ficetest horse ; it is very shy, and is amongst the rarest quadrupeds. It feeds on grass, and the leaves and shoots of the different species of Mimosa, so abundant in the forests of Africa. D3 SS ZOOLOGY. 5. Antilope. Antetore. Horns hollow, persistent, round, twisted either spirally or annulately ; lower front teeth eight; tusks none. Antelopes usually associate in very considerable numbers, they are shy and timid in the extreme, possess an exquisite sense of smell, and mostly inhabit recky or mountainous countries, they feed on the tender shoots of trees, on aroma- tic plants, and grass; they are so exceedingly swift, as rarely to be taken but by the gun, or in pit-falls, which _the natives dig and slightly cover with boughs of trees ; the flesh of ail the kinds are occasionally used for food, and the skins are used for various purposes. Numbers fall a prey to predaceous Beasts and Birds; and are likewise devoured by the larger kinds of Snakes. - 6. Capra. Goat. Horns hollow, wrinkled, turning back- ward ; lower front teeth eight;, tusks wanting; chin bearded. This like the preceding genus inhabits rocks and moun- tainous countries, they are wild, shy, and swift, but not to such an extreme as the Jast genus ; they feed on the bark of trees, grass and aromatic herbs, and are the prey of carnivo- rous Animals. ‘Their skins are used for various purposes, and form an extensive article of commerce. 7. Ovis. Suerrp. Horns hollow, wrinkled, turning back- wards and outwards, ina circular or spiral form; in some kinds the horns are wanting. : ZOOLOGY. 3$ A mild, gentle, and extremely useful race, all the indivi- duals of which contribute to the comforts and necessities of Man, affording hima constant supply of food and clothing ; they are less active than the preceding, and prefer open plains or gently sloping hills; and most of the species being in a state of domestication, are subject to considerable yarie~ ties both in form and colour. 3. Bos. Ox. Horns hollow, curving outwards and for- wards, semicircular, smooth, annulated ; lower front teeth eight ; tusks wanting. This “¢ honest, harmless, useful’ tribe of animals, consti- tute the wealth of many countries of which they are natives, being used for burden or draft, as occasion requires, their Milk supplying Butter and Cheese, their flesh food, their skins leather for various purposes, their horns and hoofs are applicable to numerous uses, their fat supplies tallow ; and in fact there is no part of the whole beast but what Man has turned te advantage, In a wild state they are of a fierce and violent disposition, associating in herds, fre- quenting marshy grounds in the vicinity of low woods; they possess an exquisite sense of smell; their food is grass and herbage; the various species when domesticated, are subject to considerable varieties in form and colour. Orver VI. BELLULE. Front teeth obtuse, truncate; feet hoofed. This order consists of four genera, the two first of which are her- pd 4 40 ZOOLOGY. bivorous and granivorous; and the two last feed principally on vegetables, but occasionally on animal substances. ) 1. Equus. Horse, Upper front teeth six, erect, parallel ; the lower six more prominent; tusks solitary, remote ; teats inguinial ; feet hoofed. : ~ Several species of this genus contribute largely to the comforts and convenience, and are of inestimable value to Mankind. In a wild state, they are all natives of the hottest parts of the globe, associating in large herds, they usually resort to open plains, and feed entirely on herbage ; they are exceedingly shy and swift, and are taken with great difficulty. 2. Hippopotamus. River-worsk. Front teeth in each jaw four, the upper in pairs, remote; the lower prominent, with the intermediate ones longer ; ¢usks solitary, the lower ones very long, obliquely truncate, recurvate ; Seet hoofed at the margin. This is a solitary species, inhabiting large rivers and lakes, principally in the interior of Africa ; it only quits the water in the evening to feed, when it commits con- siderable damage to Rice and other plantations in the vicinity of its haunts ; its pace on land is slow and heavy, but in the water it is very active, and walks with the greatest ease at the bottom of the water, its bulk is prodigious, frequently equalling that of the Elephant ; it feeds on Sugar canes, Rice, and other vegetable substances ; is lonely in its ZooLoGY. Al habits, and does not willingly attack except in self defence ; an instance is on record of one that was wantonly attacked by some persons in a boat, who wounded the animal, which irritated it so much, that with its enormous teeth it tore off one end of the boat, and killed one or two of the party. According to Le Vaillant the flesh is palatable, the feet in particular are quite a delicacy; the native inhabitants of Africa greedily devour the whole animal excepting the skin ; which is used for girdles and other purposes. 3. Tapir. Front teeth in each jaw ten; tusks single, in- curvate ; grinders five on each side of both jaws, very broad ; hoofs on the fore-feet four, on the the hind- feet three. This is the largest of the native quadrupeds yet discovered in the New Continent, it inhabits thick woods in the vicinity of marshy ground, and also many of the extensive swamps so common in America; its food consists of fruits, roots, grass, sugar canes, and also lizards and other reptiles; like the River-Horse it swims, and walks with ease and facility beneath the water ; it roams abroad during the night, but is shy and timid; it is mostly met with in considerable herds. 4. Sus. Hoc. Upper front teeth four, convergent; lower usually six, prominent ; upper tusks two, short, lower two longer, projecting ; snout prominent, truncate, moveable ; feeé mostly cloven. In their wild state, this genus are mostly of sullen and morose habits, some of the kinds feed on almost every A2 ZOOLOGY. animal and vegetable substance, whether putrid or fresh; others devour frogs, lizards, snakes, and other reptiles ; their dispositions are gloomy, and they mostly reside in the depths of forests, and excepting the Hog or common Wild Boar, they are all natives of warm climates. When domese ticated, the Hog affords a considerable portion of food to Mankind, which has the faculty of taking salt more readily than any other kinds of flesh; on which account it forms a principal part in our naval provision, as when once salted it remains perfectly good in the hottest climates. Orver VII. CETE. Feet wanting ; fins pectoral ; ¢acl horizontal, flattened ; teeth in some cartilaginous, in others bony ; nostri/s wanting, in lieu of which is a jistular opening, on the anterior or upper part of the head; claws or hair, none. This order contains four genera, the whole of which, though inhabiting the ocean and possessing the habits and manners of fishes, yet from their similarity of structure, their being viviparous, and giving suck, they necessarily class with the Mammalia, in common with which they possess a Heart composed of two Auricles and two Ventricles, warm red Blood, Lungs that respire alternately ; moveable Eyelids ; Ears hollow, receiving sound through the medium of the air; lactiferous Teats ; Vertebre of the neck, seven in number; Lumber bones and Coccya. Their food is mollusce and other marine productions. 1. Monodon. Narwau. Teeth in the upper jaw, two, long 4 ZOOLOGY. A3 spiral, extending straight forwards; spzracle on the fore and upper parts of the head. 2, Balena. Wuate. Teeth wanting, instead of which are horny Jamia in the upper jaw ; sptracle with a double opening on the top of the head. 3. Physeter. Cacuatot. Teeth in the lower jaw, none in the upper jaw; spéracle on the head or snout. 4. Delphinus. Doteuin. Teeth in both jaws; spiracle on the head. All these genera are inhabitants of the ocean, and princi- pally abound in the Northern Seas, where they associate in great numbers ; the first genus is only valuable on account of its teeth, which are of equal value with the finest Ivory. The Whale affords an immense quantity of oil, the horny. lamine with which the interior of the mouth is furnished, is the article generally called Whalebone, and en account of these two productions, the Whale is an object of very considerable importance, as the catching of them, and the preparation of the oil, affords employment to a very considerable number of our population. ‘The two last genera both produce oil, but neither of so good a quality, nor in the like abundance with the Whale. The greater part of the foregoing genera being rendered subservient to the uses, comforts, or convenience of Man- kind ; and being so widely and generally dispersed, it is particularly desirable to obtain information relative to the A4 ZOOLOGY. = purposes to which the different species are applied in other countries. No method is calculated to gain this infor- mation so satisfactorily as visiting foreign countries, and ob- taining this kind of knowledge with the Animals themselves; as it often happens that much useful information may be gathered on this head by the inquisitive Naturalist, whose pursuits, if only confined to the mere procuring of new or rare kinds of Animals, though they may serve to amuse, ~ are comparitively yet trifling additions to our present stock of knowledge ; unless accompanied with the history, habits, useful properties, or other instructive information illustra- tive of the ccconomy of the species thus obtained. As every addition to what is already known of the history of any species of Quadrupeds, must be considered valuable, we shall now proceed te point out those particulars, which should be more immediately attended to in this department. On procuring an Anima] with which we are unacquainted, the first point to which our attention should be turned, is to ascertain whether it is convertible into food, clothing, or is otherwise applicable to the uses of Man; whether its skin is of such a nature, as to be serviceable in trade or commerce ; whether it possesses Glands for the secretion of Musk, or other unctuous matter; whether from its size or nature it is likely to be reducible to Agricultural purposes, and most particularly to what purposes, (if any,) and by what means, it is rendered subservient to the uses er comforts of the in- habitants of the country where it is a native ; or should its habits be detrimental or obnoxious, what measures are pur- sued to destroy the species, or to avert its mischiefs. a<- ZOOLOGY. 4S Endeavours should be used to ascertain the food generally consumed by each particular kind ; its time of gestation, the number of young it produces at a birth; at what age it arrives at full growth ; the differences in appearance in the different sexes; whether as it advances in age, any parti- cular change takes place in its general appearance, either by attaining Horns, Tusks, &c. &c. By attending to particu- lars of this kind, the practical Naturalist will not only obtain a mass of information amusing and instructive to himself as a Philosopher, but most probably of very consi-+ derable importance to the community at large ; and this he may render entertaining in the highest degree, by giving correct accounts of the modes pursued in different countries, to obtain the various kinds of Animals either for food, raiment, or amusement; the planus adopted to reduce the wild Animals to a state of domestication, and by stating whether, when so domesticated they continue to propagate ; and what species are in general request either for domestic¢ purposes or exportation. It is obvious, that enquiries of this kind cannot fail of ultimately producing general good, as by becoming ac- quainted with the wants and products of distant countries, the attention of our Merchants and Manufacturers, will be naturally turned to the supplying those wants, and by the exchanging the manufactures of this country for the natural productions of others, reciprocal advantages must accrue. To facilitate the enquiries of succeeding Naturalists, as well as to afford an opportunity of examination to the Man of Science, many plans have been at various times adapted, 46 ZOOLOGY. with a view to preserve the skins of Animals, and to exhibit them in their natural forms, for which purpose the mede we have practised with the greatest success, we shall now pro- ceed to detail. Having obtained any quadruped which we are anxious te preserve, we take its measurement, as, by so deing, we are the better enabled to judge of its proporticas when exhi- bited in a cabinet. The length of the Animal from the nose to the insertion of the tail, the length of the tail; the height at the shoulders and hips; the girth at the neck, breasts, and loins, and any remarkable appearance in the structure of any ofits parts, should all be carefully noted. In drawing or describing any Quadruped, the following particulars should be observed. ‘The number, form, dispesi- tion or absence of the teeth, horns, and claws ; if the latter are retractile as in the Cat tribe; the form of the feet or hoofs, whether the Animal be covered with wool, hair, spines or scales; does it possess any name; the form of its ears and tail, if the latter be prehensile, or is capable of being used as an auxiliary in seizing any object, or to assist it in escaping from any danger ; if the posteriors are bare or callous, and if the Animal is capable of distending its cheeks, so as to form pouches,-as in many of the Monkey tribe; or if possessed of abdominal pouches for the securing of their young, as in many of the Quadrupeds of New Holland ; the color of the eyes should be noticed the instant the Animal is obtained, as almost immediately after death it is subject to change. ; ZOOLOGY: AZ When the foregoing remarks have been made, the next object is to skin the Animal; and as the value and appear- ance of a cabinet of Quadrupeds depends entirely on the perfect state of the skins, too much pains cannot be bestow- ed in the operation, which should not be commenced till some hours after the subject is dead ; as in that time the blood will have coagulated, and there will be less danger of soiling the skin. The Animal should be opened down the middle of the belly, and the skin stripped back to the knee and elbow- joints, which should be left with the skin, care being taken to remove all the flesh and integuments from the bones; the skin may then be drawn over the neck and head ; the body is to be separated from the head at the first joint; the sur- face of the skull must then be thoroughly cleared of all flesh ; the eyes, brain, tongue, and flesh in the interior of the mouth must be taken away, and freed of all loose skin or integuments, that may be attached; when this is effected, the skin may be returned to its proper position; and the cheeks must be filled out with cotton or other soft substance, mixed with a considerable quantity of antiseptic powder, composed of one third of white oxide of Arsenic, and two thirds of powdered burnt Allum; this powder should be rubbed in the inside of the mouth, and all the cavities of the head, as the eyes, ears, and nostrils, should be filled with pledgets of cotton, dipped first in a strong solution of corrosive sublimate or ‘Arsenic, and a quantity of the powder strewed into each place. The inside of the skin, and the leg bones, when quita 4s %BOOLOGY. clean from all loose skin, &c. should be rubbed well with the powder, this rubbing should be repeated occasionally until the skin acquires a considerable degree of dryness: if the Animal be large, the leg-bones cannot be conveniently retained attached to the skin, but in all cases where it is practicable, considerable advantage will accrue from their preservation ;—this last remark applies also to the skulls of the larger Quadrupeds, which should inall possible instances be preserved, whether attached to the skin or not. Of such Animals as possess soft or spongy feet, the soles may be opened, and all the fat and muscular parts removed; after which, the powder should be applied plentifully, and before the skin becomes hard or dry, the cavities of the feet should be filled with cotton as directed for the head, and the inci- sions sewed neatly up. When the skin is thoroughly dry, it should be so packed as (if possible,) to exclude insects; the drying should be performed in the shade, and the utmost vigilance is neces- sary in observing that no skin be packed till it is perfectly so: and to assist in drying, the skins should be kept dis- tended, and exposed to the air. In skinning those Animals that are furnished with abdominal pouches, it would be better to open them longitudinally on one side, otherwise this curious charactér will be destroyed ; and in all Animals possessing glands for the secretion of Musk or odour, these organs should be carefully preserved. As a collection of skins necessarily occupies much time im procuring, to preserve them free from injury when obtained, is an object of the first importance. In order te ZOOLOGY. A9 succeed in this, two principal causes of injury must be care+ fully guarded against—Damp, and the attacks of Insects ; the former we generally have it in our power to avoid, but the latter assail collections of this kind in so many ways, and under such varied circumstances, that the collector must be ever on his guard; since it often happens that the very means used to destroy one kind of insect, calls into existence myriads of others equally destructive, As a general plan, we have succeeded best by exposing from time to time, the dry skins io the action of heat, which by repetition, though it may ina slight degree fade their colours, has the grea¢ advantage of eventually destroying all insects. When a box is filled with skins, or rather when a box fall is obtained, if circumstances will permit, the skins should be loosely placed in a large case with a glazed front, having all the seams or joints carefully stopped, by pasting strips of paper over them ; in this state the case should be gradually brought before a large fire, where it may remain six or eight hours ; by having a glass front, if any insects, particularly of the Moth kind, are amongst the skins, the heat will soon cause them to flutter about, and they can easily be perceived when dead. But lest any of the insects so destroyed, should have deposited their eggs on the skins, the frequent repetition of this plan is desirable, previous to the skins being finally packed. When about to be packed, each skin should be wrapped in a separate paper, (the commonest brown paper is to be prefered in all cases, as it resists damp more than any ether kinds, and is less liable to be devoured by insects.) E ~ 50 ZOOLOGY. with a Memorandum of what particulars belong to it, ds tie having a duplicate of this kind, though it may trespass some- what on the time of the Traveller, will not unfrequently amply repay him for his trouble. The skins should be packed as close as possible ; and when the package is full, the joints and cracks should be stopped with pieces of paper pasted over them ; but even in this, some caution is necessary, as paste affords a nidus to numerous insects, which frequently deposit their eggs on it, asa proper food for the larve when hatched. To prevent any unpleasaut effects of this kind a considerable portion of Corrosive Sublimate or Arsenic, should be mixed with the paste before it is used ; and when the paste is thoroughly dry, the places so covered should be washed over with a strong size, in which Arsenic or Sublimate is held in solution; the size may be formed of pieces of skin boiled in water, until completely dissolved, and the Arsenic or Sublimate should be mixed with it whilst hot. If previous to being put on ship-board, the cases could be covered over with a thick coat of oil paint, it would most effectually exclude both damp and insects. With these precautions, we have known skins of the most delicate species of Quadrupeds and Birds remain *packed for three or more years, even in warm countries, without receiving any perceptible injury. When a box of skins shall be re-opened, the skins should be exposed to the fire as before directed, after which they will be in a fit state to put up. This part of the under- taking is attended with a considerable portion of trouble, and to succeed well, requires no small degree of ingenuity. We recommend every person desirous of attaining perfection ZOOLOGY. 51 an this art, to havea lesson or two from some skilful prac- titioner, as it is not an easy matter to succeed in a task of this kind from any instruction, without the assistance of practical illustration. The best mode to pursue in setting up the smaller kinds of Quadrupeds, is, by forming a false body ; this may be done, with a piece of iron wire, of a substance proportioned to the size of the Animal, and should be of sufficient length, to pass through the skull, (if retained,) and to protrude a little, and also to extend rather beyond the tail; the ends of the wire should be filed to sharp points, to prevent their tearing the skin ; and it should have previously been thoroughly heated in the fire, to renderit quite flexible, thisis to be wrapped round with tow or fine rope-yarn, till it is sufficiently large to fill out the skin; lateral pieces of wire should be introduced through the soles of the feet, and when practicable through the leg-bones, and attached to the principal wire running through the body; every part of the skin should be filled out to its full extent ; and some of the powder should from time to time be introduced with the stuffing; the leg-wires must be sufficiently long to pass through the soles of the feet, and through a piece of wood capable of supporting the animal, to which it may be fixed, as it canthen more easily be dryed. Previously to the skin being stuffed, if a dried one, it will be necessary to wrap it in damp cloths for twenty- four hours or even longer, according to the size and substance of the skin, some of the largest Quadrupeds will even require thoroughly soaking in water for some days; Animals of the size of the Horse, Ox, Rhinoceros, &c., will be most faith- fully represented by having their skins supported by a frame E2 52 ZOOLOGY. of wood, which will give them stability, otherwise from their weight they are liable-to get out of shape; but as it is hardly probable that the stuffing of this description of Animals will be attempted by any but a professor, we con- sider further remarks on this point unnecessary. When the skin is filled out to its extent, it is to be care- fully sewed up with strong double silk ; the Needle should be a curved triangular one, such as is used by Surgeons, the fur may then be smoothed over the seam, which will hardly be perceptible. The Animal should be placed in as easy and natural a position as possible, at the same time recollecting ihat natural effect ought not to give place to elegance of form. Before the skin is quite dried, the eyes should be inserted ; and to enable the operator to represent the Animal with eyes of their natural colour, it is desirable to have as correct a representation of them as possible; glass eyes of all sizes and tints, are to be precured at the glass bead- makers, in London; they should have a piece of wire attached to them, by means of which they may be securely fastened; and to give them a natural appearance, they should be somewhat larger than the natural eye, and the eye-lids must be carefully brought forward so as completely to include, and which will reduce them in appearance to the natural size. The next business is to dry the stuffed skin, which may be best done in a shady room, into which the air is freely ad- ‘mitted; ina week or more, according to the bulk of the subject and the state of the atmosphere, the skin will be dry : but to dislodge any remains of moisture, it may be brought within the influence of a fire, but by no means close; ZOOLOGY: 5s after which it should be placed in a glass case, with the seams and joints closely pasted up; and lest any insects should be attached to the skin, it will be better that the case be baked, in the manner already directed, relating to the packing the skins. The skins of Animals that are in a recent state, should be treated in all respects as the fore- going, excepting that the skins should not be filled out to the full extent, as in drying, the skin is liable to shrink ; fresh skins will also require much more of the antiseptic powder to be used when stuffing, as it absorbs the grease contained in the skin; and they will require longer time in drying, before they are in a fit state to place in cases. The wires that pass through the legs, should be brought through the bottom of the case and there turned, by which the skin will be keptin an erect posture; and to prevent its weight inclining the Animal forwards, a piece of wire may be introduced through the back of the case and attached to the body, which will effectually prevent its moving, at any time the case may require to be taken down. Asa pleasing relief, and to ornament the inside of the bottom of the case, a quantity of dried moss, finely powdered, and mixed with a little coarse sand, may be sifted over it, first moistening the ground with thin carpenter’s glue ; the ground may be fur- ther enlivened by introducing sprigs of moss or dried grasses. To persons visiting foreign parts for the purpose of pur- suing this study on a more extended field, we take leave to remark, that in all cases where it is practicable, the skins of both sexes in the adult state are particularly desirable, as also that of the young, when any remarkable difference is apparent; as for instance, the skin of Felis concolor, the E 3 54 ZOOLOGY. Puma or American Lion, is, (as its specific name imports,) of one uniform colour, whilst in its infancy it is spotteds afterwards the spots appear oblong, almost stripes, and when it attains its full growth, they entirely disappear. As it may be more convenient, at the time of procuring many of the smaller species of Quadrupeds, to preserve them entire, till a more convenient opportunity offers for stuffing them, they may be safely put into glass or earthen jars, or small casks filled with one third spirit of wine, arrack, rum, or other spirit, and two thirds of a strong solution of burnt allum, care should be taken not to use, if avoidable, coloured spirit of any kind, as it frequently happens that when coloured, it will leave a stain on the lighter parts of the skin orfur, that cannot be removed. The solution of allum should be made by pouring one quart of boiling water on eight ounces of allum, and when cool, the water should be poured off, as some water will not hold that quantity in solution ; and if a larger quantity be dissolved at any one time than is required, the water may be evaporated either over a fire, or by placing the solution within the influence of the sun, and the allum will be deposited in crystals,which only re- quire being burnt over a common fire to be fit for using again. The preserving in spirits has this decided advantage, that at any subsequent period the Animal will be seen with all its parts perfect, and may offer interesting amusement at a more leisure moment, than often falls to the lot of collec- tors whilst absent from home. To succeed in the different operations already enumerated, the traveller must be supplied with the necessary instruments, ZOOLOGY, 55 and these in duplicate; suchas Dissectine Knrves, Scissors ; Forcers of different shapes and sizes; and what we have found particularly useful isan instrument known to Hard- waremen by the name of Buppine Knire, and for which purpose it is in general use by Gardeners ; the blade should be long and thin, and the handle thin, flat and rounded at the edges ; besides these, Piers of different sizes and forms, as round, flat and cutting, are indispensible; Nerreptes of various sorts, as Surgeons’ curved and flat needles, straight triangular needles, such as are used by Glovers; and the common kinds in variety. The latter, besides being useful .to the traveller himself, may prove a most valuable present in distant countries, where the intercourse with Europe is but trifling or accidental. Srrone Tureap and Sirk should not be omitted ; but the latter is always to be used in sewing up skins. Various kinds of Paper should likewise form part of the travellers investment ; and particularly Coarse Brown Paper, as it is of more common request and possesses many advantages over the other kinds. In the foregoing instructions the Author has endeavoured to avoid all unnecessary expence and trouble ; the antiscepti¢ he recommends, possesses all the requisites, and though simple, he feels confident it will be found equally efficacious with any of the most expensive preparations of the kind ; but as it may not at all times be obtainable, any of the fol- lowing articles may be used with a probability of success. Ground or Whole Pepper and most kinds of Spices, avoid- ing those of an oily nature; ground Tobacco ; Corrosive Sub- limate ; Sulphur; Musk, burnt Allum, (which may be pre- EA 56 ZOOLOGY. pared by burning common allum over a fire till it looses its transparency ;) Camphor ; and the mere enveloping a skin in common brewn paper that has been saturated with allum and arsenic in solution, has also been successfully tried. As each practitioner has a method peculiarly his own, in performing the operations of skinning and stuffing Animals, the Author does not presume to say his is the best; but if simplicity joined to ceconomy are worth attending to, his plan at least has these to recommend it. To facilitate Naturalists in making their remarks on any Animal they may procure, a sketch of a table is annexed, which we would recommend to every person attending to Natural History, to have constantly in their pocket book ; or at least some one ona similar plan ; which may be procured at most Booksellers or Stationers, ruled to their own pattern : by having tables of this kind alwaysat hand, opportunity is afforded of immediately putting our remarks on paper, without any delay, as it often happens that when subjects of this nature are committed to memory, others of equal interest soon after occurring, the ideas of both become confounded, and a difficulty is experienced in the separating the particu Jars of each. Date 1519. May 23 29 Wunes Memorantdim This day we dis- covered a_ sinall animal which was sporting amongst the shoots of the Cocoa Palm: we killed two, which proved to be male and femaie, Onex- amination, we foun: it to belong to Orden 4. Genus 6. Sauir- RELe Early this morning, we were surprised by an immense herd of Ante Rand [It devoured the young leaves and shoots of the Cocoa Palm. Afierwards having obtalued one alive, we found it easily tamed, and that it eagerly drank of the wine made from the Palm Tree. To whats purposes sort, and Manners. applreahle. Leng We found this species extensively When the dry seasou| dispersed from lat. ---, to ---5 they as-|is nearly over, the inhabi-|= 2 sociate in large numbers, and onthe}tants go in numbers into 5 & least noise, they lie lengthways along|their places of resort. and! o 5 the branches,with their tails extended 3}kill them by hundreds,cither} ~. J. at one time we observed them greatly|with blunt arrows or slicks 33 alarmed at the appearauce of a Snake,|/these are procured for the! 5 which was making itsapproaches alon, |sake of their skins, which] £ the branches; and though so terrified.jJarein great request for the that numbers let go their hold and feillpurpose of clothing, and to the ground, not ay attempted tojevery family is expected to escape: the Snake having taken tw resent a certain number three, retired, and the Squirrels 9 their chief, every hunt- resuined their sprightliness; we at vari-jing season; besides which ous times noticed them devoured by the|/they part with them to smaller birds of prey. 1eighbouring tribes in ex- They build in the ale of ajchange for cattle, tobacco, branch, or in a hole in atree; theirjand what European produce time of gestation (we were informed)]/they can obtain. is five weeks, and they produce fow ata birth; these are eagerly sought for by the Natives, who exchange them with the Inhabitants of otber Islands 5 where they are kept confined in cages, ingeniously constructed of thin slips of canes in confinement they feed on pieces of the Banana, and on most kinds offruil. AY ‘five a1 Jo Wo4agsu asou ayy Jo diy oy. Moa peu oy) Jo Wsuay ae) saqou 4 Tet ay Girth "Jyey B pue sayourT mMoy NogGYy LAYS YSIMo]jas $sad umorg Ystkvas Apog [rer Yor7q UWA paryepruur TEULPAWLSUOT, Gacy? NPLAL amodaq pure aSun mMopTpfed oy Tse asooy soso au} S{vapwaye Toes MOPFOA YSt lopes, that passed our encampmentat about gun-shot |ge2 £ (S%eoebrtaSs. [sSesesos® llores! oo (§ | ae (Saou ‘ei ses Ci | rs} sud ap ELvote, FB i 2 ues) a fale <7 aOR (DEE o jase > Bam Jee zog aes j- eee] Fe (8 ee lass ¢ A se oc | nes & 5 [eat oP aS elie Pee Soe [yaa | Ss (S408 eoSniuep,y °¢ snuoy fons aS Lod a) AO) aS eae see Bie B\ESSeaea oe Loe] oO 1M aw [OT S? 16 AIPIO 07 paduojeaq yy ‘uses fo} : 1) om ASK 1 Se om WO ~~ o Ge ‘J . = 3: ) ~ Soe 16 a Jats | S [EeSU Sewer FR atleSss tases Shoes) SS [2 | So [SPE sipeq om fury oa go asay om iSce fete [see © (SSS es ae SBS P mE eee Se (eR Mal We 12 ES [er ee iseasmg, copeur vy sua qr peno; : af go ED a ‘ z s FOSS jas JAS F=tea| fs m bes 5 BS Be Fo RZ 222 RE w [SESE ate ie SL |SZE SoM uondassip uo sayvj-e jo sap 5} . mS core = — moe [A = = PA, “ 2 fy ia oO 4 SPRASSMesenleeto fSoss |b fe < sy ca -A0G JY} UO palq eFax eB oYS Sseergnrics Orda fom tnmneense a ae ae toa = fon NI anne O44 Ona tr Se eoOgi.°o 36 a Ga Sas He rs a} 5 et ate ok = om gis = bo = Caught this morning in a{Small rivers and Jakes,! Insects, worms, small fish, The flesh is un-/Reddish sil-| Dark, with] 22 inches 3 3 small clear stream, a very{ but only such as are and reptiles; and also on usually fine, equal) very brown,|yellowish; |weight 3 lesser kinds of fish. Quits|/to any fresh water|with dark |hazelorbits./pounds. beautiful species, which we] clear. s learnt only visits this place at the shallows of rivers andjfish, we ever metjspote. stated times, it belonged to or- lakes at the fall of the leaf,) with. der4, Genus 7. Salmon, and returns early in the year, aan — ee — ) With our net this day, we|Thistishis only found in} Molusce and sea weed.) We know of no Blueish Reddish | Nearlycir- brought up a kind of fish, of | deep water, being en. |no particular times of mi-juseful purpose to/grey above, yelluw, jcular heing a structure so curious, that} tirely marine. gration, being occasionally|which this fish isap-|sivery be- 2 feet long, we were at a loss whether met with at all seasons. plicable, neath. and 2 feet 6 to consider it asa lusus, or an inch. deep ; accidental disfigurement, how- weight abt. ever on consulting, we found il 2C0 pounds, to belong toorder4. Genus 14, Sun-Fish. tne Reddish | Pupil, sea] About four which we observed in numbers,} sea, and mouths ofjstance it meets with, and/quently used as a/brown, withjgreen, iris, feetinleng, swallowing amazing quantities} rivers, can gorge excepting Birds |bait for other fishes, black spots white. of small fish and moluscous : from whence the proverb,|the skin isin requestjabove, be- animals. “ the Shark flees from a/for various mecha-neathwhite- feather.” nical purposes. ish. eel Frequents shores of the} Every kind of animalsub-| The flesh is fre- Hooked a species of Shark, July ZOOLOGY. 187 CLASS V. Insecta. INSECTS. But chief the forest toughs ‘That dance unnumber’d to the playful breeze, The downy orchard, and the melting pulp Of mellow fruit, the nameless nations feed Of evanescent Insects. Where the pool © Stands mantled o’er with green, inyisible, Amid the doating verdure millions stray. THOMPSON. Isecrs, though inferior in bulk, far surpass in variety of forms, beauty of colouring, and singularity of structure, all the larger tribes of Animals; and to those, who like the pious Boyle, can look with an equal eye oi admiration on the Watches, as on the Clocks of Nature, wil! ever afford objects of delight, wonder and instruction. From their di- minutive size, and the small share they appear to have, in furnishing any of the requisite comforts, or contributing to the conveniences of Mankind, the knowledge of them has 188 . ZOOLOGY. not advanced in equal rapidity with that of either of the sister sciences, Ornithology or Botany ; but from the atten- tion now paid to this interesting portion of Animals, this branch of Natural History is fast emerging from that obscurity in which it has been suffered to remain so long. The prejudice of Mankind, against the study of the moré minute parts of the creation is now giving way, being for- merly considered as unworthy of attention, on the account — of their not contributing to the luxuries or conveniences of life; this contempt, for the Minutie of Nature, was not con- fined to the ignorant or uncivilized, but even men of learns ing and Philosophers treated the study of Entomology, and those who turned their attention to acquire a knowledge of the habits and ceconomy of Insects, as fools; considering that these animals were so contemptable from their size, and of such mischievous habits, as only to be permitted by provi- dence, to exist as instruments for the infliction of punish- ment, on erring mortals. LGutas men became more enlight- ened, the wonders displayed in the varied forms and propen- sities of these little animals began to be observed, each spe- cies was found possessed of proper implements for the sup- — plying of its wants, some were discovered furnished with scoops, others with suckers, by which they were enabled to extract the nectariferous juices of flowers ;many had forceps or saws, by which they separated the particles of their food, too large to be consumed whole; of the Beetle tribe, divers were observed to bury such substances, as in their fresh state, were too hard for their consumption; till putrefac- tion had decomposed their parts, when such as were rejected by the Beetles, offered a delicious repast to the Ant, or other ZOOLOGY. 189 families of insects, who search for substances of this descrip- tion, whereon to deposit their eggs; when this wonderful round of cconomy began to be perceived, the subjects of course were considered more worthy of attention, some of the kinds were found to afford a substance capable of being converted into food, as Honey, which was accom- panied by another article, also applicable to domestie pur- poses and Medicine, as Wax; other kinds produced a sub. stance easily converted into clothing, as Silk ; others were discovered to afford valuable permanent dies; and thus by attending to and seeking out those which positively contri buted to the luxuries of Man, a knowledge was gained of those kinds which afforded him a sort of secondary assistance. Of the latter description, some cleared the surface of the earth of foetid and putrid substances, whilst others performed the same oflice to the waters, and each was observed to assist in sustaining, and contributing. to that beautiful order so conspicuous in the works of their divine creator, who has formed nothing in vain. The study of this science introduces us to a knowledge of dhe wonderful ceconomy and industy, constantly exerted by the greater part of this large family. The several changes that numerous species undergo, both of forms and manners, previous to their attaining their complete or perfect state, are all subjects of admiration, and render Entomology, one of the most entertaining of the Sciences. Insects are for the greater part oviparous; the females, guided by unerring instinct, deposit their eggs in situa- 190 ZOOLOGY. tions affording a sufficient and proper kind of nutriment to the future progeny ; the places where they are deposited, are numerous and varied, and strikingly display the wisdom of their all-wise Creator. Some deposit them on various parts of plants, some commit them to the earth, and others to the waters, some deposit them on putrid flesh, others, on or in the bodies of living animals, even of Insects. After a pericd more or less short, the Larve or Caterpillar is hatched, (these differ widely from each other, according to the different tribes or families to which they belong,) and feeding on their predestined food, till they arrive at their full growth, when they change into the Chrysalis or Pupa state. In this change, their forms are generally much altered, (and are as various as in the Caterpillar,) during the time they remain in the Pupa, they are mostly inactive, ceasing to feed, and assuming a perfectly torpid appearance, in which they continue, some only a few days or weeks, and others remain dormant for years; and finally come forth in their perfect or fly state; when they propagate their species and die. The following general characters distinguish Insects from other Animals ; they are all possessed of six or more feet ; they respire in a manner entirely different from the larger classes of Animals, which possess lungs or gills, situated in the upper or anterior part of the body ; Insects respire through a sort of spiracula, or breathing apertures, placed in a row on each side, the whole length of their bodies: their skin is externally hard, serving the purposes of bones, of which they have internally none ; to the internal surface of the skin the muscles are affixed, which are more or less ZOOLOGY. 191 atrong in the different kinds, in some, approaching to horn. Besides, the preceding Insects possess some parts which are peculiar to themselves, and are not found to belong to any other description of Animals; as the Antenne or Horns, which are situated on the fore part of their heads, and offer a principal distinguishing character, they are jointed and moveable in every part, in which particular they differ from the horns of other animals; that they are organs of sense, is apparent, from their perpetually moving them forward ; yet the hard coat with which they are invested, and their ex- treme shortness in some genera, would induce an idea that they are not the perceptive org2us of touch or feeling ; the generally received opinion is, that they ere the instruments or organs of hearing, but this is not satisfactorily explained ; they differ greatly in form, in the different tribes, from which circumstance they offer convenient characters, on which to found the respective genera. The Palpi or Feelers, are another peculiarity attached to Insects; they are mostly in pairs, in some kinds four, and in others six : they are short, jointed, and moveable, but destitute of the coating or crust observable on the Antenne; they are situated on each side the Mouth. The Mouth is situated at the fore-part of the head, incliu- ing downwards, in some kinds it is placed quite under the breast, asin the genus Curculio: it varies greatly in form ; in some of the Beetle tribe, the inner edges are furnished with strongly notched or serrated jaws, having the appearance of teeth, which is also the case with some of the Locusts, and other genera ; some tribes possess two, and others four jaws ; ina few kinds, the mouthis drawn out to a rigid point: in many 192 ZOOLOGY. of the Order Hemtrrera, it is bent downward to the breast, as in the genera Cicada, Nepa, Notonecta, Cimex, and re- markably in some of the Curculione. The Tongue'in some kinds is taper and spiral, as in Butterflies, in others fleshy ‘and retractile, resembling a proboscis; and in flies it is ‘tubular. In most Insects the eyes are placed on each side of the head, generally two in number, Spiders have six or eight, and Scorpions six. They possess no eye-brows, but the ex- ternal tunic of their eyes is hard and transparent, like a Watch-glass ; their eyes have no external motion, except in the genus Cancer: the eyes in most kinds are compound, at. least their exterior coat or cornea is so, which when viewed with a microscope, appears composed ofa number of separate hexagonal convex lenses ; these have been supposed each to act as a separate eye ; yet it is not easy to discover the use of the immense number with which some are pro- vided, as the head of the Dragon Fly is computed to be furnished with not fewer than twenty-five thousand of the separate lenses or eyes. On the top of the heads of many species, are three small, smooth, hemispherical dots or glo- bules, resembling eyes, these are situated between the real eyes, their use and nature is not clearly ascertained, they. were called by Linneas Stemmata. Whether Insects are possessed of Brain, continues to be an object of dispute, with the learned, in this branch of anatomical knowledge, however most kinds are furnished with a medulary thread, which passes through their whole extent; but that this is analogous to the brain and spinal ZLOOLOGY. 193 marrow in the larger animals, we are inclined to doubt, as it may be separated, the head removed, and the animal will still continue to live, to run, and even copulate ; some kinds have been known to live for days without theirheads. The formation of Insects is so peculiar to themselves, that we have no parallel in any of the other classes. Some ef the animals in the class Vermes, may be cut and divided aimost ad infinitum, and each part will eventually become a perfect animal ; some insects, without this reproductive power, will bear dividing, and still continue to live, and perform most of the various functions with which they are endued : the common Dragon Fly, (Libellula varia) will live for days without its head; and if instead of the head, the abdomen be taken away, the animal seems to suffer no ma- terial injury, as it continues to feed, run, and fly, nearly as usual, the latter function is but awkwardly performed, but if in lieu of the real abdomen, a piece of straw, paper, or any substance that will restore the proper balance be affixed to the thorax, the animal flies with its usual alacrity, and has been known to survive some days in this state. This Insect is of a very voracious nature, and has been known to feed under circumstances, that had we not authority for re- peating them, we should not have ventured on the following account. * A gentleman being engaged in collecting Insects, caught a specimen of the common Dragon-Fly, which he fastened down in his collecting box, with a large pin thrust through its thorax; when, to his astonishment, he observed the Dragon-Fly held in its forceps a fly, which was still struggling for liberty, this it soon devoured, without exhi- [oO ATEN TAD Me ak, oo ean * Philosophy of Natural History, by Charles Fothergill, ° 194 ZOOLOGY. biting any signs of pain, seeming wholly unconscious of its own unpleasant situation, being still secured by the pin before-named, to a piece of cork ; when the fly was devour- ed, the insect began to flutter, and made several attempts to regain its liberty; the gentleman, greatly surprised at this incident, and willing to prove the experiment still further, caught another fly,which he offered toit, this was eagerlyseized by the rapacious animal, and devoured with greediness, and when its meal was finished, it began to flutter again as before. We do not repeat this anecdote with a view to encourage or palliate cruelty to Insects, but merely adduce the fact, in opposition to the generally received opinion of the suscepti- bility of this class of animals. It certainly is not derogating from the benevolence so conspicuous in all the works of Providence, to conceive it probable, he has with infinite wis- dom witheld from some of the lower classes of Animals that degree of sensation so abundantly dispensed to others filling the higher ranks of creation ; as from the habits neces- sarily entailed upon them, they are more likely to encounter accidents that tend to mulitate, than other individuals of higher powers of sensation: thus we often see (an animal belonging to the next order, or lower scale of creation,) the common Earth-Worm, an object of contention between two birds, neither of which being willing to part with its prize, in the scuffle the worm is frequently separated into three parts, each of the birds flying away with an extremity, and leaving the centre portion of the animal behind ; which, if the situation where it is left be moist and sheltered, in a few days begins to repair its loss, and in a short time restores its ZOOLOGY. 195 deficient parts ; or if a worm be divided in two pieces they will each in a short time, under favourable circumstances become perfect animals. Now Insects, the constant food, and the objects of almost unremitting search, by such a great variety of animals; had they the feelings supposed generally to exist in all animated bodies, their lives must be a continued round of pain and watchfalness ; not that we conceive it probable they are entirely destitute of feeling, but their sense of pain is so far blunted, as not to be of that nature generally under- stood by the term. That it is consistent with the beneficence of Almighty wisdom, that these his creatures should expe- rience pleasure, we feel convinced ; and with that mercy so benevolently extended to all his works, has kept them from experiencing those painful sensations which their rank in creation would subject them to, if possessed of the sensi- bility so evident in the Mammiferous Class. Insects not being possessed of any external organs, adapt- ed for the purpose, are considered as incapable of hearing, yet they are sensible of any loud or shrill sound; whether they are endued with the sense of smell is equally doubtful, no organ being found likely to answer that purpose, never- theless they perceive, agreeable or fcetid effluvia, but in a manner we are entirely unacquainted with. These animals are composed of three parts; the head, thorax, and abdomen: the head is placed at the anterior part of the body, and is joined to the thorax or trunk, which has the legs inserted into it ; that its parts may o 2 196 ZOOLOGY. be distinctly determined, it is divided into Thorax, Scutel- tum, and Sternum. The Thorax is various in its shape, as is the back or upper part of the breast or Sternum. ~The Scutellum is the posterior part of the Thorax, frequently of a triangular shape, and is divided from the Thorax by a suture, very Conspicuous in many of the Coleopterous Insects. - The Abdomen is the posterior part of the body, and is composed of a number of annular sections or rings, which serve to contract or lengthen it as occasion may require; the last joint terminates in the tail. The Spiracula or Breathing apertures, are situated on each side of every segment or arti- culation of the abdomen, and if these be closed with oil or other unctious substance, it mostly proves fatal to them: as before observed, some particular kinds will survive days after this part is entirely removed, yet in these, if the spiracula be stopped up, they soon expire. The limbs of Insects consist of three principal divisions ; the first or upper joint Femur or Thigh; the second joint Tibia or Leg; the third, which consists of several articula- tions, is called Tarsus or Foot; and in some kinds the foot is furnished with Unguis or Claws, which are mostly double. Most of those Insects included in the Order Diptera, are pos- sessed of two small protuberances or bladders, one situated under each wing, which are termed Halteres or Poisers, and are supposed to assist in balancing the Insects in their flight. The larger number of Insects are annual, their whole life terminating in the space of one year or less; many not sur- ZOOLOGY. 197 viving half that time, and some few live in their complete or Fly-state only a few hours. The metamorphosis, that all excepting the Apterous Order are continually undergoing, renders this science more complex than most others that relate to Natural History: the Larve or insect as soon as excluded from the egg, is exceedingly voracious, and forthe most part when at its full growth is much larger than the mature insect ; the Pupa or Chrysalis, except those of the order Hemiptera, take no nourishment; the Imago, or per- fect state, is the third and last change the Animal undergoes, when it appears in its proper shape and colours, in this state it attains wings, is capable of propagating its species, and ac- quires its true Antenne, which in the previous states were hardly apparent or wanting. Insects are divided into seven distinct orders, the charac- ters of the first six are drawn from the texture and num- ber of their wings, and the seventh from their being des~ titute of wings. ORDER LI, COLEOPTERA. To most of the individuals of this extensive order the term Beetle is applied in common language, though scientifically it is confined to the first genus. All the species are furnish- ed with thin membranaceous wings, covered by a pair of strong horny coverings, or shells. The order consists of thirty-two genera, o 3 188 ZOOLOGY. 1. Scarabeus. Brrtir. Antenne or horns clavate, the tips lamellate. Plate 3, fig. 1. Legs generally toothed ; body thick and compact. The Larve or grubs of this genus have six feet ; they ge- nerally live under the ground, and feed on the roots of grass and vegetables, and on the excrements of Animals; in the fly state they devour the foliage of trees, decaying wood, and various putrid and feetid substances. 2. Lucanus. Stac-Brette or Cuarrer. Antenne clavate, tips compressed, divided into lamelle on the inner side, _ Plate 3, fig. 2. jaws projecting beyond the head, toothed. In the grub state this genus is usually found in the hollows of decaying trees, feeding on the finer parts of the wood. The common Stag Pettle, L£.Cervus, is frequently seen in this country, and is the largest of the European Coleopterous Tusects. 3. Dermestes. Leatuer Bertie or Cuarrer. Antenne clavate ; dips perfoliate, the three last joints larger than the others; Plate 3, fig. 3. thorax convex, slightly marginated ; head retractile, or capable of being with- drawn beneath the thorax. This genus usually abounds in furs, skins, and other dry animal substances, and are particularly injurious to collec- tions of Natural History. 4. Ptinus. Antenne filiform, the three last joints longest Plate 3, fig. 4. thorax roundish, without any distinct margin; head retractile. ZOOLOGY. 199 This like the preceding genus, consists of small animals, but they are gifted with very destructive appetites ; some of the species in their larva and perfect state live in dry animal substances, others in old wooden furniture, or amongst books or papers, which they injure by innumerable perfora- tions. 5. Hister. Tips of the Antenne nearly solid, the lowest joint compressed and decurved, plate 3, fig. 5.; head retrac- tile ; mouth furnished with forceps ; wing-covers short- er than the body ; fore legs toothed. 6. Gyrynus. Guimmer-Cuarrer. Antenne clavate, stiff, shorter than the head, : plate 3, fig. 6.; eyes four, two situated above and two beneath the base of the antenne. This is an aquatic genus, and in common with all the water Beetles, fly only at night. 7. Pausus. Antenne of two joints, the upper very large, inflated, hooked, moveable; plate 3, fig. 7; head pro- jecting ; wing-covers flexile, deflected, truncate. 8. Byrrhus. Antenne: clavate, nearly solid, compressed, plate 3, fig. 8. Some of the species frequent houses, and are equally inju- rious to furniture and collections, with those of the genus Dermestes ; others frequent gardens, and may be found craw- ing about the stems and leaves of plants. 0 4 200 ZOOLOGY. 9. Silpha. Carrion Berttzt. Antenne thickening towards the tip; wéing-covers margined ; head prominent ; thorax flattened, margined. This genus, as its name imports, resides and feeds on de- cayiog aimals, as also under the rotting bark of trees. 10. Cassida. Antenne moniliform, fig. 9, plate 3; thorax and wing-sheaths margined; head concealed beneath the projecting shield of the thorax ; body oval, convex, beneath flat. Most of the species attach themselves to the leaves of plants, and may be met with in tolerable abundance in gardens, during the summer months. 41. Coccinella. Lavy-Birp. Antenne clavate ; tips solid ; fig. 10, plate 3; palpi four, the anterior two, hatchet shaped, the posterior ones filiform; body hemesphe- rical ; abdomen flattened. This elegant genus feeds on that destructive tribe of insects, the Aphides or plant lice. 42. Chrysomela. Antenne moniliform, thickening towards the tip; palpi six; thorae margined; body ovate, or eblong, convex. Me HG A very beautiful and numerous tribe, some of the indivi- duals may be found in almost every wood or garden; both ihe larve and mature insect feed on the leaves of plants. ZOOLOGY. 201 13. Hispa. Antenne spindle shaped, fig. 11, plate 3, ap- proximated at the base, growing between the eyes ; thorax and wing-covers mostly spiny. P 14. Bruchus. Antenne filiform ; head retractile; thorax lengthened forwards; wing-covers truncated, shorter than the body. 15. Curculio. Wervit. Antenne clavate; tips in some species bifid, fig. 12, plate 3, situated on the snout, which is horny and prominent. This isa very splendid tribe, the larve of some infest gra- naries, others may be found inside of Artichoke and Thistle flowers ; the whole genus feeds on the seeds or leaves of vegetables; one of the most common is C. nucum, the Nut Weevil, to this genus also belongs the insect generally known by the name of Diamond Beetle. 16. Atielabus. Antenne moniliform, thicker towards the tips ; fig. 13, plate 3, placed on the snout ; head pointed behind. 17. Cerambyx. Antenne slender, joints longish ; fig. 14, plate 3 ; thorax spinous or swollen ; wing-covers linear ; body oblong, Most of the Cerambices in the grub state, reside in the hollows of decaying trees, on the substance of which they feed, they nearly resemble the larve of the ‘Scarabez. In the fly state, many of them possess a great $09 ZOOLOGY. degree of beauty, they are exceedingly numerous, and though the general formation of the antennz are the same through- out, in some species they are short; that is, not of equal length with the body ; in others, they are termed moderate, or of the same length as the body, and Jong, when their length exceeds that of their bodies. 18. Leptura. Antenne setaceous, composed of an indefi- nite number of spherical joints ; fig. 15, plate 3; wing- covers tapering towards the tips; thorax slender, rounded. 19. Necydalis. Antenne setaceous ; wing-sheaths smaller, shorter or narrower than the wings or abdomen ; tail entire. 20. Lampyris. Firr-Fry, or Grow-Worm. Antenne filiform, in some species pectinated, in others plumose on one side, fig. 17, plate 3; wing-covers flexile ; thorax flat, semi-orbicular, surrounding and concealing the head ; abdomen having the sides plaited into papil- le ; in most species the females are wingless, and emit a feint light. 21. Cantharis. Antenne setaceous, or filiform; thorax margined, usually shorter than the head; wing-covers flexile ; abdomen plaited into papille on the sides. The insects in this genus are generally voracious, feeding on other insects, some few devour the leaves and stems of plants ; our native species may be found during the warne summer months, ow the stems of plants. ZOOLOGY. 208 22. Elator. Antenne setaceous, or pectinated, in some species assuming a fan-like appearance, fig. 18, plate 3, protruding from a grooye beneath the head; body oblong, the under side of the ¢horax terminating in an elastic spine, placed ina cavity of the abdomen: by means of this apparatus, the insect, when placed on its back, springs up and recovers its natural position. 23 Cincidella. Antenne setaceous; jaws prominent, toothed ; eyes projecting ; thorax roundish, margined. Mest species in this genus are extremely ferocious, devour- ing all other insects that they can overcome; their usual haunts aredry meadows, and sandy banks; and are only to be seen on wing during the hottest part of the day, while the sun shines. Their larve lurks in holes in the sand, and like the perfect insect, devours whatever insects it over- powers. 14. Bupertris. Antenne: slender, serrated, the length of the thorax ; head partly hid beneath the thorax. This is a most brilliant genus, many of the species rival- ing in brilliancy the most highly polished gold or copper, they feed on vegetable substances; their larve is found in decaying trees, and in timber. 25. Dyticus. Antenne setaceous ; hind-legs hairy, formed for swimming, and terminated by very minute claws. The whole of this genera are aquatic. S04 ZOOLOGY. 26. Hydrophilus. Antenne clavate, perfoliate, fig. 19, plate 3; hénd-legs as in the last genus. The insects of this and the preceding genus, are inhabi- tants of ponds, and stagnant waters; they swim with great dexterity; their hind legs are particularly fitted for their residence in the water, being thin and flat, and having the inner edges furnished with stiff hair-like appendages, which act as fins or oars; the males are distinguished from the females, by having a horny flap or shield on the fore legs, near the setting on of the feet. The larvx, (as is common with aquatic insects,) remain a long time in the imperfect state, some two to four years; they secrete themselves in holes in banks, and devour other insects, worms, and the young fry of fish: which they destroy by sucking out their juices. 27. Carabus. Antenne setaceous; thorax flat, subcor- date, margined ; wing-covers margined ; abdomen ovate. A numerous tribe of insects, exceedingly active; they devour the larve, and likewise all other insects they can overcome; their larve are found under-ground, or in decay- ing wood. 28. Tenebrio. Antenne moniliform, having the last joint rounded, fig. 20, plate 3; thorax plano-convex, mar- gined ; head projecting ; wing-covers stiffish. 29. Meloe. Antenne moniliform, the last joint ovate, fig. 21, plate 3; thorax roundish, wing-covers soft, flexile ; headinflected. ZOOLOGY. 205 30. Mordella. Antenne knotty, with small hook-like pro- jections from some.of the joints ; fig. 22, plate 3; head incurved ; feclers compressed, clavate, obliquely trun- cate ; wing-covers curving downwards towards the tip; lamina broad, situate at the base of the abdomen, and before the thighs. 31. Staphylinus. Antenne moniliform; wing-covers half the length of the bedy ; the wings folded up and covered by the sheaths ; tail simple, furnished with two exertile vesicles. These are a very rapacious tribe, devouring all kinds of insects, they can catch or master, and frequently one ano- ther; they also feed on earth-worms and slugs, and most kinds of putrid substances; their usual haunts are damp loathsome places, and sometimes they may be found on such plants as emit a foctid smell, or are of a dark lurid colour. 32. Forficula. Ear-Wic. Antenne setaceous; wings covers half the length of the abdomen ; wings hid by the covers ; ¢aé/ armed with forceps. This genus frequents moist ground, are very injurious to flowers and fruit, and may easily be taken by suspending any hollow substance ona plant or twig, as they retire in the day time to such retreats, and feed mostly during the night. 206 ZOOLOGY. ORDER II. HEMIPTERA. The individuals of this order are all furnished with wing covers of a softer texture, than those of the preceding ; these covers do not meet ina direct line, asin the Coleop- tere, but the base of the left wing covers the inner margin of the right; in some, the wings nearly cross at the tips; the mouth is either situated on the breast, or inclining towards it. 1. Blatta. Cocxroacu. Head inflected; antenna seta- ceous, and entire; plate 3, fig. 23; or setaceous and jointed, plate 3, fig. 24; wings and wing-covers flat, smooth, subcoriaceous ; ¢horaz flattish, orbicular, mar- gined ; feet formed for running; abdomen terminating in two or four spines. Many of this genus are exceedingly injurious, devouring most kinds of provisions, paper, Jeather, and vegetable substances; they are generally nocturnal insects, and are found in great abundance in bake-houses, and other warm places. ‘They are all killed without any external injury, by emersion in boiling water. 2. Mantis. Head unsteady; mouth furnished with jaws and feelers; antenne setaceous; thorax linear; wings four, membranaceous, convoluted; the lower pair plaited; fore-legs compressed, serrated beneath ; ZOOLOGY. 207 rmed with a single claw, and lateral jointed foot ; hind- legs smooth, formed for walking. The insects of this genus are of the most curious forms, some resembling leaves of plants, aad others, of shapes so strange, as to appear to be composed of parts of various insects. 3. Phasma. Head large; antennae filiform; eyes small rounded; stemmata between the eyes; wings four, membranaceous; the upper pair short; the lower, plaited ; feet formed for walking. 4. Gryllus. Locust. Head inflected ; furnished with jazws and palpi; antenne filiform, or setaceous ; wings four deflected, convoluted; the lower pair plaited ; hind- legs formed for leaping ; claws double on all the feet. In some of the warmer countries, this genera of insects are, of all the pests that mankind are subject to, the most injurious, destroying vegetables of every kind, and even from their numbers alone, constituting one of the heaviest afflictions that can happen toa country. The mischiefs done by the Blatte or Cockroaches, is trifling, compared with those of this destroying tribe, as the dreadful ravages com- mitted by the Locusts, are such, as to reduce the most fer- tile fields, to the appearance of barren deserts ; they devour the fruits, leaves, and even the buds and bark of trees; and have even been known to devour the reeds used in thatching the habitations of the natives, so unfortunate as to be visited by these devouring hordes. Most of the species possess 208 ZOOLOGY. either a considerable degree of beauty in colour, or singu- larity of form, and are much sought after by collectors, they may be destroyed without injury to their external appear- ance, by emersion in boiling water. Some of the species are eaten as food, by the inhabitants of the east. 5. Fulgora. Lantern-Fry. Head projecting, hollow, in« flected; antenne short, consisting of two joints; snout inflected ; feet formed for walking. _ This is a very singular genus, and are generally discover- able from the light they emit. 6. Cicada. Snout inflected; antenne short, setaceous ; wings four, membraneous, and deflected ; Jegs in most species formed for leaping. This genus of insects, feed on various kinds of plants; the grub or larve, is without wings ; in the pupa, the wings are very short; but in both states they are exceedingly active. The males are distinguishable by their loud chirping note, the females are quite mute. In the fly state, they are found on the leaves and stems of plants, and in the immature states, about the roots of grass and trees. 7. Notonecta. Snout inflected ; anfenne shorter than the thorax ; wings four, coriaceous on the upper half, and crossed over each other; hind-legs hairy, flat, formed for swimming. . This is an aquatic genus, residing in stagnant waters, and ZOOLOGY. 209 devouring small insects, and animalcule ; like the prece- ding, the pupa has the rudiments of wings, but the larve is apterous. $. Aepa. Warer-Scorrion. Snout inflected; wings four, cross-wise, coriaceous on the upper parts; fore-feet formed for swimming ; the others for walking. An aquatic genus, agreeing in habits with the preceding. 9. Cimex. Bue. Snout inflected ; antenna longer than the thorax ; wings four, folded, the upper pair coriaceous at their bases; back flat, with the thorax margined ; éegs formed for running. 10. Aphis. Puant-Louse. Snout inflected ; antenne longer than the thorax; wings either four, or wanting; feet formed for walking; abdomen mostly furnished with two horns or processes. There are but few plants that are not subject to the at« tacks of this minute tribe of animals; they frequent the leaves, stems, young stalks, and buds of plants, and’ trees = their economy was formerly little understood, but the late Mr. William Curtis, who made this curious family his particular study, has, in a paper published in the sixth volume of the Linnean Transactions, given their history, which is replete with highly interesting information. In this place we shall merely remark, that at an early period of the year, the young are produced alive, at another time, from an egg, and that the female once impregnated, continues to pro- P 210 ZOOLOGY. duce many successive generations, without further sexuat intercourse : some of both sexes are winged, and others, without wings. 11. Chermes. Snout situated on the breast; antfenne longer than the thorax; wings four, deflected ; thorax gibbous ; feet formed for walking and leaping. This genus like the preceding, inhabits the leaves and stems of plants, and by their punctures, produce excressences and protuberances of various sizes and shapes, which are generally found to enclose either the egg or imma- ture insect, in the larve state, it is six footed, and without wings ; and in the pupa, are two protuberances from the thorax, which are the rudiments of the future wings. 12. Cocous. Cocuinest-Insect. Snout pectoral ; antenne filiform ; abdomen bristly behind; wings in the male, iwo, upright; in the female, wanting. ' This tribe of insects abound in warm countries, and in England, are met with in great numbers, in hot and green houses, where they are exceedingly troublesome; the males are active, but the females are very inert, being generally fixed to different parts of plants. It is from a species of Coccus, that the colour so celebrated for its brilliancy, Car- mine ia extracted. 13. Thrips. Snout secreted within the mouth; antenne the length of the thorax ; plate 3, fig. 25 ; body linear ; abdomen inclining upwards; wings four, strait, long, ZOOLOGY. Ort incumbent on the back, narrower than the body, slight- ly crossing, orper II], LIPEDOPTERA. This order contains the most splendid of the Insect tribes, it is divided into three generas ; they all possess four farina- ceous wings, covered with very fine scales, laid one over another ; tongue spiral. The changes that this order undergo, we have particularly noticed in our introduction to the class. 1. Papilio. Buetterruy. Antenne thickening towards the extremity ; fig. 27, plate 3, generally terminating in a knob, or club-shaped tip: wings when at rest, usualiy elevated, and meeting at the edges; all this genera fly during the day. 2, Sphine. Hawx-Motu. Antenne thickest in the middle, fig. 28, plate 3, and pointed at the extremity; wings deflected : most of this class fly either inthe morning or evening. 3. Phalene. Morn. Antenne setaceous, plate 3, fig. 29, in some hairy, fig. 30, or pectinated, fig. 31, gradually lessening from the base to the tip; wings mostly deflexed when at rest ; flight nocturnal. Pee Qi? ZOOLOGY. orpER IV. NEUROPTERA. This order is distinguished by possessing four transparent reticulated wings, and the tail being unarmed ; most of the insects in this family are aquatic, residing in the water during their immature state, and resorting thereto in their perfect state. 1. Libellula. Dracon-Fry. Antenne short ; mouth fur- nished with several jaws ; wings expanded ; fail termi- nated in the male insect by a forked process. This genus is yery yoracious, they are found flying over, or in the vicinity of stagnant waters; their larve is six footed, very active, and ferocious, furnished with an articu- lated forcipated mouth; the pupa resembles the larve, but has the rudiments of wings; they feed on aquatic insects, and when mature on any winged insect they can overcome, generally taking their prey on wing. 2. Ephemera. Da¥-Fiy. Mouth without teeth or feelers ; stemmata two, very large, situated above the eyes ; wings erect, the upper pair considerably the largest ; tail terminating in long hair or bristles. In the mature state, this: is one of the shortest lived ani- mals, seldom surviving more than a day, in #ome species but ZOOLOGY. a Bs a few hours, and in others, less than one hour, during which time they propagate their species, and die. They aré all aquatic insects, in the imperfect state, like the preceding, living entirely in the water; the larve is six footed, active, is tailed, and is greedily devoured by trout, and other fish ; possesses lateral processes, or fins ; the pupa resembles the darva, except possessing the rudiments of the future wings. 3. Phryganea. Mouth without teeth; feelers four; stem- mata three; axtennaw setaceous, longer than the tho- rax 3 wings equal, incumbent, the lower pair plaited. The individuals of this genus bear a considerable resem- blance in their adult state, to some of the Phalens, but are distinguishable by their not possessing the spiral tongue : the larve is six-footed, and resides dt the bottom of shallow waters, in a case, composed of small pieces of straws, which are glued together by an exudation from the insect, the case is tubular; lined with silk-like filaments, and is open at each end ; they feed on aquatic insects, the spawn of fishes, as also on the young fry. 4. Hemerobius. Mouth furnished with two teeth ; palpi four; stemmata wanting; thorax convex; antenne longer than the thorax, in some species sctaceous; in others, pectinated on one side; fig. 31, plate 3; wings deflected, smooth, not plaited. The eggs of these insects are of a highly curious structure, r3 914 ZOOLOGY. being supported on a delicate stem, sometimes of half an inch in length, they. are usually attached to the leaves of plants, from these eggs the larve are shortly excluded, they are of an ovate form ; some kinds being hairy ; they possess six legs, and feed on the Aphides, or plant lice; the pupa is enveloped in a silkened case in its dormant state; the fly greedily devours the aphis, is very short lived; and when bruised, emits a very Strong unpleasant odour. 5, Myrmeleon. Mouth furnished with jaws; stemmata wanting; antenne clavated, the length of the thorax ; fig. 32, plate 3; wings deflected; tail of the male armed with forceps, consisting of two straitish fila- ments. Larva six-footed, ovate, hairy, with exerted toothed jaws ; in this state, it preys with great ferocity on ants, and small insects, to ensnare which, it forms a kind of pit-fall in the sand, under which it retires till aroused by the falling of the sand, when it rushes out and eagerly seizes the unfortu- - nate intruder: the pupa is enclosed in an agglutinated ball of sand or earth, lined with a silky web: in this state it remains about four weeks, when the perfect fly comes forth, which greatly resembles some of the smaller Libellule but is easily distinguished by its antenna. 6. Panorpa. Snout lengthened into a cylindrical horny proboscis; feelers two; stemmata three; antenne longer than the thorax ; ¢ai/ in the male, clawed. 7. Raphidia. Head depressed, horny ; mouth with two teeth; thorax long, cylindrical; stemmata three ; ZOOLOGY. 215 feelers four ; wings deflected; antenne the length of the thorax ; tail of the female terminated by a long re- curved bristle. 8. Termes. Mouth with two jaws; antenne@ setaceous ; eyes two; wings in males and females, but wanting in the neutrals; degs six, formed for running. The labours of the Termites, or White Ant, far surpass in extent and ingenuity, either the industry of the Bee, or the Beaver ; and the mischief they do to mankind is of so serious a nature, that scarcely any substances, but metal or stone,can resist their attacks; as they completely destroy ina single night, every article of wooden furniture, clothes, books, or leather, in a room, frequently not sparing either the floor or wains- cot; fortunately the temperate climes of Europe are not visited with these pests, but in all the tropical climates, they are very abundant, those that are natives of England, are generally found in woods, and particularly at the fall of the year, they may be met with on the trunks of large trees. For an interesting account of the mischiefs occasioned by these insects, see Mr. Smeathman’s account published in the Philosophical Transactions. ORDER V. HYMENOPTERA. Many of this order of [nsects in appearance bear a strong resemblance to some of the preceding, but may be mostly distinguished by their possessing a sting, which is not always rp 4 216 ZOOLOGY. venomous, but is used to pierce holes in substances proper for the nourishment of the young, when they have pierced the holes, they immediately deposit an egg therein. They all possess four membranaceous wings. 1. Cynips. Gauu-Fry. Mouth with jaws; antenne@ moni- liform; sting or piercer spiral, in some species con= cealed in the body. The excrescences so common on many vegetables, and known by the name of galls, are produced by the puncture of these insects; the larve is soft, cylindrical, without feet ; and inhabits the galls, feeding on juices of the tree; the pupa resembles the perfect fly, except in having only the rue diments of wings. | 2. Tenthredo. SAw-Fiy. Mouth with jaws ; wings tumid, flat; sting composed of two serrated laminz, which are nearly secreted. The larve of some of the species in this numerous genus, bears a strong resemblance to some of the caterpillars of the Lipedopterous Insects : but are distinguishable by the num- ber of the feet, which are neyer fewer than sixteen, exclu- sive of the thoraic pairs; the larve feed on the leaves of plants, and the pupa is enclosed in a strong gummy case, retiring in the autumn, and the perfect fly emerges early in the ensuing spring. The serrated sting is used by the female in the manner of a saw, to make incisions in the twigs or stems of plants, where it deposits its eggs. ZOOLOGY. 27 8, Sirex. Mouth furnished with two strong jaws; feelers two, truncated; antenne filiform, with more than twenty-four joints; péercer exerted, stiff, serrated ; abdomen sessile, pointed ; wings lanceolate, flat, the lower pair shorter. 4, Ichneumon. Mouth with jaws; tongue wanting; anten- ne setaceous, with more than thirty joints ; abdomen sessile : piercer with a cylindrical exerted bivalve sheath. All these animals deposit their eggs in the bodies of living Insects; the larve feeding on the juices of the unfortunate animals, but not affecting the vital parts, so that they are con- stantly supplied with proper nutriment; generally turning into the Chrysalis state, previous to the death of the insect on which they were hatched. 5. Sphex. Mouth with jaws; tongue wanting; antenne of ten joints; wings flat, incumbent, not plaited, (in each sex ;) sting venomous, concealed in the abdomen. The females of the last genus deposit their eggs in the bodies of living animals ; by this, the eggs are deposited in the bodies of dead ones; by means of their sting they over- come insects otherwise too large for them to master; they are very savage and rapacious, preying on any insects that are so unfortunate as to come in their way; the larve is footless, and the pupa possesses the rudiments of wings. 6. Chrysis. Mouth with jaws; antenna filiform with the first joint lengthened, the remaining eleven, short; fig. 218 ZOOLOGY. 33, plate 3; abdomen arched beneath, with a lateral scale oneach side ; ¢adl toothed; sting pungent, nearly concealed ; wings flat. Body with golden and _pris- matic reflections. 7. Vespa. Wasr. Mouth with jaws; antenne filiform, the first joint longer, and cylindrical ; fig. 34, plate 3; eyes lunated; body smooth; sting concealed: upper wings plaited. The species of this genus mostly live in societies, con- structing cellular nests or combs, generally under ground, in a hole in asloping bank, or beneath the roots of trees, they feed on flies, bees, and other insects, on flesh, meal, fruit, and sweet substances; the larve is soft, without feet, and feeds on honey. 8. Apis. Bex. Mouth furnished with jaws, and an inflected proboscis, with two biyalve sheaths ; wings flat, with out folds: sting in the female and neuter insects, con- cealed : the male is without sting. The wconomy of some of this tribe is so generally known, as to render any detail unnecessary in this place, it may be sufficient to say, that most of the species live in large societies, in nests, composed of waxen cells ; some few are solitary ; they feed on honey, and the necta- riferous juices of flowers and fruit ; the larvais soft, and with- out feet; the pupa resembles the perfect insect. 9. Formicula. Ant, or Emmet. Ilead large: antenne ZOOLOGY. 219 filiform, defracted; mouth with large jaws; feelers four, unequal ; ‘horax narrow behind, with a small up- right scale between it and the abdomen, which is ° nearly round ; females and neuters furnished with a concealed sting. Males and females winged, neuters without wings. This genus of insects is proverbially industrious, and like the two preceding genera, is composed of males, females, and neutrals, they live together in large societies, and from the depredations they commit in many of the warm countries, are objects of considerable dread. They feed on animal and vegetable substances, and are particularly fond of sweets, the larve are without feet ; what are generally termed Ants eggs, are the insects in the pupa state. 10. Mudilla. Antenne filiform, in some species sickle- shaped, fig. 36, plate 3; thorax downy, retuse behind ; wings wanting in most species ; sting convealed. These insects nearly resemble the Ants, living in a similar manner, and nearly corresponding in general habits. ORDER VI... D LET Eke A. This order is distinguished from the foregeing, by posess- ing only two wings, under each of which is placed a smail protuberance or poiser, with a small projecting scales $90) ZOOLOGY. 1, Oestrus. Gan-Fiy. Antenne three jointed, the middle one globular, short, deeply seated; fig. 37, plate 3; face broad, depressed; mouth a simple aperture not projecting ; feelers two, sunk two-jointed; Jail . inflected. This genus is exceedingly troublesome to horses, cattle, and sheep, in the skins of which they deposit their eggs ; which soon change into larve, that feed under the skin of living animals ; the larve are soft, smooth, annulate, with- out feet, and in most species furnished with hook-like apen- dages. ! 2. Tipula. Crane-Fry. Mouth arched over, by the upper jaw extending from the head; antenne filiform, short ; feelers two, recurved, filiform, longer than the head ; mouth furnished with a very short recurved proboscis. Many species of this genus resemble Gnats, they feed on various substances ; larve without feet, soft and cylindrical ; pupa cylindrical, horned; some species reside amongst the roots of aquatic vegetables, others, among grass ; but by far the greater number are aquatic. The perfect flies are found in abundance in the autumnal months. 3. Diopsis. Antennw very small, setaceous; eyes placed on very long foot-stalks. 5. Musca. Fry. Antenne very short; palpi wanting; mouth furnished with a soft fleshy proboscis, with two equal lateral lips. ZOOLOGY: 22) 5. Tabanus. Mowih with a fleshy strait proboscis, termi- nating in two equal dips : antenne short, placed near together ; in some species furnished with a projecting tooth near their bases; rostrum with two pointed feelers, situated on each side, and parallel to the pro- boscis. Many of this tribe greatly resemble the last genus, they are exceedingly troublesome to various kinds of Quadrupeds, feeding on the blood which they suck out through their pro- boscis ; their larve are found in moist grass places. 6. Culex. Guat. Antenne filiform, in some species simple, in others, beautifully feathered ; either in whorls, as at fig. 38, or simply feathered, as fig. 39, plate 3; mouth consisting of setaceous piercers contained within a flex- ible sheath. These well known insects derive their subsistence in the manner of the preceding genus, by sucking the blood of large animals ; in the larve state they are aquatic, and feed on the, smaller kinds of water insects, which abound in stagnant waters ; they are of very singular forms, and are objects particularly suited for the Microscopic observer. 7. Empis. Antenne setaceous, in others formed of three joints, the first of which is lanceolate, fig. 40, plate 3; mauth formed of a horny inflected bivalve snou¢ longer than the thorax. i These insects liye like the preceding genera, by sucking out the blood of other animals. 999 ZOOLOGY. 8. Conops. Antenna varying in different species ; in some feathered, others, clavate, with a projecting bristle, fig. 41, plate 3; mouth with a projecting jointed proboscis. 9. Asilus. Antenne filiform, of three articulations, figs. 42, 43, plate 3; mouth furnished witha strait, horny, two valved snout. These insects feed principally on the smaller kinds of dips terous, and lepidopterous insects. 10. Bombylius. Antenne of two joints, fig. 44, plate 3; mouth furnished with a very long strait, setaceous, bivalve trunk, with horizontal valves, including setace- ous piercers. 11. Hippobosca. Horse-Fry. Antenne filiform; mouth with a two valved cylindrical snout ; body depressed ; feet armed with several claws. orpER VII. APTERA. The various. genera composing this order, are of such varied forms, that no general characters can be affixed, ex- cepting that none of the order possess wings. 1. Lepisma. Mouth with two setaceous, and two capitated feelers; antenne setaceous; body imbricated with minute scales ; fail terminated with diverging setaceous bristles; legs six, formed for running. ZOOLOGY. 223 In their various stages these insects are found on sweet substances, decaying fruit, and wood; the larva and pupa are six-footed, and very active. 2. Podura. Antenne setaceous, elongated, in some three, and others four jointed; palpi sub-clavate; body scaly, eyes two, each composed of four facets or lenses ; tact forked, bent under the body, by means of which the animals leap; Jegs six, formed for running. This genera, consists of small insects, their haunts are usually in damp places, under stones, in the crevices of the bark of trees, and such like places; they are very active, and feed on the leaves of plants, the larve and pupa, are six- footed, active, and resemble the perfect insects. 3. Pediculis. Louse. Antenne as long as the thorax ; mouth furnished with a retractile recurved piercer ; ab- domen depressed ; legs six, formed for walking. This isa very extensive genus, of very remarkable forms, but having no claims to elegance or beauty ; they live by extracting animal juices; the larva and pupa are six-footed, active, and nearly resemble the perfect insect. 4, Pulex. Fira. ~ Antennae moniliform, declining ; g 3 mouth with an inflected, cylindrical, setaceous snout, including a piercer ; eyes two; abdomen compressed; legs six, formed for leaping. The egzs of this genus are of a white colour, and are ge- 224 ZOOLOGY. nerally deposited on the skins of some other animal, from these in a short time the larvz are hatched, which are desti- tute of feet; of a lengthened form, and thickly beset with hair ; their larye are often found in the nests of birds, attach- ed to the young brood, on the juices of which they feed; in a few days they arrive at ful! growth, and then change into the chrysalis state, the pupa is enveloped in a cotton like case, these remain a longer or shorter time in this state, ac- cording to the season of the year, in warm weather about twelve days is the usual time ; when the perfect insect is then developed. 5. Acarus. Mitre. Palpi two jointed, shaped like the legs; eyes two, situated on each side of the head ; legs eight. The larger number of the Acari, are amongst the most minute of the insect tribes, they feed on various substances, but mostly on those in a state of decay ; some of the larger kinds, as that well known insect the Tick, live on the juices of other animals; so numerous is this tribe, that perhaps it is not too much, to say, that, almost every animal has some one peculiar to the species. 6. Hydrachna. Head, thorax, and abdomen united ; feel- ers two, jointed ; eyes two, four, or six; legs eight, ciliate, formed for swimming. An aquatic genus, feeding on the larve of various other aquatic insects. ZOOLOGY. bo 4a) 7. Phalangium. Head furnished with cheliform feelers ; eyes, two vertical, and two lateral ; abdomen rounded ; legs eight. This genus bear a considerable resemblance to the Araneae, several of the species being commonly known by the name of long legged spiders, particularly the P. Opilio, or Harvest Spider; they prey on smaller insects. 3. Aranea. Spiper. Mouth furnished with two horny hooked jaws ; feelers two, jointed, in the female very sharp pointed; in the male club shaped ; eyes six or eight; anfenne wanting; abdomen terminated with pepille or teats, through which the Insect draws out its web. But few animals are beheld with greater disgust than Spiders: in every stage of their existence they prey with the most unrelenting ferocity, on every animal they can overs come, not sparing their own kinds. 9. Scorpio. Scorrion. Body ovate, elongated ; eyes eight $ three on each side of the thorax, and two on the back : legs eight ; frontal claspers or hands two ;on the under- side between the thorax and the abdomen, are two pec~ tinated processes ; tail elongated, jointed, and terminated by a sharp crooked sting or piercer, having two valves, beneath near the tip. All the species of this genus are armed with a poisonous sting, but are not esteemed dangerous, except seme of the @ 996 ZOOLOGY. larger species, inhabiting warm climates: they are viviparous, and change their skins iu the manner of Spiders. 10. Cancer. Cras. Legs eight, sometimes six or ten; besides two chelated hands ; eyes two, distant, gene- rally pedunculated, elongated, and moveable; tail jointed, unarmed. This genus is divided into Crabs, having a roundish flatt- ened body: Lobsters, with the body elongated ; tail move- able ; chelate claws, two, flattened, furnished with a move- able thumb: Cray-Fish, with an elongated spinous body, tail moveable, chelate claws four-sided. ‘These animals feed on all kinds of animal substances either fresh or putrid ; they annually change their shells. 11. Monoculus. Legs four or eight, very long; formed for swimming ; body covered by a crustaceous tegument ; eyes in most species approximated, and imbedded in the shell. Most of this genus are small aquatic insects, scarcely dis- coyerable but with the microscope, some few are large, and the largest of the Insect tribe, is found in this genus, the M. Polyphemus, which has been known to measure two feet in length, exclusive of the tail; in those species, said to possess only one eye, (from whence the generic name, ) the two eyes are so approximated, as to appear single. Food as the last. 12. Oniscus. Woop-Lousr. Jaws truncate; antenne seta- ceous; body oval; /egs fourteen. ZOOLOGY. 227 Food, animal and vegetable substances; these cast their shells or skins like the preceding genera. 13. Scolopendra. Crntirrpe. Antenne setaceous; body depressed, elongated ; /egs numerous, equalling in num- ber the segments of the body on each side; feelers two, setaceous. These are a disgusting tribe, frequenting dark and noisome places, as under stones, or in decaying wood, some few are found in fresh, and fewer in salt water, they prey on other insects, and decaying anima! substances. 14. Julus. Antenne moniliform ; palpt two, jointed ; body nearly round ; degs very numerous ; feet twice as many as the segments of the body on each side. This genus is found abundantly in the decaying mould within hollow trees, and particularly abound in putrid fungi; when disturbed, they roll thémselves up in a spiral form. All the genera in this order, are instantly killed by emersion in spirits. We shall now proceed to the methods of collecting Insects, which are of two kinds, by breeding them from the egg or Caterpillar, or by catching them in their perfect or fly state. Of these, the former is much to be preferred, as besides the pleasure arisiug from observing their gradual developement froin the egg to the perfect Fly, we can destroy them previous to their having injured themselves by flight or etherwise; the difficulty of procuring the most beautiful and Q 2 998 ZOOLOGY valuable of the Lipedopterous class, in their fly state, makes this method the most eligible. Insects of the Coleoptera class, are found in the grub or eaterpillar state, (in which they are often extremely injurious to the Agriculturist,) at the roots of trees and plants, or in the decaying hollows of trees, and may be reared as directed for the Lipedoptera, paying attention to their peculiar kinds of food. This class of Insects are easily obtained in their perfect state; some crawl about and fly in the day time, while the sun shines warm, others, like the moths, only appear in the evening ; they inhabit a great variety of places, some, the decaying hollows of trees, as the Stag Beetle, and many of the Cerambyces; others, the dung of various animals, some reside in putrid bodies, as the Sylpha Vespillo; numbers are found on the stems and leaves of plants, as the Scarabews Melolontha, the Cock-Cuarrer ; Coccinella, Lapvy-Birrv; Chrsomele, Curculiones, &c.; others delight in the flowers of plants; some abide entirely in woods, as many of the Cerambyces ; and they are often found in considerable numbers under the bark of decaying trees, some are found on the surface of stagnant waters, or on the stems of aquatic plants; others in pools, ditches, ponds, and the like; some are discoverable by the light they emit, as Lampyris Noctiluca, the Guow- Worm, and a vast number are to be found on dry path-ways, sandy banks, and sand pits, particularly when the sun shines warm. As this class of Insects are not liable to injury by being carried a distance, the best mode is to have a number of com- mon pill boxes, into which they may be put, and when the collector returns home, they may be instantly destroyed ZOOLOGY. 299 without any external injury, by being immersed in boiling water. When dead, the Insect shouldbe stuck through with a pin of the proper size, close to the suture that runs down the middle of the back, so as to make the pin pass a sufficient length through the body, and then secured on a piece of smooth cork, their legs and horns are to be placed in a natural position, by means of a pair of forceps, or fine tweezers, and should be kept so by the assistance of thin pieces of card-paper, as more fully directed for the class Lipedoptera; in which state when dry, they will ever afterwards remain ; care should be taken not to place them in the store box, till thoroughly dry ; indeed it would be well to place all insects in a gently heated oven, of such a temperature, that when a hair or feather is placed within, it will not curl up. Many of the Beetles are furnished with beautifully veined wings, which, when carefully dis- tended, add much to the interest of a collection, these wings, which are curiously folded together, beneath the shells or horny covers, should be carefully drawn out with the forceps, and kept so with slips of card paper, as repre- sented at A plate 3. It frequently happens, that Insects received from abroad, arrive in this country ina yery bad state, with regard to setting, this may be rectified by placing them within the influence of steam for a short time, when their wings and legs will become flexible, and they may then be adjusted, as in recent specimens. The Insects in the class Hemiptera, may be killed either by emersion in boiling water, or with a few drops of spirits of turpentine, and they should be set in the same manner as the preceding class. Many of the genera are found in fields, meadows, and on the leaves of trees, as the Mantis ; a 3 230 ZOOLOGY. Gryllus, Locust or Grass-Horrer ; Fulgora, or LANTERN- Bry: the Gryllus domesticus, or House-Cricket, is found in numbers, in bake-houses, and kitchens, particularly where there are ovens; the Cicadz, are found on trees and plants, the Notonecta and Nepa, in stagnant waters; and the genus Aphis on trees and plants of various kinds. Insects of the Lipedopterous class, from their elegance of form and beauty of colours, being most sought after by the young Entomologist, we shall enter more into detail with respect to the capture, rearing and peserving of them, and these instructions, with but few variations, will answer for the generality of Insects. Most of the genus Sphinx, or Hawk Moths, are but seldom seen in the fly state, and when seen on wing, generally elude the swiftest pursuit ; but in the Caterpillar state, are often found and easily taken. TheCaterpillar of theJessamineHawk Moth, the largest and one of the most beautiful species of Moth this country preduces, is frequently found feeding on the Jessamine and Potatoe ; ofthe Elephant Hawk Moth, on the Galium palustre, or white Ladys Bedstraw, the Eyed Hawk Moth, on the Willow ; the Lime Hawk Moth, on the Lime ; Privet Hawk Moth, on the Privet ; the Poplar Hawk Moth, on the Poplar ; the Emperor Moth, on the Briarand Black- thorn, and in this manner, of numerous others. Besides the method of collecting Caterpillars, by attentively exa- mining the leaves and other parts of trees at various periods of the year; many valuable ones may be obtained by beating the boughs of trees with long poles, and spreading a large sheet underneath for their reception, by this means ZOOLOGY. 231 caterpillars may be caught, which would with great difficulty be obtained by any other method. Caterpillars should be handled as little as possible, the more hairy ones are the least liable to injury from it. It will be necessary to carry a box for their reception, which should be partly filled’ with leaves, to prevent their being in- jured in carrying, this box should not be new, as the smell of new wood is frequently fatal to them, it will be well to have a part of the lid or sides cut out and covered with fine gauze, as it will then be less likely to injure them. The caterpillars once obtained, the next endeavour is to rear them; for which purpese they are to be supplied with some of the plant they are found feeding upon; although many, perhaps most, live on a variety of food, the larger part are attached to some particular kind, deprived of which, they frequently pine and perish. To save the trouble of supplying them with fresh food daily, some sprigs of the tree or plant may be put into a wide mouthed bottle, filled with water, and the caterpillars placed on them. Most plants will remain in the vials fresh,’ for three or four days; the glass with the Caterpillars and their food, is to be placed inthe Breeding Box, represented . onthe plate 6, fig. 1. andasupply of fresh food is to be given them as soon as the former appears in the least withering. After they are arrived at their full growth, they decline eating, and either immediately or very soon change into the Chrysalis state ; previous to which Butterflies spin a small 7 a4 232 ZOOLOGY. web, just sufficient to suspend themselves by ; many Moths, like the Silk-Worm, spin a large web, in which they enwrap themselves; and a great number burrow into the earth, where they either spin a case, or change without any spin- ning; as do most of the Hawk Moths: it will therefore be necessary to cover the bottom of the box with fine mould, to the depth of several inches, and to keep it constantly moist. Previous to going into the chrysalis, Caterpillars generally lose their brilliancy of colour, and some rove about for a considerable time. After remaining in the Chrysalis state till near the time of their coming forth, such as are inclosed ina hard case or shell, as the Puss, and Oak Moths, &c., are to be carefully freed from it, as the aperture which the Insect naturally makes, is often so small as not to permit it to pass out without injury to its plumage. Butterflies and Moths may be found in the Chrysalis state, under projections of Garden walls, pales, in Summer and Out houses, and frequently attached to their food. | + Ditto Ditto Ditto. J : | > Ditto, Ditto, Ditto. J ‘\ Monogynia, Digynia, Trigynia, Tetragynia, Pentagynia, Polygy- Nt ZOOLOGY. 981 CLASSES. ORDERS. 6. Hexanpria. This class 7 consists of five orders. Six stamens ineach flower. Monogynia, Dygynia, Distinguishabie from the Trigynia, Tetragynia, plants inclass XVI by the Pentagynia. stamens being all of equal length. > 7. Heptanpria. This class c ‘ Monogynia, Digynia, Tetragynia, Hepta- gynia. consists of four orders. Seven stamens in each flower. 8. OcranpriA. This class con- > Monogynia, Digynia, tains four orders. Eight ‘i Trigynia, Tetragy- stamens in each flower. Nt. 9. ENNEANDRIA. This class ’ contains three orders,— | Monogynia, Trigynia, Nine stamens in each ( Hexagynia. flower. © 10. Decanpria. This class contains five orders. Ten | stamens in each flower. The plants of this are dis- tinguishable from those belonging to class XVII, by the stamens being all ) separate. Monogynia, Digynia, > Trigynia, Pentagy- | nia, Decagynia. 282 BOTANY. CLASSES. ; ORDERS. 11. Doprcanpria. This class 7 contains five orders. This Monogynia, Digynia, consists of such flowers as t Trigynia, Pentagy- bear fromTwelve to Nine- | nia, Dodecagynia. ‘teen stamens. 12. IcosANpRIA. This class contains five orders. This a class consists of such flowers as bear more than Twelve stamens,which are attatched to the Petals or Calyx, and not to the re- Monogynia, Digynia, >» Trigynia, Pentagy- ia, Polygynia. ceptacle. Notany of the Tay ts Orde te plants belonging to this class are known to be poi- sonous; but many kinds J produce edible fruits. 13. PonyAnpriA. Seven onan in this class. | Twenty to a Thousand, Monogynia, Digynia, which are affixed to the Trigynia, Tetragy- Receptacle, in which re- nia, Pentagynia, spect they differ from the Hexagynia, Poly- Jast class; as likewise gynia. being for the greater a poisonous. 14. DipyNAMIA. 15. BOTANY. ‘ GLASSES. This fwo orders.— class contains Stamens Four, two on long and two on shorter filaments ; from which circumstance the plants are readily distinguished from those of class LV. This class contains two orders. TETRADYNAMIA. Stamens Six, Four long which distinguishes these plants from those of class VI. and Two short, —= po pp SN iy f L 283 ORDERS. Gymnospermia, in which the seeds, four innum- ber, are naked, and placed at the bottom of the calyx; most of the plants in this ore der are aromatic, and may be eaten with safety : —Angoisper- mia, in which the seeds and contained in a com. are numerous, mon pericarp, or seed Many of the plants in this order are poisonous. vessel, Siliculosa, in which the seed vessel is a small round, inflated or flat pod: Szliquosa, seed vessel a long cylindri- cal or flattened pod. The flowers of all this class produce four petals, which are placed crossways; and not any of them possess noxious qualities. 16. Monapevpnia. This class contains eight orders.— Stamens all connected by their filaments at the base. f | SAS a Triandria, Pentandria, Octan- Enneandria. Heptandria, dria, Decandria, Dodecan- dria, Polyandria. 284 17 DiIApDELPHIA. BOTANY, CLASSES. This class contains four orders.— Stamens in two setts. All the plants of this class have Papilionaceous, or Butterfly-shaped flowers, which distin- guishes them from those of class X. Not any of this class are known to readily be possessed of noxious qualities. 18. Potypreteuia. This class 19. SYNGENESIA. contains four orders.— Stamens in several de- tached bundles. This class contains five orders. The flowers are all compound, that is, the common calyx contains a number of florets, which in the first order are all perfect: in the second the florets of the disk are perfect, and those of the order radius, only Pistiliferous: the third has the florets of the disk perfect, and those | | | ORDERS. Pentandria, Hexandria, Octandria, Decandria. Decandria, Dodecan- dria, Icosandria, Po- lyandria. Polygamia — equalis ; Polygamia superflua; Polygamia frustra- nea; Polygamia ne- cessaria; Polygamia > segregatd. : 20. P23 (6 _ The character BOTANY. CLASSES. of the radius without ) either Anther or Pistil : the fourth contains such plants as have the florets of the disk Stameniferous, and of the radius Pistile- the fifth and last order, is ferous: composed of plants producing many florets, ail of which are contained in one common calyx, besides which each floret has one calyx pecu- liar to itself. This class four GYNANDRIA. contains orders, and is distinguished by the stamens growing on the pistil, or ona recep- tacle that supports both Stamens and Pistil. Monacra. This class eleven orders. of the class is, that not anyof the contains flowers are perfect, but and Pis- tileferous flowers are pro- Stameniferous -——-. -————- L.-J et en duced on the same plant. "re 285 ORDERS, Monandria, Diandria, Triandria, Hexan- dria. Monandria, - Diandria, Triandria, Tetrandia, Pentandria, Hexan- dria, Heptandria, Po- lyandria, Monodel- phia, Syngynesia,Gy- nandria. BOTANY. CLASSES. ORDERS. Monandria, Diandria, 22. Dicica. This class con- Triandria, Tetran- tains fourteen orders.— dria, Pentandria, The class is composed of | Hexandria, Octan- such plants as produce }» dria, Enneandria, Stameniferous flowers on one plant, and Pistilife- rous ones on another. Decandria, Dodecan- dria, Polyandria, Monadelphia, Synge- nesia, Gynandria. 23. Poryeamia. This class three This class consists of such contains orders. plants as produce Perfect flowers, as also Stameni- ferous and Pistiliferous flowers. In those of the first order, these three kinds of flowers are pro- duced on one plant, in Monecia, Diecia, Triccia. we Gee in the second on two plants, and in the last order each kind is on a distinct plant. | Filices, Musci, Alge, Fungi. 24. CryprocamiA. This class contains four orders. The distinguishing characters of this class are, that flowers are either wanting, or so exceedingly small as not to be dis- coverable to the eye, unassisted by the Microscope ; and they are destitute of those parts considered as essential to the per- fecting of Seedin the plants contained in the other classes. BOTANY. 987 Having briefly explained the classes and orders, we shall pro- ceed to state what are the component parts of perfect plants, or such as produce flowers. The Root, which generally penetrates into the earth, from which it derives its nourish- ment, by absorbing moisture, &c., and by which the plant is fixed, and has stability ; the Stem or trunk, which in opposi- tion to the root, is ascending, and mostly supports or pro- duces the leaves and flowers. The parts comprising a com- plete or perfect flower, are, Ist, The Calyx or cup containing the flower, this, though mostly accompanying, is not essen= tially requisite to the producing perfect seed. 2nd, Corolla or Flower, this is what is usually known by the term flower, and is either composed of one entire, or of several parts or petals, is often beautifully coloured, and possesses an exqui- site fragrance ; the corolla is not essential to the formation of perfect seed. 3rd, Anthers or Stamens, these are in the Linnean system considered as the male parts of flowers, and are necessary to the production of perfect seed. 4th, Pistil, this is considered as the female part of the plant, is placed on the summit of the seed vessel, and without it the flower is unproductive. 5th, Pericarpium or Seed Vessel, this is mostly the base of the Pistil, though not essential to the per- - fecting of seed. 6th, Seed, these contain the rudiments of the future plants, and are either contained in the Pericarp, or lieat the bottom of the Calyx. 7th, Receptacle or base, on which the parts of fructification are seated ; the first four of these parts apertain properly to the flower, and the remain- ing three to the fruit. Plants are a kind of organized bodies, endued with certain perceptive properties, but destitute of the power of loco- 288 BOTANY. motion ; some fiowers close or the approach of moisture, it others the leaves only possess this power; many kinds fold or curl upthe petals of their flowers at the close of the day, and expand them with the rising morn; a large variety only expand their fiowers in the middle of the day, and while the sun shines ; and should the season at which they usually bloom, be wet and cold, numbers never unfold their flowers, notwithstanding which their seed is perfected. As plants do not possess the power of moving from the spot where they first root, it would seem a circumstance of course, that their seed should produce abundance of ie same kind ail around the parent plant; but this is by no means a constant occurrence; the seed-vessels of many plants open with so great a degree of elasticity, as to throw their seed to a very considerable distance ; a large number of seeds are furnished with plumes or wing-like appendages, which when they are discharged from the pericarp, supports them in air, and they are wafied by every breath, till reaching some sheltered spot they vegetate, and form a new colony; Numerous kinds of seeds are covered with pulpy substances, these are devoured by various kinds of birds, who, having digested the pulp, pass the seeds unconcocted, and as these have not had the vital principal impaired, they readily vegetate; some kinds of seeds are provided with hooks, spines, or other ap= pendages, which cause them to attach to the skins and furs of Animals, and they are by this means widely distributed, It is observable that most plants that encrease greatly by their roots, do not produce much seed, and frequently what is produced is not perfect ; thus, though nature seems foiled in the one instance, the plant does not perish, as the roots of BOTANY. 289 such plants as encrease by bulbs or tubers, rarely fail of annually adding to the stock ; besides which numerous sorts grow from twigs, or small branches, which being broken from the parent, fall to the ground, where they soon root, and thus a succession is provided. Succulent plants possess the vital principle in so high a degree, that many will survive months, without earth or water; the living principle is not in these confined to the root or the stem, but almost every part possesses it, so, that a single. leaf laid on the ground, will soon root, and from it will rise a numerous progeny. Many parasitical plants, natives of hot climates pos- sess this property in a very extraordinary way, we have known a tuberous leaf of a species of Epidendrum, brought from South America, suspended from the roof of a cabin by a thread, and in this manner arrive in England ; on the voyage it produced flowers, and at the time we saw it, a fresh spike of flowers was just appearing, from which a figure was afterwards given in one of the Botanical Periodical pub- lications. This mode of conveying tubers is worthy of remem- brance, as this tribe of vegetables being mostly parasitical, they are with difficulty preserved if placed in mould, when the latter modeis attempted, care should be taken to surround the tubers with pieces of bark, into which they will often root. Some plants will retain their vegetative powers by being buried in dry sand, and kept from the air ina cool situation, as most Bulbs; other kinds may be placed in damp Moss, first having the roots enveloped with moss so as to forma ball, and thea completely covered with damp moss; many cuttings of trees will bear transporting in this way 3 succulent plaats, as Aloes, Stapelias, Mesembryanthemums, U 990 BOTANY: ~ &c., should be suffered to dry for a few days, and may then be loosely packed in a box without moss; many of them will live in this state for four, six, or eight months. In procuring the seeds of foreign plants, care should be taken that they are perfectly dry, they should be packed in coarse brown paper, with but few seeds in each parcel, and the different parcels stowed into small tin boxes or canisters, the lids or covers of which should be soldered or cemented on, the more effectually to avoid the attacks of insects, and the admission of air ; such kinds of seeds as are encased in hard shells, do not require these precautions but the less all the sorts are exposed to the air, the more proba- bility there will be of their vegetating. Various experiments have been made of substances to pack seeds in, as Sugar, Raisins, enveloping the seeds in warm wax, packing them n cerate papers, &c.; but the grand secretis to procure them sound and dry, and to pack them in sucha manner as to exclude fresh air, which eventually dries up their juices ; and what is of equal consequence, is, that the seeds be planted as soon as each parcel is opened, as.one hours ex- posure being in many cases sufficient to destroy a whole package. As we derive so much from vegetables; it behoves the Traveller and Philanthrophist, to enquire and ascertain the properties of such as are in request in other countries, either for food or medicine, for the purpose of dyeing, or for mechanical or agricultural purposes ; as practical informa- tion on these points may be of incalculable advantage. In pursuing enquiries relative to grain, culinary or eseulent BOTANY. 291 vegetables, the times and seasons of planting, sowing, and reaping, should be carefully ascertained, as from the want of information of this kind we frequently lose the advantage that might otherwise accrue from the introduction of exotic plants. The particular soils and kinds of manure suitable or favourable to their increase, should also be noticed; as like- wise what animals are particularly injurious to the crops, and what modes are adopted to prevent or repel their attacks. The agricultural operations of foreign countries, weil merit the particular attention of the Traveller, both with respect to the subjects cultivated, and to the purposes to which they are applicable ; the quantities of seed apportioned to an acre of ground; the modes of sowing it ; the average number of hands employed on any given quantity of land; the modes of weeding or cleansing the crops ; of ploughing, harrowing, irrigating, scarifying, and paring of land, should likewise be ascertained ; as also the plans of mowing, reaping, or other- wise collecting and housing the crops, with the particular methods practised for thrashing or freeing the various seeds from their husks or chaff, or for preparing any vegetable sub- stances for manufacture,as Hemp, Flax, Cotton, &c. Answers to these queries will with great probability be attended with advantage. As the introduction of a vegetable of equal value with the Potatoe, would form an object of the highest national importance, Travellers cannot more essentially serve their country, than by ascertaining the kinds, and pro- curing seeds or plants of the various culinary or esculent ve- getables, in use in other countries; as by their introduction, an addition will be made to our present stock of focdful plants, which is of far greater importance than the introduc- u 2 992 BOTANY. tion of a whole forest of tropical flowers; which though beautiful, and highly interesting, are still of comparatively trifling value. Of the-timber trees common to other coun- tries, their size, age of attaining maturity, and durability, should be ascertained, with the purposes to which from the texture of the wood they are applicable ; if for ship timber, for building, for agricultural or domestic purposes ; if capa- ble.of receiving a fine polish, or likely to be of use for the purpose of inlaying; if any dye is afforded ; if the wood or bark is applied medicinally, and if so, how prepared, and ad- ministered ; if they produce nuts or seeds, useable as food, or for the purpose of extracting oii; if the husk like that of the Cocoa Nut, is used for domestic purposes; whether Pitch, Tar, Turpentine, Resin, or Gums of any kinds are naturally produced, or extracted ; if they afford Sugar, or from any natural or artificially caused exudation, a vinous or spirituous extract is afforded; numerous other queries of this nature will probably arise in the mind of the observing Naturalist, which he will do well to have resolved, enough having been said inthis place, to turn his attention to these subjects. As a considerable difficulty arises in determining the par- ticular species of Tree, without specimens of the wood, (we do not mean botanically) small pieces should be obtained, cut to one size, say six inches long, by three wide and thick, these being all of equal dimensions, will conveniently pack, and be of sufficient magnitude to ascertain their qualities, particularly the ornamental kinds; when obtained, they should be suffered to dry gradually, and when perfectly so, may be coated over with varnish, which will mostly repel the attacks of insects. BOTANY. 203 Plants of peculiar interest, that are destined to be sent from abroad, should be chosen of small stature, in good health, and if practicable, should be inured to a greater variety of temperature, than in their natural state they are exposed to; these should be taken up with a ball of earth adhering to their roots, and the ball enveloped in a thick coat of moss which should be tied over with pack~ thread, or matting, as represented at fig. 1, Plate 7, they may then be placed in a case in cut moss, this should be packed closely round the bails of earth, and covered over the tops of the roots two or three inches deep ; the surface of the moss should be netted over with stout string or cord ; the case may be placed on the deck of the vessel, in as airy a situation as possible, but where it is not likely to be splashed with the spray of the sea, as this, if it falls on the leaves or stems of the plants, is very injurious, from the salts crystalizing in dry weather, and in damp weather being decomposed by the humidity of the atmosphere: the case should have the two ends open, and covered with wire or strong netting, which as occasion requires may be further sheltered by pieces of boards or canvas ; the lid of the case should be made to shut like that of a common box ; which in heavy rains, will prevent the plants from receiving a super- abundance of water, and in dry warm weather, will admit a larger portion of air. Asit is not at all times practicable to get cases made in the form above recommended, a cask may easily be converted into a proper form for the conveyance of living plants, as represented at fig. 2, Plate 8. In inclement seasons, when opportunity offers for constructing a case peculiarly adapted for the purpose, us 294 BOTANY. specimens may be packed as recommended, in a close case or box, as at fig. 1, Plate 8, with small apertures for the ad- mission of light and air, during severe or wet weather, as at b, c, d, the part marked A should be made to slide out, and this ought to be done at every opportunity, that the plants may enjoy the advantage of a free circulation of air, as like- wise the lid thrown open ; in fact, this may be considered as fig. 1, Plate 7, when shut down in tempestuous weather. The Boxes figured 6, 7, 8, Plate 6, are calculated for the planting of such Bulbs or Seeds, as are not likely to outlive a long voyage, if not planted or sown; fig. 6, represents the Box, previous to the plants or seeds being placed therein, fig. 7, the Box hooped, and fig. 8, covered with netting, which in rainy weather should be further protected with canvas or matting. In short voyages, some plants will merely require to be each packed ina separate paper, and be kept quite dry ; some of the Orchidezx will survive for six weeks or two months, if taken up with what earth may adhere to their roots, and packed in dry straw, in a close box, all this family trans- plant best after the flower spike appears, the Bulb for the succeeding season being then formed, and they are not so susceptible of injury from that time till the bloom goes off, as at any other period. As it will be a matter of risk whether the plants (with all the care that can be bestowed on ship-board,) survive the voyage, the Traveller should carefully collect seeds of all the kinds he can obtain ; as likewise specimens of the plants BOTANY. 99) in a flowering state, which should be dried, and the particu- jars annexed. The plan we have adopted, is to col- lect the specimens in as perfect flowering state as can be procured ; these must be gathered on a dry day, and placed in a common tin vasculum or pocket herborizing Box, as collected, and secluded as much as possible from the air, on returning home the plants should be carefully spread upon paper, and covered with a few sheets of common blotting paper and placed under some small degree of pressure, after the plants have remained in this state for twenty-four hours, the papers should be examined to observe if any of the leaves or flowers are ina distorted or unnatural posi- tion, as they will at this time be perfectly flexile, and can easily be restored to a natural position, they should be again covered with blotting paper, and the plants gently smoothed with a heated flat iron, such as used for domestic purposes; this may be repeated till they are quite dry, when they may be finally placed between paper, and all the particu- lars relative to each written on the opposite page. Such plants as are evergreens, or succulent, will retain their foliage better if previously to drying they are immersed in boiling water, and then carefully dried, as by this method the vital principle will be destroyed, which often occasions the leaves to fall off, by an effort to produce new ones. All flowers of a harsh, thick or woody texture, as many of the Proteas, &c, should have the under side of the flowers cut away, by which means they will be more portable, and give a more correct portrait of the living plant. Mosses only require to be placed between paper, with but little pressure; lichens only to be dryed in the shade vu 4 996 BOTANY. without any pressure. Conferva require to be ex- panded in a shallow dish of clear fresh water, and the paper they are intended to be placed on, should be introduced beneath them, when they will generally adhere without fur ther care, and only require to be dried to be fit to place in the herbarium. Fuci or Sea-weed, should be well rinsed in clear fresh water, the larger kinds suffered to remain therein for some hours, to extract the saline particles, after which they will most readily (the fine leaved sorts in particular,) be displayed on paper in the manner already mentioned for Conferva. The Fungi are generally best preserved in a pickle, which may be made as follows : ‘¢ To two ounces of vitriol of copper reduced to powder, pour a tea-cup of cold water, stir them witha piece of stick or a quill for about one minute, then pour off the water and throwit away. On the remaining vitriol pour a pint of boiling water, and when the whole is dissolved and grown cool, add to it half a-pint of rectified Spirit of Wine; filtre it through paper; keep it in a bottle closely corked and call it PrckLe; to eight pints of pure spring water, add one pint and a-half of rectified Spirit of Wine: keep this in corked bottles, and call it the STRONGEB LIQUOR. To eight pints more water add one pint of Spirit of Wine, and call this the WEAKER Liquor. Whatever Fungus you wish to preserve, should be suffered to lie upon your table, as long as it can be trusted without danger of decaying, so as to allow some of its moisture to evaporate, the thick and fleshy ones should lie the longest, BOTANY. 2907 but the deliquescent ones, and those which are very thin and delicate should be put into pickle almost immediately after they are gathered. Pour some of the Pickie into a spare jar, and into this immerge the specimens to he preserved ; they should be suf- fered to remain therein from three hours to three days, according to their bulk and fleshiness; then remove them into separate jars, each suited to the size of the specimen; if they are large and juicy, fillup the jar with the Srroncer Liquor; the WEAKER will suffice for the smaller and: weaker plants ; whichever liquor is used the jar must be quite filled with it, and immediately corked tight; cover the cork and top of the jar with venice turpentine, or with. common oil paint, and when this is dry, cover the top of the jar with a piece of wetted bladder: these precautions are necessary to prevent the access of air, and the evaporation of the liquor, because if either of these happen, the specimens will soon be spoiled. The Boleti are generally more difficult to pre- serve than the Agarics, and such of either as abound with a milky juice, are apt to foul the liquor, which must then be changed. Mosses and Lichens may be preserved in great perfection by this method of pickling, as likewise many flowers of a thick, fleshy, or succulent nature, and most kinds of soft fruits.’ Linnean Transactions, vol. 2, p. 263. Dried collections of plants are particularly subject to the attacks of insects, which often destroy vaiuable her- bariums, to avert their attacks, Sir James Edward Smith, (in a letter to Mr. C. Konig, inserted in Annals of Botany, vol. 2, p- 194,) recommends a solution of corrosive sublimate of 298 BOTANY. Mercury, in Spirit of Wine. With this the learned Presi- dent of the Linnean Society, washed his whole collection, and remarks, that since he so did, he has not seen any ap- pearance of insects in the collection: the proportion is about two drachms to a pint, to which may be added a little Camphor : the liquor should be applyed with a Caniel-hair pencil, as lightly as possible ; the receptacles of compound flowers, and the more fleshy parts of plants should be satu- rated with it. The colours of plants are greatly revived by this application, and Sir J. Smith remarks he does not find any that are injured by it. This preparation he also recommends to preserve collections of Insects, Birds, Fruits, and Fungi. The most convenient form for a herborizing box is the one represented at fig. 2, Plate 7, it will be found an im- provement on the general form, to have one end of the box to draw off, by which larger specimens can be admitted without risk of breaking. Both the in and out sides should be japan- ned, to prevent their rusting ; and the lid must be made to fit as close as possible, for the purpose of excluding air. In making drawings or descriptions of plants, the follow- ing particulars should be most carefully attended to. The form of the root, as fibrous, bulbous, tuberous, granulated, or spindle shaped; the form of the stems or trunks in Trees, of stalks in herbaceous or shrubby Plants, if they be simple or branched, smooth, woolly, or hairy, if the hairs incline upwards or downward ; the shape and tex- ture of the leaves, whether sessile, or furnished with foot- stalks, whether they be simple or compound, if flat, cylin- BOTANY. 299 drical, concave, convex, smooth, rough, hairy, woolly, spi- nous, or furnished with tubular spines, by which a poison~ ous fluid is discharged, as in the Common Nettle; if the ecges are entire, or serrated, if surrounded by a margin; th¢ position they grow in should likewise be noticed,whether from the crown of the root or from the trunk, stems, or stalks, if they grow singly or in pairs, threes, &c., or in whorls; their relative position one to another, if opposite, alternate, or irregular; these particulars merit the closest attention, as they are those which often afford the best specific charac- ters ; if there be any Bractez or floral leaves, if these differ in form or colour from the other leaves; the form, duration, texture, or absence of the Calix; as also the same particulars relative to the petals in the Corolla ; the number, situation, and form of the Stamens, Pistils, Seed Vessel, and Seed ; by attending to these, much useful information will naturally accrue, and the dissemination of the particular structure of the parts common to each plant, as growing in its native or wild state, will tend greatly to the removal of difficulties with which many exotic species are encum- bered. The Philosophy of Botany, like that of every other branch of Natural History, does not consist in forming extensive collections, or in acquiring a scientific acquaintance with the nomenclature of the various species; but in ascertaining their uses, qualities, and relations as respects other subjects, and their own peculiar ceconomy and history; it is these particulars that give interest to this and every other science, and are those that a true Naturalist will ever have in view; in contemplating the varied 300 BOTANY, productions of the fields or gardens, he will find nothing eloying, nothing affecting his passions, or causing those unpleasant feelings so often excited by the works of art, for truly as Lord Bacon observed, ‘ a garden is the purest of all human pleasures ;’ the wonderful variety evident in the Botanical creation, in form, structure, colour, and economy, their powers of secretion of matter totally different from that from which they draw their nutri- ment; as Sugars, Salts, Acids, Bitters, &c. are all objects of admiration, and powerfully bespeak the wisdom and providence of their all-wise Creator. We annex the sketch of a Botanical register, of such par- ticulars as should in all possible cases be obtained; we have done this without reference to any known species; but merely that the various particulars relative to the use to which different species are applicable, may not be omitted. Isig9 Memorandum. ——| We found a species of evergreen O2k in considerable abundance, growing on the sides of most of the hills, 1% seldom exceeds ten o » |twelve feetin height, and four inches in girth at the base of the stem ; the leaves were thickly beset with small red galls, each of which <% % |contained several small insects ; the galls seemed from their astringent taste, likely to answer the purposes of common Oak calls, as though } a very small, they are produced in great abundance : the Acorns scarcely exceed a horse bean in size, and growin clusters; the natives burn the small twigs and leaves, which diffuse a very agreeable sceut while burning; the wood is hard, and beautifully veined, and though § of small size, it is well calculated for the purpose of veueering. Specimen of the wood in case A, No. 146. x a I eg SE Ee eee ee id The Natives use : = = EA Sn A veryelegant} The wood seomed It produces a} Grows most luxu-|the smaller branch-| 9.3 Seo tt (aire wn > |tree grewonal)jlikely to be valu-jsmall nut, enclosedjriantly ina dry gra-}es for fuel, but the| 2 oF fn 32-3 & teeg< 2 the hills, which|abJe for buildings,jin ahard shell,from|velly leam;suchas{trunks of the full] ° S Fg ite 3 s no a Os, we found much{end domestic pur-jwhich an oil is ex-|grew near the sealzrown trees they} =2 5. Boag o® 3ap| 28 frequented bylposes; as it was/pressed,forthe pur-|were much stunt-jfrequently hollow go ge |e Po] Fe =3 53 g Squirreis andfhard close grained,}pose of burning ; the/ed, their fruit wasjout for the purpose] = = g sO G2 {Szabo le othersmall qua-{and light. kernelis sweet,and|harder, and thejof canoes, these & = ag SS Al aa WS 3 g wr drupeds, is eaten by the/usks produced less|they cover with} “365 /45°2) "RP }@5rn5) © ay natives. oil. skins, and smear) 276 |°% we : bel Ma over with the oill 842 |S22e 4, See. = ae which they obtuin] 22S | Pie -! =: Bas = from the nuts. oot l@ars! Loe a a = Se Ge ee ener eee EE ¥Aug| After the dry season had passed, the rapidity with which vegetation advanced, was-almost beyond belief, spots which only two or three days before were like dry barren heaths, were now covered with a beautiful verdure, and withina week of the first rains numerous species of flowers were in bloom, where ten days before not a solitary leaf was to be seen, in our walks at this time we met with a great variety of Orchidewous plants, the roots of which were either palmated or bulbous, and possessed the flavor common tothe European bulbous rooted kinds. ; I | The natives gene- oo mw awa TA 29| Wemet with} 1t grows to thejrally when on their} In hilly districts! It produces abun-|p & 2 RjseeGgn| we a grass of thefheight of three to\journeys,erect theirjlow marshes, vallies}dance of seed, and|« » * = 2 Bao pie o° most luxurisnt!four feet with abun-|hutswhere this grass|that are often over-jalso grows readily|% AS is 218 =. 08 Yes foliage; its taste|dance of leaves, atjis in abundance, asjlowed, and on|from partings of the|* % toro > fee, moe was sweet, the|ihe root and on thejit supplies their cat-|mountains quitedes-|roots, Ee si ie os oe 0 2 leaves tender/stem, uumerous |tle with plenty ;/titute of water, this é a5 p ued i SOqasuaries eh, and juicy, andjberds of Butfaloes,jthey boil the stemsjerrass is to be found. ce & i apt Ss elite: ras seemingly ad-|Deer, aud otherjand when the liquorjit is less luxuriant op fa oo lg Poo. Duy mirably calcu-|Animals resort tolis cold pour it off,jin the latter places ee o ae ee as lated for agri-ithe places where itjit having acquired ajbut it is generally a2 iw) Pate One cultural experi-jabounds, these alljsweetish taste, and|dispersed. o® = 9 [Ea ry ae & ments. avoid eating thejit is the enly pre- os oa ee Ooo >’ a stems. pareddrink we ever ae > % (20.5 9 Kb Bf. pee Stig es es Ko ‘saw them use. 302 MINERALOGY: MINERALOGY, Mirerats are the last class, and compose the lowest link in the chain of organized bodies, they are divisible into Earths, Alkalies, the two bases of combustion, Sulphur, and Carbon, and Metals, the various combinations of which form that variety so abundantly produced in this department of Natural History. On the first view of this science, it would seem one of the least attractive, but a closer inspection soon discovers it to be of the highest impor- tance, and that from the fairest Diamond or most brilliant Ruby, down to the commonest Sand or Gravel of our foot paths, all merit our closest attention; as they individually contribute to our conveniences ; some conduce largely to our domestic comforts and commercial advantages in the form of Fuel, as the various kinds of Coal ; others are useable for Medicinal purposes, as Sulphur, Arsenic, Mercury, &c.; of the Metals, Manhas availed himself, and with these, aided by the assistance of fire, is enabled to reduce the other parts of the Creation to his use and purposes. It would be foreign to our plan, to enter at large into this highly useful Science, we shall therefore only slightly MINERALOGY. S038 glance at the various subjects most likely to arrest the atten- tion of the Traveller; and point out under the different heads, those places in which, or under what circumstances, the various Minerals are usually found; and shall for fur- ther information refer the Mineralogical Student, to various valuable elementary works on the subject, but most particu- larly to the following. Aiken’s Manual, Phillips’s Introduc- tion to Mineralogy, and his Outlines of Geology, and the Transactions of the Geological Society. The various subjects of this science are composed of Nine Earths; Two Aikalies; Twenty-seven Metals: besides the two bases of combustible bodies, Carbon and Sulphur; the various Acids, Water, Oxygen, and Hydrogen, all of which are included in the component parts of most of the other substances. ‘The number of Acids are Thirteen, their names are derived generally from the substance or base from which the acid is formed; Molybdic, Arsenic, Chromic, Tungstic, Carbonic, Sulphuric, Phosphoric, Fluoric, Boracic, Nitric, Muriatic, Succinic, and Mellitic, the bases of th two last are unknown. EARTHY MINERALS. 1. Sirex. When pure, this is perfectly white and infusible, except by the heat of a Voltaic battery. It is the most abundant of all Mineral substances, and enters into the composition of nearly two thirds ofall known earthy Minerals. It is the principal ingredient in what are com- monly known as Fliats; but it isfound most fine in Quartz 304 MINERALOGY. er Rock Crystal; some of the combinations of Silex, are among the more valuable of precious stones, as the Amethyst, Garnet, Opal, Agate, Lapis Lazuli, §c. All these varieties are met with either singly or in veins in mountainous countries, frequent occurring in Mines of various Metals, as Tin, Lead, Copper, &ce 2. Atumine. Is when pure, perfectly white, and without taste or smell; like the preceeding, it is infusible except by Voltaic electricity. Alumine enters into the composition of a large number of Mineral substances, and is the base of Common Alum; its presence may mostly be detected by an odour which the earthy substances with which it is combined, give out when breathed upon, and which is usually termed the Argillaceous odour, from Argilla, the Latin term for Clay, of which Alu- mine is often a principal part. Alumine enters into the composition of several stones in considerable estimation, as the Oriental Ruby, Sapphire, Topaze, &c, 3. Lime. Ina natural state its colour is whitish, somewhat hard, infusible except by the Voltaic battery; it enters -nto the composition of numerous earthy and stony substances; but has never been found pure. The various combinations of Lime are among the most valuable, if not superior to all minerals as affording substances of infinite importance to the Agriculturist, the Manufacturer, and the Builder; for general purposes Lime is vbtained by heat froma variety of Carbonates. MINERALOGY. 305 4. Macnrsra. This earth is light, tasteless, of a perfectly white colour, and like the preceding, is infusible except by Voltaic electricity. This is not so abundant as the preceding earths, but is found in the composition of several earthy, as well as metal- liferous substances. Native Magnesia which produces this mineral in its purest state, is a substance of rare occur- ence, and has only been met with in New Jersey. 5. Zircon. Is white, tasteless, rough to the touch, insolu- ble in water, and infusible except as the preceding. This earth is but sparingly found; and is at present only known to enter into the composition of three substances, the Hyacinth, the Jargoon, and the Zirconite ; all of which are occasionally used by Jewellers. 6. Girucine. When pure this is white, soft, unctuous to the touch, and of a sweet taste, from which circumstance it derives its name, ; ? Glucine has only been detected in combination with other substances. ‘The Euclase, Aquamarine, Emerald, and Ga- dolinite; these Minerals though not abundant, are occasi- onally found in mountainous countries. 7. Yrrrta. This earth possesses several properties in com- mon with’the last, like which it has a sweetish taste ; _ but it is five times, whilst Glucine is only three times heavier than water. 306 MINERALOGY. Yttria enters into the composition of the Gadolinite; 2 Mineral only found at Ytterby, in Sweden. 8. Barytes. This, which has frequently been considered as an Alkaline earth, is when pure, white, ponderous, and has a sharp acrid taste, and is a violent poison. Barytes has never been met with pure, is not abun- dant, and only enters into the composition of two or three earthy substances; these are the Witherite, Heavy Spar, and Hepatite: all natives of this country. 9. Strontran. Like the last this Mineral has a consider- able affinity to the Alkalies ; when pure it is white, and its {aste and properties resemble those of Barytes. This earth is of rare occurrence, and is only known com- bined with one or two earthy substances, never having been found pure. ALKALINE MINERALS. These are found combined with earthy substances and Acids, but do not enter into the composition of Metals. The taste of all the Alkalies is acrid and nauseous, nearly resembling Barytes, and Strontian; with which they also further agree in their chemical properties. Alkali is an Arabic word, applied to the residium of a plant called Kali, which is burnt for the purpose of obtaining the Saline ashes, with which it abounds; some Alkalies are termed fixed, in contra-distinction to such as are volatile. MINERALOGY. 807 1. Porasu. This substance is obtained from the ashes of such plants as do not grow within the influence, or are not contiguous to the sea; its base is allied in some respects to the Metals, it somewhat resembles Quick- Silver, but is lighter than water ; and is combined with Oxygen. Potash is abundantly obtained from various vegetables ; it is also found in aconsiderable number of earthy sub- stances, and enters into the composition of some of the oldest of the primitive Rocks, it is likewise found combined with Soda: Potash combined with Nitric Acid, forms that useful and well-known substance, Nitre, or Salt-Petre. 2. Sopa. The base of Soda resembles silver, it is lighter than water, and is combined with Oxygen. This substance is found combined with several Earthy Minerals, as also with Potash; it is exceedingly abundant, being the basis of common Salt, and is the saline residue of most plants growing on the sea shore. METALS. Metals having never been decomposed, are supposed when pure to be simple substances. The nymber of known Metals are Twenty-seven, they are found in a native state, either simple, consisting of only one substance ; or compound, when composed of two or more substances. All the Metals are much heavier than the Karths, the heaviest of the latter not exceeding five times the weight of water; and the light- est of the Metals being six times heavier than water. Those v2 308 WINERALOGY. Metals that are capable of extention by being beaten with the hammer, are termed Malleable, and those which do not possess this property are called Brittle ; the Malleability of Metals add greatly to their usefulness, and being fusible, Man is enabled to free them from earths and extraneous substances ; without these properties he could hardly reduce them to his service. MALLEABLE METALS. 1. Pratina. This is the heaviest of Metals, being Twenty- three times heavier. than Water; its colour is a dull tin white; it is capable of great extention, but is diffi- cult of fusion ; in hardness it nearly equals Lron. This Metal is principally confined to South America, it is usually found in small grains, mostly in the vicinity of the Gold Mines; it is met with alloyed with Magnetic fron, Gold, Copper, Lead, and several other Metals. 2. Goup. Is Nineteen times heavier than water, is very soft, ductile, and flexible ; its colour varies from pale yellows to deep orange ; it is capable of great exten- tion, and its tenacity is very great. Gold is generally mixed with some other Metal, as Tin, Copper, Silver, &c.; it is found in veins, in the beds and sands of Rivers and Mountain streams, in several parts of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America; from South. America we obtain the greater part of the Gold now in use, it occurs in small grains, or lumps from the weight of a few MINERALOGY: 309 grains to fifty pounds; it sometimes, though but rarely oc- curs in this kingdom, as also in Ireland; the Gold Coin current in Great Britain, is composed of ‘Twenty-two parts of Gold, and two of Copper. 3. Sinver. Ina pure state is ten times heavier than water ; is soft, opake, and flexible, it is white, shining, and very malleable. Silver is more abundant than Gold, being dispersed through most countries, it occurs ina pure state, as also combined with Copper, Lead, and other Metals. English coin contains fifteen paris of Silver, to one of Copper; the purposes to which this Metal is applicable, are too well known to require repetition. 4. Mercury or Quicxsitver. Mercury is thirteen times heavier than water ; it generally occurs in a pure state, and also combined with Silver, which it resembles in colour, but the peculiarity which distinguishes it from other Metals, is the fluidity it preserves at the com- mon temperature of the Atmosphere. This is less abundant than the last, the uses to which it is applicable in Medicine, the Arts, and Experimental Philo- sophy, are numerous; and it is highly valuable in the sepa- ration of Gold and Silver from their Ores, which process is termed Amalgamation. 6. Leap. Is of a blueish grey colour; it is upwards of eleven times heavier than water; is soft, malleable, ductile, but inelastic. v3 510 MINERALOGY. Next to Iron, Lead is the most extensively dispersed, and is one of the most abundant of Metals; it has never been found pure, but mostly combined with Iron, Manganese, Antimony, Silver, or their Ores. The Lead used for com- mon purposes is obtained from an Ore called Galena, or Sulphuret of Lead, which is composed of Lead, Sulphur, Oxyde of Iron, and Silver, and sometimes it contains Lime and Silex. Among the various uses to which it is applied, is the glazing Harthenware; the Oxyde of Lead is used in making Glass; and combined with one fifth part of Anti- mony, it forms the types used in printing. 6. Correr. When pure, Copper is about eight times hea- vier than water; its colour is a yellowish red; it is ex- ceedingly sonorous, is harder than Silver; and in respect to fusibility is between Gold and Iron. Copper in point of usefulness yields only to Iron, it is widely dispersed, being feund pure, and also combined with various mineral substances; it is used as already observed, for alloying Gold and Silver; Copper alloyed with Zinc, forms Brass, Pinch-Beck, and Tiusel ; with a small propor- tion of Tin it forms Bell-Metal ; two-thirds of Copper and one of Tin, are used in forming the speculums in reflecting Telescopes ; Copper filings, or plates oxydized by acetous acid, forms into green chrystals, which are used in painting, under the name of Verdegrease or Verdigris. 7. Tin. This Metal has never been found pure, being generally combined with Copper, Sulphur, Iron, &e. it is about seven times heavier than water. Tin is the ‘S® MINERALOGY. Sil lightest of the ductile Metals, it is harder and more tenacious than Load, aud is very fusible Tin is used as an alloy with various other Metals, it is formed into exceedingly thin plates or leaves, under the name of ‘Tin-foil, and this combined with Mercury, is used for silvering the backs of Mirrors and Looking Glasses. Tin is also used for the purpose of lining Copper vessels for domestic purposes, this is done by heating the vessels, having previously scraped the inside with an Iron instrument, and then rubbing the internal surface with Sal Ammoniac, when the vessel is quite hot a small quantity of Pitch or Resin, is thrown in and suffered to spread entirely over the internal surface, which completely prevents the Copper from oxydizing, as Tin will not combine with oxyde of Copper ; when these preparatory measures are taken, a piece of pure tin is applied all over the inside of the hot Copper vessel, which instantly assumes a bright silvery whiteness, and prevents any unpleasant effects in using Tinned Copper vessels for culinary purposes. Most of the Saucepans &c., used for kitchen purposes, under the name of ‘Tin ware, are formed of thin plates of Tron, coated with Tin, these are first scoured, and then thrown into a solution of sulphuric acid, which destroys all the rust or oxyde, and renders the surface perfectly clear; the plates are then dipped into melted Tin, the surface of which is covered with oil or fat to keep it from the action of the air, by these means the Iron coming in contact with the pure melted Tin, itcomes out completely coated; the Tia frequently penetra jing the substance of the [ron. v4 312 MINERALOGY: &. Iron. This is one of, if not the most abundant of ali Metals, being found in almost every rock and soil ; it is about seven times heavier than water, of a blueish or reddish grey colour, is hard, ductile, and malleable, and in tenacity is next to gold. Tron is found combined with numerous minerals, and forms a principal part of those substances known under the name of Meteoric Stones ; it is Magnetic, and so easily is this property imparted to fron, that a bar placed in a ver- tical position for a considerable time acquires polarity, which may also be communicated to it by suddenly striking it at the point against any hard substance; for instance, if a common poker be struck forcibly on a hearth, the point of contact becomes polar. ‘The uses of Iron are numerous, and are so well known as not to require repetition; without it Man could hardly subsist in a civilized state, asit forms the principal parts of his Agricultural, Domestic and Mecha- nical Implements. 9. Zinc. Is about seven times heavier than water; it is of a colour between Silver and Lead; is hard, but not so ductile as some of the preceding Metals. Zinc is less abundant than most of the foregoing Metals, it has not been met with pure, being either mineralized with Sulphur, or combined with Oxyde of Iron, Silex, &c. It enters into many alloys, preparations of it also are used for Medicine, and in the Arts. 10. Paxtaprum. When pure it is eleven times heavier than water ; it resembles Platina in colour, is very malleable, and equal in hardaess to Bar Iron. MINERALOGY. 3138 This Metal is generally obtained in small quantities, alloy- ing native platina. Native Palladium is infusible. 11. Nicxer. ‘The specific gravity of Nickel is about nine, its colour is yellowish white, itis ductile, malleable, and possesses the magnetic property, though in a less degree than Tron. Nickel has been found combined with Iron and other sub- stances, and enters into the composition of all the Meteoric stones, which have fallen from the atmosphere, in this and various other countries ; its uses are principally confined to alloys. BRITTLE METALS. 12. Arsenic. Specific gravity nearly eight; colour bluish or greenish white; becoming on exposure to the air dark, almost black; its substance is exceedingly brittle; it occurs nearly pure, and also combined with Gold, Silver, tron, Lead, &c. Arsenic is one of the most active of Mineral poisons ; it is of frequent occurrence ; is used in glazing porcelain, and the manufacture of glass; when combined with sulpher in certain proportions, it is either the Realgar or Orpiment used by Painters, Its presence may be detected by submitting it to the action of heat, or striking it with a hammer, when it gives out a garlic like smell; it is also remarkable that the same appearance is produced on Silver and Steel, by the 314 MINERALOGY. application of Arsenic, as by the application of Onion or Garlic. 13. Antimony. This Metal is of a dull whitish colour, of a brittle and compact substance, and is about six times heavier than water. Antimony is a Metal frequently used in various arts; as we before remarked, it forms one fifth of the composition of © Printing Types, it is used in Medicine, and for alloys with other Metals ; it occurs combined with Arsenic, Silver, Iron, Sulpher, &c. 14. Bismutu. Pure Bismuth is of a white colour, tinged with red; its substance is brittle, and it is nearly eleven times heavier than water. This isnot apundant ; in its native state it is mostly alloy- ed with Arsenic, it is also found combined in the Ores of Silver, Iron, Cobalt, and Zinc; the principal use made of this Meta! is for alloys, also as an ingredient in soft Solders ; being one of the most fusible of Metals; a preparation of Bismuth is sometimes used by Painters in water colours ; on paper it has a bluish tinge, but like Arsenic becomes black- ish on exposure to the Air; and particularly if the air be impregnated with any foeted or offensive efiluvia. 15. Cosart. The weight of this Metal is about eight times that of water; its colour is grey with a tinge of red; andit is very difficult of fusion. MINERALOGY. 315 Cobalt is not found pure ; its Ores being sometimes com- bined with Arsenic and Sulphur, or Arsenic and [ron, and accompanying the Ores of Copper, Silver, Arsenic, and Bis- muth. It is brought to this country reduced to an Oxyde, of a most brilliant blue colour, called Zaffre, which when melted with three parts of Sand and one of Potash, forms blue glass; this reduced to a fine powder is known by the name of Smalts, and is used for giving a blue tinge to various sub- stances, as paper, cloth, linen, muslin, &c.; likewise in painting on porcelain, and also in oil and water. 16. Mancanese. Manganese is about seven times heavier than water; its colour isarusty grey; it is brittle, in a slight degree malleable, and is never found pure. The Ores of this Metal are frequently met with in mineral countries, and in a state of Oxyde is found combined with a very considerable number of earthy and Mineral substances ; the black Oxyde of Manganese affords all the Oxygen used by the Chemist, and likewise the Oxygen in the composi- tion of the Oxymuriatic Acid, so essential to the bleacheries of Europe. It is also used in glass making, and a beautiful violet colour is obtained from it, which is employed in painting porcelain. 17. Tecturium. ‘This is a rare Metal, it is about six times heavier than water; is very fusible, brittle, and of the colour of tin. Tellurium is found in a Metallic state, but always alloyed by some other Metal, as Gold, Lead, Copper, &c. 316 _ MINERALOGY. 18. Titanium. This Metal is 6f a reddish Copper colour; and so extremely difficult of fusion, that attempts to re- duce it to a pure Metallic state, have rarely succeeded. It is found combined with oxyde of Iron, Manganese, Silex, &c.; it was formerly employed in painting on porce- Jain, but has fallen into disuse from the want of uniformity in its colour. 19. Tantatium. This is a very rare Metal, it is about six times heavier than water, its external has a slight Metallic lustre, but the interior is dull and nearly black. ‘Tantalium has only been found in Sweden and Finland, combined with the oxydes of Iron and Manganese, as also with the rare earth Yttria. 20. Moryspena. Like the last this is exceedingly rare, has never been found pure, and is with difficulty reduced to a pure state, having only been obtained in brittle in- fusible grains. It is found in a Mineral state combined with Sulphur, and in the Acid state with Lead. 21. Tunesten. This is a hard, brittle, granular Metal, of a light steel grey colour, and brilliant Metallic lustre. It is found combined with oxyde of Iron, Manganese, and Silex, and occurs in most places abounding with Tin ; it has MINERALOGY? 31T been used with other substances in the formation of red colours known by the name of Lakes. 22. Curome. This substance has never been found in a Metallic state, only entering into the composition of some few substances ; the Emerald is supposed to owe its brilliant green colour to its combination with this rare Metal. 23. Ruoptum. This Metal is not malleable, it possesses a bright Metallic lustre, and is about eleven times heavier than water. © = Osmium. Is of a dark grey colour. 25. In1p1um. When pure is white and infusible. The three last named Metals are very rare, having only been found alloying the native Platina of Peru, and have not been applied to any useful purpose. 26. Uranium. Has never been found in a Metallic state ;, its colour is dark grey, its substance is brittle, and may, be cut with a knife; it is the lightest of all Metals ex- cepting Tellurium, being only six times heavier than ‘water. It has not been applied to any use. 97. Cerium. This like the last has never been found in a Metallic state, and has only been obtained with con- siderable difficulty by the Chemist it enters into the composition of a few rare Minerals. 318 MINERALOGY. COMBUSTIBLE MINERALS. Combustibles form a class of substances of properties peculiar to themselves, but possessing in common only the property of combustion; the bases of combustion, as we before remarked, are two, Sulphur and Carbon. SuLPuur is a soft brittle substance, of a pale greenish yellow colour; it is found in masses, sometimes in veins, and at others in large beds; it is obtained from the Animal and Vegetable as well as Mineral Kingdom. The uses to which Sulphur is applied are various, and so well known as not to require enumerating; it is highly inflammable, and is about twice the weight of water ; it gives out an odour peculiar to itself when rubbed; it burns with a blue flame, and the vapour it exhales when ignited, is par- ticularly injurious to animal life. Carson. The Diamond, which is considered as the hardest substance yet discovered, is capable of being com- pletely dissipated; if heated to the temperature of Molten Copper, and subjected to a current of air, it becomes gradually but completely combustible, by which process it may be entirely converted into Car- bonic Acid. MINERALOGY. 319 Diamonds are the most valuable of Mineral productions, aud are in great estimation for ormamental Jewellery, as likewise for the purpose of cutting Glass, and they are used by Lapidaries to engrave the harder gems. Carbon is obtain- ed from Charcoal in almost as pure a state as from the Dia- mond, but it is always accompanied with either Hydrogen or Water. Diamonds are found in India, South America, the Isle of Borneo, &c, they frequently occur in veins, or among the sand of rivers. The two foregoing substances, Sulphur and Carbon, in greater or lesser proportion, enter into the composition of all combustible Minerals ; Plumbago er Black Lead is composed of ninety parts of Carbon, it is of a glistening metallic lustre, unctuous to the touch, soft and not very brittle, the principal use to whichit is applied is the manufacture of those Pencils generally known by the name of Black Lead Pencils; a name probably derived from the lead coloured mark they leave upon paper: but no lead enters into the composition; it is about twice as heavy as water ; and cannot support com-~ bustion by itself. Napcha is a combustible substance which with Petroleum are comprehended under the term of Mineral Oil; they are both liquid, highly inflammable,and lighter than water ; Naptha is transparent and almost colourless, it burns with a blue flame, gives out much smoke, and a penetrating odour when burning, and does not leave any residium. Petroleum, is of a substance somewhat thicker than come mon Tar, of a reddish brown colour, it possesses a strong, unpleasant odour, burns with a thick black smoke and leaves a residue like common black coa]. It is found in various 320 MINERALOGY. places in England, and other parts of Europe, as also in Asia, and America. Naptha when exposed to the light and 9 t=) air becomes coloured, thickens, and nearly resembles Petro- leum ; on distilling Petroleum, an Oil is obtained resembling Naptha. Bitumen or Mineral Pitch, is composed of Carbon, Hydro- gen, and occasionally Nitrogen and Oxygen, and upon the proportions of these are supposed to depend the elasticity or compactness of the substance. Elastic Bitumen is not heavier than water, of a brownish tinge, and possesses a bituminous odour, it burns freely, with much flame and smoke, and with a gentle heat melts into a consistency of Naptha or Petro- leum ; it readily takes out the traces of pencil in the manner of Indian Rubber. Compact Bitumen is of a blackish colour ; one variety which is moderately soft, and capable of receiving an impression from the nail, is known by the name of Maltha; it is nearly twice the weight -of water, and is occasionally used for the same purposes as Pitch, and is ayplied in some countries to the cure of wounds. When this substance is brittle and hard it is called Asphalt, it gives out a bituminous odour when rubbed, is opake, of a blackish brown colour, and unctuous to the feel. - This variety is used for the manufac- ture of varnishes, particularly those kinds used by Engravers, it is also mixed with grease, and when gently heated, used for paying the bottoms of ships, and is considered as a pro- tection against the Teredo or Ship-Worm. It is found in France, Switzerland, Asia, and abundantly in the West Indies. MINERALOGY. 321 Coal, the basis of the substances known by the term coals, is pure carbon; from which circumstance they rank with Minerals, otherwise from the wood-like appearance obser- vable in every species of Coal, they seem to partake more of a vegetable than a mineral nature. Inall the varieties of coal, wood,ina greater or lesser degree bituminized is found, as also ' seed-vessels and kernels of various kinds, the latter kinds are . principally found in countries where the land has been over- flowed; the Coal used for domestic purposes, is known to Mineralogists by the name of Slate or Black Coal, it is com- posed of about sixty parts of Carbon, thirty to thirty-six of Naptha and Asphalt, and from two to eight of oxyde of Iorn, and earthy substances. It mostly occurs in horizontal strata, and is very abundant in England, and some other parts of Europe. Jet or Pitch Coal is a variety possessing a greater degree of hardness than common coal, though very brittle ; itis found in masses, as also in the forms of stems and branches of Trees ; the coarser sorts are consumed for fuel, and the harder and fine parts are made into beads and trinkets ; it is of a full velvety black colour, burns with a greenish flame, much odour, and its residuum is a yellowish ash, its weight is - about that of water. Amber, this Mineral burns with a yellowish flame, much odour and smoke, and leaves a black shining residuum ; this, as well as what it yields after distillation, is used for the bases of our finest black varnishes. Amber is found in beds, likewise among sand, clay, and gravel, and is generally esteemed of vegetable origin; when distilled it yields the Succinic Acid. Ww $22 MINERALOGY. Mellite or Honeystone, this is a rare Mineral, its sub- stance is softer than Amber, is brittle, transparent, and pos- sesses the double refraction ; burning without any percep- tible smoke or flame, and its residuum acquires the colour and consistence of Chalk. We have now briefly enumerated the bases of the various Mineral productions ; it would far exceed our limits to enu- merate the varieties into which they run, or the combinations under which they are found, these will be found described in an easy, intelligent manner in ¢ Phillips’s Introduction to Mineralogy.’ Earths are generally infusible, and are those substances which form the exterior surface of the globe, and require no particular care either to procure or preserve in their native state; merely noting under what circumstances they are found, whether in strata, or confused masses, if they appear to be deposites from rivers or other ‘waters; what substances occur above or beneath, and any peculiar property they may appear to possess locally. Metals are generally found in hilly or mountainous coun- tries, but rarely in a pure state, the ores should be carefully collected, and each piece wrapped in paper, to prevent attri- tion, the situation under which the various substances may be procured, should be particularly noticed, as also the uses to which they are applied by the natives of the country, these same particulars should be observed with regard to all rocks, stones, clays, or other earthy or Mineral substances ; it will be of considerable service to the science if persons visiting foreign parts, would take the trouble to collect pieces of such rocks or stones as possess any property or appearance peculiar to themselves, likewise specimens of MINERALOGY. 323 those of general occurence, as by knowing what rocks or stones are common to any place, a pretty correct idea may be formed of the other minerals common to the same place ; pieces of from four to six inches square, will be sufficient for experiments; these should be broken off, as such have considerable advantage over any that may be found lying on the shore, or on the ground, exposed to the action of the air, sun and weather, besides which the frac- ture will considerably assist in determining its situation in the system. Collectors should not confine themselves to the procuring rare or beautiful Minerals, as frequently those of more in- trinsic value, as Coal, Iron, Copper, &c., are found of very rough unsightly exterior, but every kind should be procu- red in as natural a state as possible ; with the various pro- cesses they are submitted to, in rendering them applicable to the uses of the Inhabitants of the countries they are found in; how they are rendered pure, and what methods are pursued in separating the Metals from their Ores, their modes of flatting or of drawing the Metals into wire, as also the proportions used in alloying either for coinage, or in the manufacture of articles for domestic or mechanical purposes; likewise the various agents that are chemically employed for reducing Mineral substances, should be ascer- tained. In procuring Metals or Ores, they should each be kept distinct, and care taken that no substance containing Acids of any kind be permitted to come in contact with them. Mineral substances containing Acids, or Salts, should be packed in jars or bottles closely stopped, as the air will w2 594 MINERALOGY. often decompose them, and they should as carefully be secured from water, which would operate in a similar way ; for the use of the Mineralogist, Messrs. Knight, of Forster- Lane, London, have formed Boxes of instruments necessary to the practical Mineralogist. As no other instruction is neces- sary in packing the generality of Mineral substances than to avoid friction, the Boxes should be strong, and the joints close, so as to exclude the air, and the insterstices between the specimens should be carefully filled with some substance that will effectually prevent attrition. Asa branch of Mine- ralogy, we shall just notice that most countries afford a variety of fossil substances, which are highly interesting, and merit the attention of the Traveller; in chalky countries numerous fossil remains of organized bodies are constantly occurring, particularly the bones and teeth of Animals, as also the shells of Crabs, Echine, &c. &c.; these should be carefully packed in paper, and kept from the air: some kinds are found in the fissures of Rocks, others compacted in the solid substance of Rocks or Stones, many kinds abound in stiff Clays at great depths beneath the surface of the earth; some are occasicnally found in the beds of Rivers, or in beds that have long been dry ; as likewise among shingle on the sea beach. In making sketches illustrative of the Geology of any country, the direction in which the veins or strata may run should be particularly observed, as whether they be vertical, oblique, or horizontal, if the strata be entire or broken, their distance from the surface, with the intervening strata, where they can be observed from the base to the summit; if their station be on the shores of the ocean or inland, if tra- MINERALOGY. 325 versed by any river, and whether any lakes are in the vici- nity. The practical Mineralogist will not fail ascertaining if the waters in the vicinity of Mineral countries are impreg- nated with any, and what Mineral, if they are prejudicial or salubrious to the inhabitants ; if any springs of warm or hot water occur; the craters of burning or extinguished Volca- noes, will also command his attention, and if any use is made of the lava, the periods at which these places are or have been in a state of combustion; if vegetation is affected by the mineralized waters which may occasionally overflow such districts, and in what way ; the various modes practiced to form or procure Nitre, common Salt, Sulphur, &c., will necessarily demand his notice; with the quantities of these and other Minerals or Metals extracted or obtained from any given quantity of the crude material. Much more might be pointed out in this interesting science, as not only worthy the attention of the Naturalist, but of the greatest importance to the advancement of science, the uses to which the various Mineral substances are applicable, being so numerous, and of such vital importance to the suc- cessful application of the Arts and Sciences, that no oppor- tunity should be lost of acquiring a knowledge of every use to which Mineral substances are capable of being applied. w 3 826 MISCELLANEOUS. ——————oor MISCELLANEOUS. As this volume may fall into the hands of individuals whose attention or pursuits may differ from those of the Naturalist, we shall point out a few particulars wherein persons of observation may render their researches of general use, and greatly facilitate the acquirement of knowledge in general. On visiting foreign countries, our attention should be directed to the Moral and Religious state of the inhabitants, their laws, peculiar customs, rites, ceremonies, &c. civil and religious ; the nature of their religion, as Christian, Jewish, Pagan, &c.; their establishments for the advancement of learning, or the arts, as also the nature of Hospitals, Prisons, MISCELLANEOUS, 3927 and other public buildings, the peculiar purport for which those establishments may be formed, and how supported and regulated ; if the prisons are merely buildings for the incarce- ration of criminaJs, or if they are at the same time used as places of reform, if the prisoners are employed, and in what businesses, and under what regulations ; of the different modes of punishment ; whether, and for what crimes, the pun- ishment of death is inflicted. The state of learning also requires particular attention, together with any history or traditional accounts that may be extant of the first introduction of civilization, what ancient Books, either manuscript or printed, are contained in public or private Libraries, particularly if any copies of the Scriptures of very ancient date, with any remarkable differences from the present version. Their gems, seals, or coins should be observed, as these often serve to throw much light on the history of past ages, where these are scarce or valuable, impressions of them can easily be taken without any injury, by the following simple method ; take a quan- tity of the crumb of bread that has been baked at Jeast twelve hours, knead this with the thumb and finger in the palm of the hand, till it is quite soft and acquires the consistency of half melted wax ; this will require a considerable time, perhaps an hour or more; the bread thus kneaded will have acquired an opake whiteness, and will readily admit of colouring by mixing a small quantity of Vermillion or any other red pigment, with a little milk or cream, and kneading it with the prepared bread, when this is sufficiently soft, it will admit of the slightest indentation, and may be applied to the gem, seal, or coin, and its impression will be wa4 398 MISCELLANEOUS. most perfectly taken off, this may be cut into any size or shape, and suffered to dry fora few days, when it acquires almost a stone-like hardness, and will take an extremely high polish ; in drying, the impressions will sometimes crack, to prevent which they should before quite dry, be slightly glazed over with fine Olive oil, or the Oil of Almonds, we have known an impression of a common seal taken off in this way, which has answered the purpose of its original for some years. The state of the Arts of Painting, Engraving, and Sculpture, should also be ascertained, with the peculiar methods of performing the same; what collections of Paint- ings, or of Natural Curiosities, either public or private exist, if public, under what regulations, and for what pur- poses. What Artists of celebrity are now residing at the place, with any biographical memoirs of their great Men, either Statesmen, Philosophers, Artists, or the like; with the causes that have led to any remarkable change either in the Government, Customs, or Manners of the Country. The state of their Military or Naval establishments, as also those for civil purposes, for the receipt of the revenue, &c. the modes of Government, as Regal, Republican, or Ecle- siastical, with the plans of succession to the chief offices of the State ; all these points demand the attention of the Man of observation, and the more particularly, as they may contribute to the welfare of his own country. The Agriculturist will not fail to notice the quantities of - arable compared with pasture land, the quantities and kinds of wood cultivated, with their various applications ; MISCELLANEOUS. 329 the construction of their farming and agricultural implements, with their peculiar modes of use ; the methods practised in laying down land for pasturage, or of breaking up land for arable purposes ; what practices are adopted for the improve-~ ment or draining of boggy or wet land, as also for bringing dry arid lands into tillage ; what timber trees are likely to be of service if introduced into this country. What plants are in a state of cultivation, as grain, esculent roots, vegetables, fruits, or for economical or domestic purposes, as Hops, Tobacco, Coffee, Sugar, &c., and under what treatment ; what modes are adopted for preserving or curing seed that may have been injured by inclement weather, or bad harvest- ing; what plants are resorted to as a succedaneum on the failure of any peculiar crop, or in the case of famine. The construction of the carriages employed for agricultural and other purposes, with models of any improvements on those in use here, with the cost and materials of which they are constructed. What animals are employed either for the purpose of husbandry or domestic conveniences, with their food and peculiar management. The Mechanist will investigate the state of the Mechanical Arts, as also the nature of the various Machines or Engines he may see, the construction of Steam Engines, Machi- nery for weaving inits various branches, as also what Machines may be in use for dressing and spinning of Cotton, Flax, Hemp, Silk, &c. What plans are adopted in excavating, either for the purpose of Mining, or for Wells; what parti- cular tackle is used in descending the shafts of Mines, and how managed; what methods are adopted in launching vessels, and any peculiarities in their construction ; are 330 MISCELLANEOUS. steam vessels in use, and the plans on which they are con- structed, and impelled; what expedients are resorted to for the reduction of manual labour. The Manufacturer will observe the different processes the various subjects used in his peculiar department of know- ledge are performed, and in what particulars foreigners excell us, either as regards the quality or quantity of the article manufactured, as also by what means this excellence is obtained. The Dyer, from visiting other countries, will learn the modes of preparing the various colours used in his art, and will have opportunities of ascertaining the excellen- cies or inferiority of the plans here adopted ; and of learning the various means used in increasing the brilliancy or inten- sity of colour. These remarks have principally related to civilized coun- tries, of such as have not yet emerged froma state of nature, or as usually termed are in a state of Barbarism, much useful and valuable information may be gained, particularly as relates to dyeing, as we frequently find various articles of of ornament or dress, possessing dyes far superior in bril- liancy to any we can prepare. ‘The various articles used in preparing dyes should be most carefully ascertained, with the modes of preparation, if animal, vegetable, or mineral, the species must be clearly defined, if vegetable, seeds or plants should be procured and transported. Substances are in frequent use, in countries that kave but little or uncertain intercourse with Europe, for various domestic purposes, as for food, clothing, cordage, matting, MISCELLANEOUS. 331 fishing lines, &c., which should not be over-looked, as their introduction may be attended with considerable advantage. The materials of which their huts or dwellings are con- structed, their forms, the various modes of dressing and pro- curing their food, their attire, arms, canoes, &c. should be observed ; together with their rites and ceremonies, civil, and religious; their places and forms of worship, burial grounds, idols, charms, &c. deserve notice. The language as far as can be ascertained, should be written down, and any information relative to the original natives of the country is particularly desirable. It should also be learnt if any Europeans have at any time settled among them, either as Missionaries or otherwise; if the inhabitants are in the practice of bartering or trading with any neighbouring tribe or nation, and what articles this trade comprises. If and in what manner Surgical operations are performed, and in what manner Medical assistance is afford- ed in case of sickness, if the country is subject to periodical or epidemic diseases of any kind, and how relieved. The longitude and latitude of each place should be ascer- tained, with drafts of the coasts, shoals, mountains, rivers, &c. the general degree of temperature, in what particulars the astronomy of any place may differ from our own. The rise and fall of the tides, the direction of any particular current, and the height of their Mountains should be ascer- tained, an instrument peculiarly adapted and constructed for this last purpose, is made by Mr. Bate, Poultry, London ; it 352 MISCELLANEOUS. is called the Mountain Barometer, and being fitted up in the form of a walking stick, is particularly portable. The foregoing hints we have thrown together as Miscella- neous information, generally addressed to persons whose pursuits are not directed to the study of Natural History, but which relate to particulars that merit the attention of the Philantrophist, as being likely to conduce to the benefit of society at large ; and though the visiting of Hospitals and Prisons, may be considered by the unthinking part of Modern Tourists, as dull unprofitable employment; the true patriot and well-wisher to his country, will not be deterred by the censure of this insignificant tribe, from performing one of the most imperious of Christian duties, that of alleviating the bodily or mental maladies of his fellow creatures. The Traveller should provide himself with a good Teles- cope and Microscope, a pocket Compass, a case of Mathema- tical Instruments, drawing pencils and colours, ink in powder, writing and drawing papers, the latter should be packed in tin to prevent their being injured by insects or damp. The Naturalist will not fail to equip himself with the instruments necessary to the furthering of the particular branch of the science to which his attention may be directed : those requisite for Zoological pursuits are few, and are to be obtained at most Surgeon’s Instrument Makers; Netts and Forceps for catching Insects, Herborizing Boxes, cases MISCELLANEOUS. , 333 of Mineralogical Implements, and most articles requisite in Experimental Philosophy and Chemistry, may be purchased of Messrs. G. and H. Knight, Forster-Lane, London. The Botanist may obtain very complete Pocket Botanical Microscopes, of various powers and constructions, as also every article for Astronomical, Optical and Mathe- matical purposes, of Mr. Bate, Mathematical Instrument Maker, Poultry, London. Conchologists will gain much insight into the Science, if they would, as before recommended, possess themselves of specimens of the various genera and families of shells, these may be obtained, on very moderate terms, of Mr. Mawe in the Strand, London; as also collections of Minerals, assor- ted and named ; this gentleman, with the laudable motive of advancing the study of Natural History, has just established a Museum of Subjects in the two sciences, Conchology and Mineralogy, at Cheltenham, at which establishment, as well as at his residence, as above, the young Naturalist will gain much useful knowledge, not only of Shells and Minerals, but of most other subjects of Natural Curiosity. Having now given such general instructions as will enable the Naturalist to pursue his favorite object with a probability of success, we take this opportunity of earnestly pressing upon his attention, that as in every created being the wisdom and benevolence of their Almighty Creator is abundantly evinced, and that the wantonly destroying the lives of Animals not only displays a want of feeling in- * 334 MISCELLANEOUS. compatible with the Christian character, but totally at variance with that of a good or profound Naturalist. | The character of a good Naturalist necessarily implies that of a good man, one who looks with reverential awe and admiration on the works of the Almighty framer of the universe, who made no one being in vain or without its use, for as Cowper justly says, An inadvertant step may crush the Snail, That crawls at even’g in the public path; Yet, he that has humanity forewarned, Will step aside, and let the reptile live. For they are all the meanest things that are, As free to live and to enjoy that life, As God was free to form them at the first 5 Who in his sovereign wisdom, made them all. The various subjects composing the three kingdoms of nature, so artfully contrived, so wonderfully propagated, and so providentially supported, seem to have been intended, by their Alwise Creator, for the convenience of man, to whose uses every thing is rendered subservient ; he tames the fiercest animals, he pursues and catches the swiftest, whether, like himself, they roam on the surface of the green earth, float in the circumambient air, or glide through the abyss of the ocean. He encreases the number of vegetables affording foodful substance, and from this kingdom obtains what is necessary and convenient for food, for cloathing, for medicine, and for an endless variety of other purposes. MISCELLANEOUS. 335 He descends into the bowels of the earth, and extracts from thence those substances by which he is enabled to reduce to his purposes the other kingdoms of nature ; he contrives to render the hardest substances fiuid, to separate the useful metal from the useless dross; in fine, by the inscrutable wisdom of unerring providence, man is enabled to apply almost every object that surrounds him to his service, that availing himself of the benefits offered, he may be induced ‘to look up through nature unto nature’s God,’ and to pay that homage so justly due to the divine Author of his being; and, that by using, as not abusing the manifold blessings vouchsafed to him, he may be con- tinually induced to offer adoration and praise to the great first cause ‘ who in his sovereign wisdom made them all.’ FINIS. oe W.& S. 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