Fir hpatics Wee whan afbece bonis heh G: bokis Lelad uthlak or red Of Aristotle & his philesa-phi it NA Al 4 i vi ihe ? y J = if ag Rw re J He "i on Pet A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE VOLUME IV APRIL 1871 to OCTOBER 1871 “ To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind that builds for aye.’—Worpvsworri London and detw Pork MACMILLAN AND CO 1871 Myf ota he r -(* aD Cs, tay Soret / a > i fea Wen Mae 5 be » nr a) * Bs ey : 2 . ’ ne ier: ig Pe eae ’ Fs 4 ¥ 23 4 d Soe : > iene (es ‘ : ; g pas E ‘ faye) a 7 g Boies i bh “ L je; y. a ao we \ , Ga be 4 ; ; e) 3 * & s | . f ioe ' ‘ p ~—s en’ 7 a ee } y x? i a oe i bly neue Pt) ted eee Abbe (Cleveland) on Sunspots and Earth Temperature, 133 _ Abbott, (F., F.R.A.S.), Observations on 7 Argus 475 Aberdeen, Aurora at, Lord Lindsay on, 347, 365; Meteoro- logical Observatory at, 246 : Acclimatisation in Australia, 109, 305 _ Acclimatisation Society of Otago, 51 _ Acland (H. W., F.R.S.) on National Health, 463 _ Adipose Tissue, the Nucleus of, Dr. L. S. Beale on, 367 _ Adulteration of Butter, 90 ; of Manures, 301 Aerolitic Shower in Sweden, 398 Affinities of the Sponges, H. J. Carter and W. S. Kent, F.Z.S., on, 184, 201, 224 _ Africa: Dr. Hooker’s Expedition, 11, 89, 129, 149, 168, 196 Africa (South), Ethnology of, 56 “ Africa (Tropical), Flora of,” 287 _ Agassiz (A.) on Cotteau’s ‘‘ Echinides de la Sarthe,” 220 Agricultural Society, 168; its Keports on Adulteration of Manures, 301 Agriculture in America, 286; Government Department of, 302 Ainsworth (Thomas) on Hematite Ores (Br. A.), 292 _ Aiken (J.) on Moss Lochs, 144; Is Blue a Primary Colour? 465 - Airy (Prof. G B., F.R.S.), his Services to Science ; on the __ ** Determination of a Ship’s Place at Sea,” 57 _ Airy (Hubert), on Pendulum Autographs, 310, 37 _ Algiers, Jardin d’Essai at, 447 _ Allen (A. H., F.C.S.), Lecture Experiments on Colour, 346 _ Allen (Nathaniel, M.D.) on the Laws of Population, 462, 463 Alpine Floras, 162; Sculpture, 198 _ America: Department of Agriculture, 286, 302; Earthquakes and Inundations, 51 (and see Earthquakes) ; Eozoén Canal _ dense, 28 ; Fish and Fisheries, 33, 244; Meteorology, 390, 410, 430, 461 ; Science in, 32, 43, 56, 89, 109, 114, 130, 149, 170 212, 233, 294, 307, 319, 338, 340, 350, 375, 417, 421, 454, 480, 495, 497, 499, 501, 519; Lyceum of Natural History, _ New York, 155, 212, 340 ; Smithsonian Institution, Washing- ton, 56, 260, 401, 436 ; Scientific Society at Middleton, Con- necticut, 89 America, Central, Ruined Cities of, 466 America, South, Botany of, 52 American Annual of Scientific Discovery, 239 American Association for the Advancement of Science, Meeting at Indianapolis, 373 _ American Coleoptera, M. Boucard on, 50 _ American Geology, Report by Dr. Hayden, 24 _ American Polar Expedition, 309, 349 _ Anatomy and Physiology at the Br. A., 357 _ Anatomy at Edinburgh University, 168 Anatomy, Human, by Dr. Lionel S. Beale, 343, 367 Andrews (Dr.) on ‘‘ Liquid and Gaseous States of Matter,” 186 _ Andrews (Dr.) on the Vapour of Iodine; on the Action of Heat on Bromine (Br. A.), 316 Andiews (Prof., F.R.S.), on Chemical Science (Br. A.), 273 Ant-eating Woodpecker, 230 _ Anthropological Institute, Journal, &c., of, 115, 196, 229, 379 Anthropological Institute, New York, 12 _ Anthropology, Academy of, Berlin, 56 : Anthropology and Archeology, Congress at Bologna, 244, 306 _ Anthropology and M. Comte, 466 ' Anthropology at the Br. A., 289, 317, 334, 357, 378 Anthropology, Prof. Allen Thomson on (Br. A.), 294 Antilles, the Lesser Birds of the, 473 Ants of Panama, 245 Antwerp, Congress of Geographical Science, 286 Ape, the, and Man, Capt. Wake on (Br. A.), 335 Aquaria, Rockwork in Tanks, 507 Aquarium at Brighton, 394 ; at the Crystal Palace, 469 Arboricultural Society of Scotland, 73 Archzological Institute, 261 Archeology, Endowment by Mr. Yates at Uniy. Col., 260 Arctic Auroras, 142 Arctic Expeditions : American, 309, 349 ; German, 395, 439, 513 Arctic Regions, Low Barometer in, 226 $e | TaN: Doe Arctic Scenery, Paintings by W. Bradford, 210 Argus, Observations of 7, and its surrounding Nebulz, 478 Armagh, Meteorological Observatory at, 246 Armstrong (Dr.) his ‘‘ Manual of Organic Chemistry,” 50 Armstrong (Jas.) Catalogue of the Carboniferous Fossils of West Scotland, 443 Artesian Wells in America, 32 ; in India, 89 Asaphus platycephalus, its supposed legs, 152, 254 ** Asiatic Cholera, Treatise on,” by C. Macnamara, 302 Asiatic Society, Bengal, Proceedings of, 32, 89, 339 Astronomical Observation, its Present State, 30 Astronomy in Constantinople, 128 Astronomy, Klein and Kiinkerfues on, 24 Astronomy, Visitation of the R. Observatory, Greenwich, 50, 103 “At Last ; a Christmas in the West Indies,” by the Rev. Canon Kingsley, 282 Atmosphere, Circulation and Distribution of, by Prof. Everett, 353 Atmosphere, Universal, 487 August Meteors, J. Edmund Clark on, 304 | “ Aunt Rachel’s Letters on Water and Air,” 24 Aurignac, Cave with Human Remains at, 208 Aurora Australis and Borealis, their Correspondence, 213 Aurora Australis, 345 ; Davis on, 385; A. B. Meyer on, 84, Aurora at Aberdeen, Lord Lindsay on, 347, 366 Aurora by Daylight, 7, 27, 121, 142; Jas. Glaisher on, 209 ; John Jeremiah on, 47; J. Lucas on one at Oxford, 183, 305 ; D. Winstanley on, 280; George F. Burder on, 84 Aurora, Spectrum of the, 280; T. W. Backhouse on, 66 “Aurora, Some Speculations on the,” by J. M. Wilson, 372 Aurora, Arctic, 142 Auroras, are they Periodical? by Prof. D. Kirkwood, 505 ; Height of, 280; Their Relation to Gravitating Currents, 497 Aurora Island, its reported Submergence, 74, 108 Australia: Acclimatisation, 308; Entomological Society of New South Wales, 436; Mineral Statistics, Reports of Mining Surveyors, Victoria, 365 ; Royal Society, Victoria, its Eclipse Expedition, 394, 400; its Transactions, 418 ; the Melbourne Telescope, 109 ; Science at Melbourne, 211 ; Commission on Foreign Industries, 453 ; Science in Victoria, 109, 211 Austria: Science in Vienna, 498 ; Imperial Academy of Sciences, Vienna, 79, 216, 256; Imperial and Royal Geological Insti- tution, Vienna, 60, 176; International Exhibition, Vienna, 1873, 434 Austrian Meteorological Society, Journal of the, 502 Avebury, destruction of the Druidical Temple at, 476, 494 Ayrton (W. E.), ona Quantitative Method of Tesunga ‘‘ Tele- graph Earth,” 399 Babbage, Charles, his death, 512 Backhouse (T. W.), on the Spectrum of the Aurora, 66; onthe “Height of Auroras,” 280; on a Sun Spot, 359 Bacteiia, Dr. Bastian on, 178, 459 Baillon (Prof. H.), his ‘* Histoire des Plantes,” 199 Ball (John), on the Temperature of the Sun, 487 Ball (Robert Stawell), ‘* Experimental Mecharics,” 510 Barker (G. F., M.D.) on Elementary Chemistry, 4 Barometer in Polar Regions and Cyclones, 226 Barometers, Self-registering, at Washington, by Prof. G. W. Hough, 410, 430; by Prof. Wild, 432 Barometer, Standard, by J. Green, New York, 412 Barrington (R. M.) on a Halo in the Zenith, 160 Basevi (Captain, R. E.), Obituary Notice of, 413 Bastian (H, Charlton, M.D., F.R.S.), on Protoplasmic Life, 59; on the Origin of Life, 178 (Br. A.), 378; on Fungi in Living Birds (Br. A.) 356; on the Germ Theory, 458 Bathybius, Freshwater, Dr. R. Greeff on, 49 Beacons and Lighthouses, Towers of Cement Rubble, 366 Beale (Dr. Lionel S., F.R.S.) on Pangenesis, 25 ; on Mr. Ho- worth’s New View of Darwinism, 221, 240; “The Physio- logical Anatomy and Physiology of Man,” 343 ; on the Nucleus of Adipose Tissue, 367 Beaumont, M. Elie de, on the Scientific Use of the Mont Cenis Tunnel, 434 1V INDEX Bee Orchis, its Fertilisation, 222 Beet, Cultivation of, 90 ‘Beginning, The ; its When and its How,” by M. Ponton, 321 Behm (E.), his ‘‘ Geographisches Jahrbuch,” 44 Beke (Chas. Tilson), Civil Service Pension to, 260 Belfrage (C. H.) on the Entomology of Texas, 51 Belgium, Royal Academy of Sciences, 379 Bennett A. W., F.L.S.) on Hybridisation, 46; on the Fer- tilisation of the Bee Orchis, 222 ; on New and Rare Fungi, 240 ; on Newspaper Science, 425 ; on Winter Fertilisation, 506 Bennett, Prof., his Graduation Address at Edinburgh, 288 Bentham (G., F.R.S.) his Anniversary Address to the Linnean Society, 92, 110, 150, 170, 129 Berkeley (Rev. M. J., F.L.S.), Reviews of Books, 240; on Dr. De Notaris’ Work on Italian Mosses, 383, 446 ’ Berthon (Rev. M. L.), his New Dynameter, 427, 446 Bessemer Bombs, 123 Beswick- Perrin (J.) on an Additional True Rib in the Human Subject, 188 Bhyscuppra, an Injian Saurian, 514 Biblical Archzeology, Society of, 19, 39, 104, 215, 374 Bickerton (A. W., F.C.S.) on Conversion of Heat in the Steam Engine, 203 Billings, on the Supposed Legs of Asaphus, 254 Biogenesis, Sir Wm. Thomson on the Law of, Remarks by E, Ray Lankester, F.L.S., 368 (See Origin of Life) Biology, Prof. Huxley’s Instruction at S. Kensington, 168, 325 Biology at the Br. A. (Section D.), Opening Address, 292 ; Sec- tional Proceedings, 332, 355, 377 ‘* Birds of Europe,” by Sharp and Dresser, 308 Birds of the Lesser Antilles, Dr. P. L. Sclater, F.R.S., on, 473 Birmingham (J.) on Snn-spots, 102; on Prof. Zéllner’s New Theory of Sun-spots, 164; Observations of Comets, 359 ‘‘ Birmingham Saturday Half-holiday Guide,” 225 Black Rain, Edwin Lee, F.L.S , on, 161 Blake (C. Carter), Cave Lion in the Peat, 27 Bland (Thos. ), Conchology of the West Indies, 307 Blood, its Constitution, Dr. Marcet on, 57 Blood Spectrum, H. C. Sorby, F.R.S., on, 505 Boettcher (Dr. Arthur) on the Structure of the Ear, 64; on Defective Vision, 140 Bolide seen at Marseilles, 339, 454, 503 Bolivia, Silver, Coal, and Gems in, 418 Bond (Dr. Francis T.), on Degrees for Engineering Students at London University, 67 Bonney (Rev. T. G., F.G.S.) on Dr. Tyndall’s ‘ Hours of Ex- ercise in the Alps,” 198; on Ice Fleas, 467 Boston (U.S.) Natural History Society, 373 Botanical Department of the British Myseum, 285 Botanical Exchange Club, 32 Botanical Science, its Study in England, 193 Botany at the Br. A., 317, 355,377 “Botany, Domestic,” by John Smith, A.L,S., 301 “Botany, First Catechism of,” 12 Botany, Journal of, 77, 108, 233, 359, 399, 453, 498 ** Botany, Manual of Structural,” by M. C, Cooke, 44 Botany of Africa, 11, 447 ; of India, 90; of Queensland, 349 ; of South America, 62 Boucard (M.), his proposed work on American Coleoptera, 50 Bradford (W.), his Paintings of Arctic Scenery, 210 Brazil, Rock Inscriptions in, 114 Brazil, Scientific Research in, 299 Brighton Aquarium, 394 Brine (Capt. L., K.N.,) on the Ruined Cities America (Br. A.), 358 Bristol Observing Astronomical Society, 175, 359, 440 *< Britain,” Name of, 7, 27 British Archeological Association, 324, 374 British Association, Arrangements for Meeting at Edinburgh, of Central 148, 229, 244; Remarks on the Meeting, 261, 313 ; Address | by the Presid-nt, 262; Opening Addresses in each Section, 270, 273, 277; 293, 297, 298, 315; Sectional Proceedinys, 291, 292, 313, 315, 316, 317, 331, 352, 376, 377, 396; Grants for Scientific Purposes, 314 British Association and Local Scientific Societies, 242 ‘* Beitish Fungi, Handbook of,” by M. C. Cooke, M.A., 321 “ British Guiana, Geology of, 115 ‘* Bri ish Insects,” by I. F. Staveley, acc 3/23 22 British Museum, Sponges added to its Collection, 50 ; the Natural | Hlistory Collections, 181 ; Report on Botanical Department, 286, 452 British Mosses, D. Moore, F.L.S., on, 487 Bromine, Action of Heat on, by Dr. Andrews (Br. A ) 316 Brothers (A., F.R.A.S.) on Coronal Rifis, 66; on his Eclipse Photography, 121, 327, 367 Brown Trust for Treatment of Sick Domestic Animals, 190, 210 Browning (John, F.R.A.S.), on a Universal Atmosphere, 487 Brussels Museum, Geological Collection at, 76 Aa ee ae Great Heat in Iceland, 202; on Rain- all in January and July (Br. A.), 358; on the Rainfall of Scotland (Br. A), 308 a ie Burder (Dr. George F.), on Daylight Auroras, 84 ; ona Lunar Halo seen at Clifton, 33 : Burgoyne (Sir John F., F.R.S.), Obituary Notice of, 476 Burmah, Hairy Family in, 454, 477 Butter, Adulteration of, 90 “Butterflies, British, Natural History of,’ by E. Newman, F.L.S., 219 Butterflies, Migration of, 12, 487, 494 Butterflies of North America, 11 Calcutta, New Museum at, 89 California Academy of Sciences, 419 California Vulture, 52 Cambridge, Science at, 11, 476, 488, 493, 513 Cambridge, Philosophical Society, 39, 155 Cambridge, Woodwardian Museum, 100 Canada, Meteorology in, 349 Canine Madness in a Horse, 308 Carbolic Acid for Snake Bites, 229 ‘* Carboniferous Epoch, Fauna of the,” by Henry Woodward, 59 Carboniferous Fossils of West Scotland, 443 Carpenter (Dr. W. B.) on Ocean Currents, 71, 183, 243, 435 446, 468 ; on Deep Sea Explorations. 73, 107 ; on Deep Se Temperature, 97 ; Elected President of Br. A. for 1872, 290 Carruthers (Wm., F.R.S.) on “‘ Suoposed Vegetable Fossils,” 234 Carter (H. J.) on Affinities of Sponges, 184 Cassowary, New Species of, 436 Cave of Aurignac, 208 ; at Wyandotte, 514 Cayley’s Report on Abstract Dynamics, Sir Wm. Thomson, F.R.S., on (Br. A.), 264 Celebes, Vis. Walden on its Omithology, 37 ; Volcano near, 286 Cellulose, M. Payen on, 59 Central America, Ruined Cities of (Br. A.), 358 Ceratodus, Discovered in Queensland, 406, 428, 447 Changes in the Habits of Animals, 489, 506 Charcoal Respirators for use in Smoke, 127 Charlesworth (E.). Recommended to Survey the Wealden, 493 Cheese Factories, Scientific Value of, 104 Chelsea Botanic Gardens, Lectures at, 89 “Chemical Analysis,” Wm. Crookes, F.R.S., on, 81 Chemical Dynamics, J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S., and Alfred Tribe on, 195; (Br. A.), 201 Chemical Papers, Published Abstracts of (Br. A.), 331 Chemical Society, its Journal, 2, 38, 95, 134, 359 Chemical Society, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 284 Chemical Science at the Br. A. (Section B), Opening Address, 273 ; Sectional Proceedings, 291, 316, 331 “* Chemistry in the United States” (Br. A.), 292 Chemistry, Investigations by the late Prof. Payen, 261 Chemistry, Italian Journal of, 73 ; Literature of, 2 Chemistry of Milk, 96 2, 72; 107, 129, 5555 210, 261, 452, . ** Chemistry, Manual of Organic,” by Dr. Armstrong, 50 Chestnut-tree of Mount Etna, 166 China, Science in, 43 China, Fatal Earthquakes in, 145 ; Cultivation of the Poppy, 230 China, Fungi used for Food, 494 Cholera, Jno. Murray on, 350 Christ’s Hospital, Science at, If, 130 Chronometers, their Defecis, 103 Cinchona Cultivation in India, 245 Civil Engineers, Institution of, 73, 417 Civil Service Pensions, 260 Claparéde (Prof. E. R.) on Chzetophorus Annelides, 36; Obituary Notice of, 224 Clark (F. Legros) on the Mechanism of Respiration, 95 Clark (J. Edmund) on August Meteors, 304 Clark (A.), his Telescope ior Washington Observatory, 433 Clark (Hyde), on the Derivation of the word “ Britanni:,” 7 ; | “*On the Tramissibility of Intellectual Qualides,” 154 | Classification of Fruits, 347, 475 Climate and Health of the Mauritius, 51 INDEX Vv Clifton College Scientific Society, 51; Conversazione at, 148 ; its School of Science, 329; View of the Museum, 330 Climate of Nicaragua, 206 ~ Clock Tower, Westminster, Magneto-Electric Light for, 107 - Cloud Scenery, 4 ; New Form of, 489, 505 Coal in Bolivia, 418 ; in India, 514 ; in Panama, 309 ; (Br. A.), 332 ; Royal Commission on, 148, 287 Coal Plants, Exogenous Structuresin (Sve Williamson, Prof. W. C.) Coa], Velocity of Sound in, 487, 506 Cobbold (Dr. T. Spencer, F.R.S.) on Entozoa, 479; on the Beef Tapeworm, 506 ; on Stephanurus discovered in America and Australia, 508 Coleoptera of America, M. Boucard on, 50; of New South Wales, 436; of Palestine, 55 Coles, Emily, Civil Service Pension to, 260 College of Physical Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 21, 189, 217, 284, 416, 435, 493 College of Physicians, Scheme of Examination, 73, 168 Colleges of Surgeons and Physicians, 229 College of Surgeons, Ireland, 129 Collins (J. H.), “ Western Chronicle of Science,” 220, 243, 338 Colour, the Sensation of, 27; Dr. H. M‘Leod, F.C.S., on Ked and Blue, 122; Hon. J. W. Strutt on, 142; “Is Blue a Primary Colour,” 465 ; Lecture Experiments on, 346 ; Colour of the Sky, 4; Optical Phenomenon of, 68 ; Colour Vision, J. C. Maxwell on, 13 ; Colours of the Sea, W. M ‘Master on, 203, 305 Comet, Futtle’s, its Ephemeris, by J. R. Hind, F.R.S., 374; New, discovered by Temple, 189 ; Spectrum of, 95 Comets, Observations by J. Birmingham, 359 ; Sir W. Thomp- son, F.R.S., on (Br.A.), 268 Compass, Transparent, 366 Compound Prism for Spectrum Microscope, 511 Comte (M.), and Anthropology, 466 Conchology of Polynesia, 37 ; of the West Indies, 307 Conservation of Force, 47 Constantinople, Astronomy in, 128 Cook (Captain), Monument to, in New South Wales, 271 Cooke (M. C, M.A.), his “ Manual of Structural Botany,” 44 ; his “ Handbook of British Fungi,” 321 Cooley (W. D.) on Elemetary Geometry, 485 Cooper’s Hill, Indian College of Civil Engineering, 244 Corals, 37, 38; Prof. P. M. Duncan on, 57 Coral Fauna of the Deep Sea, 153 Corfield (Prof.) on Sewage, 287 Corona, Remarks on the, 42, 121, 160; its Radial Appearance, 46; Prof. Serpierion, 99 ; A. C. Ranyard, F.R.A.S., on, 466 Coronal Rifts, A, C. Ranyard, F.R.A.S., on, 27; A. Brothers on, 66, 121 Comwall Institution, 375 Cornwall Polytechnic Society, 169, 287 Corrosion of Copper-plates by Nitrate of Silver (Br. A.), 353 Cotteau and Triger (M. M.) their “Echinides du Département de la Sarthe,” 120, 220 Cotteswold Naturalists’ Field Club, 32 Cotton-wool Respirators, 126, 164 Coutts (Baroness Burdett) her Prize for Essay on “ The Balance Spring,” 229 Coventry Institute, Science Classes at, 493 Cyace Calvert (F., F.R.S.), on “‘ Protuplasmic Life,” 57 Cramming for Middle Class Examinations, 202, 285 Crinoids, Palzeozoic, Prof. Wyville Thomson, F.R.S., on their Structure, 496 Crocodiles at Greytown, 27 Croll (Jas.) on the Age of the Earth Crookes (Wiliam, F.R.S.), his ‘‘Chemical Analysis,” 81; on “ Psychic Force,” 237, 278 Crotch (G. R., F.L.S.) on Geographical Distribution of Insects, 65 ; his Expedition to Austraha, 129 Cryptogamia in Coal Measures, Classification of, Prot. W. C. Williamson, F.R°S., on (Br. A.), 173, 357, 408, 426, 450, 504 Crystal Palace Aquarium, 469 Cundurango Tree, 514 Cunningham (Major.-Gen, A., R.E.) “ The Ancient Geography of India,” 381 Cycloid, the, Note by R. A. Proctor, F.R.A.S., 465, 487 Cyclone in the West Indies, 417, 454, 464 Cyclones, Converging of Wind in, 254; Low Barometer in, 226; J J. Murphy on their Origin, 305 Czermak (Prof.) his Electric Double Lever, 5 Dallas (W. S., F.L.S.) on “ Newman’s British Butterflies,” 219 | Dall (W. H.) on Striated Muscular Fibre in Gasteropoda, 114 ; his “ Brachiopoda of the United States Coast Survey,” 238 ; his Explorations in Alaska, 455 Dana (Jas. D.) on the supposed Legs of Asaphus platye phalus, 152, 254 Danger and Storm Signal Light, inextinguishable, 49 Darwin (Charles, F.R.S.) on a New View of Darwinism, 180 Darwinism, Notes on, 5, 46, 117; 2 New View of, by Henry H. Howorth, 161, 180, 200, 221, 240 Dase’s Tables of Prime Numbers, 6 Davidson (Thomas) Memoir of, in Geological Magazine, 36 Davies (Lieut. A. M., R. N.) on Saturn’s Rings, 203 Davis (A. S.) on the Aurora, 385 Davis (Barrett) his Tables of Prime Numbers, 6 Davis (Henry) on Eclipse Photography, 445 Davy (Sir Humphrey) Statue to, at Penzance, 307 Dawkins (W. Boyd, F.R.S.) on the Interment in the Aurignac Cave, 208 ; Mammalia of the Glacial Period (Br. A.), 355 ; Origin of Domestic Animals (Br. A.), 357; Classification of the Paleolithic Age (Br. A.), 358; Discoveries of Platycnemic Men in Denbighshire, 388 Dawson (Principal, F.R.S.) on Hydrous Silicate in Fossils, 162 ; on the Higher Education of Women, 515 Day (St. John V,, C E.) “ Papers on the Great Pyramid,” 303 Debus (Dr., F.R.S.) on Ozone, 134 Deep Sea Explorations, 73, 87, 167, 290; in America, 233 ; in the Baltic, 417 ; in Indian waters, 307 ; Dredging in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 210; Deep-Sea Temperature, 97 ; Resolu- tion of the Br. A., 313; (See Carpenter, Dr. W. B. ; Ocean Currents) De Fonvielle (W.) on Aerostation, 3 Delaunay (M.) on the Thickness of the Earth’s Crust, 28, 45, 65, 141 Denbighshire, Discoveries of Platcyenemic Men in, 388 Denmark, Biology of, 150 De Notaris (Dr. G.), “Epilogo della Briologia Italiana,” 383, 446 ; D. Moore, F.L.S., on, 487 Derry, Natural History Society of, 51 Deschanel (A. Privat), ‘‘ Elementary Treatise on Natural Philo- sophy,” 343, 405, 425 Desert of the Tih, Report by C. F. Tyrwhitt Drake on, 33, 52 Devonshire Assoc. of Literature, Science, and Art, 169, 374 Dewar on Thermal Equivalents of Oxides of Chlorine (Br. A.), 291 Diamond Fields of Natal, 190, 418 Dickson (Alex., M.D.) ‘‘ Suggestions on Fruit Classification” (Br. A.), 347, 475 Diving Bell, Photographic Apparatus for use in the, 477 Dobell (Dr.) his Reports on Practical Medicine, 140 “Domestic Botany,” by John Smith, A.L.S., 304 Donegal, Geology of, 234 Doubleday (Thomas), ‘‘ Matter for Materialists,” 321 Drake (C. F. TY.) his Report on the Nesert of the Tih, 33, 52 Dredging Expedition off Spain and Portugal, its Zoological Re- sults (Br. A.), 456 : Dredging of the Gulf Stream, 87 Dresden Natural History Society, 133 Drought caused by Drainage, 386 Dublin: Geological Society, 135 ; Natural History Society, 36, 135; Queen’s University, 189; Royal Society, 96; Royal Irish Academy, 19, 77, 136, 196, 379. 440; Tnnity College, 129 ; University Diploma on State Medicine, 137, 148 Duncan (Prof. P. M., F.R.S.), on Corals, 37, 57, 773 on the Coral Fauna of the Deep Sea, 153 Durham University and College of Science at Newcastle, 21, 189, 217 Dust and Smoke, Prof. Tyndall on, 124 Dyer (Prof. W. T. T.), his Lectures on Botany, 107 ; on Mimicry in Plants (Br. A.), 3553 on Fossil Cryptogams, 444, 504 ; on Geometry at Oxford, 485; on Homoplastic Agreements in Plants, 507 Dymond (W. P.), on the Irish Fern in Cornwall, 8 Dynameter, New, Rev. T. W. Webb, F.R.A.S., on, 427, 446 Dynamics, Abstract, Cayley’s Report on (Br. A.), 264 Dynamics, Stokes’s Theory, Sir William Thomson, F.R.S., on (Br. A.), 267 Dynamite, Dr. Guyot on, 156 Far, the. Dr. Arthur Boettcher on its Structure, 64 Earth, the, its Age as determined by Tidal Retardaticn, 323 ; its Internal Structure, H. Hennessy, F.R.S., on, 182; its Temperature, 133; Thickness of its Crut, 28, 45, 65, 141, 344, 366, 383 vl Earthquakes : in Columbia, 5t; Hawaiian Islands, 51; Peru, 51, 74, 169, 230, 418; Salvador, Valparaiso, 51; Celebes, 85; China (fatal), 145; Chile, 150, 230, 418, 454; the Himalayas, 150; Mexico, 169; America and Canada, 169 ; India, Hayti, 212; Hawaiian Islands, 230; New York State, 230; Himalayas, Cashmere, near New York, 287 ; China, 309 ; in Scotland, Report on, (Br. A.), 317; Simla, 325; Boston, U.S., 326; at Worthing (alleged), 349, 385; Panama, 350; arises 350; New “England, 373; West Indies, Philippine Islands, 375; Jamaica, 387; Madeira, 436; Callao, 494; Corstantinople, 494 Earwaker (J. P.) his Collection of Fossils, 96; on“ Psychic Force, 278 Eastbourne Natural History Society, 190 Echini, Cotteau and Triger on, 228 Echinoderms, Prof. Wyville Thomson on (Br. A.), Eclipse at Darmstadt, 1699, alarm caused by it, 418 Eclipse, Solar, of 1868, 399 Eclipse, Solar, of Dec. 22, 1870; photographs of, 85 ; J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S., his Lecture at Rove Society on, 230, 241 Eclipses, gke Recent and Com: ing, by J. N. Lockyer, F.R.S.(Br. By ), 35 Edlipse’S Epler, of Dec. 12, 1871: Preparations to observe it, 128, 197, 210, 228, 259, 290, 348, 373, 394, 435, 445, 492; Map of Shadow Path over India, 258; Government Aid to Observation, 324; Suggestions to Observers, by A. C. Ran- yard, F.R-A'S., 327; Lieut.-Col J. F. Tennan’, RE., F.R.S., on, 339, 486 ; M. Janssen on (Br. A.), 352 ; French Expedition, 373; Sailing of the English Expedition, 512; “Instructions for Observers at the English Goverment Ex3e- dition,” 516 ~ Eclipses, J. R. Hind, F.R.S., on Total Solar Eclipses Visible in England in 1954 and 1999, 260 Eclipse Photography, 121, 160, 327, 367, 445 Economic Science and Statistics at the Br. A. (Section F), Open- ing Address, 298 ; Sectional Proceedings, 336 Edinburgh : Meeting of the British Association at (Sve British Association) ; its Medical School, 288; Prof. A. Geikie, F.R.S , on its Geology, 277 ; (Br. A.) 315 ; Botanical Society, 51; its Flora (Br. A.), 356; Naturalists’ Field Club, 10 Royal Physical Society, 39 ; University, Prof. W. Thomson’s Introductory Lecture, 74, 90; Anatomy and Physiology at, | 168; Botanical Class, 374; Science at, 452, 514 Edmonds (Richard) on the name “ Britain,” 3, 27 Education in Science: Lectures and Teaching for the People, 8I, 101, 120, 141, 192, 211, 281; Science in Schools, 243, | 257, 285, 308, 314, 296, 349, 417, 421, 452, 437, 401; Prof. Allen Thomson on (Br. A.), 296; G. F. Rodwell on, 455, Report of London School Board, 198, 192; Prof. Huxley on the Duties of the State, 495; Education for Farmers, 66, 89, ror (Sze Female Education, Technical Education) Edwards and Kidd, Illustrations of the Heliotype Process, $5 Fel’s Skull, its structure, W. K. Parker, F.R.S., on, 146 Egyptian Antiquities, Mr. R. Hay’s Collection, 130 Flastrus dolosus in the Azores, 162 Electric Double Lever, by Czermak, 5 Electricity, Animal, 29 Elementary Examination Papers, their Defects, 202, 285 Ellery (Robert J.), on the Spectrum of the Aurora, 280 Elliot (Sir Walter) on Provincial Museums (Br. A.), 377 Embryology, Prof. Allen Thomson on (Br. A.), 2 Encke’s Comet, 394 ; Observations by J. R. Hind, F.R. 492; by M. Stephan, 492, 499 Engelman (Dr. R.), Light of jupiter Satellites, 442 Engineering, its Study at the London University, 67 Entomological Society, Proceedings, 39, 154, 215 Entomology, its Study in Great Britain, 194 Entomology at the Br. A., 333 Entomology of America, 30; of New South Wales, 436; of New Zealand, 40; of Palestine, 55; of Texas, 51 Entozoa, Dr. F. Cobbold on, 479 ; Stephanurus in Hogs, 508. Eozo6n Canadense, John B. Perry on, 28; Notes on, 72, 85 Ericsson (J.), the Temperature of the Sun, 204, 449 Emst (A.), Yellow Rain in New Granada, 68 Erskine (Lieutenant Vincent), “ Meteorology at Natal,” 305 Essex Institute, Salem, U.S., Proceedings of, 43, 501 Ethnological Classifications, 56 Ethnological Society, Journal of, 76 Ethnology in America, 12. 32, 89, 154; at the Br. A., 289 ; of the Coasts of Behring’s Sea, 519; of Palestne, ei 53; of South Wales, 261 334 S., 435, | ‘Flora of Tropical Africa,” | Forth, Estuary of the, its Geology, | “Gaseous and Liquid States of Matter,’ INDEX Euclid, a Substitute for (Sve Geometry, Elementary) Evans (Colonel Albert S.), “Our Sister Republic ; a Gala Tiip through Tropical Mexico,” 322 Everett (Prof. J. D., D.C.L.), on Units of Force and Energy, 6; 3533 his Translation of Deschanel on Natural Philosophy. 343, 425, 505; on Wet and Dry Bulb Formule 353; Cir- calation and Distribution of the Atmosphere (Br. A.), 353 3 Report on Underground Temperature (Br, A.), 396 Exogenous Structures amongst the Stems of Coal Measures (Sw Williamson, Prof. W.C., F.R.S.) Examination Tests, Use and Abuse of, 467 «Experimental Mechanics,” by R. S. Ball, 510 Exploration of Palestine, 33, 52, 215 Explosion (?) on the Sun, 488 Fairlie, R., on the Gauge of Railways (Br. A.), 337 Falmouth, Meteorological Observatory at, 247, 248 Fawcus, George, on a Transparent Compass, 366 Fawcett (Thomas), on Science Lectures for the People, 101 ; o1 Drainage as a Cause of Drought, 386 Fellowes (Lieut. John, R.N.), on Steam Lite Boats, 181 Ferrel (W.), Low Barometer in Polar Regions and Cyclones, 226 Fertilisation of the Bee Orchis, 222 Finnis (M. M.), on Meteors in South Australia, 345 Fish, as affected by Fresh and Salt Water, 245, 339 Fish and Fisheries, New York Commission, 244 Fish, Fossil, in the British Museum, 77 Fish of Nicaragua, 207 ; of North America, 33 Fish, Phosphorescence in, 287 Fish-Crow of Oregon and Washington, 287 Fixed Stars, Method of Estimating their Distances (Br. A.), 396 Flammarion, Camille, on Aérostation, 3 Flamsteed (John), his Ghost, on the Sun’s Parallax, 503 Fletcher (A. E., F.C.S.), on the Rhysimeter (Br. A.), 338 Fletcher (L. E., C.E.), on Steam Boiler Legislation (Br. A.), 397 Flight, Recent Researches on, 516; of Butterflies, 487, 494 Flint, Hawkins Johnson, F.G gh on, 1545 Formation of, 223, 243 “*Flora of Mentone and the Riviera,” 502 287 Flower (Prof., F.R.S.), on Rib Variations, 188 Fluid State of Matter, Speculations on its Continuity (Br. A ), 291 Forbes (David, F.R.5.), “ On the Nature of the Earth’s Interior,” 28; on the Thickness of the Eaith’s Crust, 65; on News- paper Science, 406, 464 Force and Energy, Units of, 6; Correspondence on, 69 ; Prof. Everett on (Br. A.), 353 Foreign Scientific Associations, 43 Formosa, Birds and Beasts of, 44 Fossiliferous Boulder in Noahumbolsae 386, 467 _ Foster (Dr. M.), his Physiological Class, Cambridge, 107 ; on the Action of Codeia Derivatives, 174 Foliage, the Various Tints of, 341 ‘« Fragments of Science,” by Prof. Tyndall, LL.D., 237 France, Baron Liebig on ae Scientific Men, 190 Frankland (Prof. E. F., F.2.S.), on Metropolitan Water Supply, 349 ; on Ice Fleas, 426 Frankland Institute, Journal of the, 211, 229, 452 Fraser (George) on Scientific Lectures for the People, 120 ; on “Psychic Force,” 279 Frigate Bird at the Zoological Gardens, 394 Freke (H.), on ‘ « Dependence of Life on Decomposition,” 422 French Recent Zoological Discoveries, 369 Freshwater Bathybius, Dr. R. Greef on, 49 “Fruit Classification, Suggestions on,” by Alex. Dickson, M.D. (Br. A.), 347, 475 : Fruit, International Exhibition at the Horticultural Society, 394 Fungi, New and Rare, 240 Fungi i in Living Birds (Br. A.), 356 Fungi, Exhibition at the Horticultural Gardens, 476, used for food in China, 494 Futtle’s Comet, Ephemeris of, 374 Galton (Francis), on Pangenesis, 5, 25 Ganoid Fish discovered in Queensland, 406, 428, 447 > Dr. Andrews on, 186 casterepode, Striated Muscular Fibre in, 144 ; Auditory Organ, 518 Geikie (Prof. Archibald, F.R.S.) Opening Address at Geo- logical Section, 277 ; Geological Survey of Scotland, 292 Geneva, Natural History Society of, 36 | Geographical Distribution of Insects, G. R. Crotch on, 65 | Gee ographical Surveys in India, 415 — INDEX Vil _ Geographical Society, Proceedings, 37, 50, 72, 129, 195, 211 ; its Memorial to Oxford and Cambridge Universities, 244 “ Geographisches Jahrbuch,” by E. Behm, 44 Geography at the ‘Br. A. (Section E), Opening Address, 297 ; Sectional Proceedings, 335, 358 Geography: Interna‘ional Congress at Antwerp, 168 ; Lectures at Maidstone, 417; St. Martin’s Année Géographique, 44 Geological Atlas of England, by W. Stephen Mitchell, 373 Geological Magazine, 36, 76, 194 254, 453 Geological Society, Proceedings, 18, 37, 77, 115, 153, 234 Geological Society, Dublin, 135 Geological Survey of Scotland (Br. A.), 292 Geologists’ Association, 10, 73, 95, 154, 168 211, 229, 254 Geology in America, 12 ; American, by Dr. Hayden, 24 Geology at Christ’s Hospital, 130 ; at Oxford, 485 Geological Science, at Br. A. (Section C), Opening Address, 277 ; Sectional Procecdings, 317, 332, 354, 376 Geology : Endowment by Mr. James Yates at University College, 260; of Edinburgh and Neighbourhood (Br. A.), 315 ; Glou- cestershire, 32 ; Estuary of the Forth, 422; Thames Valley, 157; the Ural and Caspian Sea, 417 Geometry, Elementary Practical; J. M. Wilson on Teaching, 387 ; a Substitute for Euclid, 366, 404, 505; R. Wormellon 425; W. D. Cooley and Thomas Jones on, 485, 486 “Geometry, Elements of Plane and Solid,” by H. W. Watson, “Geometry, Practical and Plane,” by J. W. Palliser, 484 Geometry, The Axioms of, Prof. Helmholtz on, 481 Germ Theory, Dr. Bastian on, 178, 458 ; Noteson, 125, 165, 378 German Arctic Expedition, 439, 513 Germany, Science in, 60, 108, 169, 170, 229, 234, 439, 453, 477; 493 Gibraltar Current, Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S., on, 468 Ginsburg (Dr.), his Expedition to Moab, 492 Glacial Fossils at Finchley, 514 Glacier Ice, the Bending of, Prof. Tyndall on, 447 Glacier Sculpture, 198 Gladstone (John Hall, F.R.S., and Alfred Tribe), on Chemical Dynamics, 195 ; (Br. A.) 291; on the Corrosion of Copper- plates by Nitrate of Silver (Br. A.), 353 Glaisher (James F.R.S.), his “ Travels in the Air,” 3 ; on Day Auroras, 209 Glaisher (J. W. L.), on Tables of Prime Numbers, 6 Glasgow : Anderson’s University, 190 ; Meteorological Observa- tory, 256 ; Geological Society, Transactions, 443 Glass, Researches on, by Rev. W. V. Harcourt (Br. A ), 351 Gold at Penang and New Grenada, 419 Gould (John), on a New Humming Bird, 77 Government, the, and Prof. Sylvester, 324, 326 Government aid for Observing the Eclipse of December 12, 1781, and Transit of Venus, 324 Government aid to Science, 462, 495 Gratz, Physiological Researches at, 402 Gravitating Currents in Relation to Auroras, 497 Gravitation, Sir W. Thomson, F.R.S., on the Law of, Remarks by E. Ray Lankester, F.L.S., 368 “Great Pyramid Papers,” by Sir John Vincent Day, C.E., “ Planand Object of its Construction,” 303 Greeff (Dr. R.), Freshwater Bathybius, 49 Green (A. H., F.G.S.), Thickness of the Earth’s Crust, 45, 383 ; the Geology of Donegal, 234 Green (Jas.), his Standard Barometer, 412 Green Light for Ships, Prize Offered for, 418 Greenwich, Visitation to the Observatory, 50, 103 Greytown: Noises at Sea, 26; Crocodiles, 27; its Climate, View of the Harbour, 206 Grierson (Dr.), on Provincial Museums (Br. A.), 377 Grote (George), his Illness and Death, 107, 148 ; Legacy to Uni- versity College, 260 Gulf Stream, Dredging of the, 87 Gun Cotton Explosion at Stowmarket, 309, 518 Ginther (Dr. A., F.R.S.), New Ganoid Fish (Ceratodus) dis- covered in Queensland, 406, 428, 447 Hackney Scientific Association, 379 Hematite Ores, Thos Ainsworth on (Br. A.), 292 Hairy Family in Burmah, 454, 477 Hall (Capt.), his Polar Expedition, 309, 349 Hall (Marshall), Education for Farmers, Aquaria, 507 Halley’s Magnetic Chart Discovered, 103 Halo in the Zenith, 160 Harcourt (the late Rev. W. V.), Researches on Glass (Br. A ), 351 89; _Sea-Water Harkness (Prof. R., F.R.S ), Ancient Rocks of South Wales, 77 Harris (John), ‘‘ Kuklos,” 2 Harrison (William H.) on the Heliotype Process, 85 Hartley Institution, Southampton, 350, 453 Hartman (Dr.), ‘* History of Domestic Animals,” 253 Hartog (N. E ), Senior Wrangler, his Death, 148 Hartt (Prof. C. F.), his Expedition to Brazil (Br. A.), 299 Haughton (Rev. Prof.), Lectures on ‘‘ The Principle of Least Action,” 177 Hayden (Dr.), on Geology of America, 24, 109; his Expedition, 213, 293, 387 Hayward (George), Murdered in Kashmir, 297 ‘* Health, National,” H. W. Acland, F.R.S., on, 463 “Heat,” A. P. Deschanel on, 343, 405, 426 Heat in August 1871, 325; in Iceland, 202 Heat, its Action on Protoplasmic Life, 57 Heat, Mechanical Equivalents of, 27, 68 Hector (Dr. James, F.R.S.), on Recent Remains of the Moa, 184, 228, 306, 324 Heis (Dr. Edward), Correspondence of Aurora Australis and Borealis, 213 Heliotype Process, 85 Helmholtz (Prof.,) Axioms of Geometry, 481 Henle (Prof.), ‘* Handbuch der Systematischen Anatomie,” ror Hennessy (H., F.R.S.), Internal Structure of the Earth, 182 Herschel (Prof. A. S.).on the Marseilles Meteorite, 503 Herschel (Sir John) on Ocean Currents, 71; Deep Sea Tempe- rature, 98; his Death, 50; Obituary Notices, 69, 73, 89; re- marks on, by Sir W. Thomson, F.R.S. (Br. A.), 262 Highton (Rey. H.),, Mechanical Equivalent of Heat, 27, 68 on ‘Thermodynamics, 46 Hincks (Rev. W., F.L.S.), Obituary Notice of, 436 Hind (J. R., F.R.S.,) on Total Solar Eclipses visible in England, 260; Observations of Encke’s Comet, 435, 492 Hinrichs (Prof. Gustavus, A.M.), ‘‘ Elements of Physical Science and School Laboratory,” 421 “ Hippocrateaceze of South America,” by J. Miers, F.R.S., 135 Hippopotamus, Skeleton of, 37 His (Prof.) ‘‘ Theories of Sexual Generation,” 114 Histology, Prof. Allen Thomson on (Br. A.), 294 Hodge (George), Obituary Notice of, 387 Hofmann (Dr. F.R S.), on the Royal College of Chemistry, 16 Holmes (N. J.) on Submarine Telegraphs, $ Holmes (N.), his Inextinguishable Storm Signal Light, 49 Home (D. M.), ‘* The Estuary of the Forth,” 422 Homoplastic Agreements in Plants, 507 Hooker (Dr, J. D.), his African Expedition, 11, 89, 129, 149, 168, 196 ; his Report on Kew Gardens, 210 Hopkins (W.) on the Thickness of the Earth’s Crust, 28, 45,, 65, 141, 182, 383 “ Horses,” by Amateur, 321 Horological Institute, 229 Horticultural Society, 210 ; International Exhibition, 1866, 307 ; ExLibition of Fungi, 476 Hospital for Domestic Animals, 210 Hough (Prof. S. W.), Self-registering Barometer and Meteoro- graph, 410, 430 Howorth (Henry H.), “ A New View of Darwinism,” 161, 180, 181, 200, 221, 240 Huggins (Dr. William, F.R.S.), on the Spectrum of U:sanus, 88 ; of a Comet, 95 Hulk (J. W., F.R.S.), Fossil Vertebrata from Kimmeridge Fay, 153 Hunt (Dr. T. Sterry, F.R.S.), on Palaeozoic Crinoids, 72 ; on Hydroussilicate in Fossils, 162 Human Anatomy and Physiology, edited by Dr. L. S. Beale, 343 “ Human Locomotion,” by Prof. B. G. Wilder, 437 Humphry (Prof.), his Anatomical Classes, Cambridge, 107 ; his Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, 359 Huxley (Prof.), on the Duties of Civil Engineers, 12; on Ethnology, 76; at the Br. A., 290; his Instruction to Science Teachers at South Kensington, 325, 361 ; Palzeontological Ex- cavations at Lossiemouth, 417, 436; State Aid to Scientific Teaching, 462 ; Duties of the State, 495 Hybridisation, A. C. Ranyard on, 26, 46; R. Meldola and Dr. L. S. Beale on, 46 Hydraulic Buffer for Heavy Guns, 105 Hydrobromic Acid, C. R. A. Wright on, 174 Hydrocarbons, by C. Schorlemmer, 95 Hylobates Ape, 6 Ice for India, 325 vill INDEX Ice Fleas. Prof. E. F. Frankland, F.R.S., on, 426; Rev. C. A. Johns, F.L.S., 446; Rev. T. G. Bonney, F.G.S, 467 Ice, Glacier, the Bending of, Prof. Tyndall on, 447 Iceland, Great Heat in, 202 Ichthyosaurus from Kimmerridge Bay, 153 Im Thurn (Everard F.), on the Irish Fern in Cornwall, 68 India: Cotton Cultivation, 33; Geographical Survey, 418; Science, 32, 89, 150, 192, 212, 287, 307, 325, 418, 437, 514; Snake Bites, 74; Tea Cultivation; 169; ‘* Ancient Geo- graphy,” by Major-General A. Cunningham, R.E., 381; Wheat Cultivation, 108 Indian Education, Jiram Row on (Br. A.), 336 Indianapolis, Meeting of the American Association for Advance- ment of Science, 373 India-rubber, Collection and Manufacture of, 207 Inextinguishable Storm and Danger Signal Light, 49 Ingleby (Dr. C. M.), on Lee Shelter, 183 ; on Recent Neolo- gisms, 201, 242, 385 Insects of Missouri, Official Report on, 302 Institution of Civil Engineers, 12 ; of Naval Architects, 149 Intellectual Qualities, Transmissibility of, 154 Towa State University, 229, 308, 421 Trish Fern in Cornwall, 8, 68 Tron and Steel, W. M. Williams on, 226 Tron and Steel Institute, Meeting at Dudley, 348, 361 Tron-paper Making, 494 Tron Telegraph Poles, 287 Italian Journal of Chemistry, 73 Italian Mosses, Dr, de Notaris on, 383 Italy, Science in, 98, 153, 254, 468 Jack (R. L.) on Thunderstorm near Glasgow, 202 James (Sir Henry), “Notes on the Great Pyramid,” 303 Janssen (M.) on the Eclipse of December 12, 1871 (Br. A.), 352; appointed to Observe it, 373 Jardin d’Essai, Algier, 447 Japan : Science, 44 ; Typhoon, 375 : Meteorological Notions, 435 Jeffreys (J Gwyn, F.R.S.) on Dr. Lea’s “Synopsis of Unionide,” 119; Dall’s “ Brachiopodaof the United States Coast Survey,” 238 ; his Visit to America, 418, 512 Jenkin (Prof. Fleeming, F.R.S.), Opening Address on Mecha- nical Science (Br. A., Section G), 318 Jeremiah (John) on Daylight Auroras, 7, 47, 142; on Yellow Rain, 160 Jevons (Prof. W. Stanley), “ Helmholtz on the Axioms of Geo- metry,” 481 Johns (Rev. C. A., F.L.S.) on Ice Fleas, 446 Johnson (M. Hawkins, F.G S ) on Flint, 154, 223 Johnston (Alex. Keith, LL.D.), medal of Geographical Society awarded to, 108; his Death, 210; Obituary Notice, 225 Jones (T.) on Science in Schools, 243, 285 ; on Elementary Geometry, 486 Joseph (D.), Velocity of Sound in Coal, 487 Joule (Dr. J. P., F.R.S.), Mechanical Equivalent of Heat, 68. Journal of Botany, 77, 108, 233, 359, 399, 453 Jupiter, Drawings of its Bands, 32 ; Observations of, 175 Jupiter’s Satellites, Light of, 442 Kaines (J.), on Anthropology and M. Comte, 466 Kea (Nestor notabilis), Progress of Development in, 489, 506 Kent (W. S. F.Z.S.), on Affinities of the Sponges, 184, 201 ; Dredging Expedition of Spain and Portugal (Br. A.) 456. Kent’s Cavern Explorations (Br. A.), 332 Kew Gardens, Dr. J. D. Hooker’s Report on, 210 Kew, Meteorological Observatory, 247, 248, 289 ; Sir W. Thom- son (F.R.S.) on (Br. A.) 263 Key (Rev. Henry Cooper) on Daylight Aurora, 121 Kinetic Theory of Gases, Sir William Thomson, F.R.S., on (Br. A.), 265 King (Prof. William) on Eozdon Canadense, 85 Kingsley (Rev. Canon) on the Colours of the Sea, 203; “ At Last : a Christmas in the West Indies,” 282 ; Cyclone in the West Indies, 464 Kirkwood (Prof. Daniel), Great Sun Spot of June, 1843, 172; “ Are Auroras Periodical?” 505 Klein (Von H. J.) on Astronomy, 24 Klinkerfues (Dr.), his Theoretical Astronomy, 24 Kropotkine (P.), Arctic Auroras, 142 Lake (John J.), Colours of the Sea, 305 Lamp (New) for Street Lighting, 477 of Biogenesis, and the Law of Gravitation,”’ 308 Latham (R G.) on the word ‘‘ Piolificness,” 324 La terade (M.) ‘* Theory of Two Suns,” 216 Laughton (J. K.) on West Winds, 8; on Ocean Temperature and Currents, 162, 183, 223, 243; ‘A Plane’s Aspect?” 466 Lea, Isaac, LL:D., “Synopsis of Unionide,” 119 Lead, Metallurgy of, 218 Lecocq (M. Henri), his Bequests for Scientific Purposes, 512 Le Conte (Prof. John A.), Velocity of Meteoric Stones, 398 Lecture Experiment on Colour, 346 Lectureships at London Medical Schools, 1, 61 Lee (Alec), “ Romance of Motion,” 45 Lee (Edwin, F.L.S.) on Black Rain, 161 Leicester Literary and Scientific Society, 211 Leighton (Rev. W. A., F.L.S.), “The Lichen Flora of Great Britain,” 482 Lepidosiren, its Characteristics, 406 Leslie (A., C.E.), on Salmon Ladders for Reservoirs (Br. A.), 337 Leyden, Science at, 31 “Lichen Flora of Great Britain,” Rev. W. A. Leighton, F.L.S, on the, 482 Liebig (Baron), on the Scientific Men of France, 199 ‘Life, its Dependence on Decomposition,” H. Freke, M.D., 422 Lifeboats, Steam, John Fellowes on, 181 Light, Prismatic Analysis of, Sir W. Thomson, on (Br, A.), 266 Light of Jupiter's Satellites, 442 Lighthouses, New R-flector for (Br. A.), 396 Lima, International Exhibition at, 418 Lindley Library, at the Horticultural Society, 307 Lindsay (Dr. W. L., F.R.S.E.) on Mind in the. Lower Animals, 169 ; on Leighton’s “ Lichen Flora of Great Britain,” 482 Lindsay, Lord, Aurora at Aberdeen, its Spectrum, 347, 366 ; his Aid to Observing the Eclipse of December 12,1871, 435 Linnean Society, Proceedings, 11, 19, 36, 72, 39, 135 ; Anni- versary Address by Bentham, 92, 110, 156, 170, 192 “ Liquid and Gaseous States of Matter,” Dr. Andrews on, 186 Little (W.), on Technical Education for Farmers, 66 Liverpool Naturalists’ Field Club, 211 Livingstone (Dr. ), Intelligence of, 31, 195, 297, 349, 417 Lloyd (W. A.) on the Crystal Palace Aquarium, 469 Local Scientific Effort, Organisation of, 281 Local Societies, Duties of, 141, 463 Lockyer (J. Norman, F.R.S.), on R. A. Proctor’s Treatise on the Sun, 83 ; on Observations of the Solar Eclipse of Dec. 12, 1871, 197 ; Lecture ‘On the Solar Eclipse of Dec. 1870,” London Institution, Educational Lectures at, 107 ; Proceedings, 148, 452, 514 London Medical Schools, 1, 324 London University: Lectureships at, 2 ; Proceedings, 11, 31, 73, 168, 349; Degrees for Engineering Students, 67; Female Students at, 50, 89; Physiological Scholarship, 189 ; the Brown Trust, 190, 210; Sharpey Scholarship, 210, 260; Ex- aminations, 229; Proposed Mathematical Chair, 259 ; Elec- tion of President and Professors, Legacies to, 260; Slade Professorship, 50 Longet (M.), Obituary Notice of, 12 Low (D.), on Daylight Auroras, 121 Lowne (B. F., F.R.C.S.), on Mr. Howorth’s New View of Darwinism, 221, 240 : Lubbock (Sir J., F.L.S.), on Scientific Teaching, 461 Lucas (John), on Day Auroras, 183, 305 Ludlow Natural History Society, 418 Luminous Meteors of 1870—71, Observations of (Br. A.), 350 Lunar Halo seen at Clifton, 33 Lunar Objects suspected of Change, Report on (Br, A.), 352 Lunar Rainbow at New York (Br. A.), 300; in Cheshire, 466 Lynn (W. T., F.R.A.S), on Prof. Newcomb and Mr. Stone, 465 McLeod (Herbert), on Red and Blue, 122 McMaster (Lt. Col. W.), on the Colours of the Sea, 203 McNab (Dr. W. R.), on Prof. Williamson’s Classification of Vascular Cryptogams, 426, 504; on the Classification of Fruits, 475 Macnamara (C.), *‘ Treatise on Asiatic Cholera,” 302 Madreporaria (.Sze Corals) Magnetic Storms in Higher Latitudes, 441 Magnetism, Discovery of Halley’s Magnetic Chart, 103 Magnetism, Terrestrial, Sir Wm. Thomson, F.R.S., on, 264 Magneto-electric Light, for the Clock Towerat Westn inster, 107 Magnus (Ir. Hugo), on the Bones of the Head of Birds, 364 Maidstone Natural History Society, 308, 417 \ ee ey a Se er ee INDEX 1X _ Maitland (Edward), a ‘‘ Vital Question,” 386 Manatee, the, 27, 207 Manchester ; Scientific Students’ Association, 51 ; Science Lec- tures for the People, 81; Owens College, Distribution of Prizes, 190 ; Literary and Philosophical Society, 155 ; Grammar School, 374; Mechanics’ Institute, 452 ; Geological Society, Transactions, 479 Marcet (Wm., M.D,, F.R.S.), “Constitution of the Blood,” 57 Marlborough College, Botanic Garden, 31 ; Science at, 129 ; Lecture by G. F. Rodwell, F.C.S., on Science Teaching, 437, 455, 514 ; Natural History Society, 476 Mars, Observations of, 175 Marseilles Meteorite, 454, 503 Marsh (Prof.), his Expedition to the Far West, 2 _ Mathematical and Physical Science at the Br. A. : Opening Address, 270 ; Sectional Proceedings, 291, 315, 352, 375, 390 Mathematical Society, Proceedings of, 78, 154 “Matter for Materialists,” by Thos. Doubleday, 321 Mauritius, Climate and Health of, 51 ; Meteorological Soc. 254 Maury (T. B.) on Meteorology in America, 390, 410, 430, 466 Maxwell (Prof. Clerk, F.R.S.,), on Saturn’s Rings, 159, Measurement, Minute and Accurate, Sir Wm. Thomson, F,R.5., on (Br. A.), 265 Mechanical Drawing, 467 Mechanical Engineers, Institution of, 261 Mechanical Equivalent of Heat, 27; Rev. H. Highton and Dr.James P. Joule on, 68 Mechanical Science at the Br. A. (Section G), Opening Address, 318 ; Sectional Proceedings, 337 ** Mechanics, Experimental,” by R. S. Ball, 510 Medical Schools, Lectureships at, 1, 61 Medicine, Practical, Dr. Dobell’s Report on, 140 Medicine, State, Remarks on, 137, 148 Meinicke (Prof.) on the Population of the Indian Islands, 254. Meldola (R , F.C.S ), on Pangenesis, 46 Mental Philosophy, at University College, Endowment by the late Geo. Grote, 260 Mentone, Flora of, 230, 502 Metals, Thermal Conductivity of, Report on (Br. A.), 352 Meteorograph, by Prof. G. W. Hough, 410, 430, 431 Meteorv graph from Sweden in the International Exhibition, 466 Meteorological Magazine, Symon’s, 359 : Me eorological Observatories, 245 ; Phenomenon, 466 Meteorological Society, 189; of Austria, its Journal, 502; of Mauriiius, 254; of Scotland, 251 Meteorology, Balloon Observations, 3 ; Errors of Amateurs, 253 Meteorology in America, 399, 410, 430, 466 ; in Canada, 349 ; in India, 150 ;in Nova Scotia, 32, 235 ; in South America, 109 ; at Natal, 305 Meteorology, Japanese Ignorance of, 435 ; Lieut. A. M. Davies, F.R.A.S., on, 159; Observations at Greenwich, 104; Rain after Fire, 83 ; Storm-Auas for Norway, 63 (Sze Rainfai!) Meteoric Stone found in Australia, 212 Meteoric Stones, their Maximum Velocity, 398 Meteoric Theory of Saturn’s Rings, by Lieut. A. M. Davies, 159 Meteors in the Isle of Man, 355; in Lima, 56; at Marseilles, 454, 503; at Panama, 149; in Peru, 169; in S Australia, 345 Meteors of 1870-71, Observations of (Br. 4.), 350 Meteors, August, J. Edmund Clark on, 304 Metric System, 120, 286 Mexico, Tropical, by Col. Albert S. Evans, 321 Meyer (Dr. A. B.), his Natural History Collections in Celebes, 50; on Aurora Australis, 84 ; on a Volcano near Celebes, 286 Microscopical Science, Quarterly Journal of, 498 Microscopical Society, 479 Miers (J., F.R.S.), ‘On South American Hippocrateacew,” 135 Migration of Quail, 447 Milk, Chemistry of, 96 Miller (Prof. W. A., F.R.S.), Proposed Memorial to, 244 Mimicry in Plants (Br. A.), 355 Mind in the Lower Animals, 169 Mineral Statistics of Victoria, 365 Mines, Royal School of, 259 Mirage seen from a Balloon, 3 ; in Scotland, 89 Missouri, Official Reports an Insects affecting Agriculture, 302 Mitchell (W. Stephen) his Geological Atlas of England, 373 Mivart (St, George, F.R.S.), on the Vertebrate Skeleton, 396 ; on Rib Variations, 188 Moa, the, Recent Remains of, in New Zealand, 184, 228, 306, 324 Moxb, Expedition to, 492 ; Moffatt (Dr.) on Ozonometry (Br. A,), 292 Moggridge (J.T., F.L.S.), ‘‘ Flora of Mentone and the Riviera,” 02 5 Mohn (M.), Storm Atlas for Norway, 63 Molecular Theory of the Properties of Matter, Sir W. Thomson, F.R.S., on (Br. A.), 265 Mont Cenis Tunnel, its Temperature, 36, 349 ; Opening of, 415 ; its Scientific use, 434 Montreal Natural History Society, 210 Moon, Inequalities of its Motion, 85 Moore (D., F.L.S.), on British Mosses, 487 Moore (Thomas), his Lectures at Chelsea Botanic Gardens, 89 Morgan (N.), ‘“Phrenology, and how to use it in Analysing Character,” 422 Morris (Rev. F. O.) on Encroachments of Seain Yorkshire, 336 Moscow, ‘‘ Bulletin de la Société I. des Naturalistes,” 194 ; International Exhibition at, 393 Moss Lochs, John Aitken on, 144 Mosses of Italy, Dr. de Notaris on, 383, 446 Moth, Rare, 446 “* Motion, Romance of,” by Alec Lee, 45 Mouse’s Ear, as an Organ of Sensation, 253 Miiller (Prof. Max) on General Cunningham’s “‘ Ancient Geo- graphy of India,” 381 Murchison (Sir R. J.), his Retiring Address at the Geographical Society, 72, 89, his Death, 512 Murie (Dr., F.Z.S.), on Fungi in Living Birds (Br. A.), 356; Recent Researches on Flight, 516 i Murphy (J. J., F.G.S.) on the Sensation of Colour, 27; on West Winds, 102 ; on Alpine Floras, 162 ; on the Origin of Cyclones, 305 ; on a Meteorological Phenomenon, 66 Murray (Andrew, F.L.S.) on the Blight of Plants, 210 Museum of Strasbourg, described, 123 Museums of the Country, 367 Museums, Provincial, Dr. Grierson and Sir Walter Elliot on (Br. A.), 377 “Mycological Illustrations,” New and Rare Fungi, 240 Myers (H. M.), his Scientific Expedition, 307 Natal Diamond Fields, 190, 418; Meteorology at, 305 ‘* National Health,” H. W. Acland, F.R.S., on, 463 Natural History Museum at Kensington, 181 Natural History Societies, Local, Duties of, 141 Naval Architects, Institution of, 149 Nicholson (N.A.), on the Conservation of Force, 47 Neaves, (Lord) his Opening Address on Economic Science and Statistics (Br. A.), 298 Neologisms, Recent, 201, 222, 242; R. G. Latham on, 324; He M. Wilson, 367; C. M. Ingleby, 385; R. A. Proctor, 385 Nepenthes, Pitcher of, 44 Nerve Endings in Glands, 10 Nervous Atmosphere, Dr. Richardson’s Theory, 29 Newbury District Field Club, 395 5 Newcastle-upon-Tyne, College uf Physical Science 21, 189, 284, 416, 435, 493 Newcomb (Prof. S.), on Pére Secchi and R. A. Proctor’s Work on the Sun, 41 ; oa the Inequalities of the Moon’s Motion, 85 ; on the Solar Parallax, 160, 183; on the Temperature of the Sun, 204, 322; on the Phenomena of Contact, 423; R. A. Proctor on Prof. Newcomb and Mr. Stone, 465, 487 New Dynameter, Rey. T. W. Webb, F.R.A.S., on, 427, 446 Newman (Edward, F.L.S.), his “ Natural History of British Lutterflies,” 219 Newspap°r Science, 406, 425, 446, 464 Newton (Prof.), Edition of Yarrell’s “ British Birds,” 89, 403 New Zealand, Wellington Philosophical Society, 39, 380; Acc imatisation, 51; Recent Specimens of the Mua, 184! 225, 324; Maori Cooking Ovens, 155 ; Progress of Develop- ment in the Kea (Nestor notabilis), 489 Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society, 245 Northumberland, Natural History Society, Transactions of, 108 Nottingham Literary and Philosophical Society, 513 Noya Scotia, Inst. of Natural Science, 32, 78, 235 ; Science in, 74 Qcean Cables, Injuries to, 436 Ocean Currents, Sir J. Herschel on, 71 ; Dr. Carpenter on, 97, 183 (Br. A.), 315, 435, 446, 468; Jas. Croll on, 304; J. K. Laughton on, 162, 223; Richd. A. Proctor on, 121, 243; R. Russell on, 122 Oldham School of Science and Art, 130, 476 Oliver (Lieut. S, P., R.A.), on Noises at Sea, 26; on Elateridce in the Azores, 162; Description of Greytown and Adjacent Country, 206 Optical Phenomena, Thos, Ward on, 68 x INDEX Organic Chemistry, Prof. Allen Thomson on (Br. A.., 295 Organisation of Local Scientific Effort, 281 Origin of Life, Dr. C. Bastian, F.R.S., on (Br. A.), 378 ; Sir W. Thomson, F.R.S, on (Br. A.), 269, 305, 386; Mungo Ponton, F.R.S.E., on, 321 Orme (T. A), on Cramming for Examinations, 285 Ornithology ; at the Br. A., 333; Brown on the Anatomy of Birds, 32 ; Californian Vulture, 52 ; of the Island of Celebes, 37; Chinese Notions about Pigeons, 44; of the Lesser Antilles, 473; of New Zealand, 51; of Palestine, 54; Magnus (Dr.) on the Bones of the Heads of Birds, 364 Ornithosauria, H. G. Seeley on, 100 Otago, Acclimatisation Society of, 51 “ Our Sister Republic” (Mexico), by Col. Albert S. Evans, 322 Owen (Prof., R., F.R.S.), on the Fossil Mammals of Australia, 173; his suggested Survey of the Sussex Wealden Deposits, 493 Oxford, Science at, 31, 129, 149, 244, 263, 349, 453, 476, 485, 488, 493, 513 Ozone, Dr. Debus, F.R.S., on, 134 Ozonometry, Dr. Moffatt on (Br. A.) 292 Paget (Sir James, F.R.S.), his Retirement from Bartholomew’s Hospital, 10; appointed Consulting Surgeon, 107 Paleolithic Stone Implements, 50 “ Palzeontographica,” Fossil Plants of the German Wealden, 35 “ Palzontographica,” by Drs. Dunker and Zittel, 195 Palzeozoic Crinoids in New Brunswick, 72; Prof. Wyville Thomson, F.R.S., on their Structure, 496 Palestine Exploration Fund, its Quarterly Fournal, 33 Palestine, Flora of, 215 Palliser (J. W.), Problems in Practical and Plane Geometry,” 484 Palmer, E. H., his Explorations in Palestine, 33 Panama, Coal in, 309; (Br. A.), 332 Pangenesis, 5 ; Dr. L. S. Beale on on, 25; R. Meldola on, 46 ; A. C. Ranyard on, 69 Pankhurst (E. A.), on the Supposed Earthquake at Worthing, 385 Paper-making, New Plant for, 494 Parasites, Disease Produced by, 125, 165 Parfitt (Edward), on Affinities of the Sponges, 201 Paris : Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, 156, 255 ; Académie des Sciences, 11, 40, 59, 73, 80, 116, 136, 176, 215, 236, 255, 300, 339, 360, 380, 400, 419, 440, 480, 498, 519 ; Académie des Sciences, Morales, et Politiques, 196, 235; Association Scientifique de France, 320; National Library, 2; Observatory Injured by the Communists, 120, 155 ; the Conflagrations, 87; Science in, 73, 129, 130, 152, 189, 325. 338, 373, 395, 417, 436, 439, 453, 492 ; Société d’Acclimata- tion, 374; Society of Civil Engineers, 307; Venddme Column, 89 Parker (W. K., F.R.S.) on the Structure of the Eel’s Skull, 146 Patagonia, Geology of, 115 ; Ethnology of, 116 Payen (M ), Speech at his Funeral, 136 ; his Chemical Works and Investigations, 260 Peabody (Francis), his Death, 374 Peat Lochs, John Aitken on, 144 Pendulum Autographs, Hubert Airy on, 310, 370; W. Swan and S. M. Drach on, 365, 366 Pengelly (Wm, F.R.S.) on Rainfall, 169 People’s University, Proposed, 41 Pe cival (Rey. J.), and Clifton College School, 329 Percy (John, M.D., F.R.S.) on the Metallurgy of Lead, 218 Perkins (Thos.) on Sun Spots, 224 “* Permanent Commission on State Science Questions,’ proposed by Lt.-Col. Strange, F.R.S., 130 Perry (John B.), on Eozodn Canadense, 28 Perthshire, Lepidoptera of, 190 Peru, Earthquakes in, 51, 74, 169, 230, 418 ; Inundations in, 51 ; Electric Phenomena in, 56 Pfliiger on Nerve-endings in Glands, ro Phenomena of Contact, Prof. S. Newcomb and R. A. Proctor, F.R.A.S., on, 423, 445 Philadelphia: Academy of Natural Sciences, 480, 499, 519; American Philosophical Society, 236, 256 ; Franklin Institute, | 211, 229, 452 Phosphorescence in Fish, 287 Photographic Apparatus for Use in the Diving Bell, 477 Photographs of Transit of Venus, Government Grant for, 107 Photographs of the Solar Eclipse of 1870, 85 Photography, Eclipse, A. Brothers, F.R.A.S., 327, 367, 445 Phrenology, by Nicholas Morgan, 422 Physics, Applied, proposed Chair at Glisgow, 199 ** Physics, Experimental,” by Adolph F. Weinhuld, 158 | Physiological Classes at Cambridge, 107 Physiological Researches at Gratz, 402 Physiology and Anatomy of Man, by Dr. L. S. Beale, 343, 367 Physiology at Edinburgh University, 168 Pilgrim (Thos.), Obituary Notice of, 476 ‘* Plants, Natural History of,” by Prof. Baillon, 199 Plane’s Aspect, Position, or Slope, 466, 506 Platycnemic Men, Discoveries in Denbizhshire, 388 Plymouth, Science and Art Schools at, 89 Poéy (Prof. André), ona New Form of Cloud, 489 Ponton (Mungo, ), *‘ The Beginning ; its When and its How,” 321 Poppy, its cultivation in China, 230 Population, the Laws of, by Nathaniel Allen, M.D.. 462, 463 Potts (Thos. H_.), Progress of Development in the Kea, 489, 506 Pow (J. Brough, F.G.S.) on the Dinnington Boulder, 386, 467 Poynter (E. J.,) Slade Professor at University College, 50 Pratt (Ven. Archdeacon, F.R.S.) on the Thickness of the Earth’s Crust, 28, 45, 65, 141, 182, 344, 383 Prime Numbers, Tables of, 6 ‘Primitive Culture,” by Edward B. Tylor, 117, 138 Prism, Compound, for Spectrum Microscope, 511 Proctor (R. A., F.R.A.S.) on Recent Neologisms, 385; on Ocean Currents, 121, 183, 243; on Phenomena of Contact, 445 ; on Saturn’s Rings, 223, 346; onthe Cycloid, 465, 487 ; on the Solar Parallax, 183, 424; onthe Sun, 41, 83, 322; 0n Mr. Stone and Prof. Newcomb, 346, 487; on Elementary Geometry, 404; on Mr. Todhunter’s Solution of a Geometrical Problem, 464; ona Plane’s Aspect, Slope, or Position, 506 Progress of Development in the Kea (/Vestor notadilis), 489, 506 “ Psychic Force,” W. Crookes, F.R.S., on, 237, 278, 518 Pterodactyls, H. G. Seeley, F.G.S. on, 100 Quail, Migration of, 447 Quarterly Journal of Science, 338 Quekett Microscopical Club, 229, 261, 418 Queensland Botanical Expedition, 349; New Ganoid Fish (Ceratodus) discovered in, 406, 428, 447 Radford (W. T.), a Hint to the Longsighred, 142 Rain after Fire, G. P. Serocold on, 83 ; Chicago, 494 Rain, Black, Edwin Lee, F.R.S., on, 161 Rain, Yellow, J. Jeremiah, on, 68, 161 Rainfall, A. Buchan on(Br.A.), 358 ; W. Pengelly, F.R.S., on, 169 ; in Bombay, 375 ; in Calcutta, 514; in Chile, 418; in Scotland (Br. A.), 398 Ranyard (A. C., F.R.A.S.), on Hybridisation, 26 ; on Coronal Rifts, 27 ; on Pangenesis, 69 ; Suggestions to Observers of the Eclipse of Dec. 12, 1871, 327 ; on the Corona, 466 Rawlinson (Sir H. ), Elected President of theGeographical Soc., 72 Regnault, on the Conversion of Heat in the Steam Engine, 203 Respighi (Prof.) on Stellar Scintillation, 99 Respiration, Mechanism of, 95 Respirators of Cotton Wool and Charcoal, 126 Reynolds (Dr. J.) on the “ Chemistry of Milk,” 96 Reynolds (Prof. Osborne), Radial Appearance of the Corona, 46 Rhysimeter, the, A. E. Fletcher, F.C.S., on (Br. A.), 338 Richardson (Dr.), his Theory of Nervous Atmosphere, 29; on Writers on Science, 144 Riga, Society of Naturalists, 236 Riley (Chas. V.) Official Report on the Insects of Missouri, 302 Riviera, Flora of the, 502 Roberts (W. M.) on Thunderstorm, Aug. 13, 1871, 305 Robertson (Prof. G. C.) on Taine’s “ De l’Intelligence,”’ 62 Robinson (W.), his “ Sub- Tropical Garden,” 159 Kock Carvings, Mode of Obtaining fac-similes, 233 Rock-Inscriptions in Brazil, 114 Rodwell (G. F., F.C.S.) on the Study of Science in Schools, 437, 455 : ‘ Rolleston, Prof., F.R.S., on Saxon Pagan Remains, 56 Rollett (Dr. Alexander), Physiological Researches at Gratz, 402 “ Romance of Motion,” by Alec Lee, 45 Roscoe (Prof. H. E., F.R.S.), Proposed People’s University, 41 ; Science Lectures for the People, 81 Ross (Dr. J.), Howorth’s New View of Darwinism, 221, 240, 242 Reyal Commissions, on Coal, 148 ; on Scientific Instruction, 107, 130 Royal Institution, Proceedings, 18, 36, 107, I15, 195, 453 Royal Society, Election of Fellows, 13; Proceedings, 17, 57, 85 95, 173, 195 ; its Origin and Early Proceedings, 439 Rugby School Natural History Society, 32, 149 Ruined Cities of Central America, 466 Rushton (Wm ) on “Science in Plain English,” 142, 166 Russell (R.) on Ocean Currents, 122 ; Obituary Notice of, 394 22; “nia Russia, Biology of, 151; Science in, 190, 194, 287; Inter- national Exhibition at Moscow, 393 -Sabine’s Report on Terrestrial Magnetism, Sir W. Thomson, _ FE.R.S., on (Br. A.), 264 St. Mary’s Hospital Medical School, 229, 452, 476 St. Thomas’s Hospital Opened by the Queen, 148, 149 Salem, Peabody Academy of Science, 109 ; Proceedings of the __ Essex Institute, 501 Salmon Ladders for Reservoirs (Br. A.), 337 San Francisco, California Academy of Sciences, 419 ; Sanitary Science and State Medicine, 137 - Sanitary Science in India, 150 Saturday Afternoon Rambles, by Henry Walker, 157 Saturday Afternoon Scientific Excursions, Prizes Offered, 493 Saturn, Observations of, 360 Saturn’s Rings, Lieut. A. M. Davies, F.R.A.S., on, 159, 203 ; __ the Reviewer on, 306; R. A. Proctor, F.R.A.S., on, 223, 346 Saunders (W. Wilson, F.R.S.) on New and Rare Fungi, 249 Schenk, on German Fossil Plants, 35 Schobl (Dr.) on the Mouse’s Ear, 253 School of Mines, its Proposed Transfer to Kensington, 259 Schorlemmer (C.) on Hydrocarbon , 95 Science and Art Department, Kensington ; Summary of Report for 1870, 259; Whitworth Scholarships, 260, 286; Prof. Huxley’s Instruction to Science Teachers, 168, 361; its Administration, 404 Science for the People in France, 394 “ Science in Plain English,” by William Rushton, 142, 166 Scientific Instruction, Royal Commission on, 107 Scientific Value of Cheese Factories, 104 Sclater (Dr. P. L., F.R.S.), on Captain Sladen’s Expelition, 405 ; on the Birds of the Lesser Antilles, 473 Scotland, Geological Survey of (Br. A.), 292 Scotland, Report on Earthquakes in (Br. A.), 317 Scott (Michael) on Improved Ships of War (Br. A.), 397 Scott (Robert H., M.A., F.R.S.), on the Minerals of Strontian, Argyleshire, 37 ; on Forms of Cloud, 505 Scottish Arboricultural Society, 73 Scottish Naturalist, 319, 498 Sea, Colours of the, W. M‘Master on, 203, 305 Sea-grasses, Geographical Distribution of, 211 Secchi (Pére) on the Sun and its Temperature, 41, 82, 204, 384 Seeley (H. G.) on Ornithosauria, 100 Sensation and Science, 177 Serocold (G. P.) on Rain after Fire, 83 Sewage, Prof. Corfield on, 287 Sharp and Dresser’s “ Birds of Europe,” 308 Shaw (J.), Changes in the Habits of Animals, 506 Shetland, Magnetic Storms in, 441 Ships of War, Improved (Br. A)., 397 Shooting Stars of August 1871, 504 Signal Light for Storm and Danger, Inextinguishable, 49 Signal Service in America(.See Meteorology, Hough, Prof. S. W., Maury, Prof. T. B., Wild, Prof.) Silver, Coal and Gems, in Bolivia, 418 Skelton (Mr.) his New Lamp for Street Lighting, 477 Skull of the Eel, its Structure, 146 Slade Professorship at University College, 50 Sladen (Capt.) his Expedition to Yunan, 405 Smith (John) on ‘Domestic Botany,” 304 ; Smith (Worthington G., F.L.S.) on New and Rare Fungi, 240 Smithsonian Institute, Washington (See America) Smoke Jacket for Firemen, 126 Smyth (C. P., F.RS.) Paris Observatory and Metric System, 120 Snake Bites, 74, 134, 192, 229, 287, 325 Societies and Academies, 17, 36, 57, 77, 95; 115, 134, 153, 173 195, 215, 234, 254, 300, 320, 339, 359; 379, 400, 419, 440, 479, 498, 519 420 h Society of Antiquaries, Exhibition of Stone Implements, 50 Society of Arts, 32, 374; Award of Albert Gold Medal, 107 Solar Aurora, Prof. C. A. Young on, 345 Solar Eclipse (.Sve Eclipse) Solar Parallax, Prof. S. Newcomb on, 160; R. A. Proctor, F.R.A.S., on, 183, 424 Solar Radiation Temperatures, 393 Solar Spectrum, Prof. C. A. Young on the, 445 Solly (Samuel, F.R.S.), Obituary Notice of, 436 ; Sorby (H. C., F.R.S.) on the Various Tints of Foliage, 341 ; on Blood Spectrum, 505; Compound Prisms for Spectrum Microscopes, 511 Sound, its Velocity in Coal, 487, 506 INDEX xi Sowerby (J. De Carle), his Death, 374 Spain and Portugal, Results of Dredging Expedition (Br. A.), 456 Sparrows, Exportation of, 245, 280 Spectra of Stars, 99 Spectroscope, Sir W. Thomson, F.R.S., on the (Br. A. ), 267 Spectrum of the Aurora ; 280; at Aberdeen 347, 366; T. W. Backhouse on the, 66 - Spectrum of Comet, 95; of Uranus, 88 Spectrum Microscope, Compound Prism for, 511 Sponges in the British Museum, 50 Sponges, their Affinities, by H. J. Carter and W. Saville Kent (F.Z.S.) on, 184, 201, 224; from the Coast of Spain and Portugal, 456 Spontaneous Generation, 125; Dr. Bastian on, 178; Sir Wm. Thomson, )Br. A), on, 269 ; Papers at the Brit. Ass., 377 Sprung (A.) ona Rare Atmospheric Phenomenon, 346 Squaring the Circle, by J. Harris, Montreal, 25 Squier (E. G.), on the Ruined Cities of Central America, 466 State Aid to Science, 301, 461 State Scientific Questions, proposed Commission on, 130 State Medicine, Examinations for Diplomas at Dublin Univer- sity, 137 Statistical Society, Proceedings of, 154, 168 Staveley (E. F.), on “British Insects,” 22 Steam Life Boats, John Fellowes on, 181 Steam Boiler Legislation (Br. A.), 397 Stellar Scintillation, Pref. Respighi on, 99 Stephan (M.), his Observations of Encke’s Comet, 492, 499 Stephanurus, discovered in America and Australia, 508 Stevenson (T., C E.), on Towers of Cement Rubble for Beacons and Lighthouses, 366 ; New Reflector for Lighthouses, 396 Stewart (Prof. B., F.R.S.), Mohn’s Storm Atlas for Norway, 63; ‘‘Psychic Force,” 237, 279; Temperative Equilibrium with a Body in Motion (Br. A.), 331 Stokes’s Dynamical Theory, Sir Wm. Thomson, F.R.S., on (Br. A.), 267 Stonyhurst, Meteorological Observatory at, 247, 248 Storm and Danger Signal Light, Inextinguishable, 49 Storm-Atlas for Norway, 63 Storm of August 12, 1871, 326 Storm Signal Observations, 52 Storms, Magnetic, in Higher Latitudes, 441 Stowmarket, Gun-Cotton Explosion, 309, 518 Strange (Lt.-Col., F.R.S.), “ Permanent Commission on State Science Questions,” 130 Striated Muscular Fibre in Gasteropoda, 114 Strontian, Argyleshire, Mineralogy of, 37 Strutt (Hon. J. W.) on Colour, 142 Stuart (J.) on Prof. Tyndall’s “‘ Fragments of Science,” 237 Stuart (D. J.) on Thermometer Observation, 467 Submarine Telegraphs, 8 ; Injuries to, 436 Sun: Prof. Newcomb on, 41, 160, 183, 204,322, 423; R. A. Proctor, F.R.A.S., on, 41, 183, 322, 346, 424, 465, 487; Pere Secchi on, 41, 82, 204, 384; E. J. Stone on, 322 San, its Temperature, 42, $2, 204 ; Sir Wm. Thomson, F.R.S., on, (Br. A.), 268, 384, 449, 487 Sun’s Parallax, John Flamsteed’s Ghost, on, 503 Sun-Spots, J. Birmingham on, 102, 133 ; New Theory on, 163, 172, 175, 224, 359 Switzerland, Biology in, 171; “ Bibliothéque Universelle et Revue Suisse,” 234 ; Waterspout in, 375 Sylvester (Prof. F.R.S.) and the Government, 324, 326 Symons (G, J.) on Solar Radiation Temperatures, 393 Tait (Lawson), on the New View of Darwinism, 201 Tait (Prof. P. G., M.A.) on Mathematical and Physical Science (Br. A.), 270; on Thermal Conductivity of Metals (Br. A.), 352; on Thermo-Electricity (Br. A.), 396 Talbot (Fox) on a Method of Estimating the Distances of Fixed Stars (Br. A.), 396 Tapeworm (7exia mediocancllata), 500, 506 Tapir, New, from Panama, 417 Tate (George), of Alnwick, his Death, 210 Taunton School of Science and Art, 12 Technical Education, Wm. Rushton on, 142, 166; W. Mattieu Williams on, 180 ‘Telegraph Earth,” Quantitative Method of Testing, 399 Telegraphs, Submarine, 8, 436 Teleosaurus from Kimmeridge Bay, 153 Telescope for the Washington Observatory, 493 Telescope, the Melbourne, 109 Temperature, its Distribution in the North Atlantic, 251 Xil INDEX ee ee Temperature of the Deep Sea, Dr. Carpenter on, 97, 162 Temperature of the Earth, 133 Temperature of the Sun, 42, 82, 204, 268, 384, 449, 487 Tennant (Lt.-Col.) on the Total Eclipse of Dec. 12, 1871, 339 Terrestrial Magnetism, Sabine’s Report on (Br. A.), 264 Tests, Use and Abuse of, 467 Texas, Entomology of, 51 Therapeutics, Dr. T. K. Chambers on, 168 Thermal Equivalents of Oxides of Chlorine (Br. A.), 291 Thermo-Dynamics, Sir W. Thomson, F.R.S., on (Br. A.), 268 ; Rev. H. Highton on, 46 Thermo-Electricity, Prof. Tait on (Br. A.), 396 Thermometer, Self-Registering, 430; Observations, 467 Thickness of the Earth’s Crust, 28, 45, 65, 141, 344, 306, 383 Thomson (Prof. James). ‘Continuity of the Fluid State of Matter” (Br. A.), 291 ; Water in Frost (Br. A.), 331 Thomson (Prof. Allen), Opening Address on Biology (Br. A.), 293 Thomson (Prof. Wyville, F.R.S.), Lecture on Natural History at Edinburgh, 32, 74,(90; Temperature in the North Atlantic, 251; on Echinoderms (Br. A.), 334; on the Fauna of the North Atlantic (Br. A.), 377; on Paleozoic Crinoids, 496 Thomson (R. W.), on Road Steamers (Br. A.), 337 Thomson (Sir Wm., F.R.S.), his Inaugural Address at the British Association, 262; Remarks thereon by E. Ray Lan- kester, F.L.S., 368; on the Origin of Life, 305 ; on Ocean Circulation, 316 ; Report of the Tidal Committee, 375 Thorpe (Prof. T. E.), on Crookes’s “* Chemical Analysis,” 81 Thunderstorms, at Calcutta, 287 ; near Glasgow, June 20, 1871, 202; of August 13, 1871, 335 Thunderstorms, Rev. C. A. Johns, F.L.S., on, 367 Tidal Committee (Br. A.), Report by Sir W. Thomson, 375 Tih, Desert of the, Report by C. F. Tyrwhitt Drake on, 33, 52 Time-signals, 74, 103 Tissandier, Gaston, on Aérostation, 3 Tobacco, a Poison for Snakes, 494 Todhunter (I., F.R.S.), Solution of a Geometrical Problem, 444 Tornado in Ohio, 308 Transparency, a Cause of, Prof. Zenger on (Br. A.), 354 Transparent Compass, 366 Transit Instrument at Greenwich, 103 Transit of Venus, 12, 103, 107 ; Preparations for Observations at Greenwich, 260 ; Government Aid to Observation, 324 Tribe (Alfred), on Chemical Dynamics, 195 (Br. A.), 291 Trinidad, Scientific Association of, 43 Trout, Tailless, in Scotland (Br. A.), 333 Tunnel through Mont Cenis, Opening of the, 415 Turnbull (W. P.), Obituary Notice of, 394 Turmer(W., M.D), Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, 359 Twisden (Rev. J. S.), on Ball’s “ Experimental Mechanics,” 510 “Two Suns, Theory of,” by M. Latterade, 216 Tyler (T.), on H. Howorth’s New View of Darwinism, 221 Tylor (Edward B., F.R.S.), on “ Primitive Culture,” 117, 138 ; German Translation of his “ Primitive Culture,” 436 Tyndall (Prof, F.R.S.) on Dust and Smoke, 124, 164; “Hours “of Exercise in the Alps,” 198; on the Colours of the Sea, 203 ; “ Fragments of Science,” 237 ; ‘‘ Notes of Nine Lectures on Light,” 284; on the Bending of Glacier Ice, 447 Tyneside Naturalists’ Field Club, 149 Typhoon in Japan, 375 Ullyett (Henry), on the Duties of Local Nat. Hist. Societies, 142 Underground Temperature, Report of Committee of Br, A., 396 “* Unionide, Synopsis of,” by Isaac Lea, LL.D., 119 Universal Atmosphere, 457 Uarnus, Spectrum of, 88 Utrecht, Science at, 31 Valencia, Meteorological Observatory at, 245 Vapour of Iodine, Dr. Andrews on (Br. A.), 316 Vascular Cryptogams, Classification of (See Williamson, Prof.) Venus (.See Transit of Venus), Observations of, 360 Vertebrate Skeleton, Mivart St. George, F.R.S.,on the, 36 Vesuvius, Eruption of, 308 Victoria Institute, 50, 148 Vision, Defective, Dr. Boettcher on, 140 Vital Force, Prof. Allen Thomson on (Br, A.), 295 Volcanic Region of Cotapaxi, 212 Volcano in America, 56; near Celebes, 286 ; Pacific Islands, 169 Volcano Island, Santa Cruz, 212 Voelcker (Dr.) on Soils and Drainage, 38 Walden (Viscount) on the Birds of Celebes, 37 Wales (Capt. Douglas) “On the Converging of the Wind in Cyclones,” 254 Walker (Henry) on ‘‘Saturday Afternoon Rambles Round London,” 157 Wallace (Alfred R., F.Z.S.) on Staveley’s British Insects, 22 ; on ‘* Dr. Bastian’s Work the Origin of Life,” 178; on ““H. Howorth’s New View of Darwinism,” 181, 200, 201, 240, 221, 222; on Recent Neologisms, 222, 242; on the ‘Population of the Indian Islands,” 254 ; on Canon Kingsley’s “ At Last: a Christmas in the West Indies,” 282 Waller (W. E.) on a Rare Moth, 466 Ward (Thos.) on Optical Phenomenon of Colour, 68 Washington, Signal Office at, 390, 410; Telescope of the National Observatory, 493 Waterspouts in Cork Harbour, 325 ; in Southern India, 287 ; in Switzerland, 375 ; at Constantinople, 212 Watson (H. W.), “ Elements of Plane and Solid Geometry,” 364 Weather Map of the War Department, Washington, 411 Webb (Rev. T. W., F.R.A.S.) on Aurora by Daylight, 27 ; on a New Dynameter, 427; on Dr. Engelman’s Work on the Light of Jupiter’s Satellites, 442 Weinhold (Adolp. F.) his ‘‘ Experimental Physics,” 148 «* Western Chronicle of Science,” 220, 243 é West India Islands, Ornithology of, 473 ; Conchology, Cyclone, 417, 454, 464; Hurricane and Earthquake, West Wind, Prevalence of, 8; J. J. Murphy on, 102 Wet and Dry Bulb Formule (Br. A.), 353 Wheat Cultivation in India, 108 Wheeler (Prof.) on “ Chemistry in the United States,” 292 Whirlwind in Buckinghamshire, 324 White (Dr. J.B.), Lepidoptera of Perthshire, 190 Whitney (Prof.), Geological Survey of California, 420 Whitworth Scholarships, Science and Art Department, 286 ; on Eclipse Photographs, 85, 160 Wild (Prof.), his Self-Registering Barometer, 432 “ Wild Flowering Plants,” by Thos. Baxter, 245 Wilder (Prof. B. G.), “ Human Locomotion,” 437 Williams (W. Mattieu, F.C.S.), on Science in Italy, 100, 468 ; on Technical Education, 176 ; Iron and Steel, 226; An Offer to the London School Board, 285 3 Williamson (Prof. W. C., F.R.S.) on the Fossil Plants of the Coal Measures, 173 ; on the Classification of Vascular Crypto- gamia (Br. A.), 357, 426, 490, 504; on Exogenous Structures amongst the Stems of Coal Measures, 408 Wilson (J. M.) on Neologisms, 367; “Some Speculations on the Aurora,” 372; Meteor in the Isle of Man, 385 ; Teaching Elementary Geometry, 387, 404; ona Plane’s Aspect, 506 Winchester College Natural History Society, 169 Winstanley (D.) on Daylight Auroras, 280 Wirtgen (Dr. P. H.), ‘Flora der Preussichen Rheinlande,” 211 Woodward (Henry, F.G.S.) ‘4,0n the Fauna of the Carboniferous Epoch,” 59; on Ornithosauria, 100; on the Coal Period (Br. A.), 354 ; Arachnidz from the Dudley Coal-field, 376 Woolhope Naturalists’ Club, 284 Working Men’s Club and Institute Scientific Classes, 211 Working Men’s College, 416 Working Men’s University, Proposed, 41 “Workshop, The,” by Prof. Baumer and others, 179 Worthing, Alleged Earthquake at, 349, 385 Yarkand, its Longitude solved, 35 Yarrell’s “ British Birds,” Revised Edition of, 89, 403 Yates (Jas., F.R.S.), Legacies to University College, 260, 307 “Year Book of Facts,” Timbs’s, 239 Year Book of Science Advocated by Sir W. Thomson, 264 Yellow Rain in New Granada, 68; J. Jeremiah on, 161 Young (Prof. C.A.) on the Solar Aurora Theory, 345; on the Solar Spectrum, 445 ; on an Explosion (?) on the Sun, 488 Young (John) on Carboniferous Fossils in West Scotland, 443 Yule (Col. H., C.B.), his Opening Address on Geography (Br. A.), 297; on Rainfall (Br. A.) 358 Zenger (Prof.) ona Cause of Transparency (Br. A.) 354 Zodiacal Light, 42 Zollner (Prof.), his New Theory of Sun-Spots, 163 ‘* Zoological Record,” 88 Zoological Results of Dredging Expedition off Spain and Portugal (Br. A.), 456 5 Zoology at the Br. A., 317, 377 Zoology, its Study in Great Britain, 193 Zoological Society, Frigate Bird at Gardens, 394; New Species of Cassowary, 436; Proceedings, 36, 77, 134, 175, 513; New Tapir from Panama, 417 Zoology of New Zealand, 51 ; of Nova Scotia, 32; of P ahi) 2 Zoology, Recent French Discoveries, 369 pa ba ia 3°7 5 375, A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.’—WoRDSWORTH THURSDAY, MAY 4, 1871 THE SMALLER LECTURESHIPS AT THE LONDON MEDICAL SCHOOLS I.—THE CONSERVATION OF FORCE pe OUT sixty years ago the student who determined to enter the medical profession was usually bound as an apprentice to some respectable country practitioner, and spent several years in acquiring the rudiments of his profession, by bandaging bad legs, dressing simple wounds, bleeding freely everybody that presented himself | and prescribing and dispensing for the poor. He then came to London, or attended one of the larger provincial towns provided with a hospital, and followed the practice of some celebrity, hearing an occasional lecture and much clinical discussion, and finally presented himself for ex- amination before the Master and Court of Assistants of the College of Surgeons, and started in practice. Such training was solid and good ; practice went before, and theory followed after; some thought, indeed, the cart went before the horse; yet the excellence of the plan was shown in the high scientific position and lucrative practice obtained by many a well-known name. As Shakespeare knew little Latin and less Greek, our stu- dent knew little anatomy and less physiology, but what he did know was substantial, and served him in good stead. A few years after the time we are speaking of, systematic courses of lectures upon various subjects, as upon chemistry, botany, anatomy and physiology, medi- cine and surgery, began to be delivered at the larger schools, at the instigation of the Society of Apothecaries, who were constituted by the Act of 1815 the guardians of “general practice,” two or even three subjects being given by the same lecturer; and attendance upon these soon came to be regarded as an important part of the student’s education. So far all was well. The several subjects mentioned above were treated broadly by such men as Abernethy, Cooper, Babington, and others, generally speaking with direct reference to medicine or surgery ; and the student underwent a training that possessed con- -siderable value in relation to his future profession, whilst VOL, IV. it furnished him with the rudiments of various scienc2s that he could pursue and extend in his leisure moments. A few years more passed away, and the advances made in every department of knowledge rendered it impossible for any man to undertake singly to lecture upon two different sciences, such as chemistry and botany, or even upon two such cognate subjects as anatomy and physiology. Each required its separate professor, who delivered from thirty to ninety lectures upon his special science, and attendance upon them was rigorously enforced both by the lecturer himself and by the examining bodies. And now ensued a period that was undoubtedly op- posed to all true intellectual training. The student, as soon as he entered the profession, saw little practice, but was everlastingly in attendance upon lectures. No mental effort was required, and, except in the case of first-rate lecturers, none, we are convinced, was ever exerted in acquiring and assimilating the information conveyed. Here and there a good lecturer, thoroughly master of his subject, chained his audience; but the substance of four out of five lectures either entered at one ear to pass out at the other, or was altogether refused admission to the brain by the locked portals of the slumbering student. The horses were indeed put before the cart, but the team was so strong that they often ran away with the cart before anything useful had been put into it. The requirements of the examining bodies in regard to these lectures rendered it imperative for every school, however small, to have as numerous a staff of lecturers as the largest. The senior officers of the medical staff consequently took the more important sub- jects of medicine and surgery, anatomy and physiology, whilst the younger ones divided amongst them chemistry and botany, materia medica, forensic medicine, and mid- wifery. In many instances these latter posts were filled by gentlemen who had received no special training, but who accepted them and often worked at them with praisc - worthy energy, merely to secure the succession to th= medical staff, upon obtaining which the minor lectureship was at once given up. ‘ It is obvious that lectureships so obtained and so held must have been in many instances valueless alike to the lecturer himself and to the student who sat under him, yielding to the former a barren honour, and to R 2 NATURE [May 4, 1871 the latter a signed schedule,—the advantage of the professor and not the advancement of the student being the point considered. During the last few years a reaction has been setting in against this perpetual lecturing, and the number required to be attended has been considerably reduced. The University of London deserves the credit of having been the first to break through this absurd sys- tem, by requiring attendance on only one or two courses, and this rather as evidence of the student being really engaged in the study of medicine than for any other pur- pose, leaving him free to acquire his information as best he can, but testing its extent and value by a searching examination. No doubt many of the posts above alluded to are filled by men of great talent and ability, but their powers are crippled by the small means at their disposal, which pre- vents many illustrations or experiments from being exhi- bited which are almost essential for thorough teaching. As a means of improving the system of education by supplying a better class of lectures on some subjects than those at present given, and at the same time ob- taining better remuneration for the lecturers them- selves, a scheme has recently been advanced by which it is proposed that certain medical schools in the me- tropolis should be amalgamated, a reduction in the number of lecturers being thus effected, whilst the pecuniary value of those that remain will undergo considerable augmentation. It is hoped that the value of these posts would then be sufficient to lead to their being accepted not by those who only use them as a stepping- stone for advancement, but by gentlemen who have devoted themselves exclusively to the study of the department of science on which they lecture. At the present moment the lectureships in several of the smaller schools yield such small returns to their holders as would astonish many of their hearers. As a matter of fact we could mention an instance where the proceeds of an entire summer course of lectures has amounted on the average for the past three years to a sum not exceeding 6/7. Can this for a moment be regarded as in any way proportionate to the intellectual labour, the time, and the money expended in their preparation, illustration, and delivery ? It might be considered to be a moderate recom- pense for one lecture, but as payment for a course it is simply monstrous. Is it surprising that the lectures are often given without animation, and listened to without interest ? By amalgamating several schools, however, such chairs might, it is hoped, be so far increased in value as not only to lead men of high ability, and distinguished for their knowledge in particular branches of science, to accept them, but to provide ample funds to admit of their copious illustration, and for the purchase of expensive apparatus — apparatus which the smaller schools now find it difficult or impossible to procure. It would not be difficult, we imagine, to find room for those who at present hold appointments as demonstrators, with lighter but not less important duties than they have hitherto per- f ormed. At all events it seems to us that the amalgama- tion scheme, if fairly carried out, would prove the most splendid example of the Conservation of Force with which we are acquainted, and on that ground alone should re- ceive the cordial support of the medical teachers through- out the metropolis. In a future article we shall suggest what appears to us a desirable and practical scheme for medical education. THE LITERATURE OF CHEMISTRY Te appearance of the April number of the “Journal of the Chemical Society ” marks the commencement of a new era in English Chemical Literature, containing, as it does, besides the papers which have been read before the Society, the first instalment of the promised “abstracts.” The papers selected for this purpose by the accomplished editor are ninety-one in number, comprising every branch of Chemical Science, Technology included, and are clas- sified under six various headings, as ‘‘ Physical Chemistry,” “Inorganic Chemistry,” &c. The abstracts themselves, made by the gentlemen whose names appear on the wrapper of the journal, are naturally of different degrees of literary merit, but seem to be carefully and conscien- tiously done ; all the points of essential importance in the original papers being retained. The reader will thus not only have a good general notion of the extent of the re- searches made by any particular author, but also be able to repeat any of the experiments, or prepare any of the substances from the directions given. These abstracts are therefore really what they proféss to be, and not merely notices of a few lines in length, from which but little more information can be gleaned than from the title of the paper. The Council of the Chemical Society is to be con- gratulated on the energetic way in which it has en- deavoured to supply a great defect in our scientific literature, by affording us the means of obtaining a general view of the progress of Chemistry both here and on the Continent. Chemists have hitherto had to depend chiefly on Will’s “ Jahresbericht,” which, although useful in its way, has the double disadvantage incident upon its method of arrangement, first, in not being published until long after the end of the year, and, secondly, of being rather a véswmé of the chemical work done, than a condensed account of particular researches. There is no doubt that these abstracts, if furnished with a full and comprehensive index, both of the subject-matter and the names of the authors, will become a standard work of reference, not only here but on the Continent. It is to be hoped that other Scientific Societies will be induced to follow the example of the Chemical Society, and, by publishing abstracts of all papers connected with their particular branch of science, give an impetus to its cultivation, and render a knowledge of its general pro- gress easily attainable. The value of such abstracts is greater than might at first sight appear ; for the study of Science, both for its own sake, and in its application to the Arts, is extending so rapidly that it requires a considerable expenditure of time to acquire a knowledge of the numerous researches and discoveries which are now being made in any particular science, and leaves but little for the study of the sciences allied to it. If, then, each of the learned societies were to publish abstracts similar to those of the Chemical Society, it would render it comparatively easy for the workers in any one depart- ment of science to acquire something more than a super- ficial knowledge of the discoveries made in the others. May 4,1871| NATURE 2 o GLAISHER’S TRAVELS IN THE AIR Travels in the Air, By James Glaisher, Camille Flam- marion, W. de Fonvielle, and Gaston Tissandier. Second and revised edition, With 125 illustrations. (London: R. Bentley, 1871.) OTH the scientific and the lover ot adventure will find abundance to interest them in this handsome volume. The terrestrial fields of enterprise are getting exhausted. Mont Blanc has long since been used up. We are getting | tired of Central Africa and the Steppes of Tartary, Even | the invitation “Try Lapland” fails to stimulate the jaded nerves of the zealous explorer of “fresh fields and | pastures new.” Inthe realms of air, however, there is still plenty of new ground, if we may be allowed the Hibernicism. Mr. Glaisher and the illustrious French trio can claim this field as almost exclusively their own, though, doubtless, they will not long be left in undisturbed posses- sionof it. After a brief history of the rise and progress of | aérostatics in England, Mr. Glaisher here recounts to us the particulars of ten of his most remarkable ascents ; and the Frenchmen then follow suit. The volume is got hi TU TITIAN FIG. I—MIRAGE IN THE SKY, AS SEEN FROM THE BALLOON up in drawing-room style, as a veritable “ure de luxe; we wish we could transfer to our pages some of the beau- tiful chromo-lithographs by which it is illustrated, in particular, the wonderful mirage and luminous aureole which serves as frontispiece, and the falling stars as ob- served from the balloon, at p. 262. We must, however, content ourselves with two or three of the scarcely less effective woodcuts. The scientific information contained in the volume is important, though rather as showing how little we know at present of even the fundamental principles of Meteorology, than as establishing any new laws. With regard to temperature, Mr. Glaisher remarks that the decrease as we ascend is far from constant, and we must entirely abandon the theory of a decline of 1° of tem- perature for every increase of 300 ft. of elevation. With reference to the colour of the sky, he states that, as viewed from above the clouds, it presents a deep blue colour, which deepens in intensity with increase of elevation regularly from the earth if the sky be free from clouds, or 4 NATURE [AZay 4, 1871 with the increase of elevation above the clouds if they be present, and on this subject he gives the following laws :— “The azure colour of the sky, though resembling the blue of the first order when the sky is viewed from the earth’s surface, becomes an exceedingly deep Prussian blue as we ascend, and, when viewed from the height of six or seven miles, is a deep blue of the second or third order. 2. The maximum polarising angle of the atmo- sphere, 45°, is the same as that of air, and not of water, which is 53°. 3. At the greatest height to which I have ascended, namely, at the height of five, six, and seven miles, where the blue is the brightest, the air is almost deprived of moisture. Hence it follows that the exceed- ingly deep Prussian blue cannot be produced by vesicles of water, but must be caused by reflection from the air, whose polarising angle is 45°. The faint blue which the sky exhibits at the earth’s surface is therefore not the blue of the first order, but merely the blue of the second or third order rendered paler by the light reflected from the aqueous vapour in the lower regions of the atmosphere. FIG. 2—DRAGGING To appreciate all the beauty of cloud scenery when the air is loaded with moisture, an aérial voyage must be made on an autumn morning before sunrise, when the atmosphere is charged with the vapours of night.” Clouds were frequently met with to a height of 20,0ooft, or nearly four miles, and heavy rain at almost as great an altitude ; and on one occasion, while descending, rain fell on the balloon at a height of three miles, and then for the next 5,000ft. lower, it passed through a beautiful snowy scene; there were no flakes in the air, the snow was entirely composed of spicule of ice, of cross spicule at angles of 60°, and of an innumerable number of snow crystals, small in size, but of distinct and well-known forms easily recognisable as they fell and remained.on the coat. The drawings show many a_ beautiful scene— sunrise from a balloon, moonlight effects, a lunar halo, the shadow of a balloon on the clouds, sometimes surrounded by an aureole, though, perhaps, none more remarkable than the mirage represented in our first illustration. Humorous incidents occur here and there; as when the whole apparatus is taken by the French peasantry for “le diable ” himself, or when the travellers approaching the earth are required by too zealous gensdarmes to show their passports! And the adventures are not without their serious attendant dangers. More than once the diminished pressure and the intense cold produced so great a numbness and tendency to sleep that it has re- quired the greatest presence of mind for all control over the balloon not to be lost—and for ever. Life and limb were also not unfrequently endangered by the too sudden descents, sometimes to escape the imminent peril of an involuntary dip into the sea. Fig. 2 depicts the manner in which the “ Swallow,” haying Tissandier and de Fon- vielle on board as passengers, was dragged along the ground by a furious gale, and both those eminent aéronauts were considerably hurt and in danger of losing their lives. There is not much contribution in the volume to the mechanics of aérostation, and that mostly from the French ““ ENYREPRENANT ” V.G, 3—TNE VALVE OF THE BALLOON contributors. We have drawings of the weighing machine and pulleys of the great Captive balloon of Chelsea, and Fig. 3 represents the valve of the “ Entreprenant ” balloon from which M. de Fonvielle attempted to take photographs of an eclipse of the moon. The book is one which will doubtless find a large circle of readers, and will greatly increase the public interest in aérostatics. OUR BOOK SHELF A Text-Book of Elementary Chemistry, Theoretical and Inorganic. By George F. Barker, M.D. (New Hayen, Conn, : C. C, Chatfield and Co., 1870, pp. 336.) THIS little book is evidently the result of much labour on the part of the author, and cannot fail to be of much value to students of chemistry. In the preface a list of books is given of which the author has made free use ; consequently the peculiarities of the systems of many chemists are to be found in the book; but though it can- not be said that any school has been followed, yet all are more or less represented. The prevailing ideas are that May 4, 187% | each element has a definite combining power or equiva- lence, and that the arrangement of atoms in compounds is of as much importance as their kind or number. This work is remarkable for the conciseness of its definitions ; one of the first is on chemical and physical changes, in which it is said that “ physical changes in matter are those which take place outside the molecule ; they do not affect the molecule itself, and therefore do not alter the identity of the matter operated on. Chemical changes take place within the molecule, and hence cause a change in the matter itself.” Some of the definitions would not, how- ever, find general acceptance ; thus, an acid molecule is said to be “one which consists of one or more negative atoms united by oxygen to hydrogen ;”—a definition which excludes hydrochloric acid and its analogues. And a saline molecule is defined to be one containing a “ positive atom or group of atoms, united by oxygen to a negative atom or group of atoms,” which removes sodic chloride from the list of salts. The term base is confined to the hydrates of positive elements or groups of elements, and the hydrates of the metals calcium, zinc, and iron are some- times called calcic base, zincic base, ferrous base, and ferric base. The nomenclature of the acids is systematised, but peculiar names are the result: an ortho-acid is one containing as many atoms of oxygen and hydrogen as is equal to the equivalence of the negative atom or group; and a meta-acid is derived from an ortho- acid by the subtraction of molecules of water, thus ortho- phosphoric acid would be P (OH)., metaphosphoric acid (PO)” (OH),, and dimetaphosphoric acid (P O,)’(OH). These names and those of most other acids are liable to some misunderstanding, as the compounds they represent have long been known by other designations. The theo- retical part of the book contains chapters on elemental molecules and atoms, compound molecules, volume rela- tions of molecules, and stoichiometry. The part on inor- ganic chemistry is divided into eleven chapters, on hydro- gen, the negative monads, dyads, triads, boron, negative tetrads, the iron group, positive tetrads, triads, dyads and monads, thus treating of the elements according to their electro-chemical characters, commencing with the most negative. Each chapter is divided into sections containing the history, occurrence, preparation, and properties of the elements, and is followed by aseries of questions intended as exercises for the students, a method now much adopted, and found to be of great assistance to teachers. This book is another of the evidences of the rapid progress of pure science in America. Czermak’s Electric Double Lever. (Der Electrische Doppelhebel, von F. N. Czermak.) (Leipzig: Engel- mann. 1871. London: Williams and Norgate.) A DESCRIPTION of a most ingenious little contrivance for marking the exact moment in which a movement begins or changes its direction. The old arrangement, by which a lever, forming part of a circuit, comes, when set in mo- tion, in contact with a fixed point connected with the other part of the same circuit, and so closes the circuit and makes a signal, is modified by Prof. Czermak as follows. The fixed contact point is replaced by a secondary lever, whose axis of revolution is the same as that of the primary lever. This secondary lever bears at one end a contact point. The primary lever touches in its swing this con- tact point, and so closes the circuit ; it then pushes the secondary lever before it, but having reached the limit of its oscillation, leaves the secondary lever at rest ina position marking the farthest point of the excursion. A counter contact-point, however, on the other arm of the primary lever (where the lever is a double-arm one ; with single arm levers, a special arrangement is introduced), as the primary lever is returning into position gives to the secondary lever a movement in the same direction. Thus the two levers are continually following each other, making and breaking contact. The instrument is in this way NATURE 5 made capable of being used for signalling all manner of movements. It is impossible fully to explain its construc- tion ina few lines, and we therefore refer the reader to the pamphlet itself, which, we should say, is published in celebration of the Jubilee of the great Leipzig Professor, Ernst Heinrich Weber. By the invention of his delightful “ Rabbit Holder,” Czermak has endeared himself to every physiologist, and we may well share his hope that this new double lever will be found no less useful. M. FOSTER LETTERS TO THE EDITOR [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his Correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. | Pangenesis Ir appears from Mr. Darwin’s letter to you in last week’s Narturg, * that the views contradicted by my experiments, pub- lished in the recent number of the ‘‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society,” differ from those he entertained. Nevertheless, I think they are what his published account of Pangenesis (Animals, &c., under Domestication, ii. 374, 379) are most likely to convey to the mind of a reader. The ambiguity is due to an inappropriate use of three separate words in the only two sentences which imply (for there are none which tell us anything definite about) the Aaéitat of the Pangenetic gemmules ; the words are ‘‘circulate,” “freely,” and “diffused.” The proper meaning of circulation is evident enough—it is a re-entering movement. Nothing can justly be said to circulate which does not return, after a while, to a former position. In a circulating library, books return and are re-issued. Coin is said to circulate, because it comes back into the same hands in the interchange of business. A story circulates, when a person hears it repeated over and over again in society. Blood has an undoubted claim to be called a circulating fluid, and when that phrase is used, blood is always meant. I understood Mr. Darwin to speak of blood when he used the phrases ‘‘circulating freely,” and “the steady circula- tion of fluids,” especially as the other words “freely” and ‘‘diffusion” encouraged the idea. But it now seems that by circulation he meant ‘‘ dispersion,” which is a totally different conception. Probably he used the word with some allu- sion to the fact of the dispersion having been carried on by eddying, not necessarily circulating, currents. Next, as to the word ‘‘freely.’’ Mr. Darwin says in his letter that he supposes the gemmules to pass through the solid walls of the tissues and cells; this is incompatible with the phrase “ circulate freely.” Freely means ‘‘ without retardation ;’ as we might say that small fish can swim freely through the larger meshes of a net; now, it is impossible to suppose gemmules to pass through solid tissue without avy retardation. ‘* Freely” would be strictly applicable to gemmules drifting along with the stream of the lood, and it was in that sense I interpreted it. Lastly, I find fault with the use of the word “diffused,” which applies to movement in or with fluids, and is inappropriate to the action I have just described of solid boring its way through solid. If Mr. Darwin had given in his work an additional paragraph or two to a description of the whereabouts of the gemmules which, I must remark, is a cardinal point of his theory, my misappre- hension of his meaning could hardly have occurred without more hesitancy than I experienced, but I certainly felt and endeavoured to express in my memoir some shade of doubt ; as in the phrase, p- 404, ‘‘that the doctrine of Pangenesis, pure and simple, as I have interpreted it, is incorrect.” As I now understand Mr. Darwin’s meaning, the first passage (ii. 374), which misled me, and which stands: “ . minute granules . . which circulate freely throughout the system ” should be understood as “minute granules . . which are dispersed thoroughly and are in continual movement throughout the system ;” and the second passage (ii. 379), which now stands: “The gemmules in each organism must be thoroughly diffused ; nor does this seem improbable, considering . the steady circulation of fluids throughout the body,” should be understood as follows: ‘* The gemmules in each organism must be dispersed all over it, in thorough intermixture ; nor does this seem impro: bable, considering . . . the steady circulation of the blood, the continuous movement, and the ready diffusion of other fluids, * Narur:, vol. iii. p. 502. \ 6 and the fact that the contents of each pollen grain have to pass through the coats, both of the pollen tube and of the embryonic sack.” (I extract these latter addenda from Mr. Darwin’s letter.) I do not much complain of having been sent on a false quest by ambiguous language, for I know how conscientious Mr. Dar- win is in all he writes, how difficult it is to put thoughts into accurate speech, and, again, how words have conveyed false im- pressions on the simplest matters from the earliest times. Nay, even in that idyllic scene which Mr. Darwin has sketched of the first invention of language, awkward blunders must of necessity have often occurred. I refer to the passage in which he supposes some unusually wise, ape-like animal to have first thought of imitating the growl of a beast of prey so as to indicate to his fellow monkeys the nature of expected danger. For my part, I feel as if I had just been assisting at such a scene. As if, having heard my trusted leader utter a cry, not particularly well articu- lated, but to my ears more like that of a hyena than any other animal, and seeing none of my companions stir a step, I had, like a loyal member of the flock, dasheddown a path of which I had happily caught sight, into the plain below, followed by the approving nods and kindly grunts of my wise and most-respected chief. And I now feel, after returning from my hard expedition, full of information that the suspected danger was a mistake, for there was no sign of a hyena anywhere in the neighbourhood. I am given to understand for the first time that my leader’s cry had no reference to a hyena down in the plain, but to a leopard some- where up in the trees ; his throat had been a little out of order —that was all. Well, my labour has not been in vain ; it is something to have established the fact that there are no hyenas in the plain, and I think I see my way to a good position for a look out for leopards among the branches of the trees. In the meantime, Vive Pangenesis. FRANCIS GALTON The Hylobates Ape and Mankind THE readers of Mr. Mivart’s communication in NATURE for April 20, on the affinity of the Hylobates genus of ape to the human species, may be interested to learn that the fact was well known to the author of the Ramayana, the earliest Sanscrit epic, probably contemporaneous with the Iliad. In this poem the demigod Rama subdues the demon Ravana, and regains his ravished bride Sita by the assistance of a host of apes, which may be identified with Ay/obates Hoolook. The human characteristics of these semi-apes, their gentleness, affection, good humour, sa- gacity, self-importance, impressionability, and proneness to melancholy, are portrayed with the most vivid strokes, and evi- dently from careful observation. See Miss Frederika Richard- son’s charming volume, ‘‘ The Iliad of the East,” a selection of legends drawn from the Ramayana. (Macmillan and Co., 1870.) April 27 R. G. Tables of Prime Numbers WHEN a number is given, and it is required, without the aid of tables, to find its factors, there is not, I believe, any other method known except the simple but laborious one of dividing it by every odd number until one is found that measures it, and if the number should be prime, this can only be proved by show- ing that it is not divisible by any odd number less than its square root. Thus to prove that 6966007 is prime, it would be neces- sary to divide it by every odd number less than 2639, and even if a table of primes less than 2639 were at hand, about 380 divisions would be requisite. On the other hand, there are few tables which are more easily constructed than tables of divisors, and it is the extreme facility of asystematic tabulation compared to the labour of isolated determinations, which has led to the construction of such elaborate tables on the subject as have been produced. The principal tables are Chernac’s, which give the factors of numbers from unity to a million; Burckhardt’s, which extend as far as three millions, and Dase’s, which form a continuation of Burckhardt’s, and extend to ten millions. The mode of formation of these tables was extremely simple. By successiveadditions, the multiples of 3, 5, 7, 11, 13,17 . + . were formed up to the limit to which the table was intended to ex- tend; this gave all the numbers having these numbers for factors, and the primes were recognised from the fact of their not occurring as multiples of another prime less than themselves. Practically the work was rendered even simpler by mechanical means; thus, forms were printed containing, say, a thousand NATURE [May 4, 1871 squares, and in these were written consecutive thousands of odd numbers in order ; one number in each square, room being left for its divisors, if any, in the square. A pair of compasses was then taken and opened a distance corresponding to the prime whose multiples were to be obtained ; for example, in marking the multiples of seven, the compasses were opened the width of seven squares, and then ‘‘ stepped ” along the lines starting from 7, thereby marking the numbers 7, 21,35 . - . and the number 7 was written in each of thesquares in whicha leg of the com- passes fell, When the factor was large it was more convenient to form a separate table of its multiples, and enter it in the square corresponding to the latter Many simplifications were introduced in the details of the construction ; for instance, Burck- hardt hada copper plate engraved with 77 (=7 x11) squares one way and So the other; by this arrangement the multiples 7 and 11, which were of the most frequent occurrence (for all multiples of 2, 3, and 5 were rejected from the tables), occupied the same place on each sheet, and he was thus enabled to en- grave the numbers 7 and 11 on the plate, so that these numbers were frinfed in all the squares containing the numbers they measured. Dase, who originally applied himself to the construction of the tables at the suggestion of Gauss, left behind him in manuscript at the time of his death, in 1862, the seventh and part of the eighth million complete, besides a considerable portion of the ninth and tenth millions. The seventh, eighth, and ninth mil- lions were completed by Dr. Rosenberg, and published by a committee at Hamburgh. In the preface to the ninth million (1865), which is the last I have seen, it is stated that the tenth million, which was nearly ready, was the last the committee intended to publish. My object in writing this letter is not only to call attention to a most valuable series of tables, which seem to have scarcely excited so much interest as they deserve, but also to ask if any of your readers can inform me if the work is being continued, or if there is any chance of its continuation. It is not often that tables are so indispensable as in the present case, or that a want so pressing can be supplied with such comparative ease ; and the cessation of the tables would be a real calamity. The tenth million has, I presume, been published. At the British Association Meeting at Dundee in 1867, a list of 5,500 large prime numbers was communicated to Section A by Mr. Barrett Davis. A short discussion took place on the “reading” of the paper, in the course of which it was stated that Mr. Davis’s table was unaccompanied by any explanation of how the numbers had been obtained, or on what grounds they were asserted to be prime ; it was also asserted that Mr. Davis wished to keep his method secret. Perhaps some reader of NATURE can say whether Mr. Davis’s numbers have been printed. If they exceed Dase’s limit, their publication (if they have not yet been published) is very desi- rable; and even supposing they are given in Dase’s tables, it would be valuable to know how far the latter have been verified by them. ‘The statement about Mr. Davis’s method being secret was probably founded on some mistake, and no doubt Mr. Davis would not object to explain it. J. W. L. GLAIsHER Trinity College, Cambridge, April 29 Units of Force and Energy THE best root for the name of a unit of force is d¥vauis. There is, therefore, no ground for Mr. Muir’s complaint (NATURE, vol. iil. p. 426), and I now venture to propose that the name dyze be given to that force which, acting on a gramme for a second, generates a velocity of a metre per second. A thousand dynes to make one 4z/odyne, and a million dynes one megadyne. Borrowing a hint from Mr. Muir, I would point out that the kilodyne may also be defined as the force which, acting on a kilogramme for a second, generates the velocity of a metre per second, or, as the force which, acting on a gramme for a second, generates a velocity of a £z/cmetre per second. The Aint, or pound-fcot-second unit of force, is about 138} dynes. Very roughly expressed in terrestrial gravitation mea- sure, the kinit is the gravitating force of half an ounce, the dyne of about 14 grains, the kilodyne of about } of a pound, and the megadyne of 2 cwt., the approximation being much closer in this last case than in the others, so that within one part in 400 we haye 10 megadynes = the force of terrestrial gravity on a ton. I have often felt the want of a name for an absolute unit ot energy, or, what amounts to the sam¢ thing, an absolute unit of } May 4, 1871] NATURE 7 work. If the above names be adopted, they give us at once the foot-kinit as the unit of work based on the pound, foot, and second, the foot-pound (which varies with the value of g) being equal to ¢ foot-kinits. In like manner we have, for the metrical system, the metre-dyne and its derivatives. But it would, I think, be advantageous to have short and in- dependent names for these units. For, in the first place, we are thus saved from such cumbrous names as metre-kilodyne and metre-megadyne, which would be necessary in expressing large quantities of work ; in the second place, energy of motion de- pends directly upon mass and velocity, and is only indirectly connected with the unit of force; and, in the third place, the _ characteristics of energy are such as specially entitle it to names suggestive of simplicity rather than of compositeness. I propose, therefore, to call the foot-kinit, whether of work or energy, the exe. A thousand ergs to make one £z/erg, which will be about 31 terrestrial foot-pounds, and a million ergs to make one Zollexg, which is a little less than the work done by one horse-power in a minute. The kinitic energy of » pounds, moving with a velocity of 7 feet per second, is + mv? when expressed in ergs. The energy value of a Fahrenheit unit of heat is 772 x 32°194 = 24,854 ergs. In the metrical system, let the metre-dyne of work or energy be called the ove (from dvos). A thousand pones to make one hilopone, which is the work done by a &ilodyne working through a metre, or by a dyne working through a £:/ometre, and is about Bar of the variable unit of work in common use among French engineers, called the kilogrammetre. A million pones to make one megapone, which is about 723 terrestrial foot-pounds. In employing the prefix mega to denote a million, I have followed the excellent example set by the B. A. Committee on Electrical Standards. As megerg would be intolerable, and megalerg sounds like a confusion of genders, I have substituted pollerg. In constructing a new nomenclature, the metrical system is entitled to the best names which can be found, but the pound and foot cannot be ignored. J. D, EvERETT Rushmere, Malone Road, Belfast The Name “ Britain” In his remarks on the derivation of the name ‘‘ Britain,” “A. R. H.” says that tin ‘‘is found only in one of the Britan- mias.” This is incorrect, for tin occurs in Brittany, and also in Gallicia. The fact of the three Britains mentioned by ‘‘ A. R. H.” being all tin-bearing districts seems to confirm the derivation given by Mr. Edmonds in NATuRE for February 16. : Gal INa EB: Piedimulera, Val d’Ossola, Piedmont, April 25 Derivation of the Word “ Britannia” Ir Mr. Edmonds considers himself right in his derivation of ¢ Britannia” and ‘‘tin,” he will have to explain on the same basis the conformable names, and this he will find difficult to do. The name B-ritannia corresponds with S-ardinia, D-ardania, and possibly with Mauritania, and these again with a number of river names of the root RDN (=RND, BRN, &c.), such as Rotanus, Rhodanus, Drinus, Eridanus, Artanus, Triton, Orethus, &c. B-radanus, P-rytanis, P-arthenias, V-artanus, are examples of B. K-artenus, I-ordanes, I-ardanes, I-ardenus. Then there are examples of Aternus, &c., Tanarus, &c., Mzeander, &c., Orontes, &c. These must all be explained on one principle. In the same way as Britannia is allied to river names, so are many of the ancient (classic) names of countries (except such as are volcanic) allied to river names of various roots, as RBD, &c., RKN, &c., SBN, &c. These names are not explainable in Phcenician, because they were given long before the Phcenicians entered on the stage of history. They are Paleogeorgian, in a language to which Georgian, Lesghian, and other Caucasian languages are allied. These names were given by the Caucaso- Tibetans, This is explained in my paper lately read before the Anthropo- logical Institute and recorded in NATURE, and the name of Britannia is illustrated in papers sent in to the Society of Anti- -quaries and the Royal Irish Academy. 32, St. George’s Square Hypr CLARKE Aurora by Daylight TuHaT the Aurora Borealis has been seen by daylight has never been doubted by me, although till now I have not been able to collect sufficient evidence to induce others to believe in the possibility of it. Your correspondent Mr. John Langton, in your last issue, gives two instances of the aurora having been seen during day time, which, I think, ought to dispel all further doubt. However, to satisfy the most sceptical of your readers, the following few cases have occurred to me :— ‘A.D, 1122, . . . . « ~ This same year died Ralph, Archbishop of Canterbury ; that was on the 13th of the kalends of November (October 20). After this were many shipmen at sea and on the water, and they said that they saw on the north- east along the earth a great and broad fire, and it increased speedily upwards in extent towards the sky, and the sky opened itself in four parts and fought there against it as if it would ex- tinguish it; but nevertheless the fire extended up to heaven. They saw that fire in the dawn of the day, and it continued until it was quite light. This was on the 7th of the ides of December (December 7).”— Axglo-Saxon Chronicle. It may seem bold to advance this as the record of an auroral appearance, but not to those who have studied this and other chronicles with their wearying vaguenesses. This passage gains clearness by the following lines from the ‘‘ Prose Edda,” con- cerning ‘* The Twilight of the Gods and the Conflagration of the Universe,” which I have elsewhere* supposed to be a description of the aurora borealis :— “«The fire-reek rageth Around Time’s nurse, And flickering flames With heaven itself playeth.” In the ‘‘ Second Continuation of the History of Croyland,” there is the following curious passage, under A.D. 1467 :— CMa eOeeEN; 6 Me NG a o eoeb horsemen and men in armour were seen rushing through the air; so much so, that St. George himself, conspicuous with the red cross, his usual ensign, and attended by a vast body of armed men, appeared visibly in great numbers. To show that we ought not to refuse our belief to what has been just mentioned, those persons to whom revelations of this nature were made were subjected to the most strict examination before the venerable Father Thomas, the Lord Archbishop of Canterbury.” I understand this occurrence to have taken place in the day between the rising and setting of the sun, because this passage is only part of a longer account of remarkable events which were said to have been observed in ‘‘one day.” I do not put this instance forward as one of very great value, as the Chronic’e of Ingulf is undoubtedly spurious, as shown by Dr. Hickes and Sir Francis Palgrave, but the continuation, I think, can be safely said to date about the end of the 15th or the beginning of the 16th century, which, if correct, will place the phenomenon above referred to amongst the earliest notices of daylight Auroras in English History, and will come next to that mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. Of course I only speak here of my own acquaintance with the Chronicles, there may be other records, but I have not had the opportunity of searching through every monastic production. Leaving this field of speculation, I come next to a more reliable record. | give the whole ot the passage, as it is not very long :— ** Aurora Borealis, seen in the Day-time at Canonmills.” ‘* Tle morning of Sunday, September 9, was rainy, with a light gale from the N.E. Before mid-day the wind began to veer to the west, and the clouds in the north-western horizon cleared away : the blue sky in that quarter assumed the form of a segment of a very large circle, with a well-defined line, the line above con- tinuing dense, and covering the rest of the heavens. The centre of the azure arch gradually inclined to the north, and reached an elevation of 20°. Ina short time, very thin fleecy clouds began to rise from the horizon within the blue arch ; and through these very faint perpendicular streaks of a sort of milky light could be perceived shooting ; the eye being thus guided, could likewise detect the same pale streaks passing over the intense azure arch, but they were extremely slight and evanescent. Between nire and ten in the evening of the same day, the aurora borealis was very brilliant, so that there is no reason to doubt that the azure * Vide NATURE, vol. ili. p. 175. + For a similar case to this see note to my letter on the aurora borealis in NATUuRE, Vol. iii., p. 487, 8 NATURE [May 4, 1871 arch in the morning, and the pale light seen shooting across it, were connected with the same phenomenon.” I have just been informed by a friend whose veracity I would be the last to question, that he saw a very faint arch in the eastern sky on the afternoon of the roth inst. (about 4.30 P.M.). There were no clouds near it, while the background was a beau- tiful azure. The colour of the arch was of a much fainter blue, or, as he calls it, ‘‘a whitish blue,” and was almost a perfect semicircle. I have not the least doubt that it was a ‘‘ daylight” aurora ; it must be remembered that on the previous night there was a most magnificent aurora borealis. In conclusion, after carefully examining the facts contained in the various communications to your journal, as well as those which I have collected, I cannot see any reason for doubting the possibility of the aurora borealis being seen by daylight. It will be interesting to know what those daylight phenomena are, if not auroras. JOHN JEREMIAH Red Lion Street The Irish Fern in Cornwall Your correspondent having, much to my regret, so exactly informed the ‘‘ruthless collectors” where they are to look for this fern, I fear that after the ensuing autumnal ravages not a single frond will be left to speak for itself. Permit me, therefore, to state that the fern unquestionably grows, or did grow, at the place indicated, and was, I believe, first recognised in 1866 by Mr. Robert Were Fox, I’.R.S., who has a plant he thus obtained still growing in his fernery at Penjerrick near this town. W. P. DyMonD Falmouth, April 29 The Prevalence of West Winds In a letter with this heading in Nature for February 16th, Mr. Murphy has very roundly objected to certain views which I have put forward regarding the predominance of westerly winds. In the paper read before the British Association, to the abstract of which he refers, and which was itself little more than a résumé of the propositions maintained at greater length in my ‘« Physical Geography,” reviewed by “A. B.” in NATURE for March 16th, my object was not so much to show that westerly winds predominated in volume over easterly winds, as to show that all prevailing winds, not westerly, may be properly con- sidered as deflected or secondary currents of air, and that more especially the trade winds may be so considered. I have sup-* ported this view by a detailed examination of the geographical circumstances, habitudes, and characteristics of the principal winds ; but to have included every local exception—as ‘‘ A. B.” seems to consider I ought to have done—would have required more time than even the most industrious can spare, an amount of special topographical knowledge which is practically unattain- able, and would have had no important bearing on the main question. I may go even further. I may say that, from a general point of view, isolated local registers have no value at all, unless the method of observing and the position of the vane are distinctly made known. It would be perfectly easy to name a dozen localities in Wales, in the Lake District, or in Scotland, where a vane would show a prevailing wind widely different from the W.S.W., which, however, we have no difficulty in accept- ing as the prevailing wind of the country ; even at Liverpool the prevailing wind has been observed to be W. N. W., and at Valentia there is a marked difference between the wind in the northern and southern entrance. In Mr. Buchan’s paper in the Trans- actions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, December, 1869, I find that at Irkutsic the wind is almost always due north, or due south, would “A. B.” imply that the Irkutsk observations afford any information as to the prevailing wind of Siberia? In another paragraph, ‘‘ A. B.” considers that the preponde- rance of westerly winds cannot be very great. So far as the area over which westerly winds blow is concerned, I would partly agree with him ; taking into account the constant interruptions to the west winds in the temperate zones, and on the other hand their frequent intrusion into latitudes considerably below 30°, more especially in the Pacific, and their prevalence during several months of the year over a large portion of the Indian Ocean, Iam in- clined to reckon the ratio of the area of westerly winds to the area of easterly winds as approximately 13:10. But such an estimate * Jameson’s Journal, quoted in the “‘ Arcana of Science and Art” for 1828, does not in any way include the velocity of the wind ; and since the velocity of the west winds of temperate latitudes is, in the mean, about double that of the easterly winds of tropical, it would follow that the respective volumes of the winds bear to each other a much larger ratio, which, allowing freely for every reasonable reduc- tion, cannot be less than 2:1. And this estimate still relates only to the lower strata of the atmosphere, through a height pro- bably not exceeding 12,000 feet. Our knowledge of the winds above that height is very limited ; but since, wherever observa- tion extends, it points out to us 2 strong, frequently even a violent west wind, it seems to me that we have a fairly presumptive proof that the prevailing direction of the upper current is from the west. I base this belief entirely on the evidence which we have, defective as it is and as it almost necessarily must be; to explain the fact by a reference to a difference of barometric pressures, concerning which we have positively no evidence at all, is a task which I most willingly leave to my reviewer. But if, as I have maintained, we may fairly assume that the upper current has an almost invariable direction from the west, and that too with a comparatively high velocity, the ratio of the volumes of westerly and easterly winds is enormously increased, and if the upper part of the air, being quite half of the whole, is moving from the west with a mean velocity of 40 miles an hour, then, as we have already taken 20 miles, or the velocity of the trade winds, as the standard or unit of reference, we have the ratio of westerly to easterly winds as about 6; 1. The question which Mr. Murphy has suggested no doubt here arises: Must not this preponderance of westerly winds affect the rotation of the earth? I have throughout maintained the exis- tence of this preponderance solely by geographical proof, and conceiving that the evidence is conclusive, whilst no meteoro- logical theory points to any explanation of it, I am compelled to attribute it to the action of some force external to the earth ; possibly, as I have endeavoured to show, to the attraction of the sun, moon, and other heavenly bodies ; possibly also to some other force, magnetic ormeteoric, of whose action wehave as yet no know- ledge or understanding : but supposing, as I do, that the force which produces this motion is external to the earth, it is impossible to avoid the conclusion that it does tend to increase the earth’s velocity of rotation. On the other hand, there are forces, ad- mitted by all naturalists, in constant action, which tend to de- crease the velocity of rotation ; and a certain amount of wonder that the decrease so caused is so small as observation proves it to be is implied, rather than expressed, in our most valuable works on Natural Philosophy. If it is impossible in the pre- sent state of our knowledge to show exactly what such decrease is and ought to be, it is certainly impossible to say that it is not to some extent counterbalanced by a contrary tendency towards an increase, such as I have shown probably exists. At any rate, I know of nothing connected with the rotation of the earth which in any way controyerts or affirms the proposition which I have put forward, based on geographical evidence only. I had written this before seeing Mr. Murphy’s second letter on the subject in NaTuRE for March 30, but as he has in it merely repeated his former arguments, it is unnecessary to notice it more particularly, J. K. Laucuron Royal Naval College, Portsmouth SUBMARINE TELEGRAPHS We may possibly be within the memory of some persons that, about the year 1840, Sir C. Wheatstone first conceived the idea of transmitting messages under the sea, and practically carried out at that time the first sub- marine telegraph cable. Selecting Swansea Bay, South Wales, as the chosen spot for his experiment, the great inventor sat in an open boat, about three miles from the Mumbles Lighthouse, with the lighthouse keeper as his assistant. A conducting wire, insulated with hemp and a resinous compound, served as the electric communication between his open boat and the shore. It is from the successful results of this first crude experiment, and Wheatstone’s investigations into the laws that regulate the transmission of electric currents through metallic con- ductors, published shortly afterwards in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, that our present system of the testing of submarine cables is based, May 4, 1871] NATURE 9 and the vast system of inter-oceanic communication that connects the civilised world together, has been framed. At the date of Wheatstone’s first experiment, gutta- _ percha was undiscovered, and its insulating power un- known. By the employment of this gum, the electrical _ condition of the submarine cable, up to a certain standard, has been under ordinary circumstances rendered secure. Such being the case, and for the purpose of comparison _ hereafter, it is well to examine a little into the properties of this gum and that of india-rubber, another vegetable substance possessing insulating properties of the most _ remarkable kind, as applied to the construction of sub- _ marine cables. . Gutta-percha, as is well known, is a vege- table gum, which becomes plastic and soft at a com- paratively low temperature, about 100° F. Subjecting the gum to repeated cleansing processes to free it from impurities and extraneous vegetable matter, it is rendered tolerably dense and homogeneous, and in this state it is applied in successive layers or coats round the copper conducting wire as the insulating material, forming the “core” of the submarine cable, which is then termed “ in- sulated,” that is, capable to a certain extent of preventing the lateral escape of any electric current or charge which may be passed into the wire. A short investigation is now necessary to be made of some of the circumstances which take place when a wire thus insulated is submerged and subjected to the charge of an electric current. If the wire were absolutely insulated, that is, if gutta-percha __were a perfect insulator offering an indefinite resistance to _ the passage of the current through its substance, any given quantity of electricity passed into the wire would remain there for a given time without loss, in the same way as when water is poured into a vessel, the level re- mains intact so long as there is no leakage. The amount of this leakage through the gutta-percha, or, in other words, its “ conductive resistance,” determines the insu- lating power of the cable. But this is not all that has to be considered ; other circumstances affecting the value of the insulation come into play. The following analogous example will explain. When a leech is allowed to crawl through a glass tube, the head and body pass out first, while the tail—long and attenuated—is slowly withdrawn. So with the passing of an electric current through an in- sulated conductor, a portion of the current lags sluggishly behind, absorbed, as it were, into the substance of the insulating medium, and taking time to discharge itself in proportion to the amount of the sucking up, or “ inductive capacity ” of the insulator, for, in this respect, both gutta- percha and india-rubber may be regarded as a sponge, the current penetrating into the pores of the substance. Without entering further into detail regarding the laws regulating the transmission of the current, it is sufficient to remember that the speed or power of transmitting a given number of messages in a given time over any cable depends materially upon the proportionate values of the “conductive resistance” and “ inductive capacity” of the insulation. Thus there is at once established a measure by which the value of all known insulating materials may be determined and compared together, that is to say, if two cables of equal length and similar construction are taken—the one insulated with gutta-percha, and the other with india-rubber (Hooper’s india-rubber)—the relative value and working speed of each can be accurately determined and compared. The successful employment of india-rubber as an insulating medium for submarine cables is of more recent date, and the estima- tion in which it is now held for that purpose is entirely due to the beautiful process emplayed in its manipulation by Mr. W. Hooper, of Mitcham. It is well known that india-rubber possesses a much higher insulating power than gutta-percha ; as a gum it is also denser, more ho- mogeneous, and infinitely more pliable and elastic than gutta-percha, while it is not affected in any considerable degree by variation of temperature—all qualities of the » > 7 greatest importance as connected with submarine cable insulation. Before entering upon a comparative statement of the insulation and speed of gutta-percha and Hooper’s insulation, a short notice of the mode by which this insulating material is manipulated will be interesting, and will serve to give value to the practical data hereafter stated. The copper conductor, afier being tinned, is coated with an insulation of pure india-rubber applied in the shape of a ribbon, lapped spirally round it. Next, two strips (one laid above and the other below) of india- rubber, chemically prepared to resist the action of sulphur, and called the “separator,” are applied so as to completely surround the first rubber covering, as it were with a tube ; a pair of grooved die-wheels giving the contour, and at the same time regulating accurately the guage of the core. Exterior strips are then similarly applied of a com- pound of rubber and a small percentage of sulphur. The whole is then lapped round with water-proof felt tape, and exposed for some hours in an oven to a heat of about 383° F. By this process the three successive coatings are welded into one solid, dense, homogeneous mass, hav- ing its distinctive features preserved as regards the indi- vidual character of the several layers. Thus the heat, in driving off the sulphur from the outside coating, has con- verted that envelope into an indestructible vulcanised rubber jacket. The second layer, or “ separator,” has inter- cepted the passing of the sulphur by reason of its chemical properties, while at the same time it has allowed an infinite- simal trace of the sulpbur to combine with the internal coat- ing of pure rubber round the conducting wire, sufficient to change its character into an indestructible and non- liquifying material, without its becoming in any way vulcanised. It is by this beautiful chemical affinity between the several layers, each performing its special part towards the production of one individual whole, that the “Hooper insulation” has succeeded in establishing the durability of the preparation, the comparative value of which, as compared with that of gutta-percha, will now be given. First as regards temperature—it has been already stated that gutta-percha became plastic at about 100° F. At this temperature it loses also almost entirely its insu- lating properties; that is to say, if at a temperature of 32° F. the insulation of gutta-percha is taken as representing 100, at 75° it is reduced to 5°51, or little more than a twentieth part, while at the increased tem- perature of 100°, its insulating power has further de- creased to 1°43, or about one seventieth part. Gutta- percha as an insulator is therefore unsuited for hot climates, or any exposed position where the temperature rises above 70°. Taking now Hooper's india-rubber insula- tion at 32° F. to be the same, 100, at 75° we find its insula- tion to be 24°50, or about one-fourth part, while at too° it is 10°60, or about one-tenth part. Thus at the ordinary temperature of 75°, Hooper's core establishes its superior insulating properties under temperature in the propor- tion of fourtoone. The“ inductive capacity ” of Hooper’s core, from its superior density, is only about two-thirds that of gutta-percha, while its insulation or resistance of the dielectric is fully twenty times greater than that of gutta-percha core, as exemplified in the tests given of some of the best known cables now at work, The following is a list of some of the more important cables insulated with Hooper’s core laid up to the present time :— 1. Cable crossing river's in India, laid in 1865, length 46 nauts. 2. Ceyion Cable, India, laidin 1866 . ey BIN te 3. India Cable . 7 . 6 2 wares 40 5 4. Persian Gulf Cable c 6 : Ree wise) ep 5. Danish-English Cable. . . > 9, 363° 6. Scotch-Norwegian Cable ' c a TAIN Lean bs 7. Danish-Norwegian Cable. : : bate, HS; 's5 8. Orkney and Shetland Islands Cable. ts pees). =, NATURE {Jfay 4, 1871 9. Pentlands Cable length 11 nauts. 10. Scilly Islands Cable ‘ 0 3 on 27 a 11. Swedish-Russian Cable F . AEROS. 495 12. Moen Bornholm Cable. 6 5 ee op 80 ,, 13. Hong-Kong-Shanghae Cable . 9 © NBFEEEZOO! 55 14. Shanghae-Possiette Cable 3 é 5 Co" 55 These two latter cables have recently been completed, and the Shanghae-Possiette cable is now in course of submergence ; the Hong-Kong-Shanghae cable was suc- cessfully laid last month. These lines give a total distance of over 3,978 nautical miles of submarine cable with Hooper’s indiarubber insulation. The following observations as regards the electrical conditions of these cables as compared with well-known gutta-percha insu- lated cables is remarkable. The electrical tests of well-known cables with both the gutta-percha and the Hooper core are taken at the temperature of 75° Fahr., and in terms of British Association (B.A.) units, the standard measure now most generally adopted in England for comparison : Gutta-percha. England and Hanover Cable, laid 1866 . 239 million B. A. units Persian Gulf Cable a », 1864. 190 ;, A Atlantic Cable a 5 a5 1865 6840) tees 5 Atlantic Cable c 5 “0 1866 Be ee og * Vacentia Bay Cable a A 1866 a Gy ss Cuba and Florida Cable . », 1807. 464 ;, es Hooper Core, Ceylon Cable (Hooper’s Core) ,, 1865 HG) 55 3 India Cable . : 6 », 1865. 8064 ,, 3 India Cable. : 5 5) 1866. 8526 5, i. Wanish-English Cabl : aa) S08). OL23) iy, _ Scotch- Norwegian Cable Ape aesicley 7923» a Scilly Islands Cable 6 », 1870. 7819 _ ;, 4 With such results, it is not to be wondered at that the relative speed of two cables of similar length and con- struction, the one employing a gutta-percha core and the other a Hooper core, should be found’ greatly in favour of the latter, in the proportion of 130 to 100; that is to say, in any given time the Hooper core, from its superior insu- lating properties, will transmit thirty per cent. more words than a gutta-percha core, a most important circumstance when it is considered that the earnings or dividend upon each cable is dependent upon the work it can perform in a given period. As regards the apparatus employed for transmitting the currents through submarine conductors, the “Wheatstone” automatic recording system is the most successful. By this apparatus an average speed of over thirty words a minute is regularly maintained upon the Danish-English cable, a distance of 363 nautical miles, exclusive of a further land circuit of over 140 miles, yaaking a total distance of about 500 miles. This speed must be compared with that of seventeen words per minute, the highest result recorded over the same circuit by the most improved Morse system. From the vesults of the “Wheatstone” apparatus working over this circuit since September 1868, it appears that to obtain maximum speed, the currents through a submarine cable require to be transmitted of equal duration, at equal intervals, in alternate directions, and the line discharged to earth between each successive reversal or current to neutralise the charge, all of which conditions are fulfilled in the ‘ Wheatstone” Automatic Jacquard arrangement, which can only be compared to a loom weaving the currents into the line, the sequence of the currents representing the pattern on the cloth. This apparatus is now organised as the transmitting and re- cording register upon the vast system of submarine cir- cuits belonging to the Great Northern Telegraph Com- pany, and the extensions from Possiette Bay (Russian- Chinese frontier) to Nagasaki, Shanghae, and Hong-Kong. The subject of high speed transmission through insulated conductors, both by land and sea, is one which demands special attention, now that the telegraph is daily encroach- ing upon the postal service, a service in which both speed and accuracy are more than ever demanded by the public. NATH. J. HOLMES PFLUGER’S;NERVE2ENDINGS IN GLANDS N his “ Archiv ftir die Gesammte Physiologie” (Bonn, 1871), E. Pfliiger gives a short and summary answer to those many observers who have thrown doubt on the accuracy of his remarkable discoveries as to the conti- nuity of nerves with the secreting cells of the salivary glands and liver. Pfliiger’s opponents in this matter have been Mayer, Hering, Krause, Henle, and Schweigger-Seidel. The objections which have been made are divided by him into three heads. 1st. It was said that the nerves he had seen were capillary vessels. 2nd. That they were threads of mucus. 3rd. They were disintegrated fat. These objec- tions are successively shown to be groundless, and Pfliiger stoutly maintains his original position. What is far more important in this short paper than these answers to objections is that the professor at length publishes an account of some of his methods as to which he has so long left every one in the dark. They are certain to be in- teresting to some of our readers. Salivary glands. A fresh submaxillary gland from the ox must be taken, and very fine sections made ; these must be at once teased out in perosmic acid sp. gr. 1003, and covered with a thin glass in a shallow cell. A great many preparations should be made, and the best picked out. They will be suf- ficiently stained in 24 hours. As the water dries up it may be replaced by glycerine. Zzver. A great number of very fine sections must be made from the fresh liver of a dog or pig. These sections must be placed Io or 12 together in watch-glasses filled with Beale’s carmine solu- tion, and thus kept ina moist chamber 14 days. The sections must then be taken out, washed one by one ina drop of perosmic acid, sp. gr. 1003, transported to a fresh drop of the same on a slide, and carefully teased out, covered, and examined. NOTES St. BARTHOLOMEW’s HospPITAL has, we lear from the British Medical Fournal, sustained a great loss in the resignation by Mr. Paget of his active duties as Surgeon to the Hospital. Mr. Paget will, of course, receive the appointment of Ceonsult- ing Surgeon to the Institution which he has served long and faithfully, and on which he has conferred lustre. THE following excursions have been arranged by the Geologists’ Association to take place in May :—To Oxford on Friday, 12th May. On arriving at Oxford the New University Museum will be visited. Subsequently the party, accompanied by the Presi- dent, Prof. Phillips, and Prof. Morris, will walk to Shotover Hill, where the Middle and Upper Oolites are well exposed. To Grays, Essex, on Saturday, 20th May. Exposures of the Mammaliferous beds of the Thames Valley, and afterwards sections of the Upper Chalk will be visited, under the guidance of Prof. Morris. A four days’ excursion to Yeovil, Weymouth, and Portland is proposed for Whitsuntide. Particulars of arrangements will be duly announced. THE Edinburgh Naturalists’ Field Club, which has since its formation carried on active operation only from April to July inclusive, held its adjourned annual meeting and conversazione on Saturday, the 22nd April, when Mr. Robert Scot-Skirving, the president, delivered an introductory address, enlarging mainly on entomology as a fit summer field study. The business meeting was held in November last, when, in addition to the a May 4, 1871] NATURE If p Lees =e Sslisis2 3 4 8/5/52 =) Bs - OUIlF/5a 5 ¢ Sallbl. s | Pl ol als e/2Zielos Jone Sl sre =|S8isre8 Bifsis e| |2les5isle 2) Ss ale2ls\Plels/b esiales S\SCE SS 4) 5 S\5 85 atm it oe \eQl Ora lOl= Si nie o|4 SSiSolsolealalaaia = w Si AH SOS) ol/ Ol al Ela~ ose As F AIA RIA A = SS s I. INTERBEDDED OR CONTEM- PORANEOUS. A. Crystalline. Sheets or beds cssccscseesssseees|ace| ave | 2 | *|*|]/*]* [ee] * B. Fragmental. Beds or layers sssessssasaceneces| cel) ose | soa [avz|ao |] aaefece foun) caenl || SINE II. INTRUSIVE OR SUBSEQUENT. A. Crystaliine. a. Amorphous masses *| * | B. Sheets.. = * y. Dykes * *|* 3. Necks ... ? i) B. Fragmental Neecks..ceceseeccecceee * The age of the rocks was shown to be included in the Tertiary period by the position of the volcanic masses above the chak, and by their including beds containing Miocene plants. As an illustrative district, the author described the . volcanic geology of the island of Eigg, one of the Inner Hebrides, and brought out the following points:—1. The volcanic rocks of this island rest unconformably upon strata of Oolitic age. 2. They consist almost wholly of a succession of nearly horizon- tal interbedded sheets of dolerite and basalt, forming an isolated fragment of the great volcanic plateau which stretches in broken masses from Antrim through the Inner Hebrides. 3. These interbedded sheets are traversed by veins and dykes of similar materials, the dykes having the characteristic north-westerly trend, with which they pass across the southern half of Scotland and the north of England. Veins of pitchstone and felstone, and intrusive masses of quartziferous porphyry, like some of those which in Skye traverse or overlie the lias, likewise intersect the bedded dolerites and basalts of Eigg. 4. At least, two widely separated epochs of volcanic activity are represented by the volcanic rocks of Eigg. The older is marked by the bedded dolerites and by the basalt veins and dykes which, though strictly speaking younger than the bedded sheets which they intersect, yet probably belong to the same continuous period of volcanic action. The later manifestations of this action are shown by the pitchstone of the Scur. Before that rock was erupted the older doleritic lavas had long ceased to flow in this district. Their successive beds, widely and deeply eroded by atmospheric waste, were here hollowed into a valley traversed by a river, which carried southward the drainage of the wooded northern hills. Into this valley, slowly scooped out of the older volcanic series May 4, 1871 NATURE = the pitchstone and porphyry cowdées of the Scir flowed. Vast, therefore, as the period must be which is chronicled in the huge piles of volcanic beds forming our dolerite plateaux, we must add to it the time needed for the excavation of parts of those plateaux into river-valleys, and the concluding period of volcanic activity during which the rocks of the Scur of Eigg were poured out. 5. Lastly, from the geology of this interesting island we learn, what can be nowhere in Britain more eloquently impressed upon us, that, geologically recent as that portion of the Tertiary periods may be during which the volcanic rocks of Eigg were produced, it is yet separated from our own day by an interval sufficient for the removal of mountains, the obliteration of valleys, and the excavation of new valleys and glens where the hills then stood. The amount of denudation which has taken place in the Western Islands since Miocene times will be hardly credible to those who have not adequately realised the potency and activity of the powers of geological waste. Subterranean movements may be called in to account for narrow gorges, or deep glens, or profound sea-lochs ; but no subterranean movement will ever explain the history of the Scur of Eigg, which will remain as striking a memorial of denudation asit is a landmark amid the scenery of our wild western shores. Prof. Haughton inquired whether Mr. Geikie’s attention had been called to the Morne Mountains in Ireland, which seemed to present some analagous phenomena to those described in the paper. In the Morne dis- trict were dykes of dolerite, pitchstone, and other volcanicrocks of the same constitution as those of Antrim. He believed that achemical examination of these rocks in different districts would prove their common origin. The evidence in Antrim was con- clusive as to their Tertiary age in Ireland, and he was glad to find that the view of their belonging to a different age in Eigg was erroneous. Prof. Ramsay had hitherto believed in the Oolitic age of these trap-rocks in Eigg, but accepted the author’s views. The interbedding of volcanic beds among the Lower Silurian beds in Wales was somewhat analogous. He was glad to find the history of these igneous rocks treated of in so geo- logical a manner, instead of their being regarded from too purely a lithological and mineralogical point of view. The great antiquity of these Middle Tertiary Beds had, he thought, been most admirably brought forward in the paper, as well as the enormous amount of denudation; and he would recommend it to the notice of those who had not a due appreciation of geolo- gical time. Mr. Forbes hoped that the geologist would remem- ber that his father was a mineralogist. It was refreshing to find a paper of this kind brought before the Society, as it was to be regretted that the details of mineralogy were so little studied in this country when compared with the Continent ; and this he attributed to the backward state of petrology (admitted by Mr. Geikie) in this country. He quite agreed in the view of the ‘Tertiary age of these rocks. With regard to the terminology employed by the author, he objected to the use of the word dolerite, as distinct from basalt ; basalt properly comprised, not only dolerite, the coarse-grained variety, and anamezite, the finely- grained variety, and the true basalt, but also trachylite, which was frequently confounded with pitchstone. All four names merely referred to structure, and not to composition. Mr. Geikie, in reply, stated that he had not examined the Morne Mountains. He had notin any way wished to disparage mineralogy, but, on the contrary, had attempted to classify the different rocks ac- cording to their petrological character. He used the term dole- rite in the same sense as the German mineralogists, both as the generic name for the whole series, and also for the coarser variety of basalt. 3. ‘‘ On the formation of ‘Cirques,’ and their bear- ing upon theories attributing the excavation of Alpine Valleys mainly to the action of Glaciers,” by the Rev. T. G. Bonney, M.A., F.G.S. The paper described a number of these re- markable recesses, which, though not restricted to the lime- stone districts of the Alps, are best exhibited in them. The author gave reasons why he could not suppose them to have been formed either as craters of upheaval, or by the action of the sea, or by glacial erosion. With regard to the last he showed that, even if glaciers had been the principal agents in excavating valleys, there were some cirques which could not have been excavated by them ; and then went on to argue from the fact that glaciers had occupied cirques, and from the relation between them and the valleys, that they could not be attributed to different agents. He also showed that commonly the upper part of the valley, where the erosive action is perhaps least, is very much the steepest, and urged other objections to the great excavatory powers often attributed to glaciers, He then described one or two cirques in detail, and showed that they were worked out by the joint action of many small streams, and of the usual mete ric agents working upon strata whose configuration was favourable to the formation of cliffs. Mr. Whitaker suggested an analogy between the cirques and the combesin our own lime- stone countries. Mr. Geikie regarded the cirques as analogous with the combes of Wales and the corries of Scotland. They were not, however, confined to limestone districts, but occurred also in gneiss and granite rocks. He thought that the shape was much influenced by the bedding and jointing of the rocks, as there was an evident connection between these and the shape of the combes. He could not, however, see his way to account for the vertical cliffs surrounding the cirques. The Rev. T. G. Bonney, in reply, observed that though cirques were not confined to limestones, the finest instances occurred in suchrocks, When cirques occurred in crystalline rocks, the talus was usually much larger than in limestone.—The following specimens were exhi- bited : Specimens of Fossil Fish-remains from the Lias of Lyme Regis ; exhibited by Sir P. de Malpas Grey Egerton, in illus- tration of his paper. Royal Society of Literature, April 26.—Mr. Hyde Clarke read a paper on the ‘* Classic Names of Rivers,” more particu- larly in Greece, Asia Minor, and Italy. After referring to the discoveries in the stone period by Mr. Finlay and others, and to the megalithic and cyclopean structures, he proceeded to con- sider what evidence was afforded by topographical nomenclature of the populations which preceded the Hellenic. He showed that the river-names in the classic regions conformed with each other, and that this was not attributable, as supposed, to Hellenic colonisation. ‘These names also conform to those of India, and of the ancient world generally ; but the explanation was not to be found in Aryan etymologies, but that it was to be sought in earlier forms. These are represented in the languages of the Caucasus, of which the Georgian, Suan, Latian, and Lesghian afford examples now. With these the Thracian and the languages of Asia Minor corresponded. ‘The local facts gave colouring to the legends of the occupation and invasion of Attica by the Amazons, and of the existence in Europe of a Thracian population allied to that of Asia. The eastern connection of the Etruscan and Italian populations, too, was to be accounted for as with the Caucasus, and not with America. He referred likewise to the influence of the river-names on classic mythology, and particularly on the nomenclature of Tartarus. Linnean Society, April 20.—Notes on Mr. Murray’s paper on the Geographical Relations of the chief Coleopterous Faun, by Dr. Roland Trimen. The author considered that the argu- ment of a continuity of land at a previous epoch is too often resorted to to explain the occurrence of the same species of insects in widely remote countries. He entered in considerable detail into the chief features of the distribution of the genera and species of Coleoptera, especially at the Cape ; laying much stress on the difficulty which introduced species find in establishing themselves in soil already well stocked. Society of Biblical Archeology, April 4.—Dr. S. Birch, F.S.A., president, in the chair.—Mr. Henry Theodore Bagster, Mr. Richard Bosanquet, Mr. A. W. Franks, M.A., V.P.S.A., &c., and Mr. Burnett Tabrum were duly elected members of the society. The Secretary read a paper communicated by Mr. Henry Fox Talbot, F.R.S., &c., ‘‘On an Eclipse mentioned on an Assyrian Tablet.” The tablet in question is preserved in the British Museum, and is marked 154 and 1226. ‘The translation runs thus: ‘‘ To the King of the World—My Lord, Thy servant, Kukuru, sends this :—May Assur, the Sun, and Marduk be pro- pitious to my Lord the King in his journey from his kingdom to the land of Egypt! I inform his Majesty that in the month of Su there was an Eclipse. Five portions of the full orb were obscured. Let the King be of tranquil mind, since the eclipse of the month of Su portends good fortune to the King.” The translator proceeded to identify this eclipse thus recorded with one which took place in the seventh warlike expedition of Assur- banissal against Tiumman, King of Elam. The next meeting was then announced to take place on ‘Tuesday, 2nd proximo, to which date the meeting was then adjourned. DUBLIN Royal Irish Academy, April 10.—Rev. T. H. Jellett, pre- sident, in the chair. Prof. Hennessy, F.R.S., read a paper On the Floatation of Sand by the incoming tide at the Mouth of a Tidal River. During the course of a tour along our 28) NATURE [Way 4, 1871 western coast, in the summer of 1868, the following incident came under my notice ; and, although I made a note of the facts at the time, I have never hitherto made them the subject of a scientific communication: On July 26, when approaching _ the strand at the river below the village of Newport, County Mayo, I noticed what appeared to be extensive streaks of scum floating on the surface of the water. As it was my intention to bathe, I was somewhat dissatisfied with the appearance of the water, until I stood on the edge of the strand, and I then per- ceived that what was apparently scum, seen from a distance, consisted of innumerable particles of sand, flat flakes of broken shells, and the other small @é%,7s which formed the surface of the gently-sloping shore of the river. The sand varied from the smallest size visible to the eye up to little pebbles, nearly as broad and a little thicker than a fourpenny piece. Hundreds of such little pebbles were afloat around me, and it is probable that the flakes of floating matter seen farther off contained also a considerable proportion. The air during the whole morning was perfectly calm, and the sky cloudless, so that, although it was only half-past nine, the sun had been shining brightly for some hours on the exposed beach. The upper surface of eazh of the little pebbles was perfectly dry, and the groups which they formed wereslightly depressed in curved hollows of the liquid. The tide was rapidly rising, and, owing to the narrowness of the channel at the point where I made my observations, the sheets of floating sand were swiftly drifting farther up the river into brackish and fresh water. On closely watching the rising tide at the edge of the strand, I noticed that the particles of sand, shells, and small flat pebbles, which had become perfectly dry and sensibly warm under the rays of the sun, were gently uplifted by the calm, steadily-rising water, and then floated as readily as chips or straws. I collected a few speci- mens of these little objects, but I regret that they have been since mislaid. This phenomenon, it is scarcely necessary to say, is due to molecular action, such as accompanies the familiar experiment of floating needles on the surface of a basin of water. Although the specific gravity of the floating objects exceeds that of the fluid on which they rest, the principle of Archimedes still holds good, because the displacement of liquid produced by the body is considerably greater than the volume of the body itself. In the case of a floating needle, the repulsion of the liquid from the polished surface of the metal presents a groove, whose mag- nitude is obviously many times greater than the needle; but in the case of the floating pebbles this was not so manifest. The attraction of the molecules of water for one another produces, as is well established, a tension at the surface of the liquid, which, although extremely feeble, and generally noticed only in connection with capillary phenomena, yet in- terposes some resistance to the intrusion of foreign substances. I have floated small flat pebbles, similar in size and ap- pearance to the largest of those observed floating on Newport river, for more than six days, while fragments of shells, and thin pieces of slate as broad as a sixpenny-piece, have continued to float much longer. These little bodies occasionally sank from the gradual absorption of water, but much more frequently from some accidental motion of the vessel con- taining the liquid. It is manifest that the floatation of sand ina tidal estuary, as in the instance I have seen, can occur only under favourable conditions. The shores must be very gently inclined, the air perfectly calm, and the weather dry and warm. Under these circumstances thin cakes or sheets of sand may not only be uplifted by the water, but if the tide flows rapidly they may con- tinue to float sufficiently long to allow many of them to be drifted far from their original place up to the higher limit of the brackish water. In this way fragments of marine shells and exuvize might become mingled with those belonging to fresh water. The con- ditions favcurable for sand floatation must exist during calm weather in a very high degree of perfection on the sandy shores of tidal rivers in tropical and subtropical districts of the earth. As this phenomenon can take place only with the rising tide, and never with the falling tide, the result must generally be favour- able to the transport of sand and marine débris in the direction of the flow of flood tide ; and this may sometimes hold good along a coast as well as on the shores of a tidal estuary. Geolo- gists, as far as I am aware, have not hitherto noticed this phe- nomenon in connection with the formation of stratified deposits by the agency of tides and rivers, although they have paid great attention to the influence of the molecular resistance of water to the sinking of very minute solid substances, with the view of ex- plaining the wide surface over which matter held in suspension hy wa'er may be spread when ultimately deposited oyer the sea bottom.—Prof. W. King read a paper, by himself and Prof. Rowney, “On the Mineral Origin of the so-called Zoz00 Cana- dense.” Tt was resolved to purchase the Bell and Bell-Shrine of St. Patrick, from Dr. C. Todd, for the sum of 500/. BOOKS RECEIVED ENGLIsH.—Travels in the Air: J. Glaisher, 2nd edition (R. Bentley).— The Natural History of Plants: H. Baillon, vol. x, translated by N. Hartog (L. Reeve and Co.).—Primitive Culture, 2 vols.: E. B. Tylor (J. Murray). —On Aphaxia, or Loss of Speech: Dr. F. Bateman (Churchill), i Foreicn.— (Through Williams and Norgate)— Archiv fiir Anthropologie, vol. iv.—Zeitschrift der oesterreichischen Gesellschaft fiir Meteorologie, vol. y.—Compendium der chirurgischen Pathologie u. Therapie: Dr. C. Heitz- mann. DIARY THURSDAY, May 4. Royat Soctety, at 8.30.—On the Structure and Affinities of the Gwynia Annulata (Dunc.), with Remarks upon the Persistence of Palzozoic Types of Madreporaria: Prof. Duncan, F.R.S.-_On Molybdates and Vanadates ot Lead, and on a new Mineral from Leadhills: Dr. A. Schrauf. Society OF ANTIQUALIES, at 8.30.—Roman Villa at Beddington: J. Addy. —Antiquities from Cyprus: J. B. Sandwith. 5 te : LinnEAN Socrety, at 8 —The phenomena of Protective Mimicry, and its bearing on the Theory of Natural Selection as illustrated by the Lepidop- tera of the British Islands: Raphael Meldola, F.C.S.—On the Ascala- phide : R. McLachlan. nie. ; CHEMICAL Society, at 8.—On the Productive Powers of Soils in relation to the Loss of Plant Food by Drainage : Dr. Voelcker, F.R.S. Roya InsTITuTION, at 3.—On Sound: Prof. Tyndall. Lonpon INSTITUTION, at 7.30.—On Economic Botany: Prof. Bentley. FRIDAY, May 5. Gerotoaists’ AssoctaTION, at 8.—On the Fauna of the Carboniferous Epoch: H. Woodward, F.G.S. 4 Royat InstiTuTION, at 9.—On Russian Folk-Lore : W, R. S. Ralston. SATURDAY, May 6. Roya. Scuoor or Mints, at 8.—Geology : Dr. Cobbold. Roya Institution, at 3.—On the Instruments Used in Modern Astro- nomy: J. N. Lockyer, F.R.S. MONDAY, May 8. Roya GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, at 8.30. Roya INSTITUTION, at 2.—General Monthly Meeting, Lonpon Institution, at 4.—On Astronomy: R. A. Proctor, F,R A §, (Educational Course.) TUESDAY, May 9. PHOTOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, at 8. Royat InstirTution, at 3.—On Force and Energy: Charles Brooke, F.R.S. WEDNESDAY, May 10. Society or Arts, at 8.—On the Application of Steam to Canals: Geo. Ed- ward Harding, C.E. Geotoaicat Society, at 8.—On the Ancient Rocks of the St. David's Pro- © montory, South Wales, and their Fossil Contents: Prof. R, Harkness, F.R.S., and Henry Hicks.— On the Age of the Nubian Sandstone: Ralph Tate, F.G.S.—On the Discovery of the Glutton (Guéo Zuscus) in Britain? W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S. THURSDAY, May 11. Roya Society, at 8.30. Society oF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30. MATHEMATICAL Soctery, at 8.—On the Singularities of the Envelope of a nou-Unicursal Series of Curves: Prof. Henrici. Royat Institurton, at 3—On Sound: Prof. Tyndall. CONTENTS Pace Tue SMALLER LecTURESHU’s AT THE LonDON Mepicat Scuoots, I, Tue CONSERVATION OF FoRCE . tee I Tue LiveRATURE OF CHEMISTRY. . ats oMteh us| bie 5 2 GratsuERr’s TRAVELS IN THE AIR. (With Iitustrations.) ge tee Our Book SHELF . oegomheg elpieltic: fer ke 4 LETTERS TO THE EpiToR:— Pangenesis.—F. Gatton, F.R.S. . es The Hylobates Ape and Mankind ey Oe) 6 reer Tables of Prime Numbers —J. W. L. GLAISHER . . - 6 Units of Force and Energy.—Prof. J.D. Everett. . 6 Mh! Namie S56 rita.) onus etc cose ae Site 7 Derivation of the Word ‘‘ Britannia.” —Hype CLARKE . 7 Aurora by Daylight.—J. JEREMIAH Lead 7 The Irish Fern in Cornwall —W. P. Dymonp . 8 Prevalence of West Winds.—J. K. Laucuton 8 SuBMARINE TELEGRAPHS. By N. J. Hommes . ares PriuGer’s Nerve EnpincsinGLanps .... . « + 10 NOTES Ko fie ice ie Fouls: A &) spe jhe vet ich) CR ee Tue Royat Soctery’s List For 1871 = Boe ete a tee > Siow) eer On Corour Vision. By Prof. J. Clerk Maxwe t, F.R.S. 3 See ScrenTiFIc SERIALS . . . ou)! Chen. eo oe ch ail : 16 Socisties anp ACADEMIES. . . . ° . 5 oe ey Books RECEIVED < < 20 TARY Sak cu te eer (octet ac eon NATURE ' 21 THURSDAY, MAY 11, 1871 THE PROPOSED COLLEGE OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE AT NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE A FEW weeks ago* we gave some account of the initiation of a movement in the North of England, having for its object the establishment of a College of Phy- sical Science in Newcastle-upon-Tyne. As the Executive Committee appointed at the public meeting had only then begun its work, the details entered upon were given as mere indications of the general form the institution might be expected to take. A letter from the Master of Uni- versity College, Durham, which appeared in our columns more recently, added somewhat to our information, and a circular which has been issued, with commendable promp- titude, by the Executive, is now before us, representing the views of the promoters as modified in committee. We shall probably best further the intentions of the Committee, whom we are anxious to aid, and at the same time give our readers the most reliable information, if we reprint this document verbatim :— “Tt is proposed to found at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, in connection with the University of Durham, a College for the teaching of Physical Science, especially as applied to Engineering, Mining, Manufactures, and Agriculture. “The want of such an Institution has long been felt in the North of England, and it is believed that while it would be useful in all the above pursuits, it would be of especial value to all persons intended for the professions of Mining and Engineering. “Such an Institution (which it appears desirable to limit at its commencement to purely scientific objects) would offer instruction in the following branches of scien- tific knowledge. 1. Pure and Applied Mathematics. 2. Chemistry. 3. Experimental Philosophy. 4. Geology, Mineralogy, and Biology. Professorships and Lecture- ships will be founded on these subjects. It is proposed that the course of study shall last for two years, that it shall consist partly in attending lectures and partly in the work of the laboratories, that there shall be examinations at the end of each year, conducted mainly by Examiners from the Universities, and that at the final examination the successful students shall receive the title of Bachelor or Associate of Science of the University of Durham, or, upon certain further conditions, the degree of B.A. It is hoped that classes of evening lectures for those who are unable to attend during the day may soon be formed. “The Government of the Institution will be entrusted to a Council, of which one-third will be nominated by the University of Durham. The University has offered the sum of 1,000/, annually towards the establishment of Professorships and of ten Scholarships of 20/7. each to assist students, It is believed that 2,000/. a-year is the lowest estimate at which it is possible to place the expenses of such a College, even at its commencement, and it is proposed to appeal to the public for a subscription to create a capital fund of at least 30,000/, If this amount be collected, the endowment from the University of Durham will be made a permanent one. When it is remembered that such an Institution will benefit a very large portion of the population of the Northern Counties, and be directly useful to nearly all branches of Manufacturing and Agricultural, as well as of Mining and Engineering pursuits, it is believed that no difficulty will be found in ultimately raising this sum, which, according to the expe- rience of all similar institutions, will probably be increased by private donations both for Scholarships and Professor- * See NATuRE, vol. ili. p. 461. VOL, IV. ships. It is proposed to offer Subscribers the option either of paying their whole subscription at once or of extending it over a period of five or six years. Small as well as large subscriptions are invited towards the above- mentioned fund. Upwards of 100,000/. has been recently collected in a similar case, or is in the course of collection, in subscriptions ranging from 2,000/. to the very smallest sums,” The last paragraph pleases us most. Six years is perhaps long enough to look forward in arrangements of many sorts, but not in matters pertaining to finance. The adoption of a scheme such as that originally suggested, based on a preliminary terminable endowment, would have crippled the energies of the whole staff, by suggesting the possibility of the early demolition of the structure they were labouring to build. It can scarcely be known, until the trial is made, how much may have to be done in the way of creating the demand for scientific education in the locality. We do not fora moment doubt its existence to a considerable extent, but we cannot suppose that the present case will form any exception to the general rule, that educational facilities are only slowly and by degrees taken advantage of by the classes for whose benefit they have been primarily designed. If the proposed college éegins to find an appreciative public, and to promise eventual success within the six years, we should regard it as a subject of congratulation, and a proof alike of energy and judgment in its management, rather than as a matter of course. Happily, for this reason, the guarantee prin- ciple is to be put upon its best basis—funded property. Instead of 1,009/. per annum for a term of six years, as at first proposed, the public is asked for 30,000/. in one sum. This, with the consequent permanent endowment from Durham University, which may be regarded as equal to another 30,000/. capitalised, will provide a sub- stantial foundation to commence upon. Nor can we doubt that the amount required will be easily raised amongst the wealthy men of the North. We may perhaps say one word more about the selection of subjects for professorships, as our former remarks are alluded to in the Rev. Mr. Waite’s letter. We adverted to the absence of any mention of Biology as a part of the scheme of education in the report of the speech of the Dean of Durham at the preliminary meeting, In the revised programme, above reprinted, biology is not omitted, but that is all that can be said. The subject is tacked on to geology and mineralogy, and the result is a complete anomaly. To teach mineralogy in any modern sense, aman must be more than an average chemist— hence no one who is not an expert in geology, mineralogy, chemistry, zoology, and botany, will have the requisite qualifications for the chair which it is now proposed to constitute, We trust that the Committee are prepared to pay pretty smartly for so handsome an instalment of omniscience. Our fear that biology of itself might be thought too large a subject for a single professorship, was at any rate groundless, but we doubt whether entire exclu- sion would be worse than the grant of a third of a chair. The geological knowledge of first importance in a mining district is essentially “ stratigraphical,” in other words, that attained by practical field work. Just so much palzeontology is necessary as will enable the student to recognise the more common characteristic fossils, and sufficient acquaintance with minerals to render him fami- (S 22 NATURE [May 11, 1871 liar with ordinary rock specimens. It would be better that Geology of this sort should be associated with a sub- ject like mining, instead of being placed in the position it at present occupies. Mineralogy, in any right sense, is only applied che- mistry, and would be more in place as a recognised portion of the chemical curriculum in such an Institution than as a part of geology. Few geologists pretend to mineralogy beyond a sufficient knowledge of the general external characters of rocks for the recognition of the commoner varieties. Palaeontology, on the other hand, as a subject of systematic study, is but a phase of biology, and cannot without violence be linked with sub- jects arising out of the laws which govern the inorganic world. In thus enlarging upon our former remarks, we are actuated solely by a desire for the success of an under- taking which has our entire sympathy. Just as we are going to press we learn that it has been determined to push forward the arrangements so as to enable the College to open its doors in October. This is a wise decision on many grounds. The first week in October has become the recognised time for the com- mencement of winter courses of lectures, and delay beyond that might easily entail the loss of a whole year. Of the 30,000/, required, upwards of 17,coo/. has already been subscribed, without any systematic canvass, and we can scarcely doubt that the remainder will be forthcoming. On public grounds we would venture earnestly to second the appeal made by the Committee, and to express the hope that the liberality of the coal-owners, manufacturers, and merchants of the district will enable them to open the Institution free from pecuniary embarrassment, and clear of the manifold difficulties that beset an undertaking burdened at the outset with debt. We also hear at the same moment that the Committee has again debated the question of a biological professorship. That body seems to be undecided as to whether it would be less ridiculous to ignore biology entirely, or to include it with a number of quite distinct branches of science in a sort of mis- cellaneous professorship, and the prevailing view ow seems to be that, on the whole, the former alternative is the least conspicuously absurd. Surely there is a third course open to the Committee. We trust wiser counsels will prevail, and that we may never have to record that in Newcastle—the home of Bewick and Selby, Fryer and Alder, Winch and Robertson, not to name a host of living biologists—in the focus of the Tyneside Naturalists’ Field Club—a College of Natural Science has been estab- lished in which Natural History in its higher aspects is excluded as a subject of study. STAVELEY’S BRITISH INSECTS British Insects. A familiar Description of the Form, Structure, Habits, and Transformations of Insects. By E, F. Staveley, Author of “ British Spiders.” (London : L. Reeve and Co., 1871.) O compose a work on so extensive and difficult a subject as “ British Insects,” which shall convey a large amount of useful and interesting information without being too much overloaded with bare facts,—which shall be accurate without being dry, and amusing without being flippant,—is no easy task, yet it is accomplished by the author of this work in a very creditable manner. The introductory chapters are condensed and clear, just giving enough information on the general structure and economy of insects to interest the uninitiated reader, and lead him on to the more detailed account of each order given in the succeeding chapters. An excellent feature of the work is the clearness of the type, and the well-executed woodcuts which somewhat too sparingly illustrate the text, while sixteen coloured plates by Mr. Robinson contain admirably life-like portraits of nearly a hundred of our most conspicuous or most interesting insects. A few extracts will best illus- trate the author’s style. In the chapter on the larve of Lepidoptera it is remarked, that there is neither time nor place in which we may not find the traces of these creatures or the creatures themselves. “Tf at one time of the year we tear a handful of moss from the trunk of a tree, out drop some little brown chrysalids ; if at another we drag a tuft of grass up by the roots, there we find silken tubes, the homes of some small caterpillars. We find them in fungi, we find them in grain, we find them in teazle-heads, in fir-cones, in rose- buds, and in fruit; and the Hymenopterist, carefully watching the insect emerging from a gall, discovers that he has reared in it a moth! On the face of a lichen- covered rock we see a moving fragment, and lo! a little caterpillar, neatly encased like a caddis-worm in a tent of lichen, is moving and feeding, safe even from the bird’s sharp eye. We open our drawers, and there, oh, sight of horror! What is that streak of white silk upon the best garment—the garment laid by, too good for common wear? We look farther ; what is that dusty little roll? It is a great-coat on a microscopic scale. It matches our best garment ominously. It moves—a head peeps out—some little legs, and away it walks !—tell not the housekeeper !— away it walks in safety from the admiring Entomologist.” As an example of the woodcut illustrations we give the series showing the progressive stages in the trans- formations of the dragon-fly. The sluggish mud-coloured pupa ascends the stem of a grass or any other stalk of convenient size which rises above the surface of the water, after a time the skin cracks behind, between the wing cases, and the head and thorax of the enclosed fly are drawn out. The abdomen follows, the insect turning up and clinging to the pupa case, where it remains till the wings increase to the full size so rapidly that they can be seen to grow. In the chapter on Diptera there are some good remarks on the many erroneous uses of the term “ Fly.” “Being a ‘ popular name’ the people have a right to mean what they choose by it, and they avail themselves of the right—some meaning by it one thing, some another, some every flying insect for which they know no other name. Thus the ‘fly’ of the former is usually the little hopping turnip beetle; the ‘ fly’ of the hop-grower is an aphis; the ‘ fly’ of the herdsmana gad ; while to the citizen almost anything to be seen with wings (except pigeons and sparrows) is a fly. There are some, again, to whom flies are flies, one fly ¢/e fly, the common well-known little black house-fly. Here at last is something definite. No, not even now ; for these will, at least, claim their young house- fly, and their full-grown house-fly, and expect you to believe that late in the year their house-fly takes to biting you, little dreaming that the little fly, and the big fly, and the fly which bites you, not only are different species but even belong to different genera ; that the little fly never grows big, that the big fly never was little, and that their house-fly could not bite you if he would. What, then, May 11, 1871] NATURE 23 are we to understand by the name fly? It is clear that the popular sense has no sense at all, or too many senses, and yet the word cannot be spared from our vocabulary. In any Latin dictionary we shall find Musca (fly), and the entomologist pounces upon it and says it shall mean the tribe of two-winged insects. Linnzus so used it, and his genus Musca, now broken up into many new genera, re- presented the greater number of those insects which the entomologist now claims as flies.” | impression that the wings of insects are normally two, and that the four are formed by the “division” of these two, an impression which we feel sure a person so well informed as the author could not have meant to convey. | It also seems carrying hypothetical life-history a little too | far to say of a bee emerging from the pupa that “into | his mind rushed a full sense of his responsibilities,” and on finding himself, say, a worker, “he, or rather she, be- In some parts of the work there is rather a tendency to jump at conclusions, and to give explanations of very doubtful value. It is attempted, for instance, to explain why the bee has four wings instead of two, by the fact that it is necessary for them to fold up and pack into a small compass to avoid injury and be out of the way during work, and this it is said is “the purpose of the division of the wing.” This conveys the entirely erroneous TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE DRAGON-FLY came aware that the duties of house-builder, housekeeper, nurse, and even soldier and sentinel, devolved upon her ;” and accordingly she forthwith “ addressed herself to the task of repaying to futurity that debt which the cares of a former generation had laid upon her, and daily she toiled in its fulfilment.” To make this exposition of the mental state of the newly-born bee complete, we should have been told whether it regulated its conduct in doubtful cases 24 NATURE [May 11, 1871 according to the utilitarian or the intuitive theory of morality. Such vagaries as the above are however rare, and we can conscientiously recommend this book as admirably adapted to lead its readers to observe for themselves the varied phenomena presented by insects, and thus to become true entomologists. ALFRED R, WALLACE AMERICAN GEOLOGY Preliminary Field Report of the United States Geological Survey of Colorado and New Mexico. Conducted under the authority of the Hon. J. D. Cox, Secretary of the Interior. By F. V. Hayden, United States Geo- logist. 8vo. pp. 155. (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1869.) i ee preliminary field report makes us acquainted with a vast tract of territory hitherto scarcely known, save to the more adventurous squatters and to the various tribes of Indians who have gradually been driven farther and farther west by the wonderful growth of the United States populations, fed as they are annually by streams of English, Irish, Scotch, and German emigrants. Unfortunately for the Red-skins, they are not only hemmed in on the one side by the United States, and on the other by the equally vigorous growth of California and its vast mining and agricultural population ; but their territory, only hitherto invaded by the Mormons and the “ Pony- Dispatch,” is now cut in twain by the great Pacific Rail- road, which, in its course, has sent forth geological re- connaissances right and left, discovering timber here, coal there, building stone in this spot, mines in that, until there is no space left for them save in the happy hunting- grounds above, to which they are fast going, aided by revolvers, alcohol, and disease. The report relers to a line of country extending from British North America to New Mexico in a northerly and southerly direction, and from the Rocky Mountains to the Lower Missouri in an easterly and westerly one. Dr. Hayden explains the reason why he has been able in a very short time to cover so large a tract of territory—it is, that “there is great uniformity in the geology of the country, and when one has become familiar with the different geological formations over a small area, he can trace them with great rapidity over long distances” (p, 11). First, we have the Rocky Mountain system forming the main ridges and the hills, composed of granite rocks. Resting on the flanks of these more elevated masses, the stratified deposits are exposed in succession, becoming less and less inclined as we recede from them and enter the plains. The oldest stratified deposit met with is the Potsdam Sandstone, equivalent in geological position to our Upper Cambrian, or to the Primordial Zone of Barrande ; this is followed by strata of Carboniferous age, but giving no promise of workable seams of coal. The Triassic series may be represented by certain red arenaceous deposits, sometimes containing gypsum and rocksalt ; these pass upwards into undoubted Oolitic beds. Next follows a Cretaceous formation, some 4,000 feet in thickness, followed by a well-developed Tertiary series of vast geographical extent, and but very slightly inclined. | THE first of these works is the second edition of the first _ | follow the planets Mercury, Venus, &c., in order, and | These Tertiary beds are rich in lignites, and evidence a long period of tranquil estuarine or lacustrine deposition in a region supporting dense forests of large trees, and a vegetation far exceeding in luxuriance anything now met with in these latitudes. Carnivores, Pachyderms, Probos- cidea, &c., occur in great abundance. It is very interest- ing to know that in Tertiary times North America had its elephants, hippopotami, rhinoceroses, horses, lions, &c., and was, in the size and abundance of its Mammalia, in no way surpassed by the Continents of the Old World. Two minor reports accompany Dr. F. V. Hayden’s re- port, one on “ Mines and Mining,” by Mr. Persifor Frazer, jun., giving a most interesting account of the mining capa- bilities of the district; the other on the “Agriculture of Colorado,” by Mr. Cyrus Thomas. There is every pro- spect of the Colorado territory becoming as rich an agri- cultural district as it has already proved to be a mining one. H. W. OUR BOOK SHELF Aunt Rachel’s Letters about Water and Air. Longmans and Co., 1871.) IN the form of a series of familiar letters from an aunt to a nephew and niece, we have here an account, in simple familiar language, of some of the commoner physical phenomena of nature. Recollecting the books with a similar aim that have passed through our hands, we feel © grateful to find one free from conspicuous blunders. To the little book before us we need not however apply such negative praise. It is in all respects to be commended as a book to put into the hands of the young. And we fancy that even many well-educated people who are not young in years, will find a record and explanation of facts with which they are not familiar, They may learn here all about the formation of ice, latent and specific heat, the air-pump, the barometer and thermometer, the winds, combustion, and many other phenomena of daily life. A — few well-executed woodcuts illustrate the text ; and we would like to hear that a large circulation has rewarded — the efforts of “ Aunt Rachel” to popularise the elements f of science. Handbuch der allgemeinen Himmelsbeschretbung vem f Stanapunkte der kosmischen Wi eltanschauung darge» stedit, Von Hermann J. Klein. Pp. 351. (Braunschweig, — 1871. London: William and Norgate.) : Theoretische Astronomie. Von Dr. W. Klinkerfues, - Erste Abtheilung. Pp. 256. (Ditto, ditto.) f (London : part of a general description of the universe, and is de- voted to the solar system: another part will be given to i the fixed stars. The aim of the author is to afford a complete account of his subject, including the latest re- searches, which shall be at the same time thoroughly — scientific, while it will not be beyond the comprehension of those who are possessed of only an elementary know- ledge of astronomy, or more properly perhaps uranc- — graphy. The first forty-nine pages contain a description of the sun; the next five are given to the zodiac. Then i finally we have a full and very interesting account of | comets and meteorites. | Turning to the chapter on the sun, we find, after y general introduction, methods for calculating the distance _ between the centre of the sun and that of the earth. | After this we have an account of the “spots,” accompanied | with tables of their numbers in different years, and their connection with the movements of the magnetic needle. | The labours of Herschel, Airy, Lockyer, Huggins, and | others are largely quoted, and the author begs any ob- — May 11, 1871} NATURE 25 server whose researches may have been omitted, to attri- bute the neglect to the disturbing influence of recent events. The earth and her satellite are treated at some length, and the questions of the moon’s influence on the earth’s atmosphere, the winds, weather, and magnets, are fully discussed. The chapter on meteorites is very interesting. We are told, on the authority of Miller and Haidinger, that the earliest mention of meteorites is probably in Iliad xv. 18—22, where the anvils spoken of by Jupiter are supposed to refer to these phenomena. Livy mentions a shower which some think may have been a star shower ; and the famous black stone in the Kaaba, at Mecca, is said to be undoubtedly a meteorite of great antiquity. Numerous analyses of meteorites are given, and tables are added containing full details of all those which are recorded to have fallen from the earliest times. There are similar tables with regard to comets and star- showers ; and finally we have two well-executed plates of the appearance of different sun-spots, and a chart of part of the moon’s surface. Weshould like to see an English edition. The Theoretical Astronomy of Dr. Klinkerfues, director of the Royal Observatory of Géttingen, is a reproduction of lectures delivered by him in that University. This is the first part of the work, and its object is to give an ex- planation of the means by which the courses and posi- tions of heavenly bodies are determined. It is not adapted to the general reader, but will prove a useful companion to the mathematician who wishes to obtain an insight into astronomical methods of calculation. Several very good figures accompany the text. Gar. A. Kuklos ; an Experimental Investigation tnto the Relation- ship of Certain Lines. By John Harris Part I. (Mon- treal, 1870) IN a review of Prof. Bretschneider’s History of Early Geometry we have mentioned some clever attempts to square a circle, made at a time whea this problem en- gaged the attention of the first mathematicians. Then, however, as at present, there existed circle squarers of a different kind, who excel only in demonstrating their own ignorance. A fine specimen is preserved by Simplikios. Some persons had heard of square numbers which are at the same time cyclical, that is to say, the last figure in the square number is the same as that of the root, as 25 and 5. Nothing, of course, could be more evident to them than that a number which is both square and cyclos must be a measure for the circle. Mr. Harris ranks almost as high, only he does not give his conclusions in quite so short a form. His book is to consist of four parts in quarto, of which the first contains merely a preface, pre- liminary arguments, and on the last page an introduction. In the preface the author excuses the haste in which the publication has taken place, with the remark that if his researches are of value they cannot be brought early enough before the public,—ifa failure “ the communication itself would not be worth the additional labour bestowed on improving its form.” This latter conclusion we willingly grant. It is only to be regretted that Mr. Harris has not had the same opinion of the time he spent in writing this communication and preparing the numerous and long figures which fill ten large plates. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR [The Eaiter does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his Correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. | Pangenesis Mr. GALTON—by acting upon the conclusion that the supposed gemmules supposed to be detached from the cells of the body at different periods of life in the case of the higher animals swarmed in the blood prior to their supposed collection and union to form the reproductive element—favoured the provisional hypothesis of Pangenesis, for he indicated a not improbable manner in which the very improbable phenomena involved in the hypothesis might actually occur. But Mr, Darwin, in NATURE for April 27th, writes to explain that he maintains that the gemmules must be ‘‘ thoroughly dif- fused”—I conclude, suspended in the fluids which circulate freely in every part of the very substance of all the tissues of the body. The supposed gemmules must be much more minute than the smallest particles that can be seen by the highest magnifying powers used in these days, and must be invisible to the eye when made to appear five thousand times larger than their real size. They must be capable of diffusivn, and, as is suggested by Mr, Darwin, much as chemical substances are diffused.* But the terms of the hypothesis would imply that the gemmules are actual particles suspended and not dissolved in the fluids. It is not very encouraging to those who work, to discover after having performed numerous and well-devised series of difficult, laborious, and troublesome experiments honestly to test the value of a hypothesis, that they have been investigating a shadow, and to be then informed that the results they have obtained have little or no bearing on the question at issue. The ‘‘experiments are extremely curious,” says Mr. Darwin, and the experimenter “deserves the highest credit for his ingenuity and perseverance.” It would, of course, be possible to remove from one animal portions of tissue which, according to the hypothesis, sus¢ contain the supposed gemmules, if they exist, and graft the pieces of tissue upon another, If the experiment was successful, and the offspring exhibited any of the characters of the variety from which the graft was taken, the opponents of Pangenesis would admit the doctrine at once, but if the results were again of a negative kind, would Mr. Darwin consider that his hypo- thesis had ‘‘received its death blow?” It would certainly beas easy to defend it as itis at this time. Nor do I believe it pos- sible to obtain a series of experimental results which would lead the supporters of Pangenesis to abandon the hypothesis. A firm belief in hypothetical gemmules, which cannot be*rendered evi- dent to the senses, is not likely to be shaken. Depend upon it, neither the well-devised experiments of Mr. Galton, nor any other experiments that may be devised, will over- throw this doctrine. The provisional hypothesis of pangenesis is perfectly safe, and will withstand every attack that may be made. It cannot be successfully assailed. Like many favoured hypotheses of these days, it can neither be proved to be true nor positively shown to be false, and it is open to anyone to ground his belief in the truth of this and other doctrines upon the fact that they have not been and cannot be disproved. For undoubtedly gemmules ay be formed in the manner supposed ; if formed, they may be detached ; if detached, they may pass through the tissues ; they ay then collect together, and ay form reproductive elements. Each one of the countless millions of sperm elements produced in such profusion during so many years of life ay, indeed, be formed by the union of millions of gem- mules which, after meandering through the various textures of the body, marshal themselves in order in one particular locality, From the vast company thus supposed to have collected, we may conceive, by the light of imagination, the formation of regiments composed of multitudes of individual gemmules of the same kind; and further, it is not difficult to imagine that each individual gemmule of every regiment may move away and unite with thou- sands and tens of thousands of others, to form at length that marvellous compound and complex speck of matter less than the suion Of an inch in diameter, which constitutes the active mate- rial of each small reproductive particle. This is one way in which the properties of the spermatozoon may be accounted for. Nor is it beyond the power of the imagination to picture the orderly arrar ge- ment and rearrangement of such vast hosts of potential molecules as is supposed. No confusion, no jostling of one another, no struggling would be seen, for each molecule takes its appointed place, in obedience to its own properties, knowing of course the position it is to occupy in the complex ranks at each different period of its life’s progress, and, never ambitious of discharging a higher function than that which it is destined to fulfil, performs the important office of transmitting certain peculiarities, important or trivial, useful or useless, from the existing to a new being. * In Nature for May 1st, Mr Francis Galton very properly remarks that the term Mr. Darwin should have employed is “‘ dispersion” not “‘ diffu- sion,” and there are other critical remarks which appzar to me equally just, 26 NATURE [May 11, 1871 i We may be led from the consideration of the broad facts nature to conceptions of the most abstract kind, without being conscious of the slightest gap between the facts of Science and the creations of the Imagination. In these days the utmost skill is often displayed in hiding and ignoring or denying the hiatus by which the arguments deduced from the results of observation and experiment are separated from those which are based upon the fictions of the fancy. But, unhappily, the gulf cannot be filled up, or bridged over. Itmay be obscured by mists and clouds, but, though it be lost fora time, it is sure to be redis- covered and its limits studied by the curious and unphilosophical. Nowadays analogical argument is employed very freely without any attempt to show, in the first place, that there is any real analogy between the facts upon which the reasoning is based. In order to convince people that a hypothetical gemmule may move long distances through all sorts of tissues, it is only necessary to show that actual matter, millions of times as large, does burrow a short distance through certain textures. Mr. Darwin remarks that it cannot be objected ‘‘that the gemmules could not pass through tissues or cell-walls, for the contents of each pollen grain have to pass through the coats both of the pollen tube and embryonic sack.” - He might have advanced in his support the fact of fungi traversing tissues, of entozoa of various kinds burrowing long distances through the textures of the living body, and many well- known instances of a similar kind. But such facts do not strengthen the hypothesis of Pangenesis in the slightest degree. They were known before it was advanced, and the objection con- troverted has not been raised in the form indicated. We 4now that a thing infinitely larger than the hypothetical gemmule does pass through tissues, but do the gemmules really exist, and do they pass through ? Certainly, if they exist, they ay pass, but, as I have in- dicated, there are other matters invalidating the hypothesis besides the question of the gemmules traversing the tissues. Pangenetic gemmules might pass everywhere. They might leave the body, collect in the atmosphere and coalesce, and the com- pound particle formed might easily wriggle itself back again into the organism through the chinks between the cuticular cells. Such gemmules might move anywhere, up and down and in and out through any cell wall. They might pervade solids and fluids and gases. The pangenetic gemmule cannot be seen or tested, neither can its presence or absence be proved in any way. The phenomena adduced by Mr. Darwin in support of his hypothesis can be demonstrated ; but the pangenetic gemmules are of the imagination alone, and the analogy between the actual facts and the supposed facts is surely but an analogy of theimagination. The facts alluded to no more support the pangenetic hypothesis than does the demonstration of living germs in the air support the hypothesis of life in the blue sky. It is possible to supply many arguments stronger than those adduced in support of the hypothesis, nay, perhaps, stronger than any Mr. Darwin himself has yet advanced in favour of Pangenesis; but yet other considera- tions appear to me greatly to preponderate against the acceptance of the doctrine. Mr. Darwin admits that ‘‘from presenting so many vulnerable points” the life of his hypothesis “is always in jeopardy ;” butis it not this very jeopardy which lends interest and enchantment to many a hypothesis, and sustains it in the estimation of those who delight in conjectural information and scientific speculation ? LIONEL S. BEALE Mr. DARWIN, in his letter to NATURE of April the 27th, says: ‘The fundamental laws of growth, reproduction, in- heritance, &c., are so closely similar throughout the whole organic kingdom that the means by which the gemmules (assuming for the moment their existence) are diffused through the body, would probably be the same in all beings, therefore the means can hardly be diffusion through the blood.” Now, if in the vege- table kingdom pangenetic gemmules are able freely to be ‘< diffused” from cell to cell by endosmosis, we should expect that in the case of grafts, where certainly such diffusion goes on between the cells of the stock and the scion, a bud borne upon the graft would certainly be affected by the gemmules arising in the root and stem of thestock. Yet we all know that the pips from a pear grafted on a quince stock will not give rise to a hybrid between a pear and a quince, neither will the stone of a peach which has been grafted on a plum stock grow into a tree whose stock bears plums, while the extremities of its branches bear peaches. A. C, RANYARD Noises at Sea off Greytown In Nature, vol. ii. p. 25, Mr. Dennehy gave an interest- ing account of a peculiar vibration, accompanied by sound, which is perceivable at night on board aé? (?) 10” steamers which anchor off Greytown, Central America; and in subsequent pages I have read with great interest various speculations as to its origin, which is ascribed (1, the probable solution) to troops of Scizenoids (with reservation) by Mr. Kingsley (p. 46) ; (2) to musical fish or shells, by Messrs. Evans and Lindsay (pp. 46 and 356) ; and (3) to gas-escape from vegetable mud and sand, by Mr. Malet (p. 47); whilst Mr. Dennehy himself suggests the possi- bility of some galvanic agency. I remarked upon this vibratory phenomenon in a communication published in the Ave/d newspaper of October 26th, 1867, signed ** Ubique,” after having heard it myself when on board the Royal Mail steamer Danute (Capt. Reeks) during the nights of the 12th, 13th, 14th, and 15th of May, 1867; the new moon oc- curring on the 4th of the same month. As my statement serves to coun Mr. Dennehy’s report, I may be forgiven for giving it in full. After giving an account of the sudden appearance of a huge white shark in the deep sea when a man fell overboard, I pro- ceeded to state as follows :—‘‘On embarking on board the Danube steamer, lying at anchor in the roadstead off Greytown on the 12th May, 1867, I was informed that the ship was haunted by most curious noises at night since she had arrived, and that the superstitious black sailors were much frightened at what they thought must be a ghost. The captain and officers could make nothing of it, and it afforded a great matter for discussion, On inguiry I found out that other soz ships had been similarly affected. Curiously enough this noise was only heard at night, and at certain hours. Some attributed it to fish, suckers, turtle, &c., others to the change of tide or current; but no satisfactory conclusion could be arrived at. When night came on there was no mistake about the noise ; it was quite loud enough to awaken me, and could be heard distinctly all over the ship. It was not dissimilar to the high monotone of an A®olian harp, and the noise was evidently caused by the vibration of the plates of the iron hull, which could be sensibly perceived to vibrate. What caused this peculiar vibration? Not the change of current and tide, because, if so, it would be heard by day. Like everything else that we cannot explain, I suppose we must put it down to electricity, magnetism, &c. If this should meet the eye of any of the officers of the above-mentioned steamer, or others who have noticed this phenomenon, I should be glad to hear whether this effect still continues, or if any satisfactory conclusion has yet been arrived at. I may add that from the hold of the vessel the grunts of the toad-fish could be distinctly heard. I hope that the above notice may lead to some answers from your various correspondents.” This brief notice drew forth a rejoinder from a correspondent (November 23, 1867) who had noticed a somewhat similar sound. ‘*The singular sound noticed by ‘ Ubique,’ I have also heard without knowing its origin. One moonlight night in 1854, on board a steamer anchored near the Tavoy river (Tenasserim) we were struck by an extraordinary noise which appeared to proceed from the shore about a quarter of a mile off, or from the water in that direction. It was something like the sound of a stocking loom, but shriller, and lasted perhaps five or six seconds, pro- ducing a sensible concussion on the ear like the piercing scream of the cicada; and this gave an impression as if the vessel itself were trembling, or reverberating from the sound. One or two Burmans on board said simply, the noise was produced by ‘fishes,’ but of what kind they did not describe. It was repeated two or three times. I never heard it before or after the occasion referred to, nor have | ever met with any allu- sion to this singular phenomenon until I perused ‘ Ubique’s’ communication in the /ve/d ot the 26th ult. The steamer in my case, I should add, was a wooden one.” Mr. Evans, in his letter, speaks of the rapid silting up of Greytown harbour this still continues, and the passage over the bar, which is continually shifting, is oftena matter of great difficulty, and indeed o'ten so dangerous that the Royal Mail Company will not undertake to allow their own boats to land, and passengers have to land in the local canoes at their own risk. The Nicaraguan Government, however, propose to carry out Mr. Shepherd’s plan of diverting the waters of the San Juan river from the Colorado mouth to the Greytown channel, hoping thereby to scour the harbour clear, May 11, 1871] NATURE 27 Mr. F. J. Evans also refers to the vast amount of animal life, and mentions the quantities of sharks and a//igators which abound in and about Greytown Harbour. I can fully cor- roborate this, although I believe that what Mr. Evans terms alligators are really crocodiles (Molinia Americana), 1 should be glad to have certain information on this point : when not actually visible, their proximity is made evident by a powerful odour of musk. The most notable, however, of the denizens of these waters, besides the turtle, is the Atlantic manatee, which Columbus mistook for a mermaid, and which Agassiz terms the | modern representative of the Dinotherium. The Mosquito Indians on the Indian, Rama, and Blewfields rivers are great adepts at harpooning this paradoxical mammal, and its flesh salted is a staple article of food all along these coasts, being not unlike to ship’s pork. Southsea, April 28 S. P. OLIVER P.S.—When at anchor off Greytown, also in the Danude steamer, during the night of February 15, 1867, (moon eleven days old) there was no vibration or noise perceived, but then there was a tremendous swell breaking with high surf on the bar, and the vessel rolling heavily. It would be interesting to over- haul the logs of the Royal Mail Company’s vessels which have been at Greytown, in order to discover the periods of these vibra- lions, but I am afraid that no observations have been recorded 4 in their books. Mechanical Equivalence of Heat You will see from the proceedings of the Literary and Philo- sophical Society at Manchester, that, since the discussion there, Dr. Joule has definitely abandoned the reasonings in his famous paper on the mechanical force of electro-magnetism, steam, and horses. I have now had time to test the facts and experiments of this new theory, and findit, as I hope soon to show in detail, as untenable as his former one. Indeed, I am sure that the mechanical equivalence of heat must soon be generally abandoned as inconsistent with facts. You will see that the April number of the ‘‘ Review of Popular Science,” has definitely pronounced a decision in my favour ; and I am sure you will soon be con- vinced yourself that your own first reviewer of my article in the Quarterly Journal of Science was more reasonable than your second, H, HicHron Aurora by Daylight AN additional well-authenticated instance ot this very rare but indisputable phenomenon, may, perhaps, be thought worthy of insertion. In the Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy for 1788 (embodied in ‘*Memoirs of Science and the Arts,” 1798), is “An Account of an #Aurora Borealis seen in full Sunshine, by the Rey. Henry Ussher, D.D.,” which opens in the ensuing manner :— “The following phenomenon being very uncommon, if not entirely new, I think it worth communicating to the Academy, principally with a view to learn whether any other person has observed a similar one at any time :— *©*On Saturday night, May 24, 1788, there was a very bright aurora berealis, the coruscating rays of which united, as usual, in the pole of the dipping needle. I have always observed that an aurorz borealis renders the stars remarkably unsteady in the telescopé The next morning, about eleven, finding the stars flutter much, I examined the state of the sky, and saw whitish rays asceading from every part of the horizon, all tending to the pole of tie dipping needle, where at their union they formed a small thin and white canopy, similar to the luminous one ex- hibited by an aurora at night. These rays coruscated or shivered from the horizon to their point of union. These effects were distinctly seen by three different people, and their point of union markedseparately by each of them,’” T, W. WerspB { The Coronal Rifts THE :nclosed extract of a letter from Captain Tupman, who observel the Eclipse of December last through the finder of Prof. Marknes’s telescope at Syracuse, may interest some of your readers — “Tt % asingluar feature in all the photographs that the ‘ rifts’ are so wide and distinct. They are actinic rifts. As seen in the telescope simply the corona had no such rifts. I watched it during the whole 105 seconds ; such a feature would, of course, have struck me instantly, I actually pointed Prof. Harkness’s spectroscope 77 the rifts as being bright parts of the corona !” A. C. Ranyarp The Name “ Britain” As “C. L. N. F.” has in your last well answered the letter of “A, R. H.,” I have now only to reply to Mr. Hyde Clarke’s letter, in which he says I should find it difficult in my derivation of ‘‘ Britannia” and ‘‘tin” ‘to explain on the same basis the - conformable names’’ of the countries and rivers which he men- tions, inasmuch as ‘‘ these names are not explainable in Phoeni- cian, because they were given long before the Phcenicians entered on the stage of history.” His paper read before the Anthropological Institute I have not seen, but as ‘‘ the learned” Bochart and other authors have con- sidered the name ‘‘ Britain” to have been derived from the tin which the Phcenicians exported from Cornwall more than 3,000 years ago (Num, xxxi. 22), and as no one will venture to say that “tin” was not then the name of this metal in the most ancient Cornish as well as in the Phcenician language, from which it proceeded, I do not think T can fairly be called upon to go into the “difficult” task suggested by Mr. Clarke. The original name of, our island I have imagined to be Bretin (‘Tin Mount”), that being at first exclusively the name of the mount from which the Cornish 4 was exported by the Pheeni- cians, and it is highly probable that the same name was after- wards given by these ancient traders to the entire island, otf which the mount was only a part, for it was Britain that gave them nearly all their /, and its most beautiful natural object known to them was St. Michael’s AZound/. There being other islands close to Britain, the Romans gave the name Arifannic indiscriminately to them all. When they spoke of Britain as dissociated from its contiguous islands, they called it either Britannia or Insula Britannica, which is synony- mous with vijros Bperravien. This word, Bperravien, used at first adjectively by the Greeks, had in the time of Diodorus Siculus become a substantive, so that he uses it as such when describing the daily insulated port or mount called sometimes Li:tin (Tin Port), and sometimes Breti (Tin Mount), adjacent to Bperravucn, to which port or mount at low water the tin was carried from the mainland for sale and exportation. The follow- ing is the passage :—eis rqv ynrov mporemerny ey THs Bperravucns ovomaComevny de “Int, Plymouth, May 6 RicHARD EpMONDs *“ We cannot print any more letters on this subject. —En, The Sensation of Colour Pror, CLERK MAXWELL in his valuable paper on Colour in NATURE (vol, iv. p. 13) commits himself to the opinion that there must be three distinct sets of retinal nerves, one for each of the three primary sensations of colour. It is obyious that demon- strative proof or disproof of this is unattainable: we can only reason analogically. ‘The analogy of the ear is in favour of such an opinion, so far as it goes ; for there appears to be proof, or probability almost amounting to proof, that sounds of different pitch are conveyed to the brain by different nerves. But the ear resembles the other organs of sense less than they resemble each other ; and there is surely no reason for thinking that there are distinct nerves of smell for every distinct kind of smell, or distinct nerves of taste for every distinct kind of taste. Nor I believe is there the slightest proof of nerves for the sensation of heat distinct from those of touch, JosErH JOHN Murpuy Old Forge, Dunmurry, Co, Antrim, May 8 P.S.—I am not now at home. I intend to write in reply to Mr. Laughton’s important letter on the Prevalence of West Winds, when I am at home and have the file of Nature and other authorities to refer to. The Cave-Lion in the Peat of Holderness WHILST engaged in the task of rearranging this Museum, I have been impressed with the value of two specimens in the Paleontological collection. One is labelled ‘* No, 7, /e/is—metatarsal inner (Right side),” 28 NATURE | May 11, 1871 the other one is ‘‘ Fe/is — 14. Femur Right side.” There is no record in the catalogue by whom they were presented, nor of any of the circumstances of their g/sement. The specimens, in fact, have no history whatever, and I can only say that I found them in close juxtaposition with a large series of red-deer bones from Holderness, with which they perfectly agree in their minera- logical condition. I have no doubt that they are dond fide from the Holderness Peat. Their identification as bones ot F, o (variety spelaa) is also certain. Hull Royal Institution C. CARTER BLAKE Eozoon Canadense SINCE reading some of the communications on the Eozo6n, which have appeared from time to time in NATURE, I have felt constrained briefly to give the results of my examination of the “Fozoic ” limestone in Eastern Massachusetts. I am the more disposed to do this, hoping that a new line of investigation will be suggested to observers in other localities. Last autumn I visited for the first time the quarries of “*Fozoon” limestone in Chelmsford, under the guidance of my friend Mr. Burbank, of Lowell, Massachusetts, who has fur- nished many microscopists with specimens for sections. Having been long engaged in the study of the foliated series of rocks, and having years ago discovered indubitable evidence that por- uons of the included limestone are cf vaporous origin, I was prepared to recognise the same feature in the Chelmsford “* Fozoic ” rock. I was accordingly not surprised on examination to find, what the advocates of the organic nature of the Kozoén seem never to have suspected, that the limestone in question is not a ‘sedimentary rock ;” that it occupies, or rather occupied, (for it has been for the most part removed) pockets or oven- shaped cavities, which were once plainly overarched by gneiss ; that it is foliated, there being a regular succession of leaf-like layers from the walls toward the centres of the cavities, witness to which is borne by a like succession of different minerals ; that in some places it ramifies the surrounding rock in a vein-like way, while in others it exactly conforms with the most abrupt irregularities of surface ; that in one locality, which I have re- peatedly examined, it conforms with the uneven portions of a mass of syenite, with which it is so associated as to reveal its more recent origin ; and that, therefore, it is not of nummulitic derivation, but was deposited in a vein-like form, the materials having been probably forced up into the cavities from below while in a vaporous state. Such, in few words, is the result of my examination—a result which tends to show that the ‘‘Eozodn”’ of Eastern Massa- chusets is not organic, and that thus it belongs to the department of Mineralogy, and not to that of Paleontology. Waving ad- ditional particulars for the present, I may simply add that I propose in due time to give a detailed exposition of the relations of this famous ‘‘ Eozoic” rock, Cambridge, Mass., April 15 Joun B. PERRY THICKNESS OF THE EARTH’S CRUST ] SEE that at p. 296 of your journal for February last, which has recently reached Calcutta, you print a lecture by Mr. David Forbes “On the Nature of the Earth’s Interior,” in which reference is made to the Mr. W. Hop- kins’s method of determining whether the thickness of the earth’s crust is great or small when compared with the whole radius, and to M. Delaunay’s objection to it. The lecturer refers to me as having approved of Mr. Hopkins’s method, which I always have done and do still, and then makes the following apparently crushing remarks to annihilate Mr. Hopkins and all who approve of his method and of the result to which it leads, viz., that the crust is very thick. He says :—“M, Delaunay, an authority equally eminent as a mathe- matician and an astronomer, was induced to undertake the reconsideration of the problem; a labour (!) which has resulted in altogether reversing the above decision and demonstrating the complete fallacy of the premises upon which so much elaborate reasoning had been ex- pended,” As the lecturer had condescended to mention my name in connection with the subject, I wonder why he has taken no notice of my letter in reply to M. Delaunay, which was printed in your journal for July 1870, six months before the lecture was delivered, and which also appeared about the same time in the P/Az/osophical Magazine and the Geological Magazine. In this I showed that M. Delaunay had evidently misconceived the problem, and that Mr. Hopkins’s method is altogether unaffected by his remarks. So much has been said about profound mathematical calculations in connection with Mr. Hopkins’s investi- gation, that I conceive many have shrunk from attempting to understand the question at issue, from a feeling that they would not be able to comprehend it were they to attempt todoso. But this is quite a mistake. Anyone with an ordinary degree of knowledge of popular astronomy and of mechanical action is quite competent to form a good opinion on the point in dispute. What Mr. Hopkins did may be divided into two parts. He first conceived an idea, which was to be the basis of his calculation ; and then he made his calculation. Itis the calculation that calls for the “profound mathematics.” But it is not this that is the matter of dispute. Itis the z¢ea, on which the calculation is based, which M. Delaunay calls in question. I think I can make the matter sufficiently plain to your readers to enable them to form their own opinion. Everyone having a knowledge of popular astronomy is aware that the earth revolves round an axis, which is fixed in the earth’s solid crust, but shifts very slowly in space, producing what has been known ever since the days of Hipparchus by the name Precession. On this fact as his ground-work Mr. Hopkins reasoned as follows ; and so got to his zdea, which formed the basis of his calculation. Suppose the earth has a solid crust, the interior being filled up with fluid. If the axis remained steady in space and the crust revolved round it uniformly, no doubt, although the crust and fluid may have moved differently at one time, yet in the lapse of ages friction and viscosity in the fluid would cause the fluid at last to revolve with the crust just as if the whole were one solid mass. This being the case, suppose a slight horizontal push is given to the two poles, in opposite directions, so as slightly to shift the axis in space ; what would happen? The revolving crust, by this new and additional motion, would slip over the surface of the revolving fluid, through a small space pro- portionate tothe push given to the poles. The fluid could not possibly acquire in an instant this new motion, how- ever small it might be, because the fluid is not rigidly connected with the crust. Suppose a second, and a third, and a succession of slight horizontal pushes to be given to the poles in a continually altering direction, the effect will be that the revolving crust will be continually slipping over the revolving fluid which has not time to acquire these new motions given instantaneously to the solid crust. These successive slight pushes given to the poles, and so to the solid crust, represent the unceasing action upon the crust of the force which causes the motion of precession in the earth’s axis, and arises from the attraction of the sun and moon on the protuberant parts of the earth about the equator. Mr. Hopkins having reasoned thus far, went a step farther, and so came to his fundamental idea. He saw that the thinner the crust the smaller would be tht mass which the disturbing force producing precession woud have tomove, and therefore the greater would be the notion caused, that is, the precession. Here, then, he disterned a connecting link between the amount of precesson of the earth’s axis and the thickness of the earth’s rust, This was the zdea I have aliuded to. Starting from this idea he entered upon a prdound calculation and obtained a formula, which gives thethick- ness in terms of the amount of precession. This anount is a matter of observation ; and the thickness canthere- fore be deduced by the formula from the observet pre- May 11, 1871| NATURE 29 cession. Itis, as I have already said, not this calcula- tion which is called in question by M. Delaunay, but the fundamental idea. M. Delaunay says the fluid will have precisely the same motion as the crust; and that, because the new motion of the crust is so slow. Butit is clear that its slowness has nothing to do with the matter. The fact is that the fluid and the crust not being connected together by any solid connection, no motion, whether small (7.2. slow) or not, can be suddenly communicated from the crust to the fluidmass. Ifthe crust moved uniformly, as I have already said, and around a steady axis, the fluid might, after a lapse of ages, by friction and viscosity, acquire the motion of thecrust. But ifthe crust is continually shifting from this steady position, however slowly, the fluid cannot sud- denly acquire the new motion, and the crust slips over it ; and the thicker or thinner the crust, the greater or less is the solid mass to be shifted, and the less or the greater the precession produced, If the internal mass obeys at once the shifting motions of the crust, that mass cannot be fluid, but must be solid, and have a solid connection with the crust ; in which case the whole question is yielded. Mr. David Forbes speaks of the “labour” M. Delau- nay has gone through in giving vent to his opinion. If the thing done is to be measured at all by the thing sazd, his labour must have been infinite ; for what he has said is animpossibility. He has evidently altogether mistaken the problem. Mr. Hopkins’s method stands unimpaired by his criticisms. Indeed Mr. Hopkins was not a man to advance a theory which could be apparently set aside by such slender means. JoHN H. PRatTr A THEORY OF A NERVOUS ATMOSPHERE U NDER the above title, Dr. Richardson, in a lecture published in the JZedical Times and Gazette of last week, suggests a new theory in respect to nervous func- tion. We propose in a few sentences to state simply the meaning of this theory. The earlier physiological writers on the functions of the nervous system were under the impression that the brain, spinal cord, and other nervous centres acted after the manner of glands, and produced or secreted, as they said, a liquid. They called this assumed secreted liquid the ner- vous fluid, and they considered that it charges the nervous system, some also supposing that it makes even a circula- tion through tubular nervous channels or canals. It was not an uncommon notion that the nervous fluid conveys nourishment to the organs of the body; but the most common, and indeed generally accepted, hypothesis was, that it acts as a means of communication between all parts of the nervous system, and is the communicating medium of the impressions and motions derived from the outer world. Attempts were made to measure the rate of motion through this fluid, how long it took to convey an impression by it from brain to muscle. The discovery of frictional electricity, the special dis- covery pf the electric shock by Cuneus, of Leyden, in 1746, ard the after discovery by Galvani of the inductive action of the prime conductor of the electrical machine on the muscles of frogs, threw quickly into the shade the speculations of the earlier neuro-physiologists. It was as- sumed at oncethat there exists a true animal electricity, that there is production of electricalaction within the bodies of all living animals, that there is conduction, and, in short, every nechanism and method for the carrying on, if we may so say, of electrical life. The discovery of the electrical organs of the torpedo, the dissection of the animal, the descriptions of its nerves by John Hunter, and the experi- ments made by a very earnest investigator, Mr. Walsh, aidea greatly to establish the hypothesis which Galvani and his followers advanced, and which Volta, with the whoe force of his experimental argument, failed to demolish, Of late years the old hypothesis of the nervous fluid has been lost altogether, while the electrical hypothesis infi- nitely varied from its original and simple character, and infinitely varying with every new step of electrical dis- covery, has in a ceitiin sense retained its popular hold. It is true the hypothesis has rested on so much laboured obscurity that nobody has succeeded in making out of it a demonstration like the demonstration of the cir- culation of the blood, and no one has made it so simple that every scholar can read it when it is written, and every medical practitioner practise by it and act upon it as a known principle. It is true that since the time when Volta gave his undeniable proofs against the truth of the first inferences of Galvani, the best and most thoughtful philosophers have felt doubts as to the elec- trical character of living action, and have looked on Galvani’s construction of life as a beautiful crumbling Tuin rather than as a temple befitting the worship of the gods of nature ; and, lastly, itis true that whoever takes up to read the tomes or volumes of the most eminent writers on the subject of animal electricity is prone to lay them down again as he would the handles of a battery that master his will without appealing to his reason, All this is quite true.; but still the electrical hypothesis has, as we before said, held its place; no attempt has been made to replace it ; it has maintained around it a spell of fascination. The theory that has been suggested by Dr. Richardson is in some sense a return to the old view respecting nerv- ous action, and in some sense also is an extension to the nervous system of the physical idea of communication of motion by molecular disturbance. Ina few words, the author of the theory supposes ;that the blood, as it circu- lates in the vessels on which the structures of the body are constructed, yields a diffusible vapour or atmosphere which charges the nervous system surrounding the molecules of nervous matter and pervading the whole nervous organism. He attempts to formulate the physical qualities of this vapour; it is probably an organic vapour containing carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen ; it is insoluble in blood, it is condensible by cold, diffusible by heat ; it is retained after death longer in cold-blooded animals than in warm-blooded, and longer in warm-blooded animals that have died in cold than in those that have died in heat; it possesses conducting power, and as a physical substance is susceptible of varia- tion of pressure ; it connects the nervous system in all its parts together ; it isthe medium of communication during life between the outer and theinner existence ; by the organs of the senses the impressions and motions derived from the outer world are vibrated into or through the nervous at- mosphere to the brain ; in the living and healthy animal the nervous ether, if we may so designate it, is in correct ten- sion, in the feeble it is diminished, in the dead it is absent or inactive ; in the waking times of the living it is most active ; it may be used up faster than it is produced during exercise ; it is renewed during sleep. On the supposition of the existence of a nervous ether or atmosphere as thus suggested, the author of the theory accounts for various phenomena connected with the partial or complete destruction of conscious, and even of organic life. The action of narcotic vapours is an illus- tration in point. It is assumed that these vapours— vapours of chloroform or alcohol, for example—taken into the blood and carried to the nervous system, become dif- fused through the nervous atmosphere, and by their presence interfere with its physical qualities and thus obscure function. “The foreign vapour that has been introduced benumbs ; in other words, it interferes with the physical conduction of impressions through what should be the cloudless atmosphere between the outer and the inner existence.” Carrying out in a different way the same line of thought, the author of the theory to which we have 30 NATURE [May 11,1871 specially called attention, accounts for the diffusion of some poisons through the body and for that rapid action of certain poisonous substances which so many experi- menters have endeavoured, but not successfully, to ex- plain; further, he suggests that in some instances poisonous products of decomposition generated within the body itself, in disease, may be diffused through the nervous ether, and that the sudden collapse of nervous function, which is often seen in acute disease, may be due to this cause. Finally, there may be conditions of disease in which there is unnatural tension of the nervcus atmosphere, followed by disturbance of muscu- lar motion, convulsion, or cerebral pressure, leading to apoplectic insensibili y. We have sketched out thus briefly the leading points of this theory of a nervous atmosphere or ether produced, during life, within and by the living organism, as a theory calculated to give rise to much discussion and device of new experiment. ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATION “Pee statistics of modern astronomical observation would, we suspect, be very curious, if it were possible to get at them. A report showing the gradual increase in the number of telescopes manufactured during the last fifty years would be very interesting ; and so would be a table comprising at once the advance in their dimensions and the diminution in their cost. The result would, we believe, be such as at first sight to cause great surprise among those unacquainted with the subject, or those whose recollection does not go back to days when five nches was as extraordinary an aperture for an object- glass, as double that size is now. But the value of these, as of other tabular statistics, would suffer material abate- ment, if they were applied to establish any other conclu- sions than those to which they directly lead. For instance they would probably be fallacious, if considered as infer- ring a proportionate increase in the number of important observations. In order to bring out sucha result, we require, so to speak, another factor, and a very essential one—a corresponding increase in the number of competent observers. This, we fear, may not have been commen- surate with the advance of optical means : at least, except upon the supposition of some such deficiency, it is diffi- cult to understand what becomes of the multitude of really good object-glasses which are annually produced, not only in England, but in Germany and America. A large pro- portion of these, we are led to think, must be purchased to be looked at, and not looked through : or handled as mere toys for the amusement of people who do not know what to do with themselves in an idle evening. This was not so much the case in the early days of telescope- manufacture. The greatest master of figuring specula in his own time was also the greatest proficient in using them: it is needless to add the name of Sir William Herschel. And so the finest reflectors in Germany were placed at the same period in the hands of the leader of all accurate selenographical investigation, J. H. Schroter. These were “the right men in the right place.” Even then, it may be said, many noble reflectors went, no one knows where, the greater part of them long before this time useless from tarnish, or, still more mortifying to think upon, ruined by unskilful repolishing. Still, ad- mitting this, the disappearance of powerful instruments does not seem to have been so remarkable in those days as it is now, and the quantity ofreally valuable observations appears to have been greater in the end of the last and ~ the early part of the present century, in proportion to the means of observing. This is not a very encouraging view of the present state of this branch of astronomy. But, if well founded, as we believe it to be, we might expect that there would be some assignable reasons for it ; and, in fact, several are sufficiently obvious. One certainly is, that the process of discovery is not, generally speaking, renewable. What has been once detected is usually placed on record, in bar of all future claims. So it has been in the science of music ; a man might arise among us with the fervid genius of Handel, but he could not write the Hallelujah Chorus over again; and doubtless the spirit of Men- delssohn must have been cramped by the impossibility of employing many of the noblest and most impressive sub- jects waich had been anticipated by his predecessors. And so it has been in the researches of geography. The enterprising explorer has now to go much farther in pur- suit of “ fresh woods and pastures new,” and every Alpine season is so rapidly narrowing the number of summits untrodden by the foot of man, that the excitement of a first ascent will soon have to be sought in remoter regions. Thus in astronomy, though it cannot be said that there are no worlds left to conquer, yet all the larger and more conspicuous features of the heavenly bodies have been long ago so fully noted and recorded, that what remains for exploration is chiefly of that delicate character which, without being the less interesting from its minuteness, is less accessible, for that reason, to the possessors of or- dinary instruments. And on this account many a student who might well have risen from the ranks in the earlier days of scientific campaigning, is now compelled to re- main in comparative obscurity—a mere spectator, when he might well have taken his place among the discoverers of fifty years ago. Another reason why tools have multiplied without a corresponding increase of good work, may be this, that looking upon the observer and his instrument as a com- plex apparatus, the improvement of the intelligent has not kept pace with that of the material part. In fact, it is impossible that it should. The eye is but what it was when David learned humility from considering God’s heavens, the work of His fingers, the moon and the stars which He hath ordained ; the intellect, though more de- veloped and cultivated, is not more strong and piercing than it was in the days of Hipparchus ; man does much more with his brain, but he has no more brain to do it with, than his uncivilised ancestors ; and observers may, and will be, collectively multiplied without being indi- vidually improved. Every man that has eyes does not know how to use them ; or, not failing in this respect, he may lack other requisites : he may not know what to look for, or where to find it; or he may be deficient in his handling of the faithful pencil or the expressive pen. And so it comes to pass that the capacities of instruments may be much in advance of the abilities of those who use them. Besides all this, there is a physical obstacle of an en- tirely different character, which must not be forgotten ; the unimprovable constitution of our own atmosphere. This will ever be a sore subject for the zealous observer, especially among ourselves. If even Secchi finds fault with the glorious Roman heavens, what have we not to regret in our own murky, and fuzzy, and restless skies ? Who that has read the most graphic as well as instructive writings of Sir J. Herschel is likely to forget his complaints of “twitching, twirling, wrinkling, and horrible moulaing ?” and who that has had much actual experience of observa- tory work will not endorse all this with a very lively fellow- feeling? The nights may easily be numbered, during a long season, in which the defects of the atmospher do not overlie those of the instrument, and when the observer has not rather to wish that he could see all that his tele- scope could show him, than to long for greater power or light, to be expended in making atmospheric disturbaices yet more conspicuous and prejudicial. The only way to obviate this grievous hindrance is to get above it ; andno man has yet done this except Professor Piazzi Smyth in May 11, 1871] his most successful “ Experiment”; it was said, indeed, that the French observers were about to follow his ex- ample, and to plant their instruments on the Pic du Midi de Bigorre ; but we have never heard whether the idea has been carried into execution. And, however striking _ may be the advantage of sucha plan, it must ever be con- fined to a favoured few. We have dwelt at some length on a view of the present state of astronomical observation, which, though rather unfavourable, we believe to be substantially true. But it is not to be inferred that this is its sole aspect. There are, as usual, two sides to the shield ; and much is to be said that is of an opposite tendency. If, for instance, we have asserted that for some time past observers have not multiplied in proportion to the means of observation, this is but a relative statement ; the absolute fact is that at no former period has there been so numerous, or so zealous, or on the whole so competent a band of astrono- mical students. And of this we have a very pleasing evi- dence in the recent formation of an astronomical society expressly devoted to physical observation, to which we cordially wish success. If again it is probable that not many of the great discoveries are left within the reach of ordinary instruments, it should not be forgotten that many telescopes of very superior character are now housed in private observatories ; and that for them investigations are still reserved, whose delicacy is no bar t) their importance, and which may be undertaken with a hope of success no longer chargeable with extravagance. Great cabinets may be unlocked by little keys. Minute researches may give the clue to discoveries of the broadest extent and deepest interest. The changes of the lunar surface, the internal motion of starry clusters ; the parallax and fixity of nebulz ; the planetary attendants on the brighter stars, these are mere specimens of the magnificent arcana, whose solution may not be denied to human energy and per- severance. We may remember, too, that if the telescope and the micrometer should be found unequal to the task, we have yet a new and most powerful method of investi- gation, the results of which are equally important and surprising—spectrum-analysis. The revelations of this beautiful invention may be said to be only beginning, and no man can foresee their end. What has already been done would have appeared as improbable as the reveries of Kepler, had it been predicted fifty years ago ; and who shall say what may Le the result of fifty years more of patient and energetic application? And what might not Kepler have said and done, had such an instrument of research been placed in his hands? We may suppose how his fervid imagination would have exulted in the prospects, and with what confident joy he would have repeated the memorable words which characterise one of his lofty aspirations, “‘ Plus ultra est.” NOTES Ir is stated that the Astronomer Royal is to have the honour of a K.C.B. conferred upon him in recognition of his services in respect to the International Exhibition. We trust this rumour is not strictly correct ; for unless it is to be generally understood that services are to be rewarded in the inverse ratio of their value, it is simply grotesque and unbecoming of the Government to ignore all the Astronomer Royal’s services to Science, and all his unpaid services to the State in connection with subjects more important to the nation than all the exhibitions which ever have been or ever will be. In a Congregation to be held at Oxford on Tuesday, May 23, three forms of statute will be promulgated on the subject of the Second or Final Ex:mination. It is proposed to have one Pass School of a mixed character and six Honour Schools. In the Pass School the examinationisto be divided into three groups, as follows : NATURE 31 —Group A.—1. One Latin and one Greek author, one at least of which shall be a philosopher or an historian. 2. The outline of Greek and Roman history, with a special period of one or the other, and English composition. Group B.—1. Either English History and a period or subject of English Literature, or a period of Modern European History with Political and Descriptive Geography, together (in each case) with English composition. 2. A Modern Language, either French or German, including composition in the language and a period of its literature. 3. The Elements of Political Economy. 4. A branch of Legal study. Group C.—1. The Elements of Geometry, including Geometrical Trigonometry. 2. The Elements of Mechanics, solid and fluid; treated mathematically. 3. The Elements of Chymistry, with an elementary practical examination. 4. The Elements of Physics, not necessarily treated mathematically. Every candidate is to select two subjects from one of these groups, and one of another of them, and must pass in all three ; but may present himself for each of the three subjects in separate Terms. The six Honour Schools are to be :—1, Literee Humaniores ; 2, Mathematics ; 3, Natural Science ; 4, Jurisprudence ; 5, Modern History ; and 6, Theology. The examination in the Honour School of Literae Humaniores is to include Philology, Ancient History, and Philosophy :—1, In Philology, the Greek and Latin languages ; 2, in Ancient History, the histories of ancient Greece and Rome; 3, in Philosophy, Logic, the History of Philosophy, and the outlines of Moral and Political Philosophy, each candidate being required to offer at the least two treatises by ancient authors. Candidates shall be permitted to offer in addition, as special subjects, one or more authors or portions of authors, or departments, or periods falling within or usually studied in connection with any of the stated subjects of this school. For the purpose of this provision philology shall be taken to include textual criticism, the minute critical study of authors or portions of authors, the history of ancient literature, and comparative philology as illustrating the Greek and Latin languages, and ancient history shall be taken to include classical archeeology and art, and the law of Greece and Rome. Ir is with very great pleasure that we print the following in- telligence of the safety of Dr. Livingstone :—Despatches were received last week at the Foreign Office from Dr. Kirk, the Acting British Consul at Zanzibar, containing information of the safety of Dr. Livingstone in October last. The doctor was then at Manakoso, helpless, without means, and with few followers. Dr. Kirk had sent him supplies to meet his immediate necessities, which, it was hoped, would shortly reach him. AT the annual meeting of Convocation of the University of Lendon, held on Tuesday last, Dr. E. A. Parkes was chosen by a very large majority at the head of the list of three graduates, to be submited to Her Majesty for selection therefrom of a member of the Senate in the place of the late Dr. W. A. Miller. At the same meeting a resolution proposed by Dr. Francis T. Bond, that it is expedient to retain Greek in the Matriculation Examina- tion only as an optional subject, was rejected by a small majority. THE example set by Clifton College in the formation of a botanic garden in connection with the Natural History Society is, we understand, about to be followed at Marlborough, a plot of ground having been granted by the authorities for that pur- pose. Such a garden will bea valuable adjunct to the herha- rium, if such plants are selected as are typical of the principal natural orders, especially of those which are sparingly represented in the British flora. THE following appointments have been made in consequence of the death of Prof. Miquel :—Dr. N. W. P. Rauwenhoff to be Professor of Botany and Director of the Botanic Garden at Utrecht. Dr. W. F. R. Suringar to be Professor of Botany and Director of the Botanic Garden at Leyden. fe. 2 3 THE Botanische Zeitung records the death on March 23 of Dr. Schultz-Schultzenstein, of Berlin, well known as a copious writer on vegetable morphology and physiology. Mr. F. M. BArour, late of Harrow, and Mr. P. H. Car- penter, of the Royal School of Mines and University College, London, have been elected to foundation Scholarships at Trinity College, Cambridge, for proficiency in Natural Science. WE regret to have to record the death of Mr. James Yates, at his residence at Highgate, on the 7th inst. He was a prominent member of the Royal and Geological Societies, and of late years had been best known as one of the most active advocates of the introduction of the Metric System of Weights and Measures. THE following gentlemen have been placed in the first class of the annual examination in Natural Sciences in St. John’s Col- lege, Cambridge (order alphabetical) ; -Edmunds, Garrod, Read, Sollas, Yule. THE annual conversazione of the members of the Society of Arts will be held on Thursday, June 1, at the South Kensington Museum, M. ELIsEE RECLUus, a very active contributor to the Revue des Deux Mondes, has been appointed director of the National Library in Paris, to fill the room of M. Taschereau, who has left for Versailles. Progr. WYVILLE THOMSON delivered, on the 2nd inst., his inaugural lecture to the students of the Natural History class in the University of Edinburgh. In the course of his observations he paid a glowing tribute to the services of his predecessor, Dr. Allman, whose valuable researches in zoology will continue to be prosecuted in spite of his retirement from the chair. _WE regret to learn from Harfer’s Weekly that at the great fire which recently destroyed the printing office of Weed, Parsons, and Co. in Albany, the edition printed of the Twenty-fourth Report of the New York State Cabinet of Natural History was entirely destroyed. Fortunately a nearly complete copy of the revised proof was saved ; so that no serious difficulty will be ex- perienced beyond considerable delay, although the loss to the State in the destruction of fifteen thousand impressions of plates, &c., will be considerable. THE continuation of the exhaustive work of Bronn on the classes and orders of the animal kingdom contains an elaborate memoir upon the anatomy of birds, and several numbers are deyoted to the peculiarities of the muscular structure alone. AT the meeting of the Boston Society of Natural History for March 1, the principal communication was one by Mr. George Sceva, in which attention was called to the fact of the shortness of the upper jaws in the skulls of the Hindoos, and the frequent absence of the third molar. This generalisation was based upon the examination of a numberof crania; andit was found that about fifteen per cent. of the whole exhibit this peculiarity, while in an extensive series of skulls of European races only about one per cent. showed the same feature. AT the annual meeting of the Chicago Academy of Sciences, 5 5 = 2 3 | held on April 11, various communications upon a variety of subjects of interest were presented. The most important paper read was one by Colonel Foster, upon the subject of | Artesian Wells, in which an account was given of the principal | borings that have been attempted in the West, with a state- ment of their geological relationships, and the depth to which they were carried. Tue Rugby School Natural History Society has just pub- lished its Fourth Report for 1870. extent taken the lead among our public schools in its cultivation of Natural Science, we looked for this Report with special interest, and haye not been disappointed in its value. Rugby having to so great an | NARORL: [| May 11, 1871 resting paper by the President, the Rey. F. E. Kitchener, on the Times of Flowering of Plants, containing just that record of facts and minute observations which it is one of the special func- tions of local natural history societies to collect. It is illustrated by two plates, in which are delineated curves representing the average forwardness of flowering in the spring and early summer months of 1867, 68, 69, and 70, contrasted with other curves re- presenting the rainfall and temperature. Other illustrated papers are by the Rey. T. N. Hutchinson on Sun-spots, and Mr, C, H, Hinton on the Mechanism of a Crane’s Leg. We learn that the society now possesses a museum of its own, and has just acquired cases for its botanical and entomological collections, We are glad to see that the officers, in their report, lay great stress on the importance of completing the local collections. IN the Proceedings of the Cotteswold Naturalists’ Field Club for 1870, the President, Sir W. V. Guise, Bart., calls attention, in his Annual Address, to the unusual interest and importance of two papers which occupy nearly the whole of the volume—TheGravels of the Severn, Avon, and Evenlode, and their extension over the Cotteswold Hills, by Mr. W. C. Lucy ; and On the Correlation of the Jurassic Rocks in the department of the Cote-d’Or, France, with the Oolitic formations in the counties of Gloucester and Wilts, by Dr. Thomas Wright. The terms in which these papers are referred to by the president are thoroughly well de- served, and the Club is doing great service to science in their publication. Mr. Lucy’s paper is the result of four years’ labour, and is copiously illustrated by numerous sections, and a large coloured map showing the surface geology of the country be- tween Evesham, Chipping Norton, Gloucester, and Cirencester. The work is most creditable to the club, and renders this volume of its Transactions indispensable to anyone studying the geology of the western couuties, THE Proceedings and Transactions of the Nova Scotian Insti- tute of Natural Science for 1869-70 lies on our table, and we may take this opportunity of acknowledging the great service ren- dered by this society in the elucidation of the natural history o- our American colonies. Among the papers in the present num- ber we may mention especially the continuance of Dr. Bernard Gilpin’s series on the Mammalia of Nova Scotia, a monograph by Dr. Lawson of the Ranunculacee of Canada and adjacent parts of British America: a paper by the President, Mr. J. M. Jones, on the Laridze of the Nova Scotian coast; and a record of Meteorological Observations for 1869, by Mr, Henry Poole. THE Botanical Exchange Club has just issued its Report for the current year, signed by its indefatigable curator Dr. J. Boswell-Syme. It is chiefly occupied by observations on certain critical sub-species or varieties gathered by the members, no absolutely distinct indigenous species having been added to the British flora during the year. We are glad to see a con- siderable increase in the number of members of this useful society. WE have received the Report of Observations made by the members of the Observing Astronomical Society for 1869-70. A considerable proportion of these observations has already been reported in our columns. Inaddition, the Report includes Hints and Suggestions on the Observation of Lunar Objects by Mr. W. R. Birt, and three drawings of the Bands of Jupiter on Oct. 6, and Nov. 1 and 24, 1869. We are glad to see that the number of members has increased to fifty, and congratulate the society on the good work it is doing. In a recent number of the “ Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,” we have a report cf the Address of the President, | the Hon. Mr. Justice Phear, a considerable portion of which is | devoted to a statement of the importance of a systematic series There is an inte- | | of barometrical observations in India. Mr, Phear points out that May 11, 1871] NATURE 33 in India we possess almost unrivalled opportunities for examining and analysing the atmospheric column in all its parts, and that India proper, the Bay of Bengal and Burma, constitute a region which, for the purposes of one branch at least of meteorological science, demands to be taken and treated as a whole. The actual state of the case, on the other hand, is that for administra- tive purposes, British India is divided into eight principal dis- thicts or provinces, viz., Bengal, Madras, Bombay, N.W. Provinces, Oude, Panjab, Central Provinces, and Burma ; and in each of these, except Burma, is a separate local system of observation, with its own independent head, and very little com- munication with one another. ON the 2nd May, two days before the full moon, a complete Junar halo was observed at Clifton by Mr. George F. Burder, and described fully in the 7izes of the 4th. Mr. Burder saw the two halos, the large one and the small one, the larger being very difficult to be seen. A paraselenic circle, having the zenith for its centre, was also observed, and mock moons, or faraselies, four in number, were seen at the intersection of the halo with the paraselenic circle. This appearance, as usual, was followed by very bad weather. It is produced, as demonstrated by the French natural philosophers of the eighteenth century, by floating particles of ice ; and the light from the moon being con- siderable, the phenomenon was observed in all its glory. Mr. T. Locin’s reports on the experimental cultivation of cotton at Camp Bahalgurh in the Valley of the Jumna, are ex- ceedingly satisfactory. Although the crops were damaged by floods and by late frosts, the yield of clean cotton has been at the rate of 307} lbs. per acre, or from four to five times the average yield in India. Mr. Login attributes this result in great measure to his practice of irrigating the fields in the afternoon or night, rather than in the mid-day, believing that the combined action of light and heat on stagnant water makes it under almost all circumstances injurious to plants. Or the many fresh-water fish characteristic of the continent of North America, comparatively few, with the exception of mem bers of the salmon and trout family, are of sufficient economical value to make it expedient to introduce them into regions where, they do not naturally occur. This transfer has been made to a yery disastrous extent in the case of the pike (Zsox), which although multiplying rapidly, is at the same time the determined foe of all other kinds of fish, and soon almost exterminates them from the waters which it inhabits. For this reason, some States haye passed laws prohibiting, under severe penalties, except by direct permission of the Commissioners of the Fisheries, any transfer of the species in question to new localities. There is, however, one fish that is of great value, and which can be intro- duced without as much doubt of the propriety of the act as exists in regard to the pike. We refer to the black bass (Grystes sal- moides). This inhabits, in one variety or another, the basin of the great lakes of the Mississippi Valley, and the upper waters of the streams of the south Atlantic coast as far north as the James River. Within a few years it has been transferred with success to streams previously uninhabited by it—to the Poto- mac, for one, where it is now extremely abundant. During the past summer some public-spirited gentlernen of Philadelphia collected among themselves a fund to stock the Delaware with this noble fish, and obtained about seven hundred, principally in the vicinity of Harper’s Ferry. These were carried alive in large tanks to the Delaware, and deposited in that stream at Easton, about two hundred of the number dying by the way. The same party of gentlemen propose to use a surplus fund in their hands in experimenting upon the restocking of the river with shad and salmon, THE white sugarcane of Cuba has been tried in Columbia and found more productive than the local variety called Cinta. REPORT ON THE DESERT OF THE TIH* THE following report has been sent to the Vice-Chancellor of Cambridge by Mr. C. F. Tyrwhitt Drake, who received a grant from the University for the purpose of investigating the natural history of the Tih. He spent several months in the district, accompanied by Mr. E. H. Palmer (late of the Sinai Survey), who was travelling on behalf of the Palestine Explora- tion Fund :-— I have now the honour to lay before you a report of my work during last winter in the ‘‘ Badiet et Tih,” or Wilderness of the Wandering. As this desert had been only partially, and even then superficially examined, I shall give, firstly, a short account of the route we took and of the general physical features of the country ; and, secondly, the various traditions of beasts and birds which are current amongst the Arabs. Many of these are curious, from their similarity to Western tales; and others, though seemingly foolish in themselves, are not without interest, as illustrating the beliefs and folk-lore of the Bedawin. These stories are not so numerous as I found them to be in former journeys amongst Arabs inhabiting more fertile tracts, for the Desert of the Tih is in truth ‘‘a great and terrible wilderness.” The last winter, too, was one of unusual drought even in those parched regions, and the scattered tribes of Arabs who live there experienced great difficulty in finding pasture for the herds of camels and goats which exist in considerable numbers in some districts. The supply of water is very scanty and variable, as springs are extremely rare, and most of the water is obtained from ‘* Themail,”’ or pits dug in the gravelly beds of wadies, and similar situations into which the water filtrates. The water thus obtained is very bad, being impregnated either with mineral salts or lime, to say nothing of the quantity of earthy and animal matter held in sus- pension by its being constantly stirred up for the daily use of the Arabs and their flocks, who naturally collect in the neigh- bourhood of any place where water is to be had. This want ot water was the greatest drawback to the satisfactory exploration of the country : want of food may be contended with, obstructive Bedawin may be quieted, and trackless mountains crossed, but the absence of water renders a country impracticable, especially to those who travel as lightly laden as we did, dispensing with the usual suite of dragoman and servants. Picturesque and desirable .as a large retinue and guard of wild Arabs may appear to some persons, had we indulged in these impedimenta, I feel convinced that we should never have got through the country by any but the ordinary route. In these districts fertility is slowly but steadily being driven northwards, for various traces of cultivation and dwellings show that the rainfall must formerly have been plentiful and regular, for surely as: tillage and the consequent vegetation decreases, so will the rain-supply diminish till the land has be- come an irreclaimable waste. The manner in which gardens may be made and will afterwards sustain themselves, is well shown in those which still flourish at Sinai, notwithstanding the neglect of the present degraded inmates of the convent. Even in those parts of the Tih near El Aujeh and Wady el Abyadh which, from internal evidence, must at one time, and that within our era, have supported a large settled population, so desolate is the general aspect, that, to a casual observer, the country would seem to be and always to have been an utter waste. That they were so always is, however, at once negatived by the existence of several ruined cities surrounded by the remains of extensive gardens and vineyards ; of these, the walls alone remain to tell their tale. The vineyards are clearly to be traced on the low hills and rising grounds by the regular heaps and ‘‘ swathes ” of black flints, with which the chief part of the district is covered, and which still retain the name of ‘‘ Teleilat el ’Aneb ” or grape- mounds. These facts are of great importance as showing that the objections to fixing certain localities—mentioned in Scripture as abounding in pasturage—in what is now completely desert, may be set aside as worthless. I consider too, that the southern limit of the Promised Land, at the time of the Israelitish invasion, must be placed as far southas Wady El Abyadh. This would remove many difficulties hitherto met with in the satisfactory identification of Kadesh. Though I have not space to enter fully into the question here, I may say that there is strong evidence in favour of fixing that much-disputed locality at Ain Gadis (first dis- * A map to illustrate this paper is printed in the ‘‘ Quarterly Journal o the Palestine Exploration Fund ” for jane 34 NATURE [May 11, 1871 covered by Mr. Rowlands, though he seems to confuse it with Ain El Gudeirat). Many facts support this supposition, for instance, the suitability as a strategic position for a camp of long duration. There is abundance of water there even at the present day, and springs are found at Ain Muweilah to the north and Biyar Maayin to the south. The probability is great thata large host like the Israelites, encumbered with their families and herds, would take the easy route by the open country to the west of the Azazimeh mountains in preference to the barren and rugged passes south-west of the Dead Sea. The desert of the Tih consists cfa succession of limestone plateaux intersected by several wadies, of which the most important are W. El Arish, which is joined near Nakhl by W. Rowag, W. Garaiyeh, with its tributaries Mayin, Jerur, Muweileh, W. El Ain, which runs into W. El Abyadh, W. Rehaibeh and W. Seba, which drain into the Mediterranean. W. Ghamr and W. Jerafeh—the names of which have been interchanged by former travellers—fall into the northern slope of the Arabeh, and so run into the Dead Sea, as also do Wadies Murreh, Maderah, and Figreh, which debouch into the Ghor es Safi, The southernmost limit is Jebel el Rahah and Jebel el Tih on he S.W., and Jebel el’Ejmeh on the S. and S.E., which together form a cliff running from Suez to Akabah, and projecting into the peninsula of Sinai much in the same way as that peninsula pro- jects into the Red Sea. The height of this cliff at its most elevated point—on Jebel el ’Ejmeh—is about 4, 200 feet above the sea, and from its summit the ground descends north-westwards. To the N.E. of the Tih rises a third steppe or promontory, its northern portion corresponding to the ‘‘ Negeb” or south-country of Scripture, its southern part bearing the name of Jebel Magrah, sometimes also called ‘‘the mountains of the Azazimeh,” from the tribe of Arabs which inhabits it. To the S.E. of this mountainous region we came upon the only bed of sandstone which occurs throughout the whole country. It belongs to the same formation (New Red sandstone) as that at Petra and the lower strata of the Dead Sea basin. Having carefully considered the best means of thoroughly examining the Tih plateau, Mr. Palmer and myself determined to proceed along the base of Jebel el Tih, and leaving to the west the Nagbs Emreikheh and er Rakineh—the passes on the or- dinary routes for travellers proceeding northwards from Mount Sinai—to cross Jebel el’Ejmeh wherever it might prove practicable, and thus proceed through a hitherto untraversed district to Nakhl, where we had established a depdt of provisions, and where we should have to make arrangements with a different tribe of Arabs for carrying our baggage northwards. This plan was carried out, and we entered the Tih by the Nagb el Mirad on January 12, 1870. From the summit of the cliff— for Jebel el ’Ejmeh has no pretensions to be called a mountain—a magnificent view is obtained of the Sinaitic peninsula. The range itself is composed of mountain limestone, so worn and broken by the action of frost and weather that the hills are covered with fine detritus, which, after rain, would produce some herbage, but when we were there only a few dried-up, stunted bushes were to be seen, which here as elsewhere in the desert supply good and abundant fuel. From Jebel el’Ejmeh the steep, bleak, waterworn hills gradually slope down and fall away into the great plains, or rather, low plateaux, which stretch across to the Mediterranean. Thesame- ness of outline and dreariness of this country is something terrible: the few shrubs that exist are grey or brown, and seemingly withered and dead ; no animal life enlivens the scene-—at times perhaps a stray vulture or raven may be seen sailing far away in the blue sky, a frightened lizard will start from beneath one’s feet, ora small flight of locusts be disturbed from their scanty meal on some ‘‘retem bush.” Water on the read there was absolutely none ; a supply for four days had to be carried from El Biyar, a well strongly impregnated with Epsom salts, and lying a few miles to the south of Nagb el Mirad. Under these conditions we can scarcely expect to meet with many signs of life. Judging from the numerous cairns and other primeval remains, this district must at one time have been populous. Wearily did I tramp day after day, gun in hand, but I was seldom rewarded with any thing more than a stray beetle or lizard, and now and then some small desert bird, and on very rare occasions a hare or snake. As from former experience we had found that it was impossible to work a country thoroughly when mounted, we only employed enough camels to carry our baggage. The camel-drivers acted as guides, and, to a certain extent, as attendants, for we took no ser- vants whatever. This added to our already heavy work, yet it en- abled us to get on much more satisfactorily with the various Arab tribes than- we could otherwise have done. From the Nagb el Mirad our course lay down Wady Rouag, which takes its rise in the highest part of Jebel el ’Ejmeh, about eighteen miles east of the head of Wady el Arish, with which it holds a nearly parallel course till it joins it at a short distance to the north-east of Nakhl. The district between Wady el Arish and Wady Rowag is drained by W. Ghabiyeh, which falls into the latter about twenty-five miles from the Nagb el Mirad ; after this junction the country becomes open and comparatively level. Here the ground is almost as hard as a macadamised road, and is covered with a layer of small, black, polished flints, which glisten in the sun as though they were wet. This polish must be attributed to the dust and grit kept in motion by the almost incessant winds, which are frequently very violent. Many ot the monuments in Egypt bear witness to the destructive action of the grit. In this desert sand is almost unknown. There are only two or three sandy tracts, and these may be traversed in a few hours at most. The largest sandy district we had to cross was the Rumeilet Hamed, to the north of Khalasah (the ancient Elusa) where the prevailing north-west winds have formed ex- tensive dunes. This sand, however, seems to have been entirely brought from the coast. On arriving at Nakhl we found a small fort with wells and cisterns. In this dreary spot, encompassed by glaring white hills, a few miserable soldiers are maintained by the Egyptian Govern- ment for the protection of the Hajj caravan, the place being halfway between Suez and Akabah. Here we were obliged to dismiss the Towarah Arabs, and taking up our provisions which we had sent on from Suez, we entered into an agreement with the Teyahah, who, after considerable discussion and futile attempts to extort a large ‘‘ghafr” or black mail, engaged to take us any- where we wished through their country. Of the various tribes which inhabit the Desert of the Tih, the most numerous and powerful are the Teyahah, of whom there are two divisions, the Sagairat and the Benaiyat, and truly they were, as their name implies, “birds of prey.” They possess large herds of camels whose numbers are frequently increased by the product of the raids which they make on their hereditary foes the ’Anazeh, whose territory lies around Palmyra and to the east of the Hauran, and is about twenty days’ journey from the Tih. These forays are sometimes carried out on a large scale ; on the last occasion the Teyahah numbered 1,000 guns. At times the plunder amounts to many hundred camels, but at others the owners come down in force and the aggressors are com- pelled to retire. Bloodshed in these freebooting expeditions and even actual warfare is avoided as much as possible, for it results in a blood feud which is always much dreaded by a Bedawi, since it binds the relatives of anyone who has perished either by murder or manslaughter—the Arabs do not distinguish between them— to avenge his death. ‘The blood feud or vendetta thus exercises a most salutary influence, for without it the value of human life would be totally disregarded in these wild regions which lie beyond the pale of the law. The Terabin, the tribe next in importance, occupy the country east of the Teyahah, their territory extending from Jebel Bisher and Bir Abu Suweirah on the Sinai road some forty miles south- east of Suez, as far as Gaza to the north. The Haiwatt live in the mountains to the west and north-west of Akabah, and are not numerous. The Azazimch occupy the mountainous region which I haye before mentioned as bearing their name: this tribe is not large, and they are exceedingly poor ; their only food consists of the milk and cheese obtained from their camels and goats and such roots as they can dig up. On very rare occasions they may have the luck to shoot some wild animal which, whether it be ibex or hyzena, is equally acceptable to their not over squeamish stomachs. They are obliged to live in very small and scattered communities, from the fact that—with the exception of one or two brackish and unpalateable springs, their only water supply is derived from the rains collected in hollows of rocks in the ravines and wady beds, and even these are few and far between. This water was usually putrid and full of most uninviting animalcule : however, as no other was to be had, we were obliged to drink it. From Nakhl we went in a north-easterly direction to Wady Garaiyeh, thence to Jebel’ Araif, which we ascended ; though it is little more than 2,000 ft. high; the view is very extensive. We then proceeded to cross Wady Mayin, W. Lussan, and W. Jertir, and afterwards reached Ain Muweileh (the supposed a a =e - May 11, 1871) NATURE 35 site of Hagar’s well). Here are very numerous primeval stone remains, the most remarkable being piles of stones placed in rows at the edges of the cliffs which face the East. Cannot they be the remains of the old Baal worship followed by the Amorites, whose name is still preserved in the country to the north of W. Muweéileh, at Dheigat el ’Amerin (the ravine of the Amorites), Ras ’Amir, and Sheikh el Amiri? At various places on our route, especially at ’Uggabeh—between Nakhl and W. Garayieh —on S. el’Ejmell, S.’Araif in Wady Lussan, we found very large numbers of cairns, stone circles with graves, and open spaces, which, to judge from the burnt earth within them, seem to have been designed for sacrificial purposes ; also enclosures, girt by rude stone walls ; and, in W. el Biyar, circular dwellings, some of which are still standing, quite perfect. In W. Rowag nearly every hill is topped by a cairn ; there are three on the summit of Jebel Araif, and we noticed that they frequently occurred as far north as Bir Seba and EI] Milh (Molada). At Muweéileh and near a neighbouring spring, Ain Guseimeh, are several caves. At the former place there is one cut in the face of the cliff, and entered by a staircase, ascending from a smaller cave below ; this has been at one time the dwelling of a Christian hermit, as we noticed crosses rudely painted in red and traces of frescoes. At this place, too, we found, with the exception of one place in W. Lussan, the first signs of regular cultivation in former times. Stones are laid in lines across the wady-beds to check and, at the same time, distribute the drainage, and to prevent the soil being washed down bya sudden seil or flood. ; Our next point was 27 Birein, so called from the two wel/s in the wady ; here are traces of considerable ruins, a fsktyeh, or reservoir, and aqueduct, the latter ruined, and the former nearly so. In the wady are some old /x¢meh or terebinth trees, remark- able as being the first trees, with the exception of two ‘‘seyals” or acacias, that we had seen since leaving Sinai. About six miles N.W. of El Birein lie the ruins of El ’Aujeh, confounded by Dr. Robinson with ’Abdeh, which I shall presently mention, situated on a low spur running into W. Hanein. This valley, however, on account of a superstition attaching to its real name, has always been called by the Arabs, when speaking to travellers, W. Hafir. Some five or six square miles of the wady are covered with ruined walls of gardens and fields ; the sides of the water- course are built up with large stones, and dams still exist across it, though all the valley is now barren and neglected. Ten miles to the east of El ’Aujeh we discovered the ruins of a fortress called ‘‘El Meshrifeh,” jerched on a projecting spur, and defended on two sides by steep cliffs, which overlook a broad plain formed by the sweep of Wady el Abyadh as it debouches from Jebel Magrah ; the south face of the cliffis fortified by escarp- ments and towers of massive masonry, and on the summit are ruins of several houses, and of a small church ; on the third side a thick wall runs across the level crest of the spur. Beneath the towers and in connection with them are numerous rock-hewn chambers ; also traces of a more ancient and, indeed, primeval wall, and pieces of masonry of a date far anterior to the rest of the buildings. On the plain above mentioned and three miles and a half to the S.E. of El Meshrifeh we found the ruins of a considerable town called S’baita. This name seems to have been heard of by former travellers, who confounded the site with Rehaibeh ; but I believe we were the first Europeans to visit the ruins. Here, as in many other cases, we experienced considerable difficulty, owing to the apprehensions of our Bedawin, who did their best to dis- suade us from going there. I succeeded, however, in taking sketches and photographs of the chief points of interest. The town contains three churches, which, like those at El Aujeh el Meshrifeh and S adi, must, I think, be referred to the 5th century. There are also two reservoirs, and a tower with a rudely orna- mented gateway. With the exception of a fragment or two at El Aujeh, this was the only instance of sculpture we saw, and not a single inscription was anywhere to be found. The structure of the buildings at S’baita is worth noticing: the upper stories of the houses are supported on wide, low-spanned arches two feet wide with intervals of three feet between them, and upon these is placed the flooring of the upper rooms, which consists of narrow slabs of stone. Numerous ruined towers and walled gardens and enclosures, extending to a distance of several miles from the town, attest its former importance. The vineyards, too, marked by the ‘‘ Teleilat el ’Aneb,” which I mentioned before, extend over large tracts in this neighbourhood. From S’baita we went to Rehaibeh, examining e7 route the ruins of S’adi,* which do not seem to have been visited or even heard of by former travellers. At Rehaibeh the ruins are of much greater extent than at S’adi, but so confused that it is im- possible to trace the plan of any single building. There are numerous wells, cisterns, and other remains of cultivation in the neighbourhood. From Rehaibeh we went to Khalasah and Bir Seba: the ruins at the former place have nearly disappeared, as the inhabitants of Gaza find it cheaper to send camels for the already squared stones than to quarry them near their town. Owing to the drought we found Bir Seba barren and deserted, though our Arabs assured us that in good seasons the grass is knee-deep, and furnishes ample pasturage for countless flocks and herds. Our unlooked-for appearance in out-of-the-way districts was usually considered by the natives to be in some manner con- nected with the exceptional drought, and on several occasions we were either implored to bring rain or cursed for the want of it, since the Arabs firmly believe that every /Vasrdui holds the weather under his control. From Bir Seba we went to Jerusalem, and, after a short stay there, returned to Hebron, where we engaged three of the Jehalin Arabs, with their camels, to convey our baggage to Petra. Taking a new route, we passed Tell Arad and El Milh, and struck into the unexplored mountains of the ’Azazimeh, where we discovered the ruins of the El ’Abdeh (Eboda), which are of considerable extent, and similarly placed to those of El Mesh- rifeh, most of the dwellings here, as there, being half excavated and half built. Of the buildings now standing, the greater part are of Christian times. The natives are perfect savages, and detained us for two hours from visiting the ruins by collecting in a gang tothe number of thirteen on the top of a pass, singing their war-song, throwing down stones, and occasionally firing off one of their old match-locks in bravado, and swearing by God and the Prophet that no one should come up. As the pass was very narrow, almost precipitous, we judged it best to propitiate them, a task accomplished, after much discussion, at the cost of eight shillings. They then escorted us to the ruins, where we took such measurements and photographs as we required. From ’Abdeh we went through the ’Azazimeh mountain, a region so awfully desolate as to defy description, struck the ’Arabah at the junction of W. Jerafeh with W. Ghamz, and crossed thence to Petra. Here the Liyathineh fully maintained their character for brutality and insolence. Infidels in all but the name of Moslims, they are descended from the tribe of Khaiberi Jews, who bear such a bad character in Arabia. To add to our dis- comfort, we were snowed up for two days ina tent only just large enough for us both to lie down in. During a stay of six days, however, Petra was thoroughly examined by us and accu- rately mapped. We then bent our steps northwards, and at El Barid, about seven miles from Petra, discovered a colony of dwell- ings and temples cut in the rock, and some rudely chipped Nabathzean inscriptions. The walls and ceilings of the rock- chambers were decorated with frescoes, some coarse others well executed. We next travelled down the ’Arabah to the Dead Sea, and having examined the Lisan, went up into Moab. Here we stopped about three weeks and wandered over the country in search of inscriptions, as Mr. Palmer had specially come to ascertain if another Moabite stone was in existence. At last, however, we both came to the conclusion that above ground there are none. From Moab we crossed the Jordan, near Jericho, and returned to Jerusalem. (To be continued.) SCIENTIFIC SERIALS Tue fifth part ofthe nineteenth volume of the Pa/contographica recently published, is devoted to the description by Prof. Schenk, of fossil plants from the north German Wealden formation. The plants here described and figured upon 8 plates are all cryptoga- mous, and with the exception ofa single Chara, and four Zgzise/a belong to the group of ferns, of which 21 species are noticed ; but it must be remarked that Prof. Schenk has considerably lessened the apparent number of species by reducing a great many of the names given by former authors to the rank of synonyms. At the same time he describes and figures seven forms as new species, one as the type of a new genus, JMarsilidium, belonging to the Rhizocarpeze, and he also establishes the new genus Matonidium for Laccopteris Gopperti, Schimper. The other new species be- long to the genera Sphenofteris, Alethopteris, Laccopteris, Olean- * S’adi is two-and-a-half miles E.S.E. of Rehaibeh. 36 dridium, Dictyophyllum and Protopteris, the last being doubtfully represented by a portion of a tree-like stem. THE second part of, Tome xx. of the Afémotres de la Swcitte de Physique et d’ Histoire Naturelle de Genéve (1870) contains an exceedingly important zoological paper, namely, a supplement to Prof. Claparéde’s descriptive account of the Chzetopod Anne- lides of the Gulf of Naples. This not only includes descriptions of many new forms discovered by M. Claparede during the winter of 1868-69, but furnishes him with an opportunity of effecting a combination between his own observations and those of Prof. Ehlers, whose valuable work on the Chztophorous Annelides appeared almost simultaneously with Prof. Claparéde’s former publication. The memoir is illustrated with fourteen beautiful plates. This part also contains descriptions by Dr. J. E. Duby of some minor little-known exotic mosses, accompanied by four plates. THE first and second numbers of the Bollettino del R. Comitato Geologico ad’ Italia, published together for the months of January and February of the present year, contain some interesting papers, among which, perhaps, the most important is that on the temperature of the rocks in the Mont Cenis tunnel, communicated by the engineer, M. F. Giordano. The highest temperature observed was 29'50° C. (=85:10° F.) at a distance of 6,450 metres (about 21,000 feet) from the southern opening, at the same time that the temperature of the rock at 400 metres (about 1,300 feet) from the opening was only 11° C. (= 38:2° F.). M. Giordano also publishes notes on the geological constitution of the Roman Campagna, illustrated with three long sections, These numbers also contain a translation into Italian of G. von Rath’s memoir on the environs of the lake of Bolsena, an extract from a paper by Prof. T. Taramelli on the Eocene formation of Feiuli, and some short bibliographical notices. THE editor of the Geological Magazine, in his April number (No. 82), has resumed his series of notices of eminent living geologists with a sketch of the scientific life of Mr. Vhomas Davidson, illustrated with a good portrait. That Mr. Davidson’s labours on the Brachiopoda fully entitle him to such an honour no one will be inclined to deny, but one is somewhat startled at learning what is the real result of his activity, chiefly in this field of research, and being told that his published writings occupy about 2,220 pages, and are illustrated with 244 plates, all or n2arly of them drawn by his ownhand! Mr. H. B. Woodward describes a curious example of the inversion of strata belonging to the carboniferous series at Vobster, in Somersetshire, to the north of the Mendip Hills, where coal is worked beneath moun- tain limestone. This phenomenon has been ascribed to a folding over of the main ridge of the Mendips, but the author adduces what seem to be good reasons in opposition to this view, and endeavours to account for it by local disturbance associated with faults. He illustrates his views by means of a diagram section. —Mr. G. H. Kinahan communicates a paper on Kolian drift or blowing sands in Ireland, ia which he explains these peculiar deposits as being the products of the action of glaciers during the glacial period. —M. De Rance describes the pre-glacial’geography of norhern Cheshire. The number also contains a reprint of Mr. David Forbes’ lecture on the nature of the earth’s interior, and the usual reviews and short communications, THE Transactions of the Linnean Society, vol. xxvii. part 3, has just been issued, containing three papers, each illustrated with 4to. plates :—Observations on the Lichens collected by Dr. Robert Brown in West Greenland in 1867, by Dr. W. Lauder Lindsay ; On the Vertebrate Skeleton, by Mr. St. George Mivart ; and Descriptions of some British Spiders new to science, by the Rey. O. P. Cambridge. Mr. Mivart’s article is devoted to a discussion of the following questions :—1. What is the best way to seek a friori a general view of the axial skeleton? 2. What is the éssential nature of ribs, transverse processes, and sternum? 3. What is the essential nature o! branchial arches, and in what relation do they stand to the ribs? 4. What is the essential nature, as compared with branchial arches, of the hyoidean arch, mandible, and more anterior structures? 5. What relations exist between the ‘‘ chevron” bones and other parts of the vertebrate skeleton? The appendicular skeleton, as distinct from the axial skeleton, consisting of the anterior and posterior limbs, is also discussed. THE Proceedings of the Natural History Society of Dublin for the sessions 1867-68, 1868-69, vol. v. parts iii. and iv., was published on May 3, 1871. Among the more important papers NATURE [A/vy 11, 1871 we notice :—Prof. W. King ‘‘On some Palliobranchiate Shells from the Irish Atlantic ;” Prof. Macalister ‘‘ On the Myology of the Otter,” ‘‘On the pyloric appendages of the common Trout,” ‘On the Flora of Kinross-shire,” and ‘‘On the arrangement of Pronator Muscles in the limbs of Vertebrate Animals.—Dr. D. Moore ‘‘On the Botanical Congress of Paris of 1867,” and *‘ On Addenda to British and Irish Muscology.”” Dr. A. W Foot “On some points observed in the dissection of an Aylesbury Duck.” Rey. E. O’Meara ‘‘ On’some new Arran Diatomacez ” (Plate 13). W. Archer ‘‘On a peculiar cyst-like structure enclosing examples of Staurastrum cuspidatum,” &c., and ‘‘On some Freshwater Rhizopoda” (Plates 8, 9, 10). _ Prof, E. P. Wright ‘‘ On 7Zxéi- pora musica” (Plate 11). Notes of a tour in the spring and summer of 1868 to Sicily and Portugal (Plate 12). These Parts conclude vol. v., and have title page, index, and appendices. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES LONDON Royal Institution of Great Britain, May 8.—Sir Henry Holland, Bart., M.D., president, in the chair.—The following Vice-presidents were nominated for the ensuing year :—Duke of Northumberland, Lord Lindsay, W. Spottiswoode, the Treasurer, Sir Frederick Pollock. William S. Burton, Arthur Samuel Hobson, Richard Liebreich, Abraham De Mattos Mocatta, and Edward Stanhope Pearson, were elected members. John Tyn- dall, F.R.S., was re-elected Professor of Natural Philosophy. Zoological Society, April 29 (Anniversary Meeting).— Viscount Walden, president, in the chair. After some preli- minary business, the report of the Council was read by Mr. P. L. Sclater, F.R.S., the secretary. It stated that the number of Fellows of the Society on the Ist of January last was 3,021, showing a net addition of fifty-five ordinary members to the roll during the year 1870. Twelve new corresponding members had likewise been elected during the year 1870. The total income of the society during the year 1870 was stated to have been 23,257/., being 4887. more than that of the preceding year. The total ordinary expenditure had been 21,364/., in which sum had been included every item necessary to keep the society’s establishment in its present state of efficiency. Besides this the sum of 3,043/. had been devoted to extraordinary expenditure, in the shape of new buildings and works in the gardens. Of these works the most important was the new elephant-house, on completing which the sum of 2,324/. had been expended. This, whenadded to the sums spent upon the same building in former years, had raised the total cost of that building to 6,356/., in which, however, the yards, ponds, fences, terrace walk in front, and the necessary arrangement of the adjoining grounds were included. Other works carried on in the society’s gardens during the past year had been the completion of the new first-class refreshment-room, and the extension of the system of heating the buildings by hot-water apparatus. The total number of visitors to the society’s gardens during the year 1870 had been 573,004, showing an increase of 156 over the corresponding number in 1869. The greatest daily number of admissions in 1870 (28,457) was on Whit Monday, the 5th of June ; the least number (28) on the 3rd of March ; the average daily number of admissions throughout the year had been 1,570. Thenumber of animals contained in the society’s mena- gerie on the 31st of December, 1870, was stated to have been 2,118, showing an increase of 105 when compared with the corresponding number at the same date in the previous year. Among the additions made to the collection during the year 1870 had been a considerable number of special interest, either on account or their scientific novelty or from not having been pre- viously brought to England ina living state. Full particulars concerning these were given, as also a list of the species that had bred in the society’s gardens during the year. The report then proceeded to give a long list of donors and their several donations to the menagerie, after which, in conclusion, the council con- trasted the present state of the society’s affairs with that which had existed ten yearsiago. In 1860, they observed, the total number of Fellows was 1,716; it was now 3,021 ; in 1860 the nmber of visitors to the society’s gardens had been 394.906 ; in 1870 it had been 573,004. The total income of the society in 1860 was 16,8647. ; in 1870 it had amounted to 23,2577. In 1860 the reserve fund was 3,000/. Reduced Three per Cents. ; it had now been augmented to 7,000/. of the same stock. Moreover, during the past ten years, sums amounting altogether to upwards May 11, 1871] of 46,0007. had been devoted to the permanent improvement of the society’s.garden establishment, the expenditure of which had enabled the council to renew nearly the whole of the more m- portant buildings on an improved and enlarged scale. These facts, it was believed, could not be otherwise than gratifying to the Fellows of the society. The society then proceeded to ballot for the council and officers for the ensuing year, when Lord Cal- thorpe, Mr. Francis Galton, F.R.S., Captain the Count Gleichen, R.N., Mr. John Gould, F.R.S., and Dr. Hamilton were elected into the council, in the place of Professor Huxley, F.R.S., Mr. J. Travers Smith, Lord Walsingham, Mr. G. R. Waterhouse, and the Bishop of Winchester, who retired therefrom, and Viscount Walden was re-elected president; Mr. Robert Drummond, treasurer; and Mr. P. L. Sclater, F.R.S., secretary. Zoological Society, May 2.—Viscount Walden, President, in the chair. A letter was read from W. H. Hudson, addressed to the secretary, containing observations on the habits of the various swallows met within and around Buenos Ayres.—Mr. P. L. Sclater exhibited and made remarks on the shell of a river- tortoise of the genus Pelomedusa, obtained by Mr. Chapman on the Upper Zambesi.—Prof. Flower exhibited and made remarks on the mounted skeleton of the young hippoptoamus, recently born in the Society’s Gardens.—-The Viscount Walden read a paper on the Birds of the island of Celebes, in which the materials hitherto available for the elaborationof its avi-fauna were brought together and discussed. Out of the generic forms met with in Celebes, thirty-eight appeared to be Indian, and twenty-three Australian in character. To these were added a strong element of individuality, shown by the presence of sixty-five species, and nine genera unknown elsewhere. The avi-fauna of Celebes, so far as was certainly known, was composed of 193 species; but the author observed that a considerable portion of the centre of the island remained unexplored, which gave a prospect of future discoveries. —A communication was read from Mr. W. Harper Pease, of Honolulu, Sandwich Islands, containing a catalogue of all the known Jand-shells inhabiting Polynesia, together with remarks on their synonomy, distribution, and variation, and descriptions of some new genera and species.—A com- munication was read from Dr. John Anderson, Curator of the Indian Museum, Calcutta, containing the description of a new generic form of newt from Western Yunan, proposed to be called Tulototriton verrucosus.—A second communication from Dr. J. Anderson contained some drawings of and notes on the original specimens of Zestudo phayrei, Blyth, in the Indian Museum. Having examined the skull in the British Museum upon which Scaphia falconert, Gray, had been based, and re-examined the smaller example of Zéstudo phayret at Calcutta, Dr, Anderson had come to the conclusion that Mr. Theobald’s account of its history was strictly accurate.—A communication was read from Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., entitled Notes on the species of Brady- jide in the British Museum. Geological Society, April 26.—Prof. Morris, vice-president, in the chair.— Mr. Robert Russell, of the Geological Survey of England and Wales, was elected a Fellow of the Society. The following communications were read :—1. ‘‘On a new species of Coral from the Red Crag of Waldringfield,” by Prof. P. Martin Duncan, F.R.S. Prof. Duncan described, under the name of Solenastr@a Prestwichi, a small compound coral obtained by Mr. A. Bell from Waldringfield, and stated that it was par- ticularly interesting as belonging to a reef-forming type of corals which has persisted at least from the Eocene period to the pre- sent day. The single specimen consisted of several small crowded corallites, having calices from 4; to 4, inch in diameter, united by a cellular epithecal ccenenchyma. It was much rolled and worn before its deposition in the Red Crag, and hence the author regarded it as a derivative fossil in that formation, and he stated that it probably belonged to the rich reef-building coral-fauna which succeeded that of the Nummulitic period. Mr. Etheridge remarked that the origin of this interesting fossil seemed uncer- tain. It appeared, however, to be derived from some other source, and not to have originally belonged to the Red Crag. In England the genus was hitherto unknown in beds newer than those of Brockenhurst. The presence of this single specimen showed how much we had still to learn with regard to the crag formation. It was to be hoped that the coral might eventually be found attached to some organism from which its age might be determined. Prof. T. Rupert Jones remarked that he would be glad to hear of more corals being discovered in the so-called Coralline Crag. He inquired whether coenenchymatous corals NATURE 37 were necessarily reef-corals, observing that this coral was referred to the Miocene on account of its presumed reef-forming character. He added that some of the Foraminifera of the White Crag had the aspect of existing Western Mediterranean forms, and thus supported some of Prof. Duncan’s remarks. Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys observed that the distinction between the Coralline and Red Crag seemed to be every day diminishing. The appearance of the fossil seemed to betoken its derivative character. Like other speakers, he complimented Mr. Alfred Bell on his great intelli- gence in the collection of crag fossils. Prof. Duncan, in reply, maintained that the differences between deep-sea and reef-building corals were well established, and around modern reefs in the deeper sea the forms were quite distinct, and the deep-sea corals never presented the ccenenchyma distinctive of the reef-building form. This, he suggested, might be connected with the differ- ence in the amount of sea-water with which it was brought in contact, which in the surf was much greater than in the almost motionless depths of the sea.—2. ‘‘ Notes on the Minerals of Strontian, Argyleshire,” by Robert H. Scott, M.A., F.R.S. The paper stated that the existing lists of minerals to be found at Strontian were incorrect. The discovery of apophyllite, talc, and zircon seemed to be hardly sufficiently confirmed. On the other hand, Mr. Scott named several species which he had him- self observed ## situ, and which are not noticed in any of the books, viz., two felspars, orthoclase, and an anorthic felspar in the granite ; two varieties of pyroxenic minerals in the granite and syenites, neither of which have as yet been analysed ; natro- lite in the trap-dykes, muscovite or margarodite in very large plates, lepidomelane and schorl. Specimens of these minerals and of the others found at the mines were exhibited ; but it was s'ated that, owing to the fact that the old workings at the mines in Glen Strontian had been allowed to fall in, it was now no longer possible to ascertain much about the association of the species. The one is galena, containing very little silver. The gangue is remarkable for the absence of fluor and the compara- tive rarity of blende and heavy spar. Harmotome is found prin- cipally at a mine called Bell’s Grove, both in the opaque variety and in the clear one called moryenite. Brewsterite occurs at the mine called Middle Shap, and at the mine Whitesmith stron: tianite is found with brewsterite, but without harmotome. Cal- cite is alse very common. Within the last few years a new mine has been opened called Corrantee, which is in the gneiss, whereas the other mines lie on the junction of the granite and gneiss. At this mine several fine specimens of calcite have occurred, many of them coated with twin crystals of harmotome, similar to those from Andreasberg, whereas the crystals found at the old mine are not so clearly macled. Associated with these were found a number of small hexagonal prisms, perfectly clear, and exhibit- ing a very obtuse dihedral termination. They gave the blowpipe reaction of harmotome; and on analysis by Dr. J. E. Reynolds, proved to be that mineral. Descloiseaux has already described a quadrifacial termination to harmotome, with an angle of 178° 20’. Mr. Scott submitted that possibly the crystals which he exhibited might bear faces which had a close relation to those described by Descloiseaux. He concluded by stating that Strontian promised as rich asharvest to the mineralogist as any locality is these islands. Mr. W. W. Smyth mentioned the wonderful collection of minerals from Strontian which had been brought to the Great Exhibition of 1861, which gave a most striking idea of the mineral riches of the locality. The occurrence of such a ser es of different substances in one locality in the granite was almost unparalleled, though in the Andreasberg mines, in clay state, they were to some extent rivalled. The features, however, differed in the two places, more silver and a greater number of zeolites being present in the Hartz mines. Mr. D. Forbes observed that harmotome occurred also at the Kongsberg silver- mines in Norway, at a distance from granite. He thought it remarkable that these crystals of peculiar form occurred in the same spot and in connection with crystals of the same substance, but of the ordinary form. Mr. Davis remarked that celestine was also to be placed on the list of the minerals fiom Strontian. Harmotome had been found in the same form of double crystals at Bodenwies in Bavaria. Mr. Scott stated, in reply to a ques- tion from the chairman, that the mineral had not been as yet optically examined, but that if he could procure more of it he should be happy to place it at the disposal of any gentleman who would examine it. As regarded the idea that harmotome usually occurred near the surface, he could give no information about the old mines, as they had been allowed to fall in ; but most certainly the new specimens from Corrantee came from surface-workings, He was very glad to leam from Mr, Davis that celestine had 38 7 NATURE [AZay 11, 1871 been found at the locality ; and he felt sure that careful search would double or treble the number of species known to occur there. With reference to what had fallen from Prof. Smyth, he could fully corroborate his observations as to the difference between the forms of calcite associated with harmotome at An- dreasberg, in the Hartz, and at Strontian. It was remarkable that the general facies of the crystals of calcite occurring at Cor- rantee, where the lode was entirely in the gneiss, differed from that usually observed in the old mines in Glen Strontian, which were partly in the granite and partly in the gneiss. 3. “On the probable origin of Deposits of ‘Loess’ in North China and Eastern Asia.” By Mr. T, W. Kingsmill, of Shanghai. Communicated by Prof. Huxley, F.R.S., V.P.G.S. The author stated that the Baron yon Richthofen had lately applied the term ‘©Loess” to a light clay deposit covering immense tracts in the north of China. n measure corresponding to the Kunkur of India, and thought that it probably extended far into the elevated plains of Central Asia. Richthofen considered that this deposit had been pro- duced by subaérial action upon a surface of dry land ; the author argued that it is of marine origin, having been deposited when the region which it covers was depressed at least 6,000 feet, a depression the occurrence of which since the commencement of the Tertiary period he considered to be proved by the mode of deposition of the Upper Nanking sandstones and conglomerates, the bold escarpments of the hills on either side of the Yangtsze, and other peculiarities of the country. Prof. Ramsay remarked that the author had not proved that the loess he described was really stratified. Hecould not agree with his views of the inland escarpments he mentioned haying been old coast lines. It was only accidentally that sea cliffs had any connection with the line of strike of the strata, whereas inland cliffs always followed the strike. He thought the phenomena were rather in accordance with a long exposure of the land to subaérial influences than with the loess, having been of marine origin. Even in England, in those parts which had long been free from marine action, beds of brick earth had been formed. He also instanced the plains of Picardy as exhibiting a vast extent of such subaérial beds. Prof. T. Rupert Jones said that though the area treated of by Mr. Kingsmill was too large to have its geology explained merely by reference to rain-wash and valley deposits, whatever his low- level loess might be, the higher accumulations of loamy deposits, stated to be 1,000 feet thick at an elevation of 3,000 feet, and re- garded by Mr. Kingsmillas the quiet water sediments ofa great gulf with the miocene conglomerates and sandstones of Nanking and elsewhere for its marginal equivalents, appeared to require different explanation. All loess need not be of sea origin ; in oscillations of land marine deposits must be carried up to great heights: and, referring to Mr. H. M. Jenkins’s determination of the marine origin of the loess of Belgium, Prof. Jones thought it highly probable that some at least of that in China may have been similarly formed. Mr. Hughes said that the author appeared to have grouped together all the superficial deposits of a vast area without explaining very clearly the grounds upon which he identified those deposits at distant points. He did not prove that what he called the shore deposit was marine, or that it was of the same age as the loam which he described, and which Mr. Hughes thought, from the description, was far more likely to be subaerial. Mr. Evans and Mr. Etheridge suggested the probability of much of the so-called loess might be derived from higher loamy beds, possibly derived from the decomposition of limestone rocks con- taining sand and clay, and redeposited by the action of rain. The following specimens were exhibited :—Minerals from Stron- tian ; exhibited by Mr. Scott, in illustration of his paper. Corals ; exhibited by Prof. Duncan, in illustration of his paper. Royal Geographical Society, April 25.—Major-General Sir Henry C. Rawlinson, K.C.B., vice-president, in the chair. The following new Fellows were elected :—Mr. G. E. Bell ; Staff- Commander Charles Burney, R.N.; Messrs. Walter J. Ellis ; J.C. W. P. Graham ; Simon Little ; Henry Syme. A letter was read from Mr. R. B. Shaw to Sir Roderick Murchison, on that por- tion of his recent journey to Yarkand (with Mr. Forsyth) in which, detached from the rest of the party, he explored the rugged country between the western extremity of the Thibetan Plateau and the Valley of the Upper Shayok. He described the plateau (17,000 feet high) as ending abruptly on the west in a great limestone range, which, like the masonry vevefement of an embankment, has protected the level table-land from the wearing influence of the rains from clouds sweeping up the The author regarded this formation as in great. Shayok Valley. Standing on the edge of the plateau, the whole country westward appeared as an irregular mass of snowy peaks and narrow precipitous valleys. In attempting to descend one of the valleys towards the Karakoram road, the party suffered fearfully in struggling for three days through the broken ice of a torrent at the bottom of a stupendous chasm, from which, in some places, the light of day was nearly excluded. —A second communication was read “ On the Journey of the Mirza across the Pamir Steppe to Yarkand and Kashgar,” by Major Mont- gomerie. This was a detailed report of the journey of an Afghan gentleman, instructed by the officers of the Trigonometrical Survey to traverse the Mahomedan countries across the Hindoo Koosh and Pamir Steppe, eastward to the plains of Eastern Turkestan. The journey was successful in its main object ; and we have now, for the first time, a scientific account of those little-known regions, with the means of fixing the geographical position of all the important places. The Mirza proceeded from Fyzabad eastward, along one of the head-waters of the Oxus, arising in Lake Pamir-Kul (13,300 feet), and thence to Tash Kurgan, Yanghissar and Kashgar. Crossing the elevated re- gion of the Pamir, he suffered fearfully from the cold, although well clad, even to the lining of his boots, in warm woollen clothing. Sir Henry Rawlinson explained to the meeting that the Mirza’s route was the same as that followed by Marco Polo and Benedict Goez, and in later times by Mahomed Amin. He also stated that the vexed problem of the longitude of Yarkand (placed by the Schlagintweits about 200 miles too far to the west) had been solved by the recent lunar observations of Mr. Shaw, the computation of which had been completed that day, at the Geographical Society, by Mr. W. Ellis of the Greenwich Obser- vatory. These observations placed Yarkand in E. long. 77° 14 45'’. Colonel Walker, of the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India, and Sir A. Scott Waugh also addressed the meeting, chiefly on the subject of the employment of native observers in the geo- graphical exploration of the regions beyond the British boundaties. Chemical Society, May 4.—Dr. Warren De La Rue, F.R.S., vice-president, in the chair. The following gentle- men were elected Fellows :—Messrs. R. S. Best, C. S$. Cross, W. H. Darling, G. H. Ogston, I. Schweitzer, and. W. A. Smith. Dr. Volcker delivered a lecture ‘‘ On the Productive Powers of Soils in Relation to the Loss of Plant Food by Drainage.’ The lecturer began by showing the futility of the belief that a soil-analysis could reveal whether a land was pro- ductive or not. To those who only imperfectly know the teach- ings of modern agricultural science, it appears very simple to remedy a deficient soil by finding out through analysis the want- ing constituents, and then to supply them, But this is not so. Not only is it difficult exactly to analyse a soil, but many other conditions besides the composition of a land have to be observed. The state of combination in which the mineral constituents of a land are found, the physical condition of the soil, the presence or absence of some matter injurious to the growth of plants, all these are so many important points upon which soil-analysis throws no light whatever. The lecturer equally opposes the views of those who advocate that in a system of rational farming there should be kept up a debtor and creditor account as regards the constituents which are removed from the soil in the crops grown upon it, and the quantity of fertilising matter restored to itinthe shape of manure. The fertility of the soil cannot be maintained, much less increased, if only as much fertilising constituents would be applied to the land as one re- moyes from it in the crops. Dr. Volcker then discussed the relative values of various mineral salts as manures, quoting in support of his views the results of the classical field experiments of Lawes and Gilbert; and this then led the lecturer to speak of the examination of land-drainage waters. Lawes and Gilbert, throughout a long series of experiments on the growth of wheat, have experienced a great loss of nitrogen ; the amount of nitro- gen supplied in the manures was greater than that recovered in the increased produce. It appeared to Dr. Volcker that the nitrogen lost might have passed into the drains. Careful collection of such drainage waters, and their analysis, proved Dr. Volcker’s supposition to be correct. It became clear that, in whatever form the nitrogen is applied to the soil, a large proportion of it is carried off chiefly in the form of nitrates. At all times of the year, but especially during the active period of growth of the crops, nitrates are found in the watery liquid which circulates in the land, whereas ammonia salts are never met with in any appreciably large quantities. It may therefore be assumed tha May 11, 1871] NATURE she) it is chiefly, if not solely, from the nitrates that the crops build up their nitrogenous organic constituents. Dr. Volcker’s analyses of drainage waters further showed that potash and phosphoric acid, which certainly are the most important mineral constituents for the plant, are almost entirely retained in the soil, whilst the less important, as lime or magnesia, or sulphuric acid, pass with greater readiness out of the land. Entomological Society, May 1.—Prof. Westwood, M.A., F.L.S., in the chair. Mr. Higgins exhibited fine collections of exotic Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, &c., from Natal and Bomeo, and a number of photographic coloured figures of larvze from Natal. —Mr. Meek exhibited Vjssia lapponaria, Duponchel, captured in Perthshire by Mr. Warrington, and new to Britain.—Mr. Champion exhibited Scydmenus rufus, captured by him in Rich- mond Park, a beetle new to Britain.—The Rey. R. P. Murray exhibited a collection of Swiss insects, including a singular variety of Lycena Eurydice.—Mr. Bicknell exhibited an extraordinary specimen of Conepteryx rhamini, captured by Mr. Cowan at Beckenham in March 1870; this individual had the central margin of both fore wings, and of the right hind wing, broadly suffused with deep crimson ; it was considered that the colour was accidental, and probably owing to the wings having come in contact with some chemical substance. Mr. Bicknell exhibited varieties of other British Lepidoptera.—Mr. Stainton exhibited drawings of Micro-Lepidoptera from New Grenada collected by Baron von Noloken.—Mr. M‘Lachlan exhibited the tusk of a female Indian elephant lent to him by Dr. Sclater. The root of this tusk was much eroded and blackened, and on the diseased part were long rows of eggs, apparentlysthose of some insect. The elephant had been shot in Malabar by Mr. G. S. Roden, of the 1st Royal, and both its tusks were in the same condition. Furthermore, it appeared from the notes of a writer in the /7e/d that this circumstance was not uncommon, but always occurred in the female elephant. None of the members could give any information respecting the parasite, but it was generally considered that the parasite had not caused the decay, but rather that it had taken advantage of a previously morbid condition.—Mr. Lewis exhibited an earthern jar, like an ordinary tobacco jar, of Chinese manufacture. It had an enormously thick porous bottom, and it was stated that the inhabitants of Pekin use these jars for the purpose of confining large beetles, which they keep for fighting. The beetles are allowed no food but water, and become extremely ferocious. Prof. Westwood reminded the meeting that the Chinese were already known to keep mantides for fighting purposes.—M. Miiller read notes on a gall on the common brake (Péeris aguilina) found by Mr. Roth- way, and he remarked that Schenck had noticed the same gall in Germany, and referred it to Diastrophus rubi.—Prof. West- wood read descriptions of new species of Zucanida.—Mr. Bates read a description of a remarkable longicorn beetle from Matabili land, in the interior of South Africa, sent to him by Mr. T. Baines. This insect he proposed to call Bolbotritus Bainesii. It was especially remarkable for the enormously swollen third joint of the antennz, the other joints being much shortened. Mr. Bates also read a description of a new species of AZal/aspis from Chiriqui, which he named J/. frace/lens.—Mr. Kirby com- municated synonymic notes on European Lefrdoftera.—Attention was called to paragraphs going the round of the London daily papers respecting a so-called storm of insects said to have occurred on two occasions recently at Bath. These records were charac- rised by the usual newspaper inaccuracy and vagueness on scientific matters. Prof. Westwood thought they probably re- ferred to Branchypus stagnalis, a large fresh-water entromos- tracon, =: Linnean Society, May 4.—Mr. G. Bentham, president, in the chair. Dr. Oswald Heer, of Zurich, was elected a foreign member in the place of the late Prof. Unger. The following papers were read :—‘‘ The phenomena of Protective Mimicry, and its bearing on the theory of Natural Selection, as illustrated by the Lepidoptera: of the British Islands,’ by Raphael Mel- dola, F.C.S. “Onthe Ascalaphidz,” by R. McLachlan. Society of Biblical Archeology, May 2.—Dr. S. Birch, F.S.A., president, in the chair. The following new mem- bers were balloted for, and duly elected :—Louis Blacker, Rey. D. S. Heath, M.A., F.R.S.L., and Mrs. L. Blacker. The President read a paper ‘‘On a Hieroglyphic Tablet of Alex- ander II. (Agus) son of Alexander the Great, recently dis- covered at Cairo.” This tablet was dedicated to the goddess Buto, and is dated in the seventh year of Alexander (311 B.c.). It records the restoration to the priests of Buto of the district formerly given to them by Khabash, an Egyptian monarch, con- temporaneous with the later years of Darius and Xerxes, which last monarch is mentioned in disparaging terms, probably to flatter Ptolemy, the Macedonian ruler of Egypt, who is styled on it, ‘* The Satrap of Alexander.” Dr. Birch also contributed a second paper, based upon communications received from Lieut. Prideaux, containing the interpretation by himself and the Baron de Moltzan, of three bronze tablets, with inscriptions in the Himyaritic character, recording adorations by Hanbaz, an Him- yaritic monarch, to the deities Ath-tor and Wud on the conquest of the town of Kuderamelek.—A third paper was further read by Prof. Goldschmidt (of Copenhagen) on the derivation of the name Aiyumros, from Ukh-hap-t, 7c, ‘“‘the land of the good stream-sending spirit.” Some discussion followed the reading of these papers, Messrs. W. R. A. Boyle, S. M. Drach, Rev. T. Gorman, Rey, I. Mills, Sir Charles Nicholson, &c., took patt. CAMBRIDGE Philosophical Society, May 1.—Mr. G. Hale, M.A., and Mr. C. Smith, B,A., Sidney College, and Mr. A. G. Greenhill, B.A., St. John’s College, were elected Fellows. The following paper was read :—‘‘On the Measurement of an arc of the Meri- dian in Lapland,” by Mr. I. Todhunter, F.R.S. The object of this memoir was to draw attention to the numerous errors which have been made, even by distinguished astronomers, in their accounts of the two measurements of an are of the meridian in Lapland. A comparison of the original authorities on the subject at once detects these errors, and supplies the necessary correc- tions, EDINBURGH Royal Physical Society, April 26.—Mr. C. W. Peach president, in the chair, After the appointment of committees for carrying on special investigations during the summer, Dr. M ‘Bain communicated a paper by ‘Dr. John Kennedy Elis, ‘‘ Remarks on a Japanese Skull.”—Dr. Robert Brown read ‘‘ Notes on the Breeding Places and Food of some Scottish Sea Birds,” by Captain M’Donald, Fishery Cruiser Vigi/ant.—Mr. Peach ex- hibited a fine mass of gulf weed covered with small cirripedes, which he received on Monday last from Captain N. Leslie, of the ship Zady A/i/ton, now lying at West Hartlepool, picked up on the homeward voyage ; and then read the following extract from the captain’s letter :—‘‘I picked up a lot of gulf weed in 32 N. and 7 70 W., on the 9th of March. I send a sample; it looked very beautiful when fresh, so many little barnacles, and all full of life when in a bucket of water. I am now sorry that none of it was bottled, if only for curiosity ; it might lead you to something of a knowledge of seasons, as I never saw so many barnacles on a voyage as J have this time, either on seaweed or wreck, and, strange to say, there are none on the ship’s bottom. Last year we saw none on the seaweeds, &c., when the quarters of the ship were nearly covered with them, and this although we had not so much fine weather as this.”—Mr. Peach stated that the cirripede most abundant in the parcel thus sent was covered with bars and spines, much like Oxymaselis celata of Darwin's monograph, but it differed in so many respects that it might prove to be a new species.—Mr, Andrew Taylor read ‘‘ Notes on the Geology of Inchkeith.” NEW ZEALAND Wellington Philosophical Society, January 28.—Hon. W. B. D. Mantell, F.G.S., president, in the chair. From the report of the Council it appears that out of fifty-nine communications made to the Society during the past year forty-four will appear in the forthcoming volume of the Transactions. The number of members has increased from 85 to 103, and the accounts show a balance in hand of 60/. Ios. 7d. The chief item of expenditure has been a grant of 50/. in aid of the Botanic Gardens, for the purpose of having the collection of native plants completed by the addition of those found in other parts of the colony, and also in providing labels for the principal trees and shrubs along the paths, giving the scientific and native naues. The office bearers chosen for the ensuing year are W, T. L. Travers, F.L.S., President; J. C. Crawford, F.G.S.. and W. L. Buller, F.L.S., Vice-Presidents, with J. Hector, M.D., F.R.S,, and Messrs, J. Kebbell, W. Lyon, F.G.S., R, Hart, and W. Skey, as members of the Council. F. M. Oilivier, Esq., Hon. Secretary and Treasurer. Messrs. J. Prendergast, G, Allan, W. Colenso, F.Z.S., and Dr. Knox, were elected new 40 NATURE | May 11, 1872 members.—Dr. Hector called attention to a live katipo or poisonous native spider, with nest and young ones, on the table, and read a short notice by Mr. Duigan, of Wanganui, of an extra- ordinary flight of beetles that passed over that district in Decem- ber last.—A paper was then read by Mr. Travers from Mr. Shand, of the Chatham Islands, describing the different kinds of Mokihi or flax stalk canoes that the natives used in former times, a model of one of whichis in the Museum.—Dr. Hector gave an interesting account of the reports he had received from more than thirty stations respecting the magnificent meteor that passed over New Zealand on the Ist instant, at 8.30 p.M., which, he stated, had a general course from about a point west of north through the zenith of Picton, over which place it passed at less than thirty miles altitude above the surface of the earth, travelling with an apparent velocity of 12 miles per second. Its form was that of a ball intensely luminous, of a reddish hue, with a long very brilliant tapering tail, the light of which resembled burning magnesium wire, but giving off red sparks. It completely eclipsed the light of the moon which was shining brightly. The area over which it had been seen has a length of 700 miles, and width of 300, from lat. 36°S., long. 122° E., to lat. 46°S., long. 175° E. The apparent diameter of the head was 10’, and the length of the tail tapering about 1° Some of the observations appear to indicate that its course must have descended towards the earth’s surface, but this depends on mere estimates of angular altitude, which cannot be dependedon. The prolonged detonation which followed the passage of the meteor does not appear to have been heard at all the stations, but chiefly at those in the vicinity of Cook Strait, where the path of the meteor intersected New Zealand, all the observers in the North Island having seen it to the west, and those in the South Island to the east. When nearest to Wellington it must have been at a distance in a direct: | line of fifty-five miles, which agrees with the time, five minutes, which elapsed before the report was heard. This shows that the report did not proceed from the final bursting of the meteor, but proceeded from it at the time it was nearest to the observer. In- deed, from the length of the path in which the meteor was seen, its sudden disappearance, as if by bursting, must have been an optical illusion in the case of all the northerly observers. Mr. Marchant stated that he had witnessed another meteor, almost equal in brilliancy to the above, on the previous evening (27th inst.), passing from east to west. Mr. Floyd of the Telegraph Department, stated that this meteor was reported at several stations in the North Island, and appeared to have passed over Napier on the east, to Patea on the west coast. Its colour was blue.—After some further discussion two important papers on the electromotive and conductive power of mineral sulphides, were read by Mr. Skey, in which he claims to have made some discoveries. Paris Academie des Sciences, April 21.—Eighteen members present. The sitting wasnotdevoid of interest, although the comm1- nications were far from numerous. M. Egger, professor of Greek at the Sorbonne and member of the Academie des Belles Lettres, availed himself of the privilege granted to the members of dif- ferent academies. He read a very long dissertation on a papy- rus found in 1866, which gave a great deal of information on the state of ancient Egyptian civilisation. It related chiefly to the prices of different articles used in those times. The bursting of the shells and the thunder of French artillery was distinctly heard. It was an impressive scene to see these learned men dis- cussing a civilisation which was swept from the earth so many centuries ago at a time when their own country was threatened by ruin not less awful and perhaps more disgraceful. The Comptes Rendus of the 7th April had gone through the press as usual. Its most important article was a communication from Prof. Simon Newcomb on the new method invented by him for discussing the inequalities of the moon’s motion. The extract, four pages in length, is an abstract from the original communi- cation, which was left by the American astronomer in the hands of the Committee instructed to report upon it. These Comptes Rendus are printed by Gauthier-Villars, printer to the Academy, at a great expense, and with the greatest difficulty. The conti- nuation of the publication is highly creditable to that firm, of which the head, M. Gauthier-Villars, is a former pupil of the Polytechnic School. To show how difficult the business must be to manage, we must say, moreover, that the publisher of the Connaissance des Temps for 1872 is stopped merely because it is impossible to find working men for the printing of the last four sheets, which are ready to go through the press. If things continue for some time, French navigators sailing for distant Pacific Ocean expeditions will be obliged to resort to the Nautical Almanack. DIARY THURSDAY, May 11. Roya Society, at 8.30.—An Experimental Inquiry into the Constitution of Blood, and the Nutrition of Mu:cular Tissue: Dr. Marcet, F.R.S.—On Non-Spontaneous Generation. On the Influence of Heat on Protoplasmic Life. On the Preparation of Nitrogea: Prof. Crace-Calvert, F.R.S. Society oF ANTIQUARTES, at 8.30.—Sepulchral Remains at Rouen: The Abbé Cochet, Hon. F.S.A.—Letter to Mr. John Stanhope, from Sir Geo. Buck: Earl Stanhope, President S.A.—Sir James Tyrrell cleared (a.p. 1483): Rev. W. H. Sewell. Marsematicat Society, at 8.—On the Singularities of the Envelope of a non-Unicursal Series of Curves: Prof. Henrici.—On the Resultant of a large number of Vibrations of Irregular Phase, as applied to the Explana- tion of the Coronas: Hon. J. W. Strutt.—A Question in th: Mathematical Theory of Vibrating Strings: W. Spottiswoode, F.R.S —On the Problem of Finding the Circle which cuts Three given Circles at given angles (communicated by Prof. Cayley, F.R.S.): J. Griffiths, M.A. Royac Institution, at 3.-—On Sound: Prof. Tyndall. Lonpon INSTITUTION, at 7-30.—On Economic Botany: Prof. Bentley. FRIDAY, May 12. ASTRONOMICAL Socirty, at 8, QueEKETT Microscopicat Crus, at 8, Roya InstTITUTION, at 9.—On the Defence of the United Kingdom: Col. Jervois, R.E. SATURDAY, May 13. Roya Scuoot oF MINEs, at 8.—Geology : Dr. Cobbold. Roya InstiTuTIon, at 3.—On the Instruments Used ia Modern Astro- nomy: J. N. Lockyer, F.R.S. MONDAY, May 15. Lonpon InsTITUTION, at 4.—On Astronomy: R. A. Proctor, F.RAS. ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, at 8.—On Dreams, Sympathy, Presentiment, and on Divination and Analogous Phenomena among the Nativesof Natal: Dr. H. Callaway.—Notes on a Cairn at Khangaum, and on a Kist in Argyleshire : Dr. A. Campbell. TUESDAY, May 16, SratisticaL Society, at 7 45.—On the Influence of a High Bank Rate of Discount on Monetary Crises: R. H. Patterson. ZOOLOGICAL Society, at 9.—A Description of the Madreporaria dredged up’ during the Expedition of H.M.S. Porcupine in 1869-70: Dr. P. Martin Duncan.—On Speke’s Antelope and the allied species of the genus Tra- gelaphus: Sir V. Brooke, Bart.—On a new Humming-bird, discovered by Mr. Whiteley, in Peru: Mr, J. Gould. Rovat InstiTuTion, at 3.—On Force and Energy : Charles Brooke, F’.R.S:. WEDNESDAY, May 17. Society or Arts, at 8.—On the Utilisation of Prison Labour: Captain E. F. Du Cane, R.E. ‘ cae anni RT ook ees at 8.30.—On Shakespeare’s Birthday: THURSDAY, May 18. Roya Socigrty, at 8.30. Society OF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30. Cuemicavt Society, at 8. Royat InstiTuTIon, at 3.—On Sound: Prof. Tyndall. CONTENTS Pie we ProroseD COLLEGE OF PuysicaL Science At NEWCASTLE-CYON YNE. Sravetry’s BRITISH Insects. By ‘A R, WaLtack F.Z.S. (With 4 Itlustrations.). . . . « Ee Fe me 3 e 22 AMERICAN GEOLOGY Arik Matar haveomcehan & PS eae OuR/Boox SHEuRI SH. serie, tes 6a, dates ara a Lenress TO THE EDITOR :— ae angenesis.—Dr. Liongt S. BEALE, F.R.S.; Si aA ee ce ma ae % epee ° a 25 oises at Sea off Greytown.—Lieut S. P, Over, RN... |. Mechanical Equivalence of Heat.—Rev. H HUE : : = Aurora by Daylight.—Rev. T. W. Wenn, RAS... 1... 29 The Coronal Rifts.—A. C. RANYARD, F.R.AS. ; . ae The Name\“Britain.”—R EDMONDS = o)n) | ee ee Fo be peueton of Gelouns J. Murpuy, F.G S. 4 2 a oe e Cave-Lion in the Peat of Hold ss.—C. BLAKE . 2 Eozoén Canadense.—J. B, Eeawe ee ae 3 : THICKNESS OF THE EARTH’s Crust. By Ven, Archdeacon Pratt, F.R.S. : . -Archdeacon Pratt, F.R. : A Tueory OF A Nervous ATMOSPHERE es ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATION . Sha ee Sie 2 INOTES' (el ste Rees). oa ee 2 ee +) 88 Report ON THE DESEat OF THE Tin 5 so hy. ee * eae ScreNnTIFIC SERIALS Phy 2D. oe ortAas ae oS SocigTIES AND ACADEMIES. . . . -Ps OMe ee 2 IO SG gle 3d Gy oe: Re Bevieaa ie eters 5 ‘ 3 4 s., re ErrATuM.—In vol. Iv. p. 20, 2nd columny line 7, for “M. Hartog.” ““N. Hartog” read NATURE ——— THURSDAY, MAY 18, 1871 THE PEOPLE'S UNIVERSITY A GIGANTIC and imposing educational scheme is about to be launched, which, whether it proves feasible or not, must attract the attention and enlist the sympathy of all well-wishers to the intellectual develop- ment and material welfare of the country.. This is no less an idea than the establishment of a National Working Men’s University, which is to be founded with special reference to instruction in those subjects which have a direct bearing on the arts and manufactures. That our workmen are, as a rule, altogether ignorant of the scien- tific principles upon which the processes they ought to guide and govern are dependent, and that England in this respect stands ina much inferior position to continental nations, is now a well-recognised fact. The result of this lamentable ignorance is stated by certain authorities to be severely felt in those of our trades and manufactures in which we have to compete with other nations ; and although this conclusion has been denied by many, yet concerning the necessity for scientific education amongst our artisans there has never been a difference of opinion. The ques- tion then arises, How are we to bring to our rising artisans on an extended and national scale the knowledge of scientific principles which they so much need, and for which the best of their class show so much desire and even aptitude? One solution to this problem is being attempted by the scheme of a National University for Industrial and Technical Training. The proposal is to establish a metropolitan institution in which complete and thorough instruction in all those branches of knowledge which are of importance to our manufacturing industry shall be given. It is proposed (1) to build ample lecture- rooms, laboratories, art (as well as scientific) museums on the most extended scale; (2) to create professorships both of the pure sciences and of such more techni- cal subjects as can be systematically treated, and we will also hope chairs of at least such literary subjects as the modern languages ; and (3) to found scholarships by which artisans may be enabled to live during the years of their studentship. This central university is to be connected with other similar institutions scattered over the country in the foci of the industrial pursuits, each carrying out in its locality the same function which the central one is to perform perhaps on a somewhat higher scale for the metropolis and the country in general. The idea is a noble and grand one, but the difficulties of carrying it out are immense, whilst the dangers of the scheme proving abortive are scarcely less so. The first re- quisite in such a scheme for artisan education is money, the second condition of success is good management. If the wealthy city guilds come forward to the good work with subscriptions of tens and hundreds of thousands, and if men of ability and of high views and of sound practical knowledge on educational questions undertake to work the scheme, the University of the People may possibly become a reality. That the best of the English artisans value a scientific training when it is placed within their reach, is a matter which has now been satisfactorily proved, and if any systern VOL, IV, 4! of high science instruction can be inaugurated by which the force of thousands of powerful brains, now lying dor- mant, can be made productive, an increase of energy will be gained to the country of which we cannot form the slightest conception. When, however, we come to count the cost, we may well doubt the accomplishment of the design, for we must set it down as a first principle that every artisan must not only be gratuitously taught, but also kept during the period of his studentship. This would necessitate a scholarship of at least 40/. per annum for each student ; or 40,000/. for every thousand students ; add to this a like sum (a moderate estimate) for the payment of professors, expenses of working the science departments, museums, &c. we see that each student will cost probably nearly 100/. There is, of course, plenty of money, even in the metropolis itself, which might with propriety be applied to this most laudable object, but whether such a sum can be raised as shall yield an annual income say of 80,000/. to 100,000/. large enough to support a People’s University on a truly national scale (and anything less than this would be a practical failure) appears more than doubtful. For although the importance of this movement, in a national point of view, cannot in reality be overestimated, it is but too evident that this opinion is not held by the world at large, and certainly not (unless they are much belied) by rich corporations or city companies ; and without aid from some such old and wealthy foundations, a scheme of this kind can scarcely be permanently supported. The financial are, however, by no means the only or the most important difficulties which will beset the new University. These will only begin to be felt when the scheme has been started—such as dangers of giving an instruction too purely theoretic, or of running into the worse evil of teaching details without scientific aper¢u. In face of such difficulties it all the more behoves those who really believe the movement to be a wise and bene- ficial one, to exert themselves to support it. It is simply a duty to draw attention to a proposal which, if pro- perly carried out, may improve to a very important ex- tent the condition of Science in England, H. E, Roscor THE SUN Le Soleil, Exposé des principales découvertes modernes sur la structure de cet astre, son influznce dans Vunivers et ses relations avec les autres corps celestes. Par le P A. Secchi, S.J. Pp. 422, 8vo. (Paris: Gauthier Vil- lars, 1870. London: Williams and Norgate.) The Sun: Ruler, Fire, Light, and Life of the Planetary System. By Richard A. Proctor, B.A., F.R.AS. Pp. 480, crown 8vo. (London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1871.) URING the past few years the number of workers in the domain of solar physics has been so great, their progress so rapid, and the results of their labours have been published in so many forms, that it has been diffi- cult tokeep pace with them. Under these circumstances, a summary of these labours, which shall extract what is most valuable from all, and refer the reader to the original publications for the remainder, is a great desideratum. D 42 The work of the Pére Secchi seems designed not so _ much to supply this particular want as to give a general popular veswmé, of what is known of the physical constitu- tion of the Sun. It would therefore scarcely be just to measure it by the standard in question, and all the less just becausethe very branch of research in which the author is most eminent is that of which he speaks the least. Only one chapter and part of another are given to spec- trum analysis of the solar light and its results, and as the operation of spectrum analysis itself is described at some length, there is little space left for the discussion of the re- sults. Roughly speaking, one half the book is devoted to a description of purely optical phenomena as observed with a telescope. The appearances and movements of the solar spots are in particular treated at great length. The other half is devoted to radiation, temperature, gra- vitation, spectrum analysis, and the relation of the sun to the stars. The chapter on Radiation seems designed to save the reader the trouble of referring to elementary works on natural philosophy or chemistry, and the next has nearly the same object with respect to astronomy. Thechapter on Temperature is that which has most piqued our curiosity. Theauthor calculates that the temperature of the sun must beat least ten millions degrees centigrade. On examining the process by which he reaches this con- clusion, we find that he sets aside the law of radiation of Dulong and Petit, and substitutes that of radiation pro- portional to the simple temperature. He gives no reason for the adoption of this new law, and we were not aware that the other had been disproved. The question is of importance, for, if the law of Dulong and Petit were true, a sun at a temperature of ten million degrees would speedily reduce our earth to vapour. It would be in- teresting to measure the temperature of a furnace by the effect of its radiation upon a thermometer, in the same way that Pére Secchi has measured that of the sun. The paper and typography of the work are excellent, and among the illustrations are six finely-executed charts of stellar spectra, illustrating the author's classification of such spectra. Mr. Proctor’s work, while covering nearly the same general ground with the former, is much more complete in its account of recent observations and theories, especially of the phenomena of solar eclipses. It is, on the whole, better than might have been supposed from its stilted title. The first chapter is designed to give an historical dis- cussion of the solar parallax. A history of this subject at the same time popular, accurate, and complete,is indeed much to be desired; but Mr. Proctor’s is imperfect and inaccurate in a remarkable degree. He begins very well, but grows worse and worse as he approaches his conclu- sion. He suddenly stops his history with the year 1868, and ignores all that has been said or done since. Confining ourselves to two or three paragraphs and a note near the close of the chapter, we find the “ligaments,” “black drops,” and distortions sometimes seen in interior con- tacts of the limbs of Mercury or Venus with that of the Sun, described as if they were regular phenomena of a transit, without a mention of the facts and experiments which indicatethat these phenomena are simple products of insufficient optical power and bad definition, which dis- appear in a fair atmosphere, with a good telescope well adjusted to focus ; and this is followed up with a grave NATURE [May 18, 1871 proposal to measure this product of bad definition during the next Transit of Venus. One might suppose, from his closing statements, that Mr. Stone was the first to “ infer from the account given by the different observers, whether real or apparent contact was noticed,” and to allow for the difference between the two. The subsequent examina- tions of the observations used by Mr. Stone are, with a single insignificant exception, entirely ignored. We can- not, therefore, but wish that the author, before printing this chapter, had submitted it for revisal to some one acquainted with the subject. In the second chapter we find the author more at home, We rarely see the accuracy of the mathematician united with that vigour and clearness of style so desirable in the popular presentation of truth. Mr. Proctor, however, here seems to unite both qualifications in a high degree. The third chapter gives a very clear and satisfactory account of the first principles of spectrum analysis. The historical and the logical development of this subject co- incide remarkably with each other, and it is therefore that very properly adopted in its presentation. We find one statement which we must ask leave to doubt, until a more satisfactory proof is given than we have yet seen, It is that the intensity of the D light (if we may use the ex- pression) of incandescent sodium vapour is not only ap- parently but actually diminished by passing sun-light throughit. If this were so, it would follow that the sodium flame not only absorbed the light in question, but that, in doing so, it lost the power of emitting it. This would, indeed, be a remarkable result. We understand Kirchhoff, in the experiment alluded to, to speak only of relative light and darkness, and to assert that the D part of the com- bined spectrum is less bright than the surrounding and intermediate parts. But we cannot conclude from this that there was really less light there than when the sodium flame shone by itself, as Mr. Proctor does. The succeeding chapters give a very full, classified summary of recent observations upon the sun, the pro- tuberances, the corona, and the zodiacal light. The ac- counts of the phenomena observed during total eclipses are carried up to that of August 1869. From the pre- face it would seem that the work was passing through the press in December 1870, and it is a pity it could not have been completed by adding the observations of the eclipse during that month. The discussion of theories of the corona and protuberances is evidently honest, and perhaps intended to be complete. He tries to disprove the “at- mospheric glare theory” by showing that no part of our atmosphere in the direction of the corona is illuminated by direct sunlight, a proposition which we apprehend no one ever maintained. But we know that every bright celestial object is surrounded by a certain amount of stray light, due to atmospheric reflection, which increases ra- pidly in intensity as we approach the object ; and sucha light must therefore surround the real corona and pro- tuberances. We also know that every bright object of this kind appears larger than it really is, and of a different form, from mere optical illusion. Until these two effects are eliminated, we can gain no positive knowledge either of the exact form or the exact extent of the real objective corona. The ‘meteoric theory” of the corona and zo- diacal light, sustained by the author, is subject to objec- tions as grave as those he brings against other theories ; May 18, 1871] but we have no room to explain them at length in the present article. It is the less necessary to do so, as the final conclusion of the subject is very well embodied in two lines of the table of contents :—“ The origin of the prominences still a mystery,” “ The corona’s true nature also unknown.” Respecting the general spirit of the work, it may be remarked that while the author doubtless intends to do justice to all the investigators whose labours he describes, there is one feature of the work which may lead the reader to doubt whether he has really done so. We refer to the indications of personal feeling scattered here and there, and the depreciating tone adopted in treating of the labours of those he does not personally like. However this may be, there are few or no popular expositions of a Scientific subject in which the observations, opinions, and labours of so many men of science have been col- lected and referred to their authors. S. NEWCOMB FOREIGN SCIENTIFIC ASSOCIATIONS Proceedings of the Scientific Association of Trinidad, 1866—69, Port of Spain. (London: Triibner and Co.) Proceedings of the Essex Institute. Vols 4 to 6. 1864—70. Salem, U.S. (London: Triibner and Co.) - Fournal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1864—68. New Series. (Shanghai : A. de Carvalho. London: Triibner and Co.) HE Scientific Association of Trinidad has now been in existence for some years. Its object is “ the cul- tivation of scientific knowledge in the West Indies ;” and if we may judge by the character of most of the memoirs contained in the parts of the Proceedings hither- to published, it must be a very useful society. Dr. Mitchell has communicated more papers than any other member. He has contributed articles ‘On the Use of Sulphites in Medicine,” with an “Additional Note on the Use of Sulphites and Bisulphites, whether Medicinally or otherwise,” “On Earth Closets,” “ Hints on the Breeding and Rearing of Horses,” “ On the Manu- facture of Sugar by the Process of Drying the Cane,” and “On the Manufacture of Sugar by Evaporation.” Mr. Guppy contributes three papers, “On the Mollusca of Trinidad,” “On Petroleum and Naphtha,” “ Remarks on the Cultivation of Scientific Knowledge in Trini- dad,” “On the Tertiary Fossils of the West Indies,” and “On the Marine Shells found on the Shores of Trinidad.” Amongst other articles of permanent interest we may especially mention Dr. Goding “On the Petro- leum or ‘Green Tar,’ and the ‘ Manjack’ of Barbadoes,” the Hon. Richard Hill, “On Poisonous Fishes,” and “On Fish Poisons ;” and Mr. Prestoe’s “ Catalogue of Plants in the Royal Botanic Gardens.” Many of the subjects treated of in these Proceedings serve to illustrate various points described by the Rev. Canon Kingsley in his charming “ Letters from the Tropics.” The Essex Institute seems to have commenced its exist- ence as the Essex County Natural History Society, and it published a “ Journal” as early as 1836, This Journal sub- NATURE 43 sequently merged in the “ Proceedings ” and “ Historical Collections ” of the Institute, the former commencing in 1848, and the latter in 1859. It is only with the “ Pro- ceedings” that we have to deal at present, and the volumes now before us contain “The Records of the Meetings, the Written Communications on Natural History and Horticulture, and the Naturalist’s Direc- tory.” Amongst the most important memoirs we may especially notice Morse “On a Classification of Mollusca based on the Principles of Cephalization;” Verrill’s “Synopsis of the Polyps and Corals of the North Pacific Exploring Expedition from 1853 to 1856, collected by Dr. Stimpson;” Hyatt’s “Observations on Polyzoa ;” Dr. Wilder’s “ Revision of researches and experiments upon Silk from Spiders, and upon their Reproduction, by Raymond Maria de Termeyen, a Spaniard, translated from the Italian ;” Horace Mann, “ On the Flora of the Hawaiian Islands ;” Cowes’s “Catalogue of the Birds of North America in the Museum of the Essex Insti- tute;” Wood, “On the Phalangeze of the United States ;” and Packard “On Insects inhabiting Salt Water.” These quarterly “ Proceedings” came to a close at the end of the year 1868, when the “ Bulletin of the Essex In- stitute,” which appears in monthly parts, took its place. The “ Bulletin,” which we shall take an early opportunity of noticing, contains “ All the short Communications of General Interest, both of an Historical and Scientific character, made at the Meetings of the Institute, and the Records of the Meetings and Business of the Insti- tute.” Turning from the West to the uttermost parts of the East, we take up the “Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,” of which the new series commenced in December 1864, when the Society which had been formed in 1861 was reorganised. The papers contained in this Journal are for the most part very interesting, in consequence of their treating of subjects on which comparatively little is known in this country. The geographer will find articles “ On the City of Yeddo,” “On the Overland journey from St. Peters- burg to Pekin, “On an Overland trip through Hunan from Canton to Hankow,” “ On the Sea-board of Russian Manchuria,” “ On a Journey from Pekin to Chefoo vzé the Grand Canal,” “On a Journey from Pekin to Shanghai,” and “ On a Journey from Canton to Hankow through the Provinces of Kwangtung, Kwangsi, and Hunan.” Thena- turalist (using the term in the widest sense) will find arti- cles “ On the Geology of the Great Plain, and of a portion of Quangtung Province,” “On the Coal-fields in the South Eastern Province of China,” and “‘On the Bituminous Coal Mines west of Pekin,” ‘On the Birds and Beasts of For- mosa,” “On Chinese Notionsregarding Pigeonsand Doves,” ““On some Wild Silk Wormsof China,” ““Onthe Entomology of Shanghai,” “On the Sorgo or Northern Chinese Sugar Cane,” and “On themineraland other productions of North China and Shantung.” Amongst other valuable papers may be mentioned those by the late Dr. Henderson ‘‘On the Medicine and Medical Practice of the Chinese,” by Dr. Bastian “On the Remains of Ancient Kanbodies,” Dr. Keer “ On the Great Examination Hall at Canton,” the Rev. A. Wylie “On the Opinions of the Chinese with regard to Eclipses, and on the Eclipses recorded in Chinese works,” 44 NATURE [May 18, 1871 Mr. Hollingworth “On the Chinese Game of Chess,” Mr. Forrest (acting Consul at Ningpo) “On the Christianity of Hung Tsiu Tsuen, being a Review of Taeping Books,” and the Rey. S. R. Brown’s translation of a curious old Japanese rianuscript entitled “Annals of the Western Ocean.” The last-named article is one of singular interest in many respects. It is divided into three parts, the first of which contains an account of the arrest ofa Roman Catholic priest upon an island called Yaku- Shirna in the year 1708, his removal to Nagaski and examination there, and his subsequent arrival at Yeddo, imprisonment, trial, and death. The name of the person as given in Japanese syllables was Jean Baptista Shirotte, and he is supposed to have been the last Roman Catholic missionary who landed in Japan previous to the year 1859. ‘The second part contains the report of the prisoner’s examination, and the information obtained from him respecting the military and naval power, and the wars and conquests of the Western nations; while the third comprises the missionary’s answers to the questions put to him about himself and his family connections, his reason for coming to Japan, and his religious creed. From the very curious paper on the “ Birds and Beasts of Formosa” whichis translated by Mr. Swinhoe, H.B.M. Council at Taiwan, from the 18th chapter of the “ Taz-wan- foo-che, or Statistics of Taiwan,” we learn that “as soon as the doe that has finished suckling observes her roe getting to maturity, she deserts it and repairs to other hills, fearing that her young might entertain an improper affection for herself. Animals do not confuse the laws of consanguinity, the horse excepted. The doe deprives her offspring of any such opportunity by setting a distance between herself and her young.” passage because it contains almost the identical views expressed by Aristotle,* but we suspect that this idea is not based on any sound foundation. Several of the articles, and especially those of Dr. Henderson “On the Medicine and Medical Practice of the Chinese,” and of Mr. Walters ‘On Chinese Notions about Pigeons and Doves,” throw considerable light on | the absurd mode of practice adopted by the native doctors. From the latter paper we learn that the eggs of pigeons are an antidote to the injurious effects of boils and smallpox. worse than the disease, as the following course has to be followed :—Two eggs must be hermetically sealed in a bamboo tube and placed in the middle of a cesspool for half a moon. The whites are then to be mixed with three ounces of shen-sha,a very fine red sand-like sub- stance, and the compound is to be divided into pills of the size of a green pea. If thirty of these pills are taken three times a day, the patient will soon find relief, for the poisonous matter will be rapidly discharged by the bowels and kidneys. The excrement of the same bird, when roast to cinder and soaked in wine, forms a cure for cold on the chest, and there are several other affections in which it is very useful. Let us conclude with a pleasanter remedy. © Of the s/z-chzn or wood-pigeon it is written that its flesh is sweet, delicate, and without poison. It also gives one a composed mind, and enables him to do with little sleep. * See his “ History of Animals,” Book ix.. chap. 34 (Creswell’s Translation in Bohn's Scéentific Series), in which he tells two very remarkable stories | regarding a camel and a stallion in relation to this subject. We have quoted this | Some persons may think the remedy | Its foot and leg bones have the very delightful quality of exciting affection between husband and wife. If on the fifth day of the fifth moon the husband takes one of these bones and the wife takes one, each putting the bone in a basin of water, one from the left and the other from the right side, the two bones will come together and float together, thus indicating a long and happy union to the parties trying the experiment.” G. ED OUR BOOK SHELF A Manual of Structural Botany for the Use of Classes, Schools, and Private Students. By M. C. Cooke. New Edition. (London: R. Hardwicke.) WE have so often felt it our duty to expose the incompe- tence of those who attempt to write elementary text-books of science, that it is a real pleasure to come upon one like Mr. Cooke’s “ Manual of Botany,” where a man of really - accurate scientific knowledge applies himself to writing an elementary work on the rudiments of his science. The special object of the publication, a cheap manual to place in the hands of students in the Botanical Classes established for operatives in connec- tion with the Department of Science and Art ; but it may well be used as a first book to prepare for other ob- jects, as, for instance, for the first B.Sc.examination,orthat forWomen, at the University of London, though it would then have to be supplemen- ted by others on the systematic branch of the subject. The descrip- tions are clear and accurate, and expressed in commendably terse language. It is illus- trated by over two hundred woodcuts, some of them of decided merit; and we have reserved our crowning sen- tence of commendation till the last—the price is one | shilling ! A. W. B. | Geographisches Fahrbuch. 11. Band, 1870. Unter Mit- wirkung von A. Anvers, J. Baeyer, A. Fabricius, A. Griesbach, Fr. Miller, Fr. Neumann, L. K. Schmarda, F. R. Seligmann, J. Spdrer, H. Wagner :—Heraus- gegeben von E. Behm, Mitredakteur von Petermann’s Geogr. Mittheilungen, 1870, (Gotha: Peithes. London: Williams and Norgate.) WE lately had occasion to speak in terms of high com- mendation of Vivien de St. Martin’s Année Géographigue, and we can award equal praise to Behm’s corresponding work, which is the more elaborate of the two, and conse- quently the less agreeable to the ordinary reader. It is divided into four parts, devoted respectively to Geographi- cal Chronology, Geographical Statistics, Essays on the Progress of Geographical Knowledge, and Tables of use in | Mathematical Geography. The first part consists of a geographical calendar, stating the date of the discoveries of various countries, of the birthdays and deaths of great geographers, &c. (for example, on the day on which we are now writing, April 22nd, J. Richer arrived at Cayenne, 1672; the island of Rea or Wallis was discovered by Maurelle, 1781 ; Reao was discovered by Duperry, 1822 ; Denham arrived at India (Mandara) 1823; and the Vovara sailed from Singapore, 1858) ; and it treats of the manner in which time is calculated in certain countries, The second part is extremely valuable, but is very dull; any information that may be required as to the state of the populatiort of any country, of the number of houses and inhabitants in a square mile, &c., may be readily The third part consists of extremely Pitcher of Nepenthes | found here. as stated in the preface, is to supply - May 18, 1871] NATURE 45 - valuable memoirs by Baeyer, on the progress lately made in the measurement of the degree; by Griesbach, on the Geography of Plants ; by Schmarda, on the progress of our Knowledge of the Distribution of Animals ; by Seligmann, on the Progress of Ethnology ; by Miiller, on Linguistic Ethnography in Relation to Anthropology ; by Fabricius, on the Progress of our Knowledge of National Statistics ; by Spdrer, on the History of Geography ; by Neumann, on the Products, Merchandise, and Currency of Different Nations ; and byBehm, on the most important Geographical Travels during the years 1868-69. Behm’s memoir, which extends over more than a hundred pages, is unquestion- ably the most valuable portion of the book, and next in order of interest, at all events to the naturalist, we should place the essays of Schmarda and Griesbach. The last part of the volume is purely numerical, and requires no comment. Everyone desirous of keeping himself up to the existing level of geographical knowledge should pur- chase both the German and French annuals. For those who must content themselves with a single volume, we should say the French one was the better. Gre, DD? The Romance of Motion. (Longmans : 1871.) THis is another of those books in which the author does not understand the first principles of the science with which he deals. The laws of motion seem to be affording more than usual trouble to c2rtain people just now, and most unfortunately they write books about it couched in the longest scientific terms and the most formidably accurate-looking phraseology. The author alleges, as one of the extraordinary paradoxes among the opinions of the nineteenth century, “ how all bodies are supposed to persevere in their state of rest or of motion, in a straight line, unless compelled to change that state of rest or motion by the impression of some force on them; and how, in opposition to this law, the planets become ac- celerated and retarded in their orbits without such adequate impression of force ; also how bodies initially projected at the surface of the earth, fall by the force of gravitation with velocities uniformly accelerated, and how the planets similarly projected descend towards the sun with velocities comparatively equal throughout the entire duration of their revolutions.” We need hardly remind the rea:ler that these conclusions, so far from being in any way inoffosition to the law of motion stated by the author, are in complete harmony with that law, and, as was demonstrated by Newton, follow from it on the hypothesis (to give it no higher name) of gravitation. The author at least might have observed, in comparing the case of the stone and of the planet, that the direction of the force on the former is unaltered, while that of the force on the latter is con- tinually changing. By Alec Lee. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR [The Editcr does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his Correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. | Thickness of the Earth’s Crust ARCHDEACON PRATT’S explanation in NATURE of May 11 seems to assume that a rigid body moving in contact with a fluid body can never communicate its own rate of motion to the latter as quickly as it would doifthis were also a rigid body attached to itself. Supposing the earth to consist of a rigid crust inclosing a fluid interior, and the crust to be moved by the forces producing precession, it would, he says, ‘‘slip over the surface of the re- volving fluid through a small space proportionate to the push given to the poles. The fluid could not possibly acquire in an instant this new motion, however smull it might be, because the fluid is not rigidly connected with the crust.” I venture to suggest that if in the last sentence Mr. Pratt would substitute the word ‘‘slow” for ‘‘small,” the question would it have a different aspect, notwithstanding his subsequent state- ment to the contrary. Strictly speaking, when a body, however rigid, is moved, the whole of it never movesinstantaneously. The particles on which the moving force immediately acts move first, and the rest move in succession afterwards. The smallness of the interval is the measure of the rigidity, but some interval must always be assumed. Bodies move as a whole through the attractive or repulsive forces of their particles; and every such force resolves itself into a power of moving something through a certain space in a certain time. The reason why a moving solid will ‘‘slip over” the surface of a fluid instead of carrying it with it, is that the rate at which it can carry it with it by reason of its attractive force is commonly less than the rate at which the solid is moving. But if the motion is slow enough to exceed that which the attractive force will cause in the fluid, it will slip over no longer; and if it be so slow that not only the power of the solid over the fluid, but of the fluid par- ticles over each other, is able to produce an equal rate of motion, the whole mass will move together as if it were a rigid body. This rate will depend chiefly on the nature of the fluid. Ifa metal plate four inches in diameter is filled with lamp oil, and made to rotate at about one revolution in three minutes, the oil will move with the plate without appreciable retardation, though if the speed be doubled, the oil is seen to be “slipped over.” If water is used, or the size increased, the rotation must of course be very much slower. It would appear on these grounds, I think, that the extremely slow movement of precession might practically affect the whole body of the earth as if it were rigid, notwithstanding the granting of a fluid interior. May 14 TS Mn Wile Ir requires no little courage to attack so eminent a mathemati- cian as Archdeacon Pratt on his own ground, and it is, therefore, with the utmost diffidence that I venture to suggest that in his defence of Hopkins against Delaunay in your last number, he has mistaken a mathematical fiction for a fact. In calculations involving quantities which vary in magnitude, the imperfection of our methods oblige us to have recourse to an artifice, and for the benefit of the non-mathematical reader, I will try to explain what this artifice is, taking the case of nuta- tion as an example :— The motion of the earth’s axis which is known by this name, is caused mainly by the attraction of the moon on that part of the earth which lies outside a sphere, whose centre is the earth’s centre, and its radius the polar radius of the earth. Now this force of the moon’s attraction is never the same in magnitude ; and, however small be the interval of time we consider, it is not the same at the end as the beginning of that interval; it is incessantly changing. Everyone will realise the difficulty of estimating the effect of sucha force. This difficulty is got over by the artifice I mentioned, which is as follows :—The time is divided into a number of small intervals, and the attraction is supposed to keep during anyone of these intervals the magnitude which it has at the beginning of that interval, and at the end of that interval suddenly to assume the magnitude which it has at the beginning of the interval next following, and so on; the force, in short, in- stead of varying by insensible changes, is supposed to act bya series of fits and starts. This must be what Archdeacon Pratt means when he talks of ‘‘a succession of slight horizontal pushes being given to the poles.” The amount of motion pro- duced during each interval on the above supposition is then de- termined, and these amounts are added together to obtain the displacement produced. It is clear enough that such a method can only be approxi- mately correct ; but it is also clear that the smaller each interval is, the nearer will the hypothetical be to the real state of the case, and the nearer will the calculated be to the actual result. As long as the intervals are finite there must be some error, but the smaller the intervals are made the less will this error be. Ineed not go into the methods of mathematical analysis which enable us to get rid of this error, and which, when we have found out what will be the effects of a force acting with variable intensity by fits and starts separated by small finite intervals, enables us to deduce the effect of the same force when it comes to vary inces- santly ; for [ hope I have made clear the nature of the mathe- matical artifice on which this analysis is founded. Now it seems to me that Archdeacon Pratt all along reasons on the supposition that the moon’s attraction acts after the manner the mathematical artifice I have described supposes it . 46 NATURE [May 18, 1871 for the mere necessities of calculation to act. All his argument, ifI understand it aright, depends upon the displacement being by fits and starts. Thus he says (NATURE, July 28, 1870), “The precessional force has its full effect in producing the pre- cession of the solid crust, the fluid xo¢ having time* to diminish that effect before the axis has assumed a new position ;” and ** The friction of the fluid within, which Aas ot time to influence the nutation before the nutation is actually produced ;” and (NatuRE, May 11, 1871), ‘‘ Suppose a succession of slight hori- zontal pushes to be given to the poles in a continually altering direction, the effect will be that the revolving crust will be con- tinually slipping over the revolving fluid, which as not dime to acquire the new motions given instantaneously to the solid crust.” The leading idea in all these passages seems to me to be that the attractions of the sun and moon, to which precession and nutation are owing, act by impulses, by a succession of sharp pulls quickly repeated. This is truly enough the supposition with which mathematical calculation starts ; but the real action, I need not say, is a steady, continuous, though ever varying, pull, and it is the result of such anaction which our calculations in the end lead us to, by a method which enables us to get rid of the error necessarily involved in the approximate result which would follow from our first supposition. I cannot then help thinking that even Archdeacon Pratt has for once been carried away by the beauty of mathematical analysis, and has for the moment forgotten that the conditions which it is obliged to employ for its ends do not in their initial form repre- sent the actual conditions of nature. The explanation occurred to me on first reading his paper in the Philosophical Magazine, but seemed tome so unlikely that I shrank from putting it for- ward. I can, however, in no other way imagine how he can have come to the startling conclusion, that, if a solid shall be moyed by a steady, continuous pull over an interior ball of fluid, it can make no difference in the result, whether there is or is not friction between the interior of the shell and the surface of the fluid. Archdeacon Pratt, will, I know, if I am wrong, pardon my presumption and put me right. Barnsley, May 12 A. H. GREEN Graft- Hybrids ‘ Pangenesis: EAcH person who assails this unfortunate “ provisional hypo- thesis ” makes the attack from his own particular point of view. Thus, in NATURE of last week Prof. L. S. Beale, as a micro- scopist, objects to it because the gemmules cannot be made evi- dent to the senses. From this somewhat narrow view of the case the atomic theory of chemistry, the undulatory theory of light, or the mechanical theory of heat, must all break down, for no one has as yet seen an ultimate atom, or an ethereal undu- lation. Mr. A. C. Ranyard, in the same paper, publishes a letter which is quite at variance with fact, for if he will turn to PP. 399, 391, 394, 397 in vol. i. and pp. 364 and 365 vol. ii. of Mr. Darwin’s work on “ The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,” he will there find many cases given of the scion affecting the stock and producing intermediate forms known as ‘‘graft-hybrids.” Pangenesis has not yet ‘‘ received itsdeath blow.” R. MELDOLA May 13 IN your last number Mr. Ranyard brings forward an objection to Mr. Darwin’s theory of Pangenesis on the ground that the grafting of a bud on a stock of a different species does not pro- duce a hybrid offspring. I am not about to defend the doctrine of Pangenesis, which appears to me incapable alike of proof and of disproof. Itis, however, a well-known fact that the stock does affect the scion, and zzceversé. In Prof. Henfrey’s ‘‘ Elementary Course of Botany” (Dr. Masters’s edition) he says, “A certain amount of physiological influence of the stock over the scion is shown to exist by such facts of horticultural experience as that the fruit of the pear is smaller and more highly coloured when ‘worked on’ the quince and medlar than when grafted on pear-stocks, and is earlier when worked on the mountain-ash.” The well-known instances of the communication of variegation from the scion to the stock in Aéut/on, recorded by Prof. Morren and others, are considered cases of contagious disease ; Lut what is the theory of contagion but that the blood or other * IT have taken the liberty of italicising those expressions which seem to me of vital importance to the argument in these quotations, ‘*fluid” of an animal or plant is affected by emanations, call them “gemmules” or what you will, from another individual ? The same writer records an instance which he considers well authenticated of the production of the hybrid Cytiss Adam: by the grafting of C. purpureus on C. laburnum. ALFRED W. BENNETT The Rev. Mr. Highton and Thermodynamics You are cruelly kind to Mr. Highton in giving him space to develop his absurdities. His new remarks on Joule, like his earlier ones on a paper by Sir W. Thomson, simply show that Ae does not understand what he ventures to criticise. Of course, what Joule now says is pre- cisely what he said a quarter of a century ago, with the simple difference that it is put ina somewhat more popular form. No one who has taken the trouble to understand the experi- mental facés and the elementary reasoning of which the Laws of Thermodynamics are the condensed expre-sion, has any more doubt of their truth than of the truth of Newton’s Laws of Motion. They are, perhaps, a little harder to understand ; but the proof is of the same nature, and already almost of the same extent, in the newer science as in the older one. Ihave not seen the Review of Popular Science referred to by Mr. Highton, but I hope (for the credit of that journal) that he misconceives its statements as he does those of Joule. ; Your “ first reviewer” (or rather précis-writer) of his article, whoever he may be, certainly gives him no encouragement in the number for Jan. 19, whatever may have been the effect of my treatment of his not singular case. Your REVIEWER On the Radial Appearance of the Corona WOULD an indefinitely extending solar atmosphere, if its existence could be proved, be in itself sufficient to explain the appearance of the solar corona? Should we not still have to explain the apparent radiation which is so distinctly part of the phenomenon ?—If the light or heat of the sun which radiates symmetrically outwards as from a point at its centre be the cause of the illumination, surely the figure of the corona would bear some relation to the figure of the atmosphere or medium on which the light or heat acts? Yet I think I may say that it is quite impossible to conceive a medium so distributed and arranged as to form rays such as those seen in thecorona. If the recent photographs had not shown beyond a doubt that this irregular radiating appearance belongs to the corona and the neighbour- hood of the sun,* it would have gone a long way to prove that the corona is at least partly due to the earth’s atmosphere or mere optical effect. But, as it is, I think this radiation clearly proves that the corona cannot be due to the direct action of the light and heat of the sun on any surrounding matter. In fact, I cannot conceive an atmosphere the character of which varies in a radial manner, however rapidly either its nature or density may vary with the distance from the surface of the sun. If, instead of an atmosphere, we try to conceive a ring of meteors, still the radial gaps so clearly marked on the photographs pre- sent insurmountable difficulty. This, moreover, is impossible on other grounds. It is impossible that there can be an almost homogeneous mass of meteoric matter circulating round the sun in the torm of an outersphere, and if it circulated im the ecliptic or any other plane, it would present the appearance of Satum’s belt, whereas the corona appears altovether different trom this, and cannot possibly bea film of light in any plane but that of the sun’s limb. Nor can these radial rifts be of the nature of shadow. For the shadow which anything like a sun spot would produce in a misty atmosphere must be conical, the vertex of the cone being outwards, so that the edges of the shadow would approach each other instead of receding as they do. Moreover, such a shadow would still be seen through a great extent of illuminated so ar atmos sphere, and therefore be only partial or faint, whereas the ri/ts are so dark and definite as to imply a total absence of coronal light ; this must be the case unless the rifts or gaps in the spherical envelope extended right across the sphere from front to back, and we know that there is no obstruction on the surface of the sun that could cast such an extensive shadow. What, then, does this radiated appearance show the corona to be? I think that it proves that the corona is an emission either of illuminated matter or of an action iluminaung matter, * Has this yet been established —Ep. May 18, 1871] such as electricity, driven off unequally from parts of the sun’s surface, and in directions radiating from points either on or beneath the surface.* If only a small portion of the sun’s surface, such as that covered by sun spots, sent out such streamers, the appearance might exactly coincide with that of the corona ; for these streamers, when seen projected on to the plane of the sun’s limb, might in some places appear to overlap so as to form a continuous corona, whereas in others they might appear to be separated by gaps. So far as the appearance is concerned, it would be the same whether the emission consisted of matter or was electricity ; there are, however, other indications of its being of the latter kind. The action which the sun exerts on terrestrial magnetism shows it to be in an electric state, and the observations of Stewart and others have established a connection between the variations in its electric condition and the changes in the sun-spots and red flames, and the observations on the recent eclipse have connected the red flames with the brighter parts of the corona. Here then we have a distinct and independent reason for assuming that the electric condition of the sun’s surface is partial and unequal, and for connecting the corona with this electricity. As I have already ventured to explain the solar corona, as well as comet’s tails and the aurora, to be a kind of electric brush, I now offer these remarks on the radial appearance of the corona in confirmation of my views. Owens College, May 8 OsBORNE REYNOLDS A few more Words on Daylight Auroras In NATuRE for December 29, 1870, there is a letter from Dr. G. F. Burder in reply to a previous correspondent, who had sent a description, with an illustration, of a Daylight Aurora observed by him, wherein he made the following statement :— But auroral arcs, as far as I know, never appear in the east, and the conclusion, therefore, is unavoidable, that the object observed was nothing more than a remarkably symmetri- cal form of cirrus cloud.” He then states his convictions that all records of so-called daylight auroras are ‘‘ errors of observation.” As assertions like these might have an undue influence on the minds of those who read my letter on ‘‘ Aurora by Daylight” (Nature, May 4, 1871), I am induced to say a few more words on this subject, especially to prove the fallacy of such reasoning. It is well known that the aurora borealis assumes innumerable shapes ; some of the most remarkable were given by me some time ago in these pages ;} and that they appear, at times, actually in the eas/, but more often in the north, north-west, and stretch- ing tothe south. A writer of some excellence in the last cen- tury § says :— ‘*Sometimes the aurora appears like arches, nearly in the form of a rainbow, reaching from one point of the horizon to another. The arches always cross the meridian at right angles, tending to the cast and west point of the compass.” The correspondent whom Dr. Burder is so hard upon, most pro- bably saw the arc in a position nearer to this, than directly jacing him, with his back to the wes¢, and as the illustration sent by him shows only a segment of the arc, I am inclined to think that the extremities were nearly in the east and west.|| The ‘‘ cirrus cloud” hypothesis is simply untenable, when it is known positively that on several occasions the aurora was seen against an azure background, with no form of cloud in the field of view, as for instance that mentioned by me, where a faint arc was seen before sunset in the east (possibly N.E.) against a cloudless sky.4] His other assertion, from which I must dissent, was : “A comparison of the auroral light with the light of other objects whose visibility can be more easily measured, tends strongly to confirm the view I have advanced.” He then instances the invisibility of Donati’s comet by daylight. He might have instanced the invisibility of the stars, although they can be seen in broad daylight when the observer is placed at the bottom of a deep pit ; but this need not be done, for daylight does not always mean bright sunshine ; and with diffused light, Venus is often seen before the sun has actually gone below the horizon. This, so far, may appear mere assertion, but the following will, I hope, * We are of opinion that there is still another explanation.—Ed. t+ Nature, Dec, 8, 1871. } Ibid, Dec. 29, 1871. § “Compendious System of Astronomy,” by Margaret Bryan. 3797, P- 132. } ‘ || For evidences of night auroras being seen in the east, consult the letters in Nature for 1870, §] Nature, May 4, 1871, p. 8. London : NATURE 47 be sufficient to show that the view he holds requires some kind of modification. “*a.D, 678.—This year the star (called a comet) appeared in August and shone like a sunbeam every morning for three months” (Anglo-Sax. Chron.).* By every morning I take to mean daylight, because in these months the mornings would invariably be very light, especially the few moments before the comet actually disappeared. With regard to all the record of daylight auroras being mere “errors of observation,” Iam sure no one will continue to enter- tain such an opinion after carefully examining all that has been said upon the subject in these pages. As it may be useful to those who are interested in this question, I have made a summary of all the daylight auroras recorded in this and other publica- tions, which do not admit of doubt. A.D, 1122. A phenomenon appeared like a great and broad fire, and lasted till it was quite light. (Anglo-Sax. Chron.) A.D. 1467. A most probable day aurora, described as *‘ horse- men and men in armour rushing through the air.”+ (Ingulf, Second Cont.) A.D, 1788. May 5 at Ir A.M. an auroral display seen, con- sisting of ‘‘ whitish rays ascending from every part of horizon.” Observed by “three different people.” (Trans. Royal I, Academy for 1788, quoted by Rey. T. W. Webb in Nature, May 11, 1871. A.D. 1827. ‘‘ Aurora Borealis seen in the day-time at Canon- mills” at 4.30 P.M. -Described in ‘‘ Jameson’s Journal” and AES for May 4, 1871. (Arcana of Science and Art for 1828.) A.D. 1849.—In September an aurora seen, consisting of ‘three slightly diverging beams of light on the eastern horizon. One might have taken them for beams from asetting sun. . , had it not been that they did not emanate exactly from the spot where the sun had set ; that they had an evident motion to the southard, and that two of them extended to the zenith, and finally down to the eastern horizon.” { (Mr. J. Langton,in Narureg, April 27, 1871.) A.D. 1870.—September 4, about 4.30 P.M., an aurora observed ‘in the form of thin reddish streaks.” (‘*S. B.” in Nature, October 13, 1870.) A.D. 1870.—October 25, at 4.30 P.M., a brilliant aurora seen in the east, and fully described with illustration of it. (NATURE, December 8, 1870.) A.D. 1870.—December. A frobadle auroral display, which was observed a “little before sunset,” and developed as the even- ing advanced into a brilliant aurora borealis. The day phe- nomenon, however, not sufficiently described to make the record trustworthy. (J. Langton, in NATURE, April 27.) A.D. 1871.—April 10, about 4.30 P.M., a whitish arc seen, almost east, against a cloudless azure sky. On the previous night there was a magnificent aurora borealis. § (Mentioned by me in NATURE, May 4.) These form the whole of the most reliable records, which are certainly few, for the period embraced between the earliest and present date ; but I am inclined to believe that the occurrence of daylight auroras is not so rare as is here shown, but that they have been seen and actually recorded in the works which I have here and elsewhere quoted, but for the want of the state- ment of the time of day or night, one cannot tell to which the appearance belongs. Often a display which can be said to have been seen in the night, might as easily be said to belong to the day, so far as the actual wording of the record goes. It will follow from this that the scanty records we have of daylight auroras referred to phenomena of extraordinary magnitude and magnificence, JOHN JEREMIAH The Conservation of Force I HAVE been endeavouring to understand what is meant by the Conservation of Force; and as it is one of the most interesting subjects I have studied, I send you the result of my labours. * This is confirmed in Beda, Flor. of Wor. (under A.D. 677) and Chronicum Scotorum (under A.D. 673 in error for 677). + See also Pliny, Bk. II. c. lvii. t This very singularly explains the following passage in Pliny :—‘‘ Round about the sun there was seen an arch when Lu. Opinius and Q. Fabius were consuls” (about B.c. 123). This was not an ordinary halo, for he says further :—‘“‘and a circle when L. Porcius and M. Acilius were consuls.” (Bk. ii. c. xxix.) § It appears curious that the majority of the displays occurred at or about 4.30 P.M., in the autumn, winter, and spring months. Cases of magnetic disturbances during this hour are not rare, accompanying the aurora. It may prove of some value to note this. eimas 48 NATURE [Way 18, 1871 The first law of motion laid down by Sir Isaac Newton (Princip. Math. Jes. Ed. tom. i. p. 15) is not a universal law, but is only capable of a restricted application. The incapacity of matter to alter its condition, whether of rest or motion, is a doctrine which becomes untenable when we examine matters which are always proprio motu altering their condition. Grave as such a statement may at first sight appear, we must begin with it if we wish to arrive at the truth. Motion is the property which matter possesses of always changing its position relatively to other matter, and each little atom of the 64 elementary substances known tochemists contains a certain amount of tendency to move ; this is a part of its nature, it would not be what it is without this; as that great mathematician, M. Poisson, says, the tendency to move resides init. The five gaseous ele- ments, for instance, have each their respective amounts of ten- dency to move residing in the atoms of which they are composed. Prof. Faraday says, in his “ Researches in Chemistry,” p. 454, “a particle of oxygen is ever a particle of oxygen—nothing can in the least wear it. If it enter into combination and disappear as oxygen—if it pass through a thousand combinations, animal, vegetable, and mineral—if it lie hid fora thousand years, and then be evolved, it is oxygen with its first qualities—neither more nor less. It has all its original force, and only that; the amount of force, which it disengaged when hiding itself, has again to be employed in a reverse direction when it is set at liberty.” Now what is the meaning of the word force which Prof. Faraday uses here ? is it not the certain amount of tendency to move which I mentioned before? A particle of oxygen contains a certain amount of tendency to move, without which it would not be a particle of oxygen at all ; and this tendency it can never get rid of, ‘it has all its original force, and only that.” What, then, does the Conservation of Force doctrine amount to in plain English ? It amounts to the simple admission that the tendency to move is a property of matter inseparable from it and coexistent with it, and it is this tendency to move which is the cause of all the changes which we observe around us. There is, however, nothing new under the sun, for the old doctrine of Argan in Ze Aalade Jmaginaire is revived again ; when Argan answers his examiner for a licence to practise in medicine, he says :— Mihi a docto Doctore Domandatur causam et rationem quare Opium facit dormire A quoi respondeo Quia est in eo Virtus dormitiva Cujus est natura Sensus assoupire. Many a clever student has laughed at this answer who little thought that research and experience would confirm it so strongly as they now do. The virtues of opium are chiefly dependent on the morphia which it contains, and morphia is one of the vegetable alkalis containing nitrogen in combination with carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. The wrtes dormitiva of morphia is the certain amount of tendency to move inherent in this combination ; and this ten- dency, if the morphia is exhibited in the human subject, comes in contact with and retards the tendencies to move which certain component parts of the body possess, and produces that state which we call sleep. The salts of morphia are largely used to allay pain and producesleep. Dr. Bence Jones says in his Croonian Lectures on Matter and Force, p. 84, ‘‘ Stimulants, tonics, and evacuants may perhaps not only take part directly in the motions of any part of the body, but they may also promote or retard the conversion of one motion into other motions. Specifics and alteratives may directly as well as indirectly change the motions in the system. And sedatives and narcotics may have the same double action in retarding or stopping the motions that take place. This view will almost lead us to consider all medicines as altera- tives, and if so we may perhaps place stimulant and sedative medicines at the two extremes of the alterative actions; the stimulants giving rise to the greatest increase of motion, and the sedatives allowing the least motion or the nearest approach to rest.” The practical student of our day, when he speaks of terrestrial matter being at rest, means that it is then moving at the same rate of motion as the earth itself. Prof. Ansted treats of motion thus :—‘‘The first and greatest lesson that the students of Geography and Geology must learn is that motion is not limited to masses of bodies, but is actually taking place always and under all circumstances within all masses, whether solid, liquid, or gaseous, and often without approaching the surface.” —“ Physi- cal Geography,” p. 2. The Universe is one mighty system of changes, and these changes arise from the inseparable connection between matter aud motion ; and Dr. Bence Jones says truly, ‘‘ The question between materialism and spiritualism is in fact only a question between ponderable and imponderable materialism.” Trinity College, Oxford N. A. NICHOLSON THE BIG GUN OF WOOLWICH Ae Se considered as a weapon of terrible power or simply as a specimen of skilful and suc- cessful forging, the 35-ton Fraser cannon is without parallel, Of extraordinary strength and proportions, and withal so carefully, and one might almost say, ele- gantly finished, this magnificent gun is indeed a master- piece well worthy of the greatest factory in England, from which it emanates. Cannon of larger dimensions have, it is true, been produced, capable actually of delivering a heavier projectile than that employed with the Woolwich weapon, but none of them are to be in any way compared with this, either in respect to battering power or length of gange. That the gun is, moreover, not merely a show production, as was the case with the monster Krupp cannon, but a really serviceable and efficient fire-arm, is shown by its endurance of the severe test to which it was subjected at proof. On this occasion the 7oolb. projectile was thrown from the gun by the enormous charge of 13olbs. of gun- powder—the largest, in fact, that has ever been safely consumed in any fire-arm—the explosion being without the slightest injurious effect upon the steel bore or sur- rounding wrought-iron castings. The solid cylinder of iron which constituted the shot issued forth at the terrible velocity of 1,370 feet per second, and, after travelling some fifty yards, buried itself in the butt of loose earth to a depth of thirty-three feet. The pressure of the gas at the time of explosion was, as may be supposed, exceedingly great, and herein obviously lies the great difficulty to be overcome in the construction of large guns; this pressure or strain, we find, increases in a much greater ratio than the amount of powder that is burnt would appear at first sight to justify, and for this reason large guns require to be proportion- ately much strongerthan littleones, Thus, in the present instance, when a charge of but 75lb. of powder was fired, the pressure of the gas upon the copper piston at the rear of the projectile was shown to be seventeen tons per square inch, while 13olbs. of powder (not double the former charge therefore) gave a pressure amounting to sixty-four tons on the square inch, It has, by the way, been ques- tioned whether this method of estimating the pressure, by means, namely, of a copper piston which is pushed in upon itself, affords a strictly reliable test, but in any case there can be no doubt that the strain upon the gun is in- creased in a greatly increasing ratio to the quantity of powder consumed. When we state, therefore, that the weapon withstood in every part this excessive strain, and that, under ordinary circumstances, the cartridge will contain but golbs. of powder, there is every reason to believe in the solidity and perfection of the structure. The data obtained by the firing of the gun at proof lead us to hope for very successful results from its employ- ment. It is calculated that at a distance of fifty yards the heavy projectile would be thundered forth with such force as to penetrate fourteen and a half inches of solid iron, an armour plate such as no vessels of our present con- struction are enabled to carry. At two thousand yards— at upwards of a mile, therefore—the shot would possess j / May 18, 1871] NATURE 49 enough penetrating force to pass clean through the side of the strongest ironclad afloat—those of the /Yevcules class —or, in other words, is endowed with impact sufficient to pierce twelve inches of iron ; and it must be remembered that this last-named distance is one at which gunners can make very good practice, so that, under ordinary circum- stances, every other shot would take effect against a target such as is presented by the keel of a large frigate. As regards extreme length of range, a quality of some im- portance, when, as in the recent instance of the Paris siege, great projecting power is of more importance than preci- sion of aim, this Fraser gun may vie with almost any other, with the exception, perhaps, of Whitworth’s cannon. The utmost distance to which “ the Woolwich infant,” as it has been nicknamed, will in all probability be capable of projecting a shellis about ten thousand yards, supposing the arm to be laid at an elevation of some thirty-three degrees. So satisfactory, indeed, has this experimental structure turned out, that a further batch of sister guns have forth- with been commenced, and will serve to arm some of our eavy iron-clads which are now building. Only a small number of such weapons will be carried by these vessels —two, or at the most four, apiece—and thus our modern men-of-war will present a perfect contrast to those of a dozen years ago, when a ship, being regarded merely asa box of guns, sometimes received on board as many as a hundred and thirty cannon. Nevertheless, a broadside delivered from four guns of these giant dimensions (for the whole armament being carried in turrets may be brought to bear at one time), representing almost a ton anda half of metal, very far exceeds that which an old first-class three-decker could throw into her antagonist, and would indeed be sufficient to sink most vessels at a first discharge. As regards the method of building up these large guns, we need say nothing, seeing that the subject was fully dis- cussed recently in these columns. It may be of interest to know, however, that in the present instance as muchas fifty tons of metal were employed in constructing the arm, and that at ene time thirty tons of this was brought toa glowing white heat for the purpose of welding. The rever- beratory furnace in which this massive coil was heated is an apartment in which a dozen persons could dine com- fortably, and the length of the bars before coiling amounted to upwards of 1,200 fect. The length of the arm is six- teen feet and a quarter, and its extreme diameter fifty-six inches. A NEW INEXTINGUISHABLE STORM AND DANGER SIGNAL LIGHT HIS new Signal, possessing most remarkable proper- ties, has now been brought before the public. It was first exhibited at the President’s meeting of the Royal Society on 22nd April, when it attracted great at- tention. The peculiarities of the Signal Light are, that it is self-igniting when placed in water or thrown on the sea. Contact with water being the only means of igniting the lamp, it is inextinguishable when once ignited ; neither wind nor storm has any effect upon the flame. The light is of intense brilliancy, and of great duration, and can be seen fora great distance in the open-air. Photographs may be taken by the light of this new signal. Experi- ments were tried on the evening of 25th April, at ten o’clock, in the presence of some scientific gentlemen, to determine its brilliancy as a signal. A lamp was placed in a bucket of water on the top of Primrose Hill, and the light was so intense that after the signal had been burning for twenty minutes small newspaper-print could be dis- tinctly read at a distance of seventy feet, notwithstanding that the night was thick and foggy. This new signal light will burn for over forty minutes. In construction the lamp is exceedingly simple, and so contrived that when once burnt the whole may be thrown away. The chemical preparation contained in the lamp is a solid, hard substance, free from danger ; not affected by heat, and so non-explosive ; and the signal is comparatively inexpensive. Its applications for marine signals are numerous. In case of shipwreck a fewlamps thrown on the sea would illuminate the entire scene, and enable as- sistance to be promptly and efficiently rendered. For rocket-line apparatus it is equally valuable, as, bursting into a flame on falling into the sea, it would indicate the position of the rocket-line. In connection with life buoys it would be a mark to the drowning sailor. In life-boat services it would be a signal to the vessel in distress, and the brilliant light would greatly assist in the rescue. In cases of salvage, ships’ signals, tide and harbour warnings, the duration of the light renders this new invention of great value. Asa railway signal, to be used by the guards and station porters in cases of accident, it is equally available, and will be of great utility. The difficulties of preparing the chemical compound have been entirely overcome by Messrs. Albright and Wilson, of Oldbury, the contractors for the manufacture of the lamp for Mr, Nathaniel Holmes the patentee, FRESHWATER BATHYBIUS es a late meeting of the Natural History and Medical Society of the Lower Rhine, the well-known zoologist, Dr. R. Greeff, noticed an organism inhabiting freshwater and approaching very nearly, both in its structure and mode of occurrence, the celebrated deep-sea Bathybius Hlaeckelit of Professor Huxley. Dr. Greeff, as much as three years ago, published a notice (in Max Schultze’s “Archiv fiir mikrosk. Anat.” Bd. iii, p. 396) of a new shell-less freshwater Rhizopod, which was remarkable for its gigantic stature in com- parison with all previously-known organisms of that kind. Hecalled attention at that time to its occasional occurrence in great quantity in the mud of standing waters, and indicated that, on account of its peculiar structure, it could be referred neither to the true Awd nor to the Actinophryes. Since that time, the author has never lost sight of this extremely remarkable creature, and he thinks it desirable no longer to keep back his observations, especially considering the high degree of interest that has been excited by the Bathydius-mud which has been discovered in the depths and abysses of the ocean (to beyond 25,000 feet). As regards the occurrence of this freshwater organism, to which the author provisionally gives the name of Pelobius,* and which he considers to be truly comparable with Lathybius, Dr. Greeff states that it is found in many standing waters with muddy bottom, which have appa- rently persisted for a long time, and seldom, if ever, have dried up. Thus, near Bonn the bottom of the Poppelsdorf fish-pond is found occasionally to be almost entirely covered with masses of Pelobius ; to such an extent, in- deed, that sometimes a glass vessel brought up from the bottom contains almost more Pe/odzus than true mud-par- ticles, &c. The Pe/odzs never disappears in these waters, but remains throughout the year in great masses, some- times in one place, sometimes in another. The cake-like lumps of mud which rise to the surface and float about there by the agency of enclosed gas and air-bubbles, especially during the warm season, also sometimes con- tain Pe/odius in masses. In their external form, in both the living and the con- tracted state, these organisms present the appearance of more or less spherical lumps, varying from one or two millim, in diameter down to the most minute points, scarcely perceptible by the naked eye. Middle-sized * From mnAdc, mud, [The name Pe/odius has been long preoccupied. — Ep.]] 50 NATURE [May 18, 1871 examples of about one millim. in diameter are the most abundant. They are generally so densely filled with mud- particles, Diatomacez, shells cf Dijlugia and Arcedla, &c., that by transmitted light they can scarcely be dis- tinguished from the actual mud without experience and careful examination; they may consequently be compared to a living mud. By direct light, on the other hand, they appear as grayish-white, yel- lowish, or brownish bodies. Their movements consist in an amceboid and often lively creeping by means of processes which are usually broad and lobate; during this process, the transparent body-substance often pro- trudes at the margins in elevations and undulations. This fundamental substance of the body consists of a hyaline protoplasm of irrezularly frothy or vesicular consistency, containing, besides the above-mentioned ingested par- ticles, a great number of very peculiar elementary par- ticles. Among these there may be distinguished round or roundish oval nucleiform bodies, and fine bacilliform structures. Of the former by far the greater number con- sist of shining pale bodies without any special structural characters, but of great firmness, and presenting con- siderable resistance to reagents (acetic acid and caustic potash). These bodies may possibly be correlated with the coccoliths, &c., of Bathybius. Besides these, however, there are less numerous roundish nuclei of softer consistency, and with more or less finely granular con- tents, which, from their whole nature, must undoubtedly be regarded as equivalent to the ordinary cell-nuclei. Hence in spite of its great simplicity in other respects, Pelobius represents a fluricellular organism, and is not to be referred to the so-called Monera, like Bathybius Haeckelit, according to the investigations of Huxley and Haeckel. Nevertheless, in connection with its possible re- lationship to Lathybzus, it must be noticed that the cell- nuclei of Pe/odius may occur in very variable quantity, often in so small a number as almost to disappear alto- gether ; and further, that they can be detected only in the perfectly fresh state. This latter statement applies also to the frothy vesicular arrangement of the body-sub- stance, which disappears immediately after death or the application of reagents. The second kind of the chief elementary parts of Pelobius consists of fine, clear, shining bacitli, which are scattered through the whole body, and likewise present great resistance to the action of acetic acid and caustic potash. These were mentioned by Dr. Greeff in a former publication, when he expressed the opinion that they originate in certain nuclei, which, however, he has since seen reason to doubt. The author has devoted much time and trouble to the investigation of the developmental history of this interest- ing organism, an exact knowledge of which would be in many respects of the greatest importance. He proposes to publish what has hitherto been observed upon this point (which in some respects recalls the Myxomycetes) in a detailed memoir upon Pe/odius in Max Schultze’s “Archiv fiir mikrosk. Anatomie,” in which some other Rhizopods found under the same conditions as Pe/odzus, and resembling it, will also be described. NOTES THE intelligence of the death of Sir John Herschel will fall on the whole scientific world with a sense of personal bereave- ment. Though he had attained above the ordinary span of life, his mind was still in the maturity of its powers; and few men have been so familiarly known by their writings and their discoveries beyond the narrow pale of the world of science. Next week we hope to give a biography of the great astronomer whose loss we deplore. It is fitting that Herschel II. should be buried in Westminster Abbey, and itis creditable to the authorities that his ashes will be permitted to rest there, THE annual visitation of the Royal Observatory by the Board of Visitors is fixed to take place on the 3rd of June. LETTERS have been received in this country from Dr. Adolf Bernhard Meyer, who left Europe last year for a journey through a part of the Malayan Archipelago and New Guinea. He reached Manado in Celebes in November last, just as the wet season commenced. He had chosen this place as his starting © point, because he had been informed by a celebrated traveller in the East that the fine season commenced at Manado inthe month of October. Nevertheless, he succeeded in making large collec- tions of birds, reptiles, and fishes, which are on their way home, THE Anniversary Meeting of the Geographical Society takes place on Monday next at I P.M., and that of the Linnean on Wednesday at 3. The Victoria Institute holds its annual meet- ing at eight o’clock on Monday, 22nd May, at the Society of Arts Rooms, John Street, Adelphi, when the Rey. W. J. Irons, D.D., will deliver the address. A MANUAL OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY, by Dr. Henry E. Armstrong, F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the London In- stitution, is advertised by Messrs. Longmans and Co., as being in preparation for their admirable series of Text-books of Science. AT a session of Council on Saturday last, the Right Hon. Lord Belper, vice-president in the chair, Mr. E. J. Poynter, A.R.A., was appointed Slade Professor of Fine Art in the College. The buildings, forming part of the north wing, which have been designed for the Fine Art School, are nearly com- pleted, and it is intended to open the classes for drawing, paint- ing, and sculpture at the beginning of the College session in October next. The late Mr. Felix Slade has established at the college six scholarships for proficiency in those branches of Art, each of the value of 50/. per annum tenable for three years, and which may be held by ladies. AN exhibition of Paleolithic Stone Implements will be on view at the rooms of the Society of Antiquaries, Somerset House, from May 19th to 25th inclusive, from 11 A.M. to 6 P.M. AT the General Examination of Women at the University of London, just concluded, four passed in honours and nine in the first division. It is understood there were about double that number of candidates. WE learn from the Academy that the Zoological Collection of the British Museum has been lately enriched by the purchase of a magnificent series of Sponges from South Africa, the majority of which are likely to prove new to science. It is to be hoped that the group of the Sfozgiade, now attracting so much atten- tion in scientific circles, will receive a more liberal allotment of space in the new museum to be erected at Kensington. The utter unfitness of the present building to meet the daily increasing requirements of the national collection is evidenced from the fact that numerous groups of the /nvertebrata are literally ‘‘ crowded out,” and entirely unrepresented in the series devoted to public exhibition, for want of the necessary space. This, and the in- adequacy of the present slender staff of the Natural History de- partment to effect the thorough and systematic arrangement of the extensive and valuable collection, and to elevate it to that high scientific status enjoyed in the leading continental museums, demand the most earnest and speedy attention, Mr. Boucarp, the well known dealer in specimens of Natural History, and traveller, formerly living in Paris, but now resident in London, proposes the publication of a work on the Coleoptera of Mexico and Central America, including the adjacent portions of the United States, especially the Pacific region. He earnestly desires contributions of specimens, whether named or not, to be used in his investigations, and will return such as he is not per- May 18, 1871] NATURE 51 mitted to keep, suitably identified, and will render an equivalent in other specimens, if desired, for such as are sent to him to be retained, Any specimens intended for him may be sent to his establishment, 55, Great Russell Street, Bloomsbury. Mr. C. H. BELFRAGE, of Waco, M‘Lennan Co., Texas, an- nounces that, at the request of several gentlemen in the United States and Europe, he intends making an extensive eight or nine months’ entomological collecting tour in Western Texas and Southern New Mexico, if sufficient means can be raised, and in- vites every entomologist who wishes to enrich his collection to assist in the undertaking. Mr. Belfrage is recommended by Dr. A. S. Packard, jun., the editor of the American Naturalist, as a faithful and excellent collector, and the opportunity seems to be an unusual one of obtaining specimens of rare or little-known insects. Mr. Belfrage’s address is at the above township, care of Messrs. Forsgard and Co. THE Clifton College Scientific Society has just issued the first part of its ‘‘ Transactions,” which affords a happy illustration of its motto, Viresgue acguirit eundo, Not yet two years old, and commencing with eighteen members, it has steadily increased in popularity and usefulness under the able presidency, first of Dr. Debus, and then of Mr. Barrington- Ward, till at one of its most recent meetings, nearly ten times that number of visitors and members were present. In this volume a number of interesting papers by the members, on various branches of natural and physical science, are printed ; but we are most interested in the sketch of theconstitution of the society. The School Museum has wisely been constituted especially a British one, and in order to facilitate the study of the natural history of the neighbourhood, and promote the other objects kept in view, the Society has been divided into sections of botany, geology, entomology, chemistry, physics, and archzology, the novel principle being introduced of limiting the number of members of each section to ten, in order to ensure a thoroughly working body. The Society has entered on its work in a spirit which entitles us to hope that it wil] be among the leaders in the spread of a real love of science among the generation now rising up. Mr. H. RoceErs read an important paper before the Edin- burgh Botanical Society on March 9, a report ‘‘ On the Effects of cutting down Forests on the Climate and Health of the Mauritius.” The epidemic which broke out in 1865 in the colony, previously so remarkable for its salubrity, he traced to this cause, and stated that between 1854 and 1862 vast tracts of forests had disappeared, causing a diminished amount of rain- fall, an increased amount of dryness, and a proportionate eleva- | tion of temperature. The difference in seasons is now much less marked, rains are scarce, droughts frequent and excessive, yast tracts of land, formerly productive, are now barren and desolate, and districts before noted for salubrity are now no- toriously unhealthy. Although the amount of rainfall is much reduced, the violence of the rain is increased when it does fall, and heavy floods are the result. It was immediately after one of these inundations that the fever broke out in February 1865, which proved so terribly fatal in the colony. From Ireland we have received the First Annual Report of the Natural History and Philosophical Society of Derry. Among papers of local history we find some on the antiquities, geology, | entomology, and fucology of the neighbourhood of Derry, with drawings and photo-lithographs of cinerary urns found at Grange, | Malin, and Buncrana, to illustrate a paper on that subject by | the president, Mr. W. Harte. The society has made a good start, and we wish it all success. THE Manchester Scientific Students’ Association has issued its Tenth Annual Report for 1870, AJthough none of the papers f ‘ead during the past year are printed in the report, the associa- physical conditions of the west coast of the Pacific. tion, judging from the list of proceedings at the ordinary meet- ings, the Microscopical Club, and the Mechanical and Engi- neering Section, appears to have been doing some good and useful work. The number of members has slightly decreased during the year, but the committee hope soon to raise it again, and thus obtain funds for some desirable additions to the library. It is stated in Zand and IVater that the laudable effort of the Acclimatisation Society of Otago to introduce birds and animals into New Zealand has lately met with great success. The ships City of Dunedin and Warrior Queen have arrived in New Zea- land with a living cargo of birds and animals which have thriven wonderfully well on board ship during their long voyage. Thus there are now in New Zealand five red-deer—we regret the stag died on the voyage—goldfinches, skylarks, blackbirds, sparrows, chaffinches, &c. The robins, numbering over a hundred, unfor- tunately died on the voyage. It is certain that the climate of New Zealand is admirably suited for the well-being and estab- lishment of a British fauna. The colonists wisely recognised the importance of the study of ‘‘ Practical Natural History,” par- ticularly as regards keeping insect life in check by means of small birds, the little feathered servants whose services are not suffi- ciently appreciated by agriculturists at home. Within the next fortnight thousands of young rooks will fall victims to the pea- rifle in England. How much better would it beif these unfortu- nate birds could have been sent across the ocean to our friends and relations in New Zealand! We understand that the cock- chafer has been imported with English grasses, but the enemy to the cockchafer, the rook, has been left at home. We hope that next year the Otago Society will repeat their experiments with insect-eating birds, the unpaid ‘‘ police of nature,” which would keep in check the insect ‘‘ pests of the farm,” which have now pretty nearly their own way, to the injury of the farmer and horticulturists at the antipodes. The greatest credit is due to Mr. John A. Ewen for the pains he has taken in shipping the birds, and to Mr, Bills for the care and skill he has shown by his judicious management of the birds during the long voyage. ON the 4th and 6th of March two shocks of earthquake were felt at Bogota, in Columbia, and these shocks were felt at the same dates at Cartago. ON the 19th February the great earthquake in the Hawaian Islands took place. This was succeeded on the 2nd March by an earthquake at Eureka, in Humboldt County, California. THE whole west coast of America, throughout its great mountain range, has now been seriously disturbed for some months. As far north as Washington Territory, Mount Rainer is reported as in commotion. On the 22nd February an earthquake was reported at Pano, in Peru, and a stronger one at two A.M. on the 23rd. These were slightly felt at Lima. FROM recent advices we have to report the continuation of serious disturbances on land and by sea of the meteorological and The phe- nomena appear to have been preceded long since, and are now accompanied, by volcanic disturbance, and some of them have passed from north to south. One remarkable feature is that of the inundations, particularly in the districts actually rainless, On the Isthmus of Central America rain is common, but this year the amount has been great, and the inundation greater. During the season immense quantities of vapour have been con- verted into rain along the western slopes of the Cordillera and the Andes. In northern Peru the effects have been particularly felt, and the more severely as the cities were unprovided to en- counter rains or floods. Lambayegue, an interior town of 7,000 people, is destroyed, and the population have abandoned that of Supe. In some places bogs have been produced in which the cattle perish. Mud is washed far out to sea, and among the 52 animals carried off was an alligator driven into Payta Bay. The circumstances are worthy of notice, as they illustrate some of the incidents of geological disturbance. At sea rain is met witha hundred miles out, to the surprise of captains, who report the winds and currents as changed. Tr is stated in some of the papers that the system of storm- signal observations, now in progress under the direction of the Signal Corps of the army, was devised by Great Britain before it was made use of by the United States Government. This is perhaps correct, so far as it goes ; but it is to Prof. Henry, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, that we owe the original idea of procuring despatches regularly in relation to the weather, and tabulating them, asalso of placing them on a map so as to show, day by day, the general character of the weather through out the United States. For several years prior to the beginning of the war this system was carried on regularly, and was of great interest to visitors to the Institution. The occupation of the tele- graph lines for military purposes, and the fire in the Smithsonian building, broke up the arrangement; and it was about to be resumed when the Government undertook the work, thereby re- lieving the Institutionjfrom the necessity of its further prosecution. THE California vulture (Ca¢hartes Californianus) is the largest species possessed by the fauna of Western America, where it ranges over an immense space of country in search of food. When any large game is brought down by the hunter these birds may be seen slowly sweeping towards it, intent upon their share of the prey. Nor in the absence of the hunter will his game be exempt from their ravenous appetite, though it be carefully hidden and covered with shrubs and heavy branches, as they will drag it forth from its concealment and speedily devour it. Any article of clothing, however, thrown over a carcase will shield it from the vulture. In some localities the nests are known to the Indians, who year by year take the young, and, having duly pre- pared them by long feeding, kill them at one of their great festi- vals. The California vulture joins to his rapacity an immense muscular power, as an instance of which it is stated that four of them jointly have been knownto drag for over two hundred yards the body of a young grizzly bear weighing more than a hundred pounds. Dr. NEWBERRY, in his interesting report of the botany of the explorations for a railroad route from the Sacramento Valley to the Columbia River, speaks thus of the district lying east of the Sierra Nevada and the Cascade Mountains :—‘‘ The general aspect of the botany of this region is made up of three distinct elements. Of these the first is presented by the grassy plains which border the streams flowing down from the mountains. On these surfaces grows a considerable variety of animal vegetation, not unlike that of the Sacramento Valley in its general character. The second of these botanical phases is that of the ‘sage’ plains, surfaces upon which little or nothing else than clumps of artemisia will grow. The third is formed by forests of yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa), which apparently finds on these arid surfaces its most congenial habitat. It sometimes happened to us that, during a whole day’s ride, we were passing through a continuous forest of these yellow pine trees in which scarcely a dozen distinct species of plants could be found.” THE night heron of the United States (Myctiardea Garideni) is much dreaded by the Indians, who have many traditions and superstitions connected with it, and believe that it has the power of transforming human beings into inferior animals. Of the blue heron (Ardea Herodias), they say that he was formerly an Indian, and that perpetual quarrels raged between his wife and himself. On this account they were both transformed by a superior power, the man becoming a heron, the woman a dabchick (Podiceps cornutus), at the same time the brother of the woman was changed into the western grebe (Podiceps occidentalis), a native of the Pacific coast. NATURE [May 18, 1871 a REPORT ON THE DESERT OF TI j (Continued jrom page 35) HE following are the various observations I have made and tales I have collected about some of the birds and mammals _ found in the desert of Tih and adjoining regions. For con- 4 venience of reference I have arranged them alphabetically. In the cases of well-known animals, or of such as have been before scientifically described, I confine myself chiefly to the Arab stories or legends attaching to them :— Bears (Ursus syriacus), Arabic Dadé, are still found on Mount — Hermon and the Anti-Lebanon, and inust formerly have existed — in Palestine, but the destruction of the woods has now driven — them northwards. They do much damage to the vineyards in - the neighbourhood of Hermon, but seldom interfere with the herds of goats. The Arabs share in the widely-spread belief that bears sustain themselves during their hybernation by sucking — their paws. They also say that when the female drops her cub — it is quite shapeless, and that she carries it about in her mouth for fear lest it should be devoured by the ants, and then licksitinto proper shape. Bear's grease is said to be useful in cases of leprosy. _ Boar, wild, Ar. Halhouf, or usually in Palestine, Khazzir, which simply means pig. These animals are very abundant wherever — there is cover near water, as on the banks of the Jordan and in ~ the Ghor es Safi at the S. of the Dead Sea. Iwas much sur- prised to find traces of recent rooting by them inthe W. Rakhamah, which lies between El Milh and ’Abdeh. This place is far from any water except what may have collected in hollow rocks, and can boast ofnocover. The ’Azdzimeh eat the wild boar, but the Ghawarineh, who will eat a hyena, though it is known to fre- : quent the grave-yards, will not touch them. In this, as in the case of the other animals, I can insert but a bd few amongst the many medicinal uses to which they are put by the Arabs, as these are in general unsuited to the taste of © 4 > 3 : * European readers. Bustard (Odis hubara) Ar. Hubara. I noticed a few of these < birds in the Tih ; the Arabs say that the lesser bustard (Ovts tetrax) — which is also occasionally found there, is the young of the larger, — but does not attain its full growth for two years. They also say that these birds, when attacked by a falcon, will cover it with — their faeces, and so drive it off. ’ Camel, Ar. masc. jemel, fem. ndégah. A stallion camel is called Sahl. Collectively, 7b: vulgo b:1 or bdir, pl. aardn. Hejinis usually applied to a dromedary, but is properly used of a man, — horse, or camel having an Arab sire and foreign dam, which, in the case of the animals, is considered the best possible cross. Hence, a dromedary (or well-bred camel used for riding) is so” called. Camels are most peevish animals, docile only from stupidity ;_ ill-tempered, they never forget an injury. I have but once seen_ a camel show the slightest sign of affection for its owner, although they are always well treated. All their feelings of like and dis- — like, pleasure and annoyance, are expressed by a hideous sound between a bellow and a roar, to which they give utterance whether they are being loaded or unloaded, whether they are being fed or urged over a difficult pass ; in fact, they disapprove of whatever is done. Without them, however, it would be im- — possible to cross the deserts, for no other animal could endure the fatigue and want of water ; I have myself seen a camel refuse water after having been without any for three days. For their food they always choose the most uninviting thorny shrubs ; the seya ](acacia) which has thorns two or three inches long, is an especial favourite with them. Many of the Arabs subsist almost entirely upon the milk and cheese afforded by their herds of camels. The Pelican is called jemel el ma, or water camel ; Chameleon, jemel el yehiid, the Jew’s camel. Cat, or Azz‘, also Sinnaur and Hirr, According to some lexicographers, the first name is not a pure Arabic word. Cats are held in great estimation in the east, and large prices are sometimes paid by native ladies for fine Persian specimens. In Cairo a sum of money was left in trust to feed poor cats, who- daily receive their rations at the Mahkemah (law courts). Though the Arabs in Sinai and the Tih spoke of a wild cat, gatt berri, I found that this was always the lynx (/i/?s caracal), which is called in some parts of Arabia ’#vah ef ardh, or earth- kid; in Sinai, it is also spoken of as dvaseh (from azz, a she- goat). In Morocco, it is only known as owda/. I may here remark that the word Fad, translated by Lane and others as “lynx ”—an animal that is never used for hunting —really means the cheefa, or hunting leopard of Persia and India, and the -) ww f May 18, 1871] __ The Arabs in the Tih and in Morocco, as well as the Fellahin ‘in Egypt, eat the lynx, and esteem it a delicacy, bnt, as some of them eat hyzenas, jackals, foxes, vultures, and ravens, they can hardly be quoted as epicurean authorities. Many animals have in Arabic a large number of names, more than 560, for instance, being applied to the lion. The following story current among them will illustrate this fact with reference to the cat. A Bedawiwas out hunting one day, and caught a eat, but did not know what animal it could be. As he was car- rying it along with him, he met a man, who said, ‘‘ What are you going to do with that Szaur?” then another asked him, “* What is that Aw/¢ for?” sie) le) tele ens DARN Sea us ss cess Om ow ox >) 8 el aie 96 A NATURE THURSDAY, JUNE 8, 1871 THE GENERAL OCEANIC CIRCULATION MONG the results of the Porcupine Expeditions of 1869 and 1870, there are perhaps none more impor- tant than those relating to the Temperature of the Deep Sea. For it is only to such accurate determinations of ocean temperatures as have now been made for the first time, not only at the surface and the bottom, but also at intermediate depths, that a really scientific theory can be framed of that great Oceanic Circulation, which, while it eludes all ordinary means of direct observation, seems to produce a far more important effect, both on terrestrial climate and on the distribution of the marine fauna, than that of the entire aggregate of the surface-currents which are more patent to sight. The latter usually have winds for their prime motors, and their direction is mainly deter- mined by the configuration of the land; so that their course and action will change with any superficial altera- tion which either opens out a new passage or blocks up anold one. The former, on the other hand, depending solely on difference of temperature, will (to use Sir J. Herschel’s apposite language) have its movements, direc- tion, and channels of concentration mainly determined by the configuration of the sea-bottom ; and vast eleva- tions and subsidences may take place in this, without pro- ducing any change that is discernible at the surface. The history of the doctrine of the general oceanic circulation has been recently given in the Anniversary Address of the President of the Geological Society, with | a completeness which (so far as we are aware) had never been previously paralleled. But this doctrine has hitherto rested on the very insecure foundation of observations which were alike inadequate and inaccurate ; and it has consequently been discredited, both by physicists and by physical geographers. It is now impossible to assign a precise value to the older observations upon deep-sea temperatures. For it was shown by the careful experiments which were made by Mr. Casella two years ago, under the direction of thelate Prof. W. A. Miller, Dr. Carpenter, and Captain Davis of the Admiralty, that the pressure of sea-water at great depths on the bulb of the thermometer—a pressure amounting to about a ton per square inch for every 800 fathoms—exerts so great an influence on even the very best instruments of the ordinary construction, as to cause a rise of eight or ten degrees under an amount equivalent to that which would be exerted at from 2,000 to 2,500 fathoms’ depth ;* and the error of many thermometers under the same pressure was two or three times that amount. There is reason to believe that some of the thermometers formerly employed, especially in the French scientific expeditions, were pro- tected against that influence; but no such protection appears to have been applied to the thermometers sup- plied to Sir James Ross’s Antarctic Expedition ; and the | observations by which he supposed himself to have estab- lished the existence of a uniform deep-sea temperature of * Mr. Prestwich cites Dr. Carpenter as estimating the error from pres- sure “‘at 2° or 3° or even more.” The error is said by Dr. Carpenter to have been from 2° to 3° on the depths of from 500 to 700 fathoms first explored ; _ but would have been from 8° to 10° at the depths subsequently reached. VOL, IV. oF about 39°, now seem to have been altogether fallacious. So again, Captain Spratt’s observations in the Mediter- ranean, though made with great care, were seriously vitiated by this source of error. It appears from Mr. Prestwich’s exhaustive summary, that as long ago as 1812 Humboldt had maintained that such a low temperature exists at great depths in tropical seas, as can only be accounted for by the hypothesis of under currents from the Poles to the Equator. And this view was adopted by D’Aubuisson, Lenz, and Pouillet ; the latter of whom considered it certain “that there is generally an upper current carrying the warm tropical waters towards the Polar seas, and an under current carrying the cold waters of the Arctic regions from the Poles to the Equator.” Our Arctic navigators had met with temperatures in the Polar seas as low as 29° at 1,000 fathoms ; and these observations have been more recently confirmed by those of M. Charles Martins and others in the neighbourhood of Spitzbergen. Several instances are | recorded, on the other hand, in which temperatures of from 38° to 35° were observed at great depths nearly under the Equator ; and this alike in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans. The Temperature-soundings taken in the Lightaing and Porcupine Expeditions, with trustworthy instruments, have shown :—(1) That in the channel of from 600 to 700 fathoms’ depth which lies between the North of Scotland, the Orkney and Shetland Islands, and the Faroes, there is an upper stratum of which the temperature is con- siderably higher than the normal of the latitude ; whilst there is stratum occupying the lower half of this channel, of which the temperature ranges as low as from 32° to 29°5; and a “stratum of intermixture” lying between these two, in which the temperature rapidly falls—as much as 15° in 100 fathoms. (2.) That off the coast of Portugal, beneath the surface-stratum, which (like that of the Mediterranean) is super-heated during the summer by direct solar radiation, there is a nearly uniform tempera- ture down to about 800 fathoms; but that there is a “stratum of intermixture” about 200 fathoms thick, in which the thermometer sinks 9°; and that below 1,000 fathoms the temperature ranges from 39° down to about 36°'5. (3.) That in the Mediterranean the temperature beneath the super-heated surface-stratum is uniform to any depth ; being at 1,500 or 1,700 fathoms whatever it is at 100 fathoms, namely from 56° to 54°, according to the locality. To these may be added (4) the observations | recently made by Commander Chimmo, with the like trustworthy thermometers, which, in lat. 3° 184’ S., and long. 95° 39’ E., gave 35°°2 as the bottom temperature at 1,806 fathoms and 33°6 at 2,306 fathoms. These seem to be the lowest temperatures yet observed in any part of the deep ocean basins outside the Polar area. It is clear, therefore, that very strong evidence now exists, that instead of a uniform deep-sea temperature of 39°, which, on the authority of Sir James Ross, by whom the doctrine was first promulgated, and of Sir J. Herschel, by whom it was acceptedand fathered, had come tobe generally accepted in this country at the time when the recent deep- sea explorations commenced, not only is the temperature of the deeper parts of the Arctic basin below the freezing- point of fresh water, but the temperature of the deepest parts of the great oceanic basins, even under the Equator, G 98 is not far above that point. And it seems impossible to account for the latter of these facts in any other mode, than by assuming that Polar water is continually finding its way from the depths of the Polar basins along the fioor of the great oceanic areas, so as to reach or even to cress the Equator. And as no such deep efflux could continue to take place without a corresponding in-draught to replace it, a general circulation must be assumed to take place between the Polar and Equatorial areas, as was long since predicated by Pouillet. Such a vertical circulation, it was affirmed by Prof. Buff, would be necessarily caused by the opposition of temperature between the Equatorial and the Polar seas ; and this view was adopted by Dr. Carpenter, in his Porcupine Report of 1869, as harmonising with the tem- perature-phenomena which had been determined in the expedition of that year. It has been since contested, however, not only by Mr. Croll and Dr. Petermann, but also by Dr. Carpenter's colleague, Prof. Wyville Thomson, all of whom agree in regarding the amelioration of the temperature of the Arctic Sea as entirely due to an ex- tension of the Gulf Stream, the underflow of Polar water being merely its complement. And the authority of Sir John Herschel was invoked against the idea that any general oceanic circulation could be maintained by difference of temperature alone; though his statements, when carefully examined, only go to prove that no such difference could produce sevszble currents. Such was the state of the question when the Porcupine Expedition of last year concluded its work; and the results obtained, whilst confirmatory of previous ob- servations, suggested to Dr. Carpenter a definite Physical Theory, which now comes before us with the express ap- proval of the great philosopher who had been said to be opposed to it. Having ascertained, as our readers have learned from his report, the existence of an outward under-current in the Strait of Gibraltar, which carries back into the Atlantic the water of the Mediterranean that has undergone con- centration by the excess of evaporation in its basin, Dr. Carpenter applied himself to the consideration of the forces by which the superficial in-current and the deep out-current are sustained; and came to the conclusion that, as had been previously urged by Captain Maury, a vera causa for both is to be found in excess of evapora- tion, which at the same time lowers the level and increases the density of the Mediterranean column as compared with a corresponding column of Atlantic water. This conclusion, when scientifically worked out, was found to be applicable, sz¢atzs mutandis, to the converse case of NATURE the Baltic Sound ; in which, as was long ago experiment- ally shown (with a result that has recently been confirmed by Dr. Forchhammer), a deep current of salt water flows inwards from the North Sea, whilst a strong current of brackish water sets outwards from the Baltic, the amount of fresh water that drains into which is greatly in excess of the evaporation from its surface. Comparing, then, the Polar and Equatorial areas, it is shown by Dr. Carpenter that there will not only be a con- tinual tendency in the former to a lowering of level and | increase of density, which will place it in the same re- lation to the latter as the Mediterranean bears to the Atlantic ; but that the influence of Polar cold will be to | Fune 8, 18471 produce a continual descent of the water within its area ; thus constituting the primum mobile of the General Oceanic Circulation, of which no adequate account had previously been given. This conclusion, as our readers will have seen, has been most explicitly accepted by Sir John Herschel. Our limits do not admit of our following Dr. Carpenter through his discussion of the relative shares of the Gulf Stream and of the General Oceanic Circulation in that amelioration of the temperature of the Polar area, of which the industry of Dr. Petermann has collected a vast body of indisputable evidence; and for this discussion we would refer such of our readers as are specially interested in the question to the last part of the “ Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society.” But as Dr. Carpenter has now shown a capacity to deal not merely with Physiological but with Physi- cal questions, in a manner which has obtained the approval of some of the ablest physicists of our time, we hope that he will not again be accused (as he was by some of those who opposed his views on their first pro- mulgation) of venturing beyond his depth when he began to reason on these subjects, and of advancing doctrines which his own observations refuted. The exclusive doc- trine of the thermal action of the Gulf Stream advocated by Mr. Croll, rests, as Dr. Carpenter has shown, upon so insecure a basis, that a very large body of careful observa- tions must be collected before any reliable data can be obtained as to the heat it actually carries forth from the Gulf of Mexico. And how much of this heat is dissipated by evaporation, as well as by radiation, before one-half of the Stream reaches the banks of Newfoundland (the other half having turned round the Azores to re- enter the Equatorial current), is a question which there are as yet no adequate data for determining. On the other hand, in his conclusion that a great body of Ocean water slowly moving northwards, so as to carry with it a considerable excess of temperature even to the depth of 500 or 600 fathoms, must exert a much greater heating power than the thinned-out edge of the Gulf Stream, Dr. Carpenter seems to us to have both scientific probability and common sense on his side. SCIENCE IN ITALY Atti dell? Accademia Pontificia dé Nuovi Lincet. Reale Istituto Lombardo dt Scienze e Lettere. Rendi- conti. Annali di Chimica Applicata alla Medicina, Compilati da] Dottor Giovanni Polli. TALY has become a nation. It is no longer enslaved by the barbarous despotism, of a single city, nor divided into mutual throat-cutting republics, nor diplo- matically parcelled into heir-looms for royal families. It has at last become the country of its own people. The moral and intellectual laws of Natural Selection are now freely operating, and they will soon show what manner of people these Italians really are. There are many ways of gauging the civilisation of a community. The consumption of soap has been suggested, and has the advantage, being numerically definite. Thus, _ let s represent the quantity of soap used, # the population, | Sune 8, 1871] and x the state of civilisation, we obtain the following equation— 3 Ss le te and thus moral philosophy is brought within the reach of the mathematician, But there is another test which is, I think, even safer than soap, that is, the current literature of the nation, and more especially its periodical literature. The readers of Reynolds's Weekly Newspaper and the Sporting Life diverge so widely from the subscribers to NATURE, that their differences almost come within the reach of ethnological specification, and I believe that the direction of the growth of Young Italy may best be determined by watching the progress of its periodical and general literature. It is a very interesting and promising fact that during the last two years the proportion of purely scientific works to those of light literature has been greater in Italy than in either England, France, or Germany. This refers only to original Italian works, and does not include transla- tions. The periodicals named at the head of this article are good examples of the progress of the highest kind of intellectual culture in Italy. The first is published at Rome, the second and third at Milan. “The Transac- tions of the Pontifical Academy of the New Lynxes ” does not belong to Young Italy, as the fasciculi before me are for the twenty-second year of the Academy, and the new Lynceans claim Pontifical patronage, and announce it in their name, which of course is derived from the old clas- sical society of the Lynx-eyed Philosophers of the middle ages ; a title which, in spite of its fanciful character presented one of the earliest formal recognitions of the paramount importance of laborious observation, as op- posed to the speculative and disputatious spirit of con- temporary philosophy.* The papers of Father Secchi and Prof. Respighi, on their spectroscopic and telescopic observations on the sun and stars, occupy a considerable portion of these Transactions. Father Secchi’s observations are tolerably well known to English readers, but I doubt whether such is the case with Respighi’s spectroscopic researches on “ Stellar scintillation,” the results of which were stated in papers read at the Lyncean meetings of May 10, 1868, and February 14,1869. ‘Thesecond papersupplemented the first and embraces 720 observations, extending from October 4 to February 12. The primary results obtained by Prof. Respighi were that in the spectrum of a star near the horizon, dark lines and bright bands travel along the spec- trum, most frequently from the red to the violet, but some- times in the contrary direction, and occasionally oscillate from one colour to the other. The nearer to the horizon, the more distinct and definite are these moving lines and bands, and the more slow and regular their movements. The bright moving bands are more rare and less regular * The original Academia Lincea was founded in Rome by Federigo Cesi, the Marchese di Monticelli, in 1603. Cesi was the first president, and Baptista Porta the Neapolitan vice-president. Galileo became amember in i611. It preceded our Royal Society and the French Academy by about half acentury, and combined the functions of these societies with a scheme of philosophical brotherhood and affiliated lodges, somewhat resembling the masonic organisa-~ tion. Its members were required to be “ philosophers eager for real know- ledge, who will give themselves to the study of nature, and especially to ma- thematics.” They were to waste no time in “recitations and declamatory assemblies,” and to ‘“‘pass over in silence all political controversies and quarrels of every kind, and wordy disputes, especially gratuitous ones.” They are commended to “‘ Let the first fruits of wisdom be love; and so let the Lynceans love each other as if united by the strictest ties, nor suffer any interruption of this sincere bend of love and faith, emanating from the source of virtue and philosophy,” NATURE 29 than the dark lines, and are only seen when the star is very near the horizon, Further observations brought out the law that in the normal condition of the atmosphere their motion is from the red to the violet in the spectrum of all stars on the west, and from the violet to the red when the star is in the east ; while near the meridian, whether on the north or south horizon, the motion is generally an oscillation from one colour to the other ; and sometimes the lines appear stationary, or traverse only a portion of the spectrum. In abnormal states of the at- mosphere the moving lines are weaker and more irregular in form and motion; this is especially the case during strong winds, which sometimes reduce the movements on the spectrum to mere variations of brilliancy, even in stars very near to the horizon. Prof. Respighi observes that these appearances are not due to an oscillation of the characteristic spectrum of the star, and that there is no superposition of its colours due to any sensible movement of the image of the star in the normal states of the atmosphere, though he does not deny that there may be such sensible oscillation and super- position, under conditions of abnormal atmospheric dis- turbance. He has observed that when the moving lines are regular in form and motion, there is usually a con- tinuance of fine weather, and that the phenomena of scintillation are most marked and decided on those nights when there is much humidity in the atmosphere. He believes that by careful study of these phenomena the spectroscope may become an important meteorological instrument. It would occupy too much space to follow Prof. Respighi through his theoretical reflections on these phenomena, which he attributes to irregularities in the temperature, and distribution of aqueous vapour, &c., in the earth’s atmosphere, and the effects of its rotatory movementiwith the earth, which carries it across the direc- tion of the radiation of the light from the stars. Besides the above-named, there are some very interest- ing papers on electro-static induction, and electrical in- duction or influence in rarefied gases, by Prof. Volpicelli. The four first numbers of the present year of the Reports of the Royal Institution of Lombardy are re- markably rich in interesting papers, extending over a wide range of subjects. Buccellati on Military Punishment, Lambrosi on the Italian Races, and Ciavarini on the Laws of Human Progress, are the chief essays in the Department of the Moral and Political Sciences. In the Department of the ‘ Mathematical and Natural Sciences” the subjects of the papers are more varied, including, Rovida on the Pulse of the Veins, Barbieri on the Utility of Statistics of Hernia in Italy, Experimental Researches on the Origin of Fibrin, and a new Theory of the Cause of the Coagulation of the Blood, by Mantegazza, and Serpieri on the Probable Relation between the Luminous Cones (fennacch?) of the Solar Corona, and the Positions of the Planets. The author of this paper supposes that the corona is an electrical phenomenon identical with that of our terrestrial aurora borealis, that the sun and all the planets mutually act and react upon each other inductively ; that the cones of rays which stretch out from the corona are electrical streamers pointing towards one of the planets ; that the curved lines and rays which have been observed 100 NATURE [ Fune 8, 1871 are other streamers, pointing obliquely to planets or comets; that the zodiacal light is the general stream of elec- trical influence emanating from the sun and embracing all his planetary children; and that the sun-spots and the hydrogen prominences are due to electrical outbursts. We have had similar hypotheses put forth in England, but not so well argued as by Prof. Serpieri. Like the rest, he fails, however, to supply us with any explanation of the source of such tremendous electric energy. We may have the cylinder, the prime conductors, the insulators, the Leyden jars, and all the apparatus of a fine electrical machine ; but we shall get no sparks unless somebody turns the handle. We obtain no electrical force with- out an expenditure of equivalent mechanical power. In the battery we must oxidise an equivalent of zinc for each equivalent of electricity produced. We know some- thing about the laws of electrical excitation ; and those who assume the existence of such huge electrical forces without indicating their origin in accordance with these known laws, only carry the problem of the source of solar energy one stage further back without advancing a single step towards its solution, Among the other papers are Lannetti on Etruscan Crania, and some on Pathology and pure Mathematics. The Annals of Chemistry, compiled by Dr. Polli, is a carefully collected and valuable record of the progress of Chemistry, in which the subjects are classified under the heads of Pharmacy, Hygiene, Dietetics, Physiology, Toxicology, Pathology, Therapeutics, and Miscellaneous. It is published monthly in octavo fasciculi of sixty-four pages, each containing abstracts of papers from native and foreign journals. It sells at rather less than one shilling. As our Philosophical Magazine, with eighty pages of the same size, scarcely pays expenses at 25s. 6c., we may infer that the Azali di Chimica, of Milan, has a better circu- lation than its old-established scientific contemporary of “London, Edinburgh, and Dublin.” W. MATTIEU WILLIAMS SEELEY ON THE ORNITHOSAURIA Index to the Fossil Remains of Ornithosauria, Aves, and Reptilia from the Secondary Strata, arranged in the Woodwardian Museum, Cambridge. By Harry Govier Seeley. 8vo. pp. 144. (1869. Cambridge: Deighton.) The Ornithosauria, an Elementary Study of the Bones of Pterodactyles. By Harry Govier Seeley. With 12 plates. 8vo. pp. 136. (1870. Cambridge : Deighton.) HANKS to the activity of the “ Coprolite ” workings in the Upper Greensand around Cambridge, the Woodwardian Museum possesses particularly rich series of interesting reptilian remains, especially those belonging to the Orzithosauria or Pterodactyles (Flying Lizards) of the Secondary rocks ; to which the second work with its twelve plates is entirely devoted, as is also a large part of the Catalogue first published. The “ Index to the Fossil Remains” is introduced to the attention of the student and anatomist by a prefatory notice from the Rev. Adam Sedgwick, Woodwardian Pro- fessor, who, although in his eighty-fifth year, evinces still considerable remains of his wonted fire, when taking up his pen to write of the treasures contained in the Museum of his Alma Mater. The cost of preparing these works has been borne by Prof. Sedgwick, but the printing of both books has been defrayed out of the funds of the Syndics of the University Press. 1. The first book is intended to serve as a guide to the student in the examination of the remains of the extinct birds and reptiles preserved in the Woodwardian Museum, each case, shelf, and bone being numbered so as to cor- respond with the catalogue in which it is described. The list of specimens from the Cambridge coprolite bed occu- pies about half the book. Many new forms are here announced by the author for the first time, as Exaliornis (a new bird) several new Jch- thyos.wri, a new Crocodile, 3 species of Steveosaurus, 2 new Chelonians ; so that we have altogether 70 species from the Cambridge Greensand. There are also Chalk (8 sp.), Gault (2), Wealden (12), Purbeck (7), Potton beds (18), Portland (1), Kimmeridgian (10), Coral rag (3), Oxford clay (8), Oolites (4), Lias (20), foreign reptiles (24), making a total of 187 species. 2. In the second work, that. on the Ornithosauria, the author enumerates the materials at his disposal, namely, 500 bones in one collection, and 400 in another, probably representing not fewer than 150 individuals, which well displays the richness of the area, The bones from the coprolite diggings are much broken, but they retain sufficient character to be readily deter- mined by the comparative anatomist. Probably, no group of animals have caused more conten- tion between Naturalists than the Ornithosaurians. They have been regarded as bats (SOmmering), as intermediate between birds and reptiles (Goldfuss), amphibians (Wag- ner), and so on. Herman von Meyer, who has paid more attention to them than any other anatomist, concludes them to be reptiles, though with strong avian affinities, Prof. Owen maintains that they are Saurians. Mr. Seeley combats these views, and contends that the Pterodactyles were more nearly allied to birds than rep- tiles,and he refers them all to anew genus, Ornithocheirus. He contends against the cold-blooded view taken of them by Prof. Owen, and asserts that they were warm- blooded, chiefly founding his opinion on the form of the brain. There is a very strong objection to be made against the retention of the terms “cold-blooded,” and “ warm- blooded,” for it seems to us that the heat developed by the animal’s body is in direct proportion to the work to be performed. Thus, in aérial locomotion, the efforts of the pectoral muscles to sustain the body in the air, necessi- tate also a correspondingly more rapid action of the heart and lungs, producing, therefore, more rapid circulation, and an increased bodily temperature. We are therefore inclined to agree with Mr. Seeley on the grounds that, in proportion to the rapidity and the sustained action of the great motor muscles of the body (whether of legs or wing) so will be the rapidity of the action of the heart and lungs, and consequently the acceleration of the temperature of the whole body. The bones from the Cambridgeshire Greensand are very often so fragmentary that their determination requires the most exact anatomical skill, and we think the plates would have been more useful if in a few instances (perhaps in all) the missing parts and processes had been indicated in outline, so as to help to the better understanding thereof by the student. H. WOODWARD Fune 8, 1871] NATURE IOI OUR BOOK SHELF Handbuch der Systematischen Anatomie des Menschen. Von Dr. J. Henle, 1 Band, 1 Abtheilung, Knochen- lehre, 3 Auflage, pp. 310. (Braunschweig, (871. Lon- don : Williams & Norgate.) IT is unnecessary to commend the work of Prof. Henle, which is on the whole the most full and exact yet published. It shares the richness and accuracy of its illustrations with the last edition (the fourth) of Cruveilhier’s great work, and shares with it the serious disadvantage of being incomplete. Indeed, while in the latter the part relating to “ Angéiologie” which includes the description of the heart, blood-vessels and absorbents, was published in 1867, preceding the completion of the second volume on visceral anatomy in the following year, the third volume of the German work, with the whole of the nervous system, has not yet appeared. In this respect the only English work on descriptive anatomy which can rival Henle’s has a great advantage; each edition of what was originally Dr. Quain’s Anatomy has been published complete, and on this ground, as well as that of concise- ness, the last edition of this work may, with the help of Prof. Sharpey’s masterly introduction on general anatomy, take rank with those of France and Germany. The department of osteology is not that which Prof. Henle has done best. In minute accuracy of detail it is decidedly inferior to Mr. Ward’s treatise, which at least equals the best efforts of the French School of Anatomy. And there is a want of attention to broad views of morphology almost as conspicuous as in M. Cruveilhier’s work. Thus the comparison between the upper and lower extremities (pp. 226—229) is very insufficient, giving no account of the important and opposing views which have been maintained on this subject, and admitting the demonstrably false position that the radius answers to the fibula, and the ulna with the olecranon to the tibia with the patella. The difficult subject of the homologies of the cranial and facial bones is also entirely omitted, an omission rendered necessary by the absence of any account of their foetal development. The rigid specialisation of humanosteology soasto excludeall reference toembryology andcomparativeanatomy on the onehand, and on the other to the mechanism of the skeleton, makes what ought to be the most interesting part of anatomy the most arid and for- bidding. In the last edition of ‘“ Quain’s Anatomy” we have within a shorter compass a good account of the ante- cedent development, as well as the mere ossification of the several bones, with illustrative diagrams, and a sufficient account of its homologies to awaken interest in this at- tractive study. On the other hand, there is nowhere to be found so complete an account of Abnormalities as in Prof. Henle’s work, a subject of which the importance is only beginning to be recognised in England. The references to observations in this branch of the subject are very full, and include many only lately published. On this, as on other points, the author has added many fresh facts in the present edition. On the whole, however, it differs but little from the first issue in 1855, and the num- ber of woodcuts remains the same. Among the more important additions may be mentioned one on the dif- ferences in the skull of the two sexes (p. 216). No mention is made of the little tympano-hyal bone described by Prof. Flower, and even the ordinary variations of the styloid process, which throw so much light on its homology, are scarcely alluded to. In conclusion, every anatomist will acknowledge the industry and care with which even small advances in knowledge are added in this edition, but will also hope that nothing may delay the appearance of the volume which is to complete the whole treatise, and no doubt complete it worthily of its distinguished author, and of what he has already published. 13k, Ieh LETTERS TO THE EDITOR [Zhe Editer does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his Correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. | Science Lectures for the People Or the justice of your remarks on ‘‘ Science Lectures for the People” there can be no doubt whatever. The lectures in ques- tion are perfect models of what lectures should be, and while reading them I pictured to myself the rich feast that had been prepared for the people who were fortunate enough to hear them —especially for those who had some previous acquaintance with the subjects of which they treat. They are couched in simple language, so that those who run may read. They are strictly to the point, well calculated to excite further inquiry, and in every way adapted for the purpose for which they were intended. It may be, however, doubted, whether lectures on scientific sub- jects before the general public, however delivered, do that amount of good which they certainly ought to do. A lecture to be thoroughly and lastingly effective presupposes a certain acquaintance with the subject already. To listen even to the most brilliant and never so simply worded address on Spectrum Analysis or Coral Reefs, has a very transient effect, I take it, upon those who have rarely or never heard of such things. However praiseworthy, therefore, every effort to scatter scientific knowledge among our population may be—and it certainly deserves every commendation—my decided opinion, arrived at after large experience with the people in towns and country, especially the latter—is that it will fail, unless we begin with the young. People in masses may be compared with fuel laid in the grate. If you ignite it from the top, a considerable time will elapse before it reaches the whole mass ; but if the fire be applied from below, the course is more rapid, and the fuel sooner feels the effect. So with science teaching, or any teach- ing, we must begin in our schools. Every school, from the pri- mary to the highest, must be opened to its influence. Teachers, I am sure, would welcome the innovation, for it would dispel many a weary hour both for teacher and taught. The everlas'- ing monotony of reading, writing, arithmetic, and scripture, would be enlivened by simple explanations of the human body, plants, &c., and thus children would be taught to take an interest in all matters connected with their future welfare even from their infancy. The same remarks, slightly modified, would apply to many of our middle class and upper schools; for scientific matters, in far too many cases, have still to find a place even here—parents being themselves quite as much, in many instances far more, to blame than the regulations of the school. It is precisely owing to this want of early training, and conse- quently to an utter ignorance of the subject, that the lectures on divinity, science, &c., in our universities are of such little real value, and of such little interest tothe students. They attend them, it is true, not from any genuine love, but simply because they must attend some for certificates or otherwise. No fault whatever attaches to the lectures themselves ; on the contrary, they are of the greatest possible value, and had the students themselves been trained properly and gradatim when at school, the attendance would be vastly increased, a genuine love for the lectures would be engendered, and incalculable results would be the consequence. Or take another instance—our farmers’ clubs. With laudable zeal these have been formed all over the kingdom, Lectures on scientific subjects connected with agriculture are delivered from time to time. All very admirable no doubt in its way. The attendance generally is good, but from the vacant stare, the nodding head, and subsequent remarks, nothing can be clearer than that nine-tenths of the lecturer’s address on the abstruse niceties of chemical analysis, &c., have been utterly thrown away. What subjects can be more valuable to a farmer than a knowledge of the constituents of the air, the origin of soils, the inner life of plants, the wonderful dependence of animals and plants upon each other, the means of judging arti- ficial manures, &c.; and yet, except among the upper favoured few, utter ignorance of these matters almost universally prevails. It is not from indifference to the subject, far from it, but, as in the former case, from a want of early training in this particular line of thought. The farmer acts just as his father acted before him. He is of all people the most backward in leaving the old routine, and considers such subjects as geoloy and botany altogether beside the purpose, and a waste of time for his chil- dren to learn, though he will praise them in the same breath. 102 NATURE | Fane 8, 1871 There is nothing more trying for a master’s patience—and I speak from experience—than this persistent and short-sighted adherence to what has gone before, just as if the world (the agri- cultural world particularly) had to jog on to the end of time in the self-same fashion. Whatever united action, therefore, may be taken by our leaders in science for bringing about a more healthy feeling on this sub- ject, for scattering science and a love for it in every household, depend upon it the readiest and surest way will be to urge on Government to introduce, nay, force, the subject freely and uni- yersally into all schools, so that it may grow up with the rising generation, and become a part of their very existence, The task is Herculean, no doubt. An enormous amount of prejudice will have to be overcome, but Sedit, qui timuit ne non succederet ; esto: Quid? qui pervenit fecitne viriliter ? Lectures on science will thus be not merely listened to as now, but understood and appreciated. Superstition, the child of Ignorance, will be dispelled, and a nation of reasoning and think- ing men and women inaugurated as the glorious and inevitable consequence. THOMAS FAWCETT Blencowe School Preponderance of West Winds I HOPE you will publish this reply to Mr. Laughton’s letter in Nature of May 4, on the Prevalence of West Winds. He maintains from statistical evidence that west winds occupy a greater portion of the earth’s surface than east winds ; that their force is greater ; and that in the upper regions of the atmo- sphere the preponderance of west winds is still more decided than at the earth’s surface ; so that on the whole the atmosphere moves round the earth from west to east. It is in my opinion certain that this is on the whole proved. IT do not question Mr. Laughton’s facts but his inferences from them. He thinks this rotation points to some force acting from without—some cosmical cause of a nature quite unlike the sun’s leat. I maintain, on the contrary, that all the phenomena of the great atmospheric currents, of which the trade-winds are a part, are to be accounted for by the heat of the sun as the motive power, combined with the rotation of the earth as a modifying influence. In discussing the question of whether the phenomena point to such a cause as that suggested by Mr. Laughton, the motion of the upper strata of the aimosphere is quite unimportant. It is only the currents at the surface of the earth that can in however infinitesimal a degree increase or diminish the velocity of the earth’s rotation ; and if the circulation of the atmosphere is due to the sun’s heat as its motive power, it cannot have the slightest effect on the earth’s rotation; while if it is due to any mechanical force acting from without, as Mr. Laughton thinks—if the Carte- sian theory is true, and the circulation of our atmosphere is part of a cosmical vortex—the earth’s rotation must be accelerated by its friction. This follows from the simplest dynamical prin- ciples. It is true that the acceleration which could be produced in such a way would at the greatest be far too small for us to detect ; but it is quite possible for us to ascertain whether or not the currents of air that sweep over the surface of the earth are by their united action capable of affecting its rotation ; or, to state the problem more definitely, whether or not the elfect of | west winds in accelerating the rotation is balanced by the effect of east winds in retarding it. I maintain that such evidence as we have tends to the conclusion that the effects of the two are so balanced. The separate effect of any wind covering a given area on the earth’s rotation = the east and west component of its force x the radius of the parallel of latitude. The latter factor gives leverage. An cast wind near the equator has more effect in retarding the rotation of the earth than a west wind of equal extent and force at a higher latitude has in accelerating it, just as a weight at the end of the long arm of a lever out- weighs an equal weight at the end of the shortarm. Now, the east winds, under the name of trade-winds, are chiefly to be found in the lower latitudes, and for the reason just given they are able to balance the west winds, which are certainly more forcible, and according to Mr. Laughton, occupy a greater area, but being at higher latitudes act at a disadvantage. Ifit can be shown—and the facts certainly point to it—that the total me- chanical effect of the winds is not such as to produce any effect on the earth’s rotation, this goes very far to prove that they have no motive power except the sun’s heat. But how is the motion of the upper strata of the atmosphere from west to east to be accounted for? The answer to this will involve the entire theory of the great currents of atmospheric circulation, There is always a current of air towards a heated place along the earth’s surface, like the draft towards a fire, and a compensating current of air away from it in the upper regions of the atmosphere. The equatorial latitudes being the hottest, there are currents to them from the higher latitudes, which bring with them the smaller velocity due to the rotation of the higher latitudes, and thus move less rapidly than the earth in those lower latitudes to which they flow. Moving with a less velocity than the earth is the same as moving from the east, and thus are the trade-winds constituted ; they are from north-east in the northern hemisphere and from south-east in the southern. This is gene- rally understood and believed ; what follows is less generally understood, though I claim no originality for it. The air rises up over the equatorial regions like a column of smoke over a fire, and flows off towards the poles, Coming from the latitudes where the velocity of the earth’s rotation is greatest, it carries that greater velocity with it, and spends the energy of its motion in the form of the west winds of the higher latitudes, The reason, then, that the upper strata of the atmosphere (in all latitudes except on the equator) have a motion round the earth from west to east, is simply that they are at the same time moving from latitudes where the velocity of the earth's rotation is greater to latitudes where it is less, JosEpH JOHN MurRPHY Remarkable Sun-spots THE accompanying sketch shows in a rough way the umbrze and a small portion of the penumbra of a sun spot that I ob- served on the 6th and 7th of this month, and which was made remarkable by the presence of a reddish-brown object like a cloud, that seemed to hang over the nucleus of the principal umbra, apparently dividing it in two. Could this object be seen without the intervention of the dark glass, it would doubtless show a bright red instead of a reddish-brown colour ; and from its fog-like aspect, though it was well defined in outline and acuminated at both ends, the impression was inevitable that it hung at a certain altitude above the spot. However, it evi- dently had no motion distinct from the latter, as on the 7th it occupied the same position as on the day before, but it was much reduced in size. On the Sth it was seen no longer, and the nucleus was now in one, seeming to show pretty clearly that its previous apparent division in two was really caused by the in- tervention of the brown cloud suspended over it, and that the phenomenon did not consist of two distinct neuclei with the brown object lying between them, I am not aware that anything like this was observed before, J. BIRMINGHAM Millbrook, Tuam, May 18 ee Fune 8, 1871 | NATURE 103 ANNUAL VISITATION OF THE ROYAL OBSERVATORY N Saturday last the Board of Visitors of the Royal Observatory made their annual visitation to our National Observatory to examine into the work done, and to receive the Report of the Astronomer Royal. We have not space for the report in full, but this is not to be re- gretted, for it contains a quantity of minute detail about trivial matters which the ordinary run of mankind would not think worth the printing. There are, however, several points of great scientific interest in the Report, the new Water Telescope and the instruments for use in the approaching observations of the Transit of Venus having been the lions at Greenwich. The correction for level-error in the transit instrument having become inconveniently large, owing apparently to a gradual subsidence of the eastern support since the erection of the instrument, about a ton weight of stone was placed on the western pier. Not the slightest change, however, could be traced as due to this; the level-error maintaining its usual value. This plan having failed, the stones were removed, and a sheet of very thin paper, stp inch in thickness, was placed under the eastern Y, which was raised from its bed for the purpose. The col- limators having been observed just before this operation, no difficulty was experienced in adjusting the instrument so as to have very nearly the same error of Azimuth as before. The mean annual value of the level-error appears to be now sensibly zero. This will give some idea of the deli- cate arrangements necessary for this ponderous instru- ment. The usual course of Astronomical observations now carried out for so many years has been adhered to. The list of fundamental stars used for determination of clock- error has been increased to 210. Besides these, Nautical Almanac, circumpolar, and moon-culminating stars have been observed ; also refraction stars, stars with large proper-motion, and stars which are required for any special investigation. A few of Bradley’s stars which had been inadvertently omitted have been observed in the past year. The Sun, Moon, and large planets have been ob- served as usual. As the siege and war operations in Paris seriously interfered with the observations of small planets made at the Paris Observatory, observations of them were continued at Greenwich throughout each entire lunation during the investment of the city. The observations of y Draconis, the star which passes very near the Zenith of Greenwich, with the Water Telescope, made in the spring of the present year, are completely reduced, with the exception of a small correc- tion for the positions of the micrometer-wires, to be determined shortly. As the astronomical latitude of the place of observation is not known (it is not many yards from the transit circle), the bearing of these observations on the question of aberration cannot be certainly pro- nounced until the autumn observations shall have been made ; but, supposing the geodetic latitude to be ac- cordant with the astronomical latitude, the result for aberration appears to be sensibly the same as with ordinary telescopes. With regard to the Magnetic instruments, the Astro- nomer Royal states that a plan was arranged last year for photographic impression of hour-lines upon the photo- graphic sheets carrying the records of the three Magnet- ometers and of the Earth-current Galvanometers: an arrangement already for some time carried out in the new instruments by Dr. Balfour Stewart. The beam of light, constantly directed through a cylindrical lens to fall upon the sheet, emanates from one of the existing lamps, or (in one instrument), from a flame specially mounted for it ; it is, however, obstructed by a shade till 25 minutes before connections of the shades were so arranged that all could be opened and closed by a single wire. The following numerical results of the magnetic elements for 1870 may be interesting :— Mean westerly declination 19° 54’ nearly. § 3°865 (in English units). ) Mean horizontal force. . . 1 1°782 (in Metrical units Md. eo 6751 9 (by 9-inch needles). Meanidipiet< ierbe o 67 52 25 (by 6-inch needles). 67 53 41 (by 3-inch needles). The observations of dip at different hours appear to show a diminution from gh. A.M. to 3h. P.M. A small Appendix of great interest is attached to the report. Those who have given attention to the history of Terrestrial Magnetism are aware that Halley’s Magnetic Chart is very frequently cited ; but the Astronomer Royal could not learn that any person, at least in modern times, had ever seenit. Inquiries were made of nearly all the principal scientific bodies in Europe, and in several of the best continental libraries in vain. At last, by the assistance of Mr. Winter Jones, Principal Librarian of the British Museum, a copy was discovered in the library of the Museum. 600 copies have been taken ina reduced size, for insertion, as an Appendix, in the Magnetical and Meteorological volume for 1869. On the subject of Chronometers it is remarked, “ The performance of chronometers, as depending on their mechanical construction, is very admirable; I have re- marked but one point on which I could desire change, namely, that the balance should be struck more lightly, at a greater distance from its axis; the late Mr. Charles Frodsham, at my suggestion, had made experiments on this point, which promised to be successful. The princi- pal errors of even moderately good chronometers are, however, produced by defective compensation, which the most skilful makers cannot perfectly manage. I have long been of opinion that the final adjustment for compensation ought to be made by some more delicate operation than that which suffices for approximate compensation ; but the able chronometer-makers whom I have consulted have not yet devised a satisfactory plan.” With reference to Time Signals, we read that a proposal has been made to have a time-ball dropped at Queens- town, and that the report of the Westminster Clock shows that 55 per cent. of its errors are under 1, and 94 per cent. under 3°. In December two attempts were made to determine the longitude of Gibraltar, at the request of Professor New- comb, but without success, the cable connecting Falmouth and Gibraltar being out of order. During the year the time of the Astronomer Royal has been partly occupied in preparations for the Transit of Venus, 1874. Measures have been taken for equipping each of five stations witha Transit, an Altazimuth, and an Equa- toreal. Some other instruments mounted in temporary observatories were inspected by the visitors. Of Transits there are five new, all mounted on stone piers. Of clocks to accompany them, there are two from the Royal Obser- vatory, three new. Of Altazimuths, one from the Royal Observatory, four new. Of Equatoreals, 6 inches in aperture, and carried by clock-work, there are five, pur- chased or new. Of clocks of an inferior class, to accom- pany the two last classes of instruments, one can be supplied, nine must be procured. Fifteen portable obser- vatories must be prepared, of which specimens were exhibited to the visitors. The Royal Observatory can supply three 4-inch detached telescopes, and two more will be desirable. The report goes on to say :—“My preparations have respect only to eye-observation of contact of limbs. With all the liabilities and defects to which it is subject, this method possesses the inestimable each hour, and acts till 24 minutes after each hour. The | advantage of placing no reliance on instrumental 104 scales. I hope that the error of observation may not exceed four seconds of time, corresponding to about 013 of arc. I shall be very glad to see, in a detailed form, a plan for making the proper measures by heliometric or photographic apparatus ; and should take great interest in combining these with the eye-observations, if my selected stations can be made available. But my present impres- sion is one of doubt on the certainty of equality of parts in the scale employed. An error depending on this cause could not be diminished by any repetition of observations. As, inthe event of any national enterprise being promoted in the direction of photographic record, itis probable that the Astronomer Royal may ministerially take an important part, I venture to submit to the Board of Visitors that suggestions on the value and plan of such observations fall entirely within their competence.” All the American observers of the Solar Eclipse, as well as M. Janssen, have visited the Observatory during the past year. J The current reductions of observations, it is remarked, are in a healthy state. Regular reductions give, “in general, great facility for the most advanced inferences ; the star-catalogues, and solar, lunar, and planetary errors, lend themselves immediately to investigations of a phy- sical character ; the magnetic reductions distinctly, though tacitly, exhibit some of those results (for instance, annual inequalities) which in various observatories have been the subject of special memoirs. “But from time to time it becomes desirable to unite some of those annual or nearly annual results in groups, so as to exhibit the results justly derivable from masses of observations extending over long periods of years. These operations require new organisations ; and, what is worse, they require additional grants of money. I have usually refrained from asking for these, without the distinct approval of the Visitors. JI would now submit for their judgment the following subjects :— “The vigorous prosecution of the Meteorological Reduc- tions (exhibiting the results deducible from the photo- graphic registers) already begun. “The combination of the results of Magnetic Observa- tions on disturbed days, from the year 1864. “The discussion of Magnetic Storms, from the year 1858. “ Perhaps, also, the discussion of observations in groups depending on Lunar Declination, or other phases.” The report concludes as follows :—“ There is another consideration which very often presents itself to my mind: the waste of labour in the repetition of observations at different observatories. The actual Greenwich system was established when there was little to compete with. Other observatories have since arisen, equipped with and principally using the same classes of instruments, and devoting themselves in great measure to the samesubjects of observation (except the unrelenting pursuit of the moon, and perhaps the fundamental elements of the ecliptic). | Ought this Observatory to retire from the competition? I think not ; believing that there is greater security here than anywhere else for the unbroken continuity of system which gives the principal value to series of observatiors. Still, I remark that much Jabour is wasted, and that, on one side or another, that consideration ought not to be put out of sight in planning the courses of different ob- servatories.” This isa very broad hint for some English as well as Foreign Observatories, and it will be well for the cause of Science if the directors of those observatories will take it. THE SCIENTIFIC VALUE OF CHEESE- FACTORIES HE American system of cheese-factories was estab- lished nearly twenty years ago, and in its present condition of maturity it retains all the essential features NATURE [Fune 8, 1871 which were characteristic of its infancy.* The test of twenty years’ experience in a country where apparent im- provements are eagerly submitted to a fair trial is amply sufficient to prove the success of the system. Recently the question of its adaptability to English dairy districts has acquired considerable prominence in agricultural circles, and is now passing from the stage of discussion to that of experiment. The two great merits which are claimed for it are, economy in the labour of production, and superiority of quality in the produce. It is evident that if a dozen farmers convey their milk to one building (a factory) to be made into cheese or butter, fewer hands are required to perform the work than if the process were carried on at a dozen different places by as many sets of people. The factory can be furnished with better labour- saving machinery than the farm-dairy, and the former establishment requires no more supervision than the latter. The process of cheese-making, also, occupies practically the same length of time, whether the quantity of milk under treatment be large or small, so that two or three persons whose energies are concentrated at one place will produce as great an economic result as a dozen or more who are necessarily employed at as many different points, each one going through the same routine independently of the other. The superiority in the quality of the manufactured article may be more difficult of explanation, for the best farm-dairies produce as good cheese as any factory. The reason why the establishment of factories has improved the average make of cheese is because fewer first-rate cheese-makers are required under the factory system. But when Mr. Jesse Williams established the first factory twenty years ago, the great bulk of American cheese was extremely poor, and for many years after it was almost unsaleable in the English market. At the present day, on the contrary, it can compete on even terms with all but the very choicest English makes, notwithstanding that it has to undergo the ordeal of a long sea-voyage. The factory-system, therefore, has not only improved the average quality of American cheese, but it hasvery consider- ably raised the standard of the choicest brands. Students of nature are perfcctly well aware that the most sure and rapid progress is made by means of associ- ation and co-operation, The same phenomena are ob- served from different points of view by workers in the same field; a comparison of their notes leads to the group- ing of kindred facts ; the apnarert exceptions are seen to be the product of attendant variations in the methods or circumstances of observation ; and by a process of induc- tion an explanatory theory is air-ved at, to be confirmed or rejected by future investigations. In this manner the cheese-factory system has gone far towards the establish- ment in America of a science of cheese-making. Each factory has been the theatre of ¢xact observations, which have been duly recorded. Tie results of comparisons of these records have been emLodicd in papers read before the American Dairymen’s Association ; and the conclu- sions of the authors have been frequently put to the crucial test of experiment. The American Dairymen’s Association is only a child of the Factory-system. It is organised on a plan similar to that of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, and like that institution, holds an Annual ‘* Con- vention,” at which papers are read and lectures are de- livered. These contributions to the literature of dairying, and the discussions thereon, are published in an annual “ Report,” which also contains detailed reports from numer- ous cheese and butter factories, giving the dates of com- mencing and finishing work, the number of cows supply- ing the factory, the quantity of milk received, the quantity of cheese made, the percentage of cheese to milk at different periods of the year, and as compared with * For detailed descriptions of this system, zd@e Journal Royal Agricultural Society, 2nd Series, vol. vi. p. 173, and vol, vil. p. 1. Fune 8, 1871 | previous years, as well as other data, including peculiarities in modes of manufacture, which may be useful for com- parison with the methods pursued and the results obtained at other factories. There can be no doubt that these efforts must sooner or later result in the formation of a dairy science, and in the establishment of sound theories of dairy management. But the functions of the American Dairymen’s Associa- tion are not confined to observation and experiment at home. Already the inquiries of its officers have enabled its members to improve their cheese-making practice by adopting some features of our Cheddar system ; and in the last volume of the Report of the Association is an able paper by Prof. Caldwell,* showing some features common to the numerous cheese-making processes followed in Holland, Switzerland, France, and Italy. One of the most interesting points brought out is the intimate connec- tion that exists between the ripening of cheese and the development and growth of Mccrococcus and other forms of mould. As a matter of commerce it is important to the farmer to ripen his cheese as soon as possible. This is done in various ways, all having for their object the introduction of large numbers of germs of the appropriate fungus. The ripening of Stracchino cheese is thus in- duced by the introduction of layers of old curd ; that of Roquefort by an admixture of mouldy bread, containing germs of Penicillium, and that of Brie by packing the thin cheeses between layers of musty hay. Another observation of interest is, that the presence of free am- monia in the curing-room hastens the ripening of the cheese, a fact which may have some bearing on the well-known property of American cheese (which is always packed in boxes) to ripen more rapidly than English makes. These evidences of a process of scientific investigation induce us, therefore, to regard the factories, or associated dairies, as they are termed, as possessing a scientific value, both as educational establishments and as laboratories. But, it may be asked, why is this not true also of the farm- dairy? Our answer is, that while the manager of a factory makes cheese-making his sole business, his success in which depends entirely on his skill and knowledge, the English dairy-farmer has little or nothing to do with cheese-making, but occupies himself with the manage- ment of his farm. With the production of the milk his supervision ceases, and the manufacturing process iseither carried on by his wife, who has household cares to occupy her time and thoughts, or by a dairymaid, who has no interest in the matter, and who knows that her services are at a premium. Thus, with the exception of the additions to our know- ledge of the vatzonale of cheese-making, for which we are chiefly indebted to Dr. Voelcker’s chemical researches, the manufacture of dairy products in England can hardly be said to have advanced during the last half century, while it has made enormous strides in America during the last ten years. Let us hope that the establishment of cheese-factories in England, commenced last year at the risk of some liberal-minded Derbyshire landlords,} may also be the dawn of an English era of progress in this most important agricultural industry. DBELLS HYDRAULIC BUFFER FOR CHECKING RECOIL OF HEAVY GUNS HE ingenious instrument, the name of which stands at the head of this paper, deserves some notice, not only on account of its utility for its purpose, but as an interesting method of meeting and overcoming those violent efforts of nature to which she is provoked by explosion. Tn the recoil of a heavy gun, we have an example of the greatest force which man attempts to control, The in- * Sixth Annual Report, Syracuse, N.Y., 1871, p. 25. + Vide Journ. Royal Agric. Soc., vol. xxii. p. 29, and vol, xxiii. p. 170. t Ibid, 2nd series, vol. xii. p. 42. NATURE 105 ventions of Captain Moncrieff, which no long ago formed the subject of an article, seek to utilise this force; other gun carriages lead it to expend itself as harmlessly as possible. _ The Hydraulic Buffer accomplishes this latter object In a manner very ingenious, and affording some in- teresting illustrations of Nature’s laws; it also possesses several advantages over other methods which have been and are still used. For it the public service is indebted to Colonel Clerk, RA., F.R.S., Superintendent of the Royal Carriage Department in Woolwich Arsenal. Before the introduction of the Hydraulic Buffer into the English service, and in those cases where it is not yet applied, the method employed to overcome the recoil was the friction of iron plates. To the bottom of the gun-carriage several plates are fixed, which pass between long plates placed along the middle of the slide or platform on which the carriage runs ; and the friction of their surfaces in contact overcomes the force of the recoil, and brings the gun and carriage to a standstill. The amount of the friction can be regulated by the compression given to these plates, and requires to be altered for the various charges used. The compression must be taken off to allow the gun to be run forward to the firing position, and must be again set up to meet the recoil. The Hydraulic Buffer, on the other hand, is always ready for use, and never needs any adjustment. This is one of its advantages, and one which is of special im- portance in the heat and excitement of action. It consists of a cylinder (A B in figure) placed in the platform, and lying along its length. In the cylinder is a piston pierced with four holes, and the extremity of the piston-rod is attached to the carriage. When the gun and carriage are run out for firing, the piston is moved to the lower end of the cylinder (A), which is filled with water, except a small air-space exceeding slightly the cubic content of the piston-rod, so as to allow for the displacement of the water when the piston is driven to the other end of the cylinder, When the gun is fired, and with its carriage begins to recoil, the piston is driven back into the cylinder. The first effect of this is to compress the air in the cylinder very violently, then the water begins to run through the four holes in the piston, this motion soon attains a very great velocity, and in imparting this to the water, the force of the recoil is soon exhausted. Itis spent in transferring the water with very great rapidity through these orifices from one side of the piston to the other. This rapidity depends on the ratio of the area of the piston to the area of the four holes init. A very small diminution in the area of these orifices would cause the recoil to be checked very much sooner ; a correspondingly slight increase would allow the piston to strike with vio- lence against the end of the cylinder. It was found in an experiment with a 20-pounder gun, that when the holes were 0°562 of an inch in diameter, the recoil extended the whole length of the cylinder, 2ft. 9in., and struck violently the end of it; when a piston was used with holes 0°437in. in diameter, the recoil was only rft. 11in., and ended quietly, the same charge being used. Inanother experiment with a 12-pounder gun in a boat carriage the holes in the piston were five-eighths of an inch in diameter, the recoil was 2{t. 2in. ; when the diameter of the holes was increased by one-sixteenth of an inch the recoil was 3ft. 2in.* The proper ratio of the area of the holes to the area of the piston is evidently that which will allow the recoil to ex- pend its force in nearly, but not quite, the whole length of the cylinder. When once this ratio is fixed, it is very remarkable that the amount of the charge, or the slope at which the platform is placed, whether up or down or * The reason of this is evident from a little consideration: first, every ad- dition to the area of the holes diminishes the area of the piston, which acts cn the water; secondly the difference of the work done by the recoil is pre- portional to the difference of the sguares of the velocities given to the water in passing through the orifices in the two cases, 106 horizontal, makes comparatively little difference in the length of the recoil. With a 12-ton (300 pounder) gun a service charge of 30lbs. of powder gave a recoil of 4 ft. 5in.; with a battering charge of 43 lbs. the recoil in- creased only to 5 ft. rin.. If the charge is heavy, or if the slope favours the recoil, the carriage will not go much further back than if these conditions are reversed. But it will do so more rapidly. The space travelled over is not much greater with the violent recoil, but it is done in a shorter time. It is also worthy of notice that quick burning powder, such as the rifled large grain, does not give so long a recoil as the slow burning ones, such as the pebble and pellet powders, although it acts much more violently on the gun; the reason is that the recoil is more rapid. Few machines give so striking an illus- tration of how important an element is time in work to be done, and how much force is to be increased if anything is done more rapidly. The strength of one man is quite sufficient to push in or pull forward the piston of the Hy- draulic Buffer, because he does it quietly, “ takes his time to doit.” The force of a 25-ton gun, recoiling from the discharge of 7olbs. of powder, and a 6o00lb. shot ex- hausted itself in doing the same, because it does it so quickly. NATURE [Fune 8, 1871 In fact, the ease with which the hydraulic buffer permits slow motion is one of its disadvantages, and prevents its application to sea service carriages, as it would not keep the carriages from moving as the ship rolled. A modification to obviate this difficulty has been proposed. It consists of a solid piston (without holes), and the back and front ends of the cylinder are connected by a pipe through which the water is driven by the recoil. The motion of the water can be stopped altogether by the stop- cock till the gun is fired, and the area of the orifice through which the water is to pass can also be regulated by it. The resistance of the water, and consequently the pressure on the cylinder from the recoil, is not uniform. It becomes greatest at the moment when the air receives its maximum compression, before the water attains its highest velocity in passing through the holes in the piston. At this point the force of the recoil is felt as a severe strain upon the cylinder and the platform which holds it. This destructive action of the recoil of heavy guns not only upon platforms, pivots, and racers, but also upon the foundations on which they rest, is one of the great difficulties with which modern military engineering has to grapple. To remedy this disadvantage by causing the recoil to meet with a gradually increasing resistance, Teceee ce oe 1 Be 9 oF, olla) ste aa oo 8% | NT SO AP cylinder ; c end of piston-rod attached to carriage ; c’ end of piston-rod after recoil ; p E slide or platform. The dotted lines show the position of the carriage and gun after recoil. so that its force may be felt as acontinuous pressure, and } not at any point as a shock or blow, the following very ingenious arrangement was proposed by Mr. H. Butter, Chief Constructor in the Royal Carriage Department. It consists in placing along the length of the cj linder and through the holes in the piston four tapering rods, the largest extremities of them being at the rear end of the cylinder, and being of sucha size as there to fill completely the piston holes. These oritices and also the whole cylinder must be larger than where the rods are not employed. | ‘The effect in this case is that, as the area for the water to flow through the piston is continually diminishing as the holes get further along the rods, the force of the recoil has to impart a continually increasing velocity to the water, and is at no point feltas ashockor blow. The resistance, slight at first, gradually increases throughout the recoil, and so exhausts its force not at any one point, but through- | out the whole of its course. It has been suggested, and it is a consummation most | devoutly to be wished, that the Hydraulic Buffer might be applied to railway trains so as to take away the destructive effects of a collision. A train of carriages separated by Hydraulic Buffers would, if suddenly stopped at a high speed, simply close up, the piston being driven in, and the force of the collision would exhaust itself in the motion given to the water in the cylinders. Some practical difficulties stand in the use of this application of the in- vention ; principally, that the length of the piston rods would inconveniently increase the length of the train. But there are none which might not be overcome by a little ingenuity ; and the great importance of the object to be gained makes the neglect of any promising means to attain it highly culpable. However, slowness in taking up new ideas (especially if they do not immediately add to dividends), is not altogether a peculiarity of Government departments. A very interesting pamphlet on this subject has been published by Colonel Clerk, in which Mr. Butter shows the work done in the Hydraulic Buffer, by comparing it with the moment of a similar weight of water falling through such a height as to give it the same velocity as that with which it passes through the holes in the piston. By this ingenious comparison he ascertained that a locomotive engine, weighing 50 tons, and moving at the rate of 30 miles an hour, would be brought to rest in the space of six feet by two Hydraulic Buffers of 12in. diameter. “ There are,” Colonel Clerk remarks, “two important problems to be worked out by the railway authorities :—(1) to have no railway collisions ; (2) if they must sometimes occur, to render them as harmless as possible ;” and it is with the | second that he deals. The plan which has been so suc- | cessful in meeting the violence of exploding gunpowder, should, at least, have a trial in a case of far greater im- portance—security to life in railway collisions. To refuse | this, on account of a few difficulties or inconveniences, seems a sin against Nature herself. Fune 8, 1871] NATURE 107 NOTES Tr will be welcome news to astronomers throughout the world to hear that the Board of Visitors of the Royal Observatory have determined to ask the Government to grant the sum of 5,000/. to enable photographic cbservations to be made of the approach- ing Transit of Venus. It is a matter of wonder that now, when the labours of De la Rue and Rutherford have brought this most perfect means of astronomical record to a pitch of perfec- tion which it is scarcely needful to surpass, it is still ignored in official observatories. In the matter of the Transit of Venus, it will more than double the chances of success, and Mr. Ruther- ford has shown that in other inquiries it enables an only moderately skilled person to do in a month what a Bessel would require years to compass by the old method. ‘There is no doubt that the appeal to Government will be successful. Would that we had a Physical Observatory and a Board of Visitors to look after other phenomena which we are now neglecting, the obser- vation of which is even of more importance in the present state of science than that of any number of Transits of Venus ! AT the conclusion of a recent lecture at the Royal Institution Dr. Carpenter ‘‘ expressed the earnest hope that the liberal assistance of Her Majesty's Government, which has already enabled British Naturalists to obtain the Jead in this inquiry, would be so continued as fo enable them to keep it for the future. In particular he called attention to the suggestion lately thrown out by M. Alex. Agassiz that an arrangement might be made by our own Admiralty with the naval authorities of the United States, by which a thorough survey, Physical and Biological, of the North Atlantic should be made between the two countries, so that British and American explorers, prosecuting in a spirit of generous rivalry labours most important to the science of the future, might meet and shake hands on the mid-ocean.” We fear that if we do not bestir ourselves the credit which has been won by British scien- tific enterprise will pass elsewhere. The United States Govern- ment is not only preparing the Deep-sea Exploring Expedition, of which we gave an account in our last issue, but is also fitting out a similar expedition to the North Pacific. The German Go- yernment is about to send a like expedition to explore the depths of the Atlantic to the west of Portugal, where the Porcupine Expedition of last year met with its greatest biological successes ; and the Swedish Government has already despatched two ships expressly fitted for deep-sea exploration, to Baffin’s Bay; the Natural History part of the work being under the charge of Mr, Lindape, who acted as assistant-naturalist in the last Porcupine Expedition. What are our Scientific men as a body, what is our Government doing ? time we have heard of no general appeal to the Government for the required help. And thus, having shown other nations the way to the treasures of knowledge which lie hid in the re- | cesses of the ocean, we are falling from the van into the rear, and leaving our rivals to gather everything up. creditable to the Power which claims to be mistress of the seas? Is it fair to the eminent men who have freely given their best services to the nation, victory ? distinguished that they are vieing with each other for a partici- pation in it, surely we ought at least to Ao/d our own. Is this | and obtained for it a glorious scientific | If their success is regarded by other countries as so | We grieve to say that up to the present | A PARAGRAPH has appeared in several pay:ers to the effect that | the lime light is to be displayed on the great clock tower at | Westminster during the sitting of Parliament. We are glad to announce that the light in question will not be the lime light, but a much more brilliant one~-the magneto-electric. Such a light has now for some time past shone from the Capitol at Washington, and was under the consideration of Lord John Manners some few years ago. Mr. Ayrton, we learn, has expressed great interest in the matter, an estimate has been called for, and as there is already steam power available, we may hope that, under Dr. Tyndall’s direction, the new light will soon brightly shine. THE Educational Lectures delivered at the London Institution during the past session by Prof. Huxley, Dr. Odling, and Mr. R. A. Proctor, were followed by examinations, and on Wed- nesday last the prizes and certificates obtained by the students were distributed by Mr. Thomas Baring, M.P., F.R.S., the president of the Institution. In Chemistry, the first prize was awarded to Frederick Garrett, and the second prize to A. J. Richardson. In Biology, Miss Dora Harris gained the first prize, while A. Percy Lloyd and Miss F. L. Tolmé obtained second prizes. In Astronomy, the first prize was gained by A. J. Wallis, and second prizes fell to Miss Annie Piper and Edward Garrett. W. T. THISTLETON Dyer, Esq., commenced last Monday a course of six lectures on the Natural History of a Flowering Plant, at the Royal College of Science for Ireland, St. Stephen’s Green. The lectures will be continued on the following Monday and Thursday evenings. THE Society of Arts has this year conferred its Albert Gold Medal upon Mr. Cole,°C.B. It seems agreed on all hands that without Mr. Cole we should have had neither the South Ken- sington Museum nor any of those Science and Art classes which are now either in full work or are springing up throughout the country, and are doing an incalculable amount of good. If this be so, then certainly Mr. Cole has done more for the spreading of Science and Artin this country than any other man of his time ; and our scientific and artistic bodies should join with the Society ~ of Arts in acknowledging his services. TueE Royal Commission on Scientific Instruction and the Advancement of Science recommenced their sittings on Tuesday last, and will meet again to-morrow. Pror. Humpury, of Cambridge, will hold classes for instruction in Practical Anatomy on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays at half-past twelve during the Long Vacation, com- mencing July 4. There will also be classes for instruction in Practical Histology on Wednesdays and Fridays at half-past twelve, commencing July 5. This, together with a course of instruction in the Physiological Laboratory, under the direction of Dr. Michael Foster, will constitute a course of Practical Physiology. Gentlemen who have entered to the Anatomical Lectures will be at liberty to attend these classes without addi- tional fee. THERE will be an election to a Science Fellowship at Corpus Christi College at the beginning of Michaelmas Term. Can- didates must have passed all the examinations required by the University for the degree of B. A., and must not be in possession of any benefice or property which would disqualify for retaining a Fellowship. This examination will commence on Monday, October 9, and will be specially in chemistry. Candidates are requested to communicate with the president, either personally or by letter, at their convenience, before the end of Act Term, THE Sheepshanks Astronomical Exhibition at Trinity College, Cambridge, has been awarded to Horace Lamb, Scholar of the College. The Exhibition is open to all members of the Univer- sity, the only conditions being that the person elected shall become a member of Trinity College. Avarecent Court of Governors of St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, Mr. Paget, F.R.S., was appointed consulting surgeon to the hospital. At a Court held last Thursday, Mr. Callender was elected surgeon. There is now, therefore, a vacancy for the office of assistant-surgeon to the hospital. WE greatly regret to hear of the alarming illness of Mr. Grote, the Vice-Chancellor of the University of London. His long and useful life has been devoted to the cause of higher edu- 108 cation in this country, and since the foundation of the University he has been one of its staunchest and most unwearied friends, WE observe that Miss Esther Greatbatch, who has just passed the second (special) examination for women at the University of London in French and in Harmony and Counterpoint, also took the second prize at the examination which followed Prof. Guth- rie’s Lectures on Physics at the London Institute, in February, 1870, and out of seventy-four candidates, the first prize for the examination in Physical Geography, which followed Prof, Huxley’s lectures on that subject in 1869. In 1868 Miss Greatbatch passed as a Junior with first class honours, and gained a prize for Mathematics at the Cambridge Local Examination. In December, 1870, she passed asa Senior, with first class honours, gaining the Mill-Taylor Scholarship and a prize for Political Economy. Miss Greatbatch did not take up the Mill- Taylor Scholarship, which can only be held at Cambridge. She is a pupil of the North London Collegiate School for Girls, where she has received the whole of her education, The lady to whom we alluded last week is not the first who has gained a special distinction of proficiency in Natural Philosophy and Chemistry at the examinations of the University of London, that honour having been conferred on Miss Orme in 1870. Pror. Hux ey’s “Elementary Lessons in Physiology” are about to be translated into Hindostanee. THE Paris correspondent of the Dazly News states that the chateau of the Marquis Laplace at Arcueil Cachan, which escaped the Prussians, has been plundered by a band of house- breakers from the Mouffetaid district. The manuscripts of the celebrated astronomer were thrown into the Biévre, from which the original of ‘‘ The Mechanism of the Heavens,” in the author’s handwriting, has subsequently been fished out. The library, which was rich in rare books, souvenirs, and works of art, has been looted and devastated. 2 THE medal given by the Royal Geographical Society to Dr, Keith Johnston is in acknowledgment of the services of the devo- tion of more than forty years of an unusually active life to purely geogiaphical pursuits. He has done more for popularising geo- graphy than almost any other living author. The publication of his ‘*Physical Atlas” in 1847 gave an unexampled impetus to the study of Physical Geography in Britain, and his publica- tions since then, of great utility and importance, have been very numerous. WE learn from the Yournal of Botany that the well-known cryptogamist Fries accompanies the Swedish Arctic expedition as botanist, and MM. Lindahl and Nauckhoff as zoologist and geologist. The expedition intends to visit Baliin’s Bay, and to return in October, A NeW botanical magazine has just appeared at Lund in Sweden, ‘‘ Botaniska Notiser,” edited by Otto Nordstedt. It will be specially devoted to Scandinavian botany, and to a review of all botanical papers published in Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and Finland. THE yearly part, just issued, of the Natural History Trans- actions of Northumberland and Durham contains, as usual, many valuable contributions to scientific literature. The first paper is a Revision of the Catalogue of Coleoptera of Northumberland and Durham, by Mr. T. J. Bold, including 1,520 species, about one half the number hitherto found in Great Britain. Dr. W. C. M‘Intosh contributes a short Report on the Collection of Annelids dredged off Northumberland and Durham, and Mr. George Hodge a Catalogue of the Echinodermata of the same counties, forty-three in number, accompanied by interesting remarks on each species, and illustrated by four plates. From Messrs. W. Kirby and J. Duff we have some elaborate Notes on the Geology of part of South Durham, the lower coal measures in the neighbourhood of the village of Etherley, embellished by NALOCRE [Fune 8, 1871 diagrams showing the position of the coal-seams. Then follow five papers on remarkable fossils of the carboniferous series by Mr. Albany Hancock, in conjunction with Messrs. T. Atthey and R. Howse; viz., On the Labyrinthodont Amphibian, Loxomma Allmanni, being its first occurrence in the neighbour- hood ; On a new generic form of the same order, to which the name Batrachiderpeton lineatum is given ; On another new form from the magnesian limestone, Lepidolosaurus Duffit ; Adescription of a specimen from the marl-slate of the oldest known reptile, Proterosaurus Speneri, and of a new species, P. Huxleyi; and A description of four specimens from the same formation of Dory- plerus Floffmanni; these papers are illustrated with six well- executed plates. foraminifer from the carboniferous limestone of Northumberland (with one plate), by Mr. H. B. Brady; and the volume closes with an admirable address from the president of the Tyneside | Naturalists’ Field Club, Mr. G. S. Brady, in which he gives a sketch of the work of the society during the past year, and of the general additions to natural history literature during the same period, especially in the departments of “ Spontaneous Gene- ration” and the ‘‘ Origin of Species.” The president for the present year is Mr, G, C. Atkinson. THE last number of the “ Biicher-verzeichniss,” published by Friedlander and Son, of Berlin, is a valuable and copious cata- logue of astronomical literature in English, French, Ge:man, Latin, and the other European languages. A THIRD edition of Prof. Briimnow’s ‘‘ Lehrbuch der Sphiri- schen Astronomie” has just been published in Berlin, WE are favoured by Mr. Login with a photograph repre- senting the produce of one grain of wheat grown on the Egyptian system in India, which gave off 160 shoots, and has produced 105 ears of corn; another, 4} ft. high, which produced 45 ears from 44in, to5 in. in length ; and another 3}f{t. high, with about 50 ears. These are represented as about average results from this system, and are contrasted with a single plant grown on the native broad-cast system, assisted by irrigation, producing seven ears from each grain, and another without irrigation, producing from five to fifteen ears, and also represented as average results. We congratulate the Indian authorities upon having a man of Mr. Login’s wide grasp in their service. This is by no means the first time we haye referred to his labours. WirH reference to the alleged disappearance of Aurora Island, one of the New Hebrides group, to which we alluded ; some weeks since on the authority of a paper read before the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, a correspondent of the Sipping and Mercantile Gazette affirms that the whole story is a fable. The original statement rested on a notice by Captain Plock, of the French ship Ado/phe, bound from Iquique to London, that he passed over the position of the Iles de Aurore, as marked on his French chart of the South Atlantic, and saw nothing of them, from which he concluded that they had dis- appeared. It appears, however, that the Iles de l’Aurore (Aurora Islands) never existed. They were formerly placed between lat. 52° 38’ and 53° 15’ S., and between long. 47° 43' and 47° 57’ W. of Greenwich. The first reporters of the islands probably saw icebergs inthe given locality, and mistook their character. Aurora Island, in the New Hebrides group, has been confounded with the Aurora Island in the Paumotu, Tuamotu, or Low Archipelago. Aurora, Makatea, or Metia Island, lat. 15° 50’ S., long. 148° 13’ W., one of the Low Archipelago, has not been visited for some time, but its elevation would lead to the inference that it could not disappear suddenly ; it is fertile and inhabited. ‘This is the island visited by Wilkes, and on which the unique specimens of mollusca were found, It is upwards of | 2,500 miles eastward of the New Hebrides, The last paper is on Saccamina Carteri, a new Sune 8, 1871] AMERICAN NOTES * aE HE official report of the geological explorations prosecuted authority of the Department of the Interior, has just been pub- NATURE during the past summer by Prof, F. V. Hayden, under the | lished by the Government in a well-printed volume of over five | hundred pages, containing a full account of the geology and natural history of the region traversed. It embraces an article | by Prof. Hayden upon the physical character and local geology | of the different sections of his route, which extended from Cheyenne, by way of Fort Fetterman, South Pass, Fort Bridger, the Uinta Mountains, to Green River, and back again, wii Bridger’s Pass, to Cheyenne. This is followed by an account of the Geology of the Missouri Valley from Omaha to Salt Lake Valley, with observations on the mines, ores, coals, and salts. | An appendix contains an article by Prof. Cyrus Thomas upon the agricultural possibilities of the country, with a list of the orthop- terous insects, including a number of new species, followed by a number of special reports—as one by Prof. Meek, on the inver- tebrate fossils ; on the Tertiary coals of the West, by Prof. Hodge; on the ancient lakes of Western America, by Prof. Newberry ; on the vertebrate fossils of the Tertiary formation, by Prof. Leidy; on the fossil plants of the Cretaceous and Tertiary formations of Kansas and Nebraska, by Mr. Lesquereux ; on the fossil reptiles and fishes of the Cretaceous rocks of Kansas, the fossil fishes of the Green River group, and the recent reptiles and fishes, by Prof. Cope; and on the industrial resources of Western Kansas and Eastern Colorado, by Mr. Elliott. Lists of the mammals, molluscs, and birds, of the coleoptera, hemiptera, and plants, are also included, together with an account of thie general meteorology of the expedition. A large number of new species of different kinds are described, and the whole work forms a very important addition to our information relative to the geology, geography, and natural history of the West. - The second and third annual reports of the Peabody Academy of Science of Salem (for 1869 and 1870) have just been pub- lished, giving a gratifying account of the activity of that young and energetic society, which, although only in the third year of its existence, already ranks among the best establishments of the kind in the country, and which, in the number of excellent work- ing naturalists associated with it, is rapidly making its mark, The donations to the museum of the academy during 1870 alone amounted to 195, received from 148 different persons. The identification of the specimens presented has been accomplished by the officers of the academy, aided by specialists in other parts of the country, The reports embrace references to several exploring expeditions instituted in the interests of the academy in different parts of the United States, as well as in Central America. The second number of the first volume of the Memoirs of the academy has also just appeared, and closely resembles typographically, as well as in size and other features, the well- known Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History, and of the Museum of Comparative Zoology. This part is occupied entirely by a paper upon the embryology of certain neuropterous and other insects, by Dr. A. S. Packard, jun., the Secretary of the Council.—Attention is called by the Panama papers to the extraordinary meteorological conditions that have lately prevailed throughout Central and South America, especially in the falling of large quantities of rain where previously such an occurrence was almost unknown. This unusual amount of precipitation is understood to have first occurred on the Isthmus of Panama, and to have resulted in disastrous floods at Aspinwall and elsewhere, of which an account has already been given. The climatic change seems to have travelled southwardly from that region, and to have involved successively a large portion of the chain of the Andes in its operations. The latest advices from Peru show that in localities hitherto perfectly rainless torrents have fallen to such | an extent as to produce very great disasters. These have occurred at Payta, San José, Lambayeque, &c. The villages on the western slope of the Andes in Chili and Peru are not pre- pared for such an occurrence (of which many of the inhabitants had never had any practical experience), the sites and material of the buildings being alike unsuited to resist storms. The town of Lambayeque, containing seven or eight thousand inhabitants, is reported to have been entirely destroyed by the rain. The most southerly point reached by the rain at last dates seems to be the valley of Canete, which was inundated to the great damage of the sugar and other plantations. Much land has been totally ruined by the washing out of its soil, leaving behind a mere collection of gravel and stones. Vessels passing along the . * Communicated by the Editor of Harper’s Weekly. 109 | western coast at a distance of hundred miles and more exs perienced heavy rains where previously nothing but fog had been met with. The electric phenomenon visible around Mount Tacora, to which we recently referred, seems to have been a part of this same system of atmospheric disturbance, and connected with it was a widely extended arrangement of the telegraph lines in Chili, an event of extreme rarity. SCIENCE IN VICTORIA ONE or two interesting subjects were discussed at a recent meeting ot the Royal Society of Victoria, and we are fa- voured by a correspondent with the following particulars :—Notes on the working of the great Melbourne telescope, which some time ago was inconsiderately pronounced to be a failure, which were read by Mr. Farie MacGeorge, who has had charge of the instrument since Mr, Le Sueur left. It was stated that the speculum polished by Mr. Le Sueur had worked very satis- factorily, and some fresh discoveries with regard to Sirius and the star ¢@ were thus described by Mr. MacGeorge :—‘‘ On oth Dec. 1870—indifferent evening—TI noted all the faint stars near Sirius for future identification. On the 18th Jan, 1871, for the first time, I chanced upon Lassell’s observations of Sirius in the ‘ Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society,’ 1867. Mr. Martin there mentions having suddenly found a very faint star in the neighbourhood of Sirius which had, until then, escaped keen observers like Struve, Lassell, and himself, in the exquisite 4ft. equatorial at Malta. On comparing the position of this faint star—now called Lassell’s Companion—with the faint stars noted by me on 9th December, it evidently corresponded with one noted on that date, so that with our great equatorial my eye, un- biassed by previous knowledge, detected at the first inspection on an indifferent evening an object which had long escaped these careful and experienced observers in the great Malta equatorial, an instrument of acknowledged excellence and equal aperture to our own, Several still fainter stars have since been seen near Sirius, two of them between Lassell’s Companion, the star d, and Sirius. So far as I have yet seen, any want of definition is evidently due to atmospheric defects, not instrumental ones, the power of definition being at all times in direct ratio with the goodness of the evening.” Prof. Wilson made a suggestion to the society respecting an expedition to Cape York, in a steamer, to witness the Total Eclipse of the Sun on the 12th December next, the eclipse being visible along a portion of the northern coast of Australia. The proposal was favourably entertained, and an understanding arrived at that it should receive fuller consideration at the next meeting. The annual meeting of the Acclimatisation Society of Victoria was held on the roth March, Dr. Black, the President, occupying the chair. In their customary report to the subscribers, the council, while regretting the smallness of their numbers, stated that under the management of the new secretary Mr. A. C. Le Sceur, the society bade fair to again become ex- tensively useful. It was mentioned that four ostriches which had been received from South Africa had been taken charge of by Mr. Samuel Wilson, of Longerenong, and had now increased to sixteen, and there was every reason to suppose that their num- bers would be considerably augmented in the course of this season. So far the experiment had been a marked success. Ostrich farming was a profitable occupation at the Cape colony, and it was hoped it wou d ultimately become so here. The cli- | mate of the Wimmera district, it was remarked, appeared to be well adapted to their habits; asa proof of which, the young Australian birds were now taller than the parent stock. It was stated, amongst other subjects dealt with in the report, that the society had done and was doing all in its power to encourage sericulture in the colony, and to this end had, in conjunction with Dr. Von Mueller, sent white mulberry cuttings and plants to all parts of Victoria, Some months ago a box of silkworm eggs was sent by the Governor of India to his Excellency the Governor, who kindly handed them to the society for dis ribution, and lately a supply of very superior Japanese eggs, such as were seldom sold to foreigners, had been forwarded by Dr. Bennett, the hon. secretary of the Acclimatisation Society of New South Wales. The Silk Supply Association of London, it was men- tioned, in one of their reports recently published, recognised no less than 36,000 square miles of country in Victoria as well suited to the growth of silk; and when the numerous young plan- tations came into bearing a great stimulus would be given to this industry, which in all probability would, before many years, add | materially to the wealth of the colony. 110 MR. BENTHAM’S ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS TO THE LINNEAN SOCIETY (Continued from page 94) RESERVED specimens have the great advantage over living ones, that they can be collected in infinitely greater numbers, maintained in juxtaposition, and compared, however distant the times and places at which they had been found. They are often the only materials from which we can obtain a knowledge of the races they represent ; although still consisting of individuals only, they can, by their numbers, give better ideas of species and other abstract groups than the almost isolated living ones ; and their careful preservation supplies the means of verifying or correcting descriptions or delineations which have excited suspicion. Their great drawback is their incompleteness, and the impossibility of deriving from them all the data required for the knowledge of a race or even of an individual. It is owing to the frequency with which characters supplied by preserved specimens, although of the most limited and unimportant a nature, have been treated as sufficient to establish affinities and other general conclusions which have proved fallacious, that the outery I have alluded to has been raised against museums and herbaria by those very theorists whose speculations would fall to the ground if all the data sup- plied by preserved specimens were removed from their founda- tion. In respect of these deficiencies, as well as in the means of sup- plying them, there is a great difference between zoological and botanical museums. Generally speaking, zoological specimens show external forms only ; botanical specimens give the means of ascertaining interaal structure ; * and asa rule the characters most prominently or most frequently brought under the observer's notice acquire in his eyes an undue importance. Ience it is that external form was for so long almost exclusively relied upon for the classification of animals, whilst the minutice of internal structure were at a comparatively early period taken account of by botanists, while palwontologists are still led to give absolute weight to the most uncertain of all characters—outline and ex- ternal markings of deciduous organs. External form is, however, really of far greater importance in animals than in plants ; the number, form, size, and proportions of limbs, the shape and colour ofexcrescences, horns, beaks, feathers, hair, &c., in animals may be reckoned almost absolute in species when compared with the same characters in the roots, branches, and foliage, and,. to a certain extent, even in the flowers of plants. In plants, local circumstances, food, meteorological conditions, act readily in modifying the individual, and producing more or less permanent races of the lowest degree (varieties) ; whilst animals in these re- spects are comparatively little affected, except through those slow or occult processes by which the higher races, species, or genera in all organisms are altered in successive ages or geological periods. Even relative position of external parts, so constant in animals, is less so in plants. Animals being thus definite in out- line, and a very large proportion of them manageable as to size, their preserved specimens, carcases, or skins can be brought together under the observer’s eye in considerable numbers, ex- hibiting at once characters suflicient for the fixation of species ; whilst, with a few rare exceptions, a whole plant in its natural shape can never be preserved in a botanical museum. And, although good botanical specimens have a general facies, often sufficient to establish the species if the genus is known, yet the most experienced botanists have often erred in their determina- tions where they have been satisfied with external comparison without internal examination, Identification of species is, however, but a small portion of the business of systematic biology, and for higher purposes the classifi- cation of species, and the study of their affinities, the pre-eminence of ordinary zoological over botanical specimens soon fails, those characters distinguished by Prof. Flower as adaptive are propor- tionately more prominent, and the essential ones derived from internal structure are absent; and not only do the former thus acquire undue importance in the student’s eyes, but arguments in support of a favourite theory have not unfrequently been founded on distortions really the result of bad preparation, al- though supposed to be established on the authority of actual specimens, and therefore very difficult to refute. Mounted skins * By fxternal structure is here meant the morphology of internal organs or parts, usually included in the comparative anatomy of animals, not the microse »pical structure of tissues, which is more especially designated as vegetable anatomy. NATURE [| Fune 8, 1871 of vertebrata, showy insects in their perfect stage, shells of malacozoa, corals, and sponges, necessarily form the chief portion of a museum for public exhibition ; but science and instruction require a great deal more; museum collections really useful to them should exhibit the animal as far as possible in all its parts and in all the phases of its life. This necessity has been felt in modern times, and has resulted in the establishment of Museums of Comparative Anatomy, amongst which that of our own College of Surgeons has certainly now taken the lead. But I have nowhere seen, except on a very small scale, the two museums satisfactorily combined. The idea, however, is not a new one ; several zoologists have expressed their opinions on the desirableness of such an arrangement, which il is to be hoped will be duly considered in the formation of the new National Zoological Museums about to be erected at South Kensington, for the double purpose of exhibition and science. The require- ments of the gazing public are sure to be well provided for, and there is every reason to believe that the exertions of scientific zoologists will not have proved useless, that we shall in the por- tion devoted to science and instruction see the skins of vertebrata preserved without the artist’s distortions, accompanied, as far as practicable, by corresponding skeletons and anatomical prepara- tions, as well as by the nests and eggs of the oviparous classes ; insects with their eggs, larvee, and pupx; shells with the animals which produce them, &c., always with the addition, as far as possible, of the collector’s memoranda as to station, habits, &c., in the same manner as herbarium specimens are now fre- quently most carefully completed by detached fruits, seeds, young plants in germination, gums, and other products. Here, however, will arise another source of false data to be carefully guarded against—the mismatching of specimens, which in botany has probably produced more false genera and species than the misplacing of garden labels. The most careful collectors have in good faith transmitted flowers and fruits belonging to different{plants as those of one species—the fruits perhaps picked up from under a tree from which they were believed to have fallen, or two trees in the same forest with similar leaves, the one in flower the other in fruit, supposed to be identical, but in fact not even congeners, and the mismatching at the various stages of drying, sorting, distributing, and finally laying in the specimens, have been lamentably frequent. Collectors’ memoranda, if not immediately attached to the specimens or identified by attached numbers, have often led the naturalist astray, for collectors are but too apt, instead of noting down any particulars at the time of gathering, to trust to their memory when finally packing up their specimens. And so long as reasoning by analogy was never allowed to prevail over a hasty glance at a specimen and the memoranda attached to it, false genera and species arising from these errors were considered indisputable. J/agw//ana of Cava- nilles was, till recently, allowed materially to invalidate the character of Tropceolec, overlooking the strong internal evidence that it was founded upon the fruit of one natural order carefully attached to a poor flowering specimen of another. Zoological museums and botanical herbaria differ very widely in the resources at their disposal for formation, maintenance, and extension of their collections. Zoological museums are by far the most expensive, but on the other hand as exhibitions they | can draw largely on the general public, whilst herbaria must rely mainly upon science alone, which is always poor ; both, how- ever, may claim national assistance on the plea of instruction as well as of pure science, and for practical or economic purposes the herbarium is even more necessary than the museum. The planning the new museums so as best to answer these several purposes for which they are required, has, we understand, engaged the attention of the Royal Commission on Scientific Instruction and the Advancement of Science, and our most eminent zoolo- gists have been consulted ; any further observations on my part would therefore be superfluous, If our Government fail in their arangements for the promotion of science, it will not be for want of having its requirements laid before them. I am unable to say what progress has been made of late years in zoological museums, my notes on Continental ones were chiefly taken between the years 1830 and 1847, and would there- fore be now out of date, It would, however, be most useful if some competent authority would undertake a tour of inspection of the more important ones, as in the great varicty of their internal arrangements many a useful practical hint might be obtained, and we much want a general sketch of the principal zoological and botanical collections accessible to science, showing in what branch each one is specially rich, and where the more important | | Sune 8, 1871) typical series are now respectively deposited. In herbaria a few changes have recently taken place which it may be useful to record. Paris, [ mean of course the brilliant Paris of a twelve- month back, had Jost considerably. Of the many important private herbaria I had been familiar with in earlier days, two only, those of Jussieu and of A. de St. Hilaire, had been secured for the national collection, Webb's had gone to Florence, J. Gay’s, which would have been of special value at the Jardin, was allowed to be purchased by Hooker and presented by him to Kew. The celebrated herbarium of Delessert is removed to Geneva, whilst his botanical library, one of the richest in existence, is locked up within the walls of the Institut. These are but partially replaced by M. Cosson’s herbarium, which has much increased of late years, and to which he added last spring the late Schultz Bipontinus’s collection rich in Composite. The national herbarium of the Jardin des Plantes is still one of the richest, but no longer ¢/e richest of all. The limited funds at the disposal of the Administration have allowed of their making but few acquisitions ; their staff is so small and so limited in the hours of attendance, that the increase of the last twen'y years remains for the most part unarranged, and their library is most scanty. Science has been out of favour with their governments of display. It would be out of place for me here to dwell upon the painful feelings excited im my mind by the dreadful ordeal through which a country I have been so intimately associated with for more than half a century is now passing, feelings ren- dered so acute by the remembrance of the uniform kindness I have received from private friends as well as from men of science, from Antoine Laurent de Jussieu and his colleagues to the eminent protessors of the Jardin, who have now passed through the siege ; but I may be allowed to express an anxious hope that when the crisis is passed, and the elasticity of French resources will have restored the wonted prosperity, the new Government may at length perceive that, even politically speaking, the demands of science require as much attention as popular clamour. The Delesserian herbarium has been well received at Geneva, where it has been adequately deposited in a building in the Botanic Garden, very near to the Natural History Museum now erecting. At Paris it had been for some time comparatively use- less, owing to the attempt to class it according to Sprengel’s Linneeus, but now an active amateur committee, Messrs. J. Mueller, Reuter, Rapin, and others, under the presidency of Dr. Fauconnet, have already made great progress in distributing the specimens under their natural orders ; and Geneva, already containing the important typical collection of De Candolle, and Boissier’s stores rich especially in Mediteranean and Oriental plants, has become one of the great centres where real botani- cal work can be satisfactorily carried on ; and as she has had the good sense to level her fortifications, she may accumulate national treasures with more confidence in the future. Munich has lost much of the prospect she had ; the Bavarian Government failed to come to terms with the family of the late von Martius, his botanical library has been dispersed, and his herbarium removed to Brussels, where it is to form the nucleus of a national Belgian collection. At Vienna the Imperial herbarium is now admirably housed in the Botanical Garden, and is in good order, with the ad- vantage of a rich botanical library in the same rooms. At Berlin, where the Royal Herbarium, like the Zoological Museum, has always been kept in excellent order, want of space is greatly complained of since it has been transported to the buildings of the University. At Florence, as we learn from the Giornale Botanico Ftaliano, the difficulties with regard to the funds left by Mr. Webb for the maintenance of his herbarium have been over- come, and it is to be hoped that the liberal intentions of the testator who made this splendid bequest for the benefit of science will no longer remain so shamefully unfulfilled. To the above six may be added Leyden, Petersburgh, Stockholm, Upsala, and Copenhagen, as towns possessing national herbaria sufficiently important for the pursuit of systematic botany; but when [ visited them, now many years since, they were all, more or less, in arrear in arrangement. I know not how far they may have since improved. In the United States of America, the herbarium of Asa Gray, recently secured to the Ilarvard University, now occupies a first rank. That of Melbourne in Australia, founded by Ferdinand Mueller, has, through his indefatigable exertions, attained very large proportions ; and that of the Botanical Gar- den of Calcutta, under the successive administration of Dr. Thomson and the late Dr. T. Anderson, had recovered ina great measure its proper position, which, I trust, it will henceforth maintain, Our own great national herbarium and library at NATURE Ik Kew is now far ahead of all others in extent, value, and practi- cal utility ; originally created, maintained, and extended by the two Hookers, father and son, their unremitting and disinterested exertions have succeeded in obtaining for it that Government support without which no such establishment can be really efficient, whilst their lberal and judicious management has secured for it the countenance and approbation of the numerous scientific foreigners who have visited or corresponded with it. Of the valuable botanical materials accumulated in the British Museum during the last century I say nothing now, for the Natural History portion of that establishment is in a state of transition, and my own views as regards Botany have been elsewhere ex- pressed. I have only to add that we have also herbaria of con- siderable extent at the Universities of Oxford, Cambridge, and Edinburgh, and at Trinity College, Dublin, and to express a hope that the necessity of maintaining and extending them will be duly felt by these great educational bodies, if they desire to secure for their professorial chairs botanists of eminence. 3. Pictorial representations or drawings have the advantage over museum specimens, that they can be in many respects more complete, they can represent objects and portions of objects which it has been impossible to preserve, they can give colour and other characters lost in the course of desiccation, they pre- serve anatomical and microscopical details in a form in which the observer can have recourse to them again and again without repeating his dissections, and although, like a museum specimen, each drawing represents usually an individual, not a species, yet that individual can by exact copies be multiplied to any extent for the simultaneous use of any number of naturalists, whilst specimens of the same species in different museums are corre- sponding only, not identical, and imperfect comparison and determination of specimens supposed to be authentic (¢.¢., exactly corresponding to the one originally described) have led into numerous errors. Drawings, moreover, of diagrams and other devices can represent more or less perfectly the abstract ideas of genera and species, they can exhibit the generic or specific character more or less divested of specific or individual peculiari- ties. Drawings on the other hand are, much more than specimens, liable to imperfections and falsifications arising from defective observation of the model and want of skill in the artist, and errors thus once established are much more difficult of correction than even those conveyed by writing. A pictorial representation conveys an idea much more rapidly, and impresses it much more strongly on the mind, than any detailed accompanying description by which it may be modified or corrected, and is but too fre- quently the only evidence looked into by the more theoretical naturalist. ‘lhis is especially the case with microscopical and anatomical details of the smaller animals and plants, the repre- sentations of which, if very elaborate and difficult to verily, usually inspire absolute confidence. Drawings are also costly, often beyond the means of unaided science, who here again, as in the case of gardens and museums, is obliged to have recourse to the paying public ; the public in return require to have their tastes gratified, artistic effect is necessarily considered, thus in- creasing the cost and removing the pictures still further from the reach of the working biologist. It appears to me, however, that collections of drawings systematically arranged have not gener- ally met with that attention which they require from directors of museums, and that their multiplication in an effective and cheap form ought to bea great object on the part of Governments, Scien- tific Associations, and others who contribute pecuniarily to the advancement of science. To be effective, the first requisites in a zoological or botanical drawing are accuracy and completeness ; it is a faithful repre- sentation not a picture that is wanted. Many a splendid portrait of an animal or plant, especially if grouped with others in one picture, has been rendered almost useless to science by a grace- ful attitude or an elegant curve which the artist has sought to give to a limb or to a branch, and those analytical details which are of paramount importance to the biologist are neglected, be- cause they spoil the general effect. We next require from an illustration, as from a description, that it should be representa- tive, or toa certain degree abstract, and this requires that the artist, if not himself the naturalist, should work under the naturalist’s eye, so as to understand what he delineates. Great care should be taken, in the selection for the model of an indi- vidual in a normal state, as to health, size, &c , and in the se- lection and arrangement of the anatomical details, so as to repre- sent the race rather than the individual, all of which requires a I1I2 NATURE [Fune 8, 1871 thorough acquaintance with the questions to be attended to. It is true that the artist working independently and copying me- chanically may serve as a check on the naturalist, who in minute microscopic examinations may be apt to see too much in con- formity to preconceived theories ; but that is not often the case, the most satisfactory analytical drawings I have always found to be those made by the naturalist’s own hand, and I havelong felthow much my own inability to draw has detracted from the value of botanical papers I have published. And thirdly, when we consider that the great advantage of an illustration over a description is, that the one gives us ata glance the information which we can only obtain from the other by study, we require that each draw- ing or’plate should be as comprehensive as is consistent with clearness and precision. Outline drawings or portraits without structural details often omit the essential characters we are in search of ; where details are unaccompanied by a general outline, we miss a great means of fixing their bearing on our minds. Structural details may also equally err in being too numerous or too few, or too large or on too smalla scale. If the plate is crowded with details of little importance, or which may be readily taken from the general outline, they draw off the atten- tion from those which it is essential should be at once fixed on the mind, andif enlarged beyond what is necessary for clearness, they require so much the more effort to comprehend them, unless indeed they be destined to be hung up on the walls of a lecture- room. I believe it to be the case with some drawings of the muscles of vertebrata, or of the internal structure of insects, as I know it to be with those of ovules and other minute parts of flowers of the late Dr. Griffith and others, that with their very high scientific value, their practical utility is much interfered with by the large scale on which they aredrawn, A great deal depends also on the arranzement in the plate, always keeping in mind that the object is not to please the eye, but to convey at one view as much as possible of comparative information without producing confusion. Biological illustrations in general have much improved in our time. Itis true that some of the representations of animals and plants dating from the middle cf last century will enter into competition with any modern ones as to the general outlines and facies, but analytical details were almost universally neglected, and colouring when attempted was gaudy and unfaithful. At present I believe we excel in this country in the general artistic effect, as unfortunately also for the naturalist in the costliness, of our best zoclogical and bo- tanical plates; the French are remarkable for the selection, arrangement, and execution of the s-ientific details, and as a model I may refer to some of the publications of the Paris Museum, such as the Malpighiacee of Adrien de Jussieu, and also for the excellent woodcuts illustrating their general and popular works ; the Germans and some Northern states for the admirable neatness of microscopic and other minutize executed at a comparatively small cost, owing partially at least to the use of engravings on lithographic stone. 4. Written Descriptions are what we must chiefly rely upon to convey to the general or to the practical naturalist the results of our studies of animals and plants ; but descriptions are of two kinds—individual descriptions and descriptions of species, genera, or other races. The former are like preserved specimens or delineations, materials for study, like them they require in their preparation little more than artistical skill guided by a general knowledge of the subject; but abstract descriptions, whether specific or relating to races of a higher degree, require that study of the mutual relations of individuals and races and their consequent classification which constitute the science of systematic biology, and this distinction should be constantly kept in view for the just appreciation of all descriptive works. Any tyro can with care write a long description of a specimen unim- peachable as to accuracy, but it requires a thorough knowledge of the subject anda keen appreciation of the bearings of the points noticed to prepare a good description of a species. For the latter to be serviceable it must be accurate, it must be full without redundancy, it must be concise without sacrificing clear- ness, it must be abstractive not individual, and lastly, the most difficult qualification of all and that which constitutes the main point of the science, the abstraction must be judicious and true to Nature. The paramount importance of accuracy is too evident to need dwelling upon. We are all liable to errors of observation. Im- perfect vision or instruments, optical deceptions, accidentally abnormal conditions of the specimen examined, hasty apprecia- tion of what we see from preconceived theories, are so many of the causes which have occasionally led into error the most eminent of naturalists, and require to be specially guarded against by repeated observation of different specimens and constant testing at every step by reasonings from analogy. Errors once established on apparently good authority are exceedingly difficult to correct, and have been the source of many a false theory. Where loose examination and hasty conclusion have been fre- quently detected, we can at once renounce all confidence in an author’s descriptions—in his genera and species—unless con- firmed from other sources, but an accidental oversight on the part of a naturalist of established reputation is the most difficult to remedy, notwithstanding the eagerness with which some beginners devote themselves to hunting them out. No botanist was, I believe, ever more careful in verifying his observations over and over again, and in submitting them to the tests supplied by the extraordinary methodising powers of his mind, than Robert Brown, no one has ever committed fewer of what we call blunders, or established his systematic theories on safer ground, yet even he has been detected in a few minor oversights, eagerly seized upon by a set of modern speculative botanists, lovers of paradoxes, as justifying them in devoting their time and energies to the disputal of several of his most important discoveries and conclusions. The value of a description as to fulness and conciseness is practical only, but in that point of view important. A descrip- tion, however accurate, is absolutely useless if the essential points are omitted, and very nearly so if those essential points are drowned in a sea of useless details; the difficulty is to ascertain what are the essential points; and hence one of the causes of the superiority of monographs and floras over isolated descriptions, such as those of Zoologies and Botanies of exploring expeditions, which I insisted on in my address of 1862; in the former the author must equally examine and classify all the allied races, and thus ascertain the essential points ; in the latter case he is too easily led to trust to what he believes to be essential. My own Jong experience in the using, as well as in the making. of botanical descriptions, has proved to me how difficult it is to prepare a really good one, how impossible it is to do it satisfactorily from a first observation of a single specimen. However carefully you may have noted every point that occurs to you, you will find that, after having comparatively examined other specimens and allied forms, you will have many an error to correct, many a blank to fill up, and much to eliminate. I have more than once had to verify the same species in two authors, the one giving you a character in a few lines which satisfies you at once, the other obliging you to labour through two or three quarto pages of minute details, from which some of the essential points are omitted. But the great problem to be solved at every stage in systematic or descriptive biology, and that which gives it so high a scientific importance, is the due detection and appreciation of affinities and mutual relations, and in this respect the science has made immense progress within my own recollection, and especially during the last few years the gradual supplanting of artificial by natural classifications has been too often commented upon to need repeti- tion. It is now, I believe, universally admitted that a species consists of individuals connected together by certain resem- blances or affinities the result of a common descent. It is also acknowledged that for scientific purposes these species should be arranged in groups according to resemblances or affinities more remote than in the case of species, although here commences the great difference of opinion as to the meaning of these remote affinities, whether they also are the result of a common descent, or of that supposed imitation of a type which I have above alluded to. For those, however, who have once connected affinity with consanguinity, it is difficult to re- cede from so ready an explanation of those mysterious resemblances and differences, the study of which must be the ruling principle to guide us in our classi- fications. | All this has now been fully explained by more able pens than mine ; my only object in repeating it is to point out clearly the need of treating all systematic groups from the order down to the genus, species, or variety, as races of a similar nature, collections of individuals more nearly related to each other than to the individuals comprising any other race of the same grade, and of abolishing the use of the expression ¢yfe of a genus, or other group, in any other than a purely historical sense, as a question of nomenclature.* If a genus has to be * For the purposes of instruction some one species is often named as @ type of a genus, that is to say, as fairly representing the most prevalent Fune 8, 1871 | NATURE 113 divided, our laws of nomenclature require the original name to be retained for that section which includes the species which the founder of the genus had more specially observed in framing his character, and therefore, and for that reason only, it becomes necessary to inquire which was or which were the so-called typical species—the biologist’s or as it were the artist’s, not Nature’s type. I need not repeat what I said in 1862 of the comparative value of monographs and faunas or floras over miscellaneous descriptions, observing only that the immense progress made in the accumulation of known species henceforth diminishes still more the relative importance to science of the addition of new forms when compared to the due collocation and correct appre- ciation of those already known. Much has been done of late years in the latter respect, but yet some branches of biology, and perhaps entomology more than any other, are very much in arrear as to supplying us with available data for investigating the histcry of species and their genealogy ; their origin, progress, migration, mutual relations, their struggle, decay, and final ex- tinction. It is to be feared that in insects as in plants, but too large a proportion of the innumerable genera and sub-genera have been founded rather on the sortings of a collector than on the investigation of affinities ; and, indeed, that must in a great measure be the case so long as a large proportion are only known from their outward form at one period only of their varied phases of existence. The days of a Systema Naturze, or single work containing a synopsis of the genera and species of organised beings, are long since passed away. Evena Species Plantarum, now that their number at the lowest estimate exceeds 100,000, has become almost hopeless. The last attempt, De Candolle’s Prodromus, has been nearly forty years in progress, the first portion has become quite out of date, and all we can hope for is that it may be shortly completed for one of the three great classes of plants. Animals might have been more manageable were it not for the in- sects. Mammalia estimated at between 2,000 and 3,000 living species, birds at about 10,000, reptiles and amphibia under 2,000, fishes at about 10,000, crustacea and arachnidarather above 10,000, malacozoa about 20,000, vermes, actinozoa, and amorphozoa under 6,000, would each by themselves not impose too heavy a tax on the naturalist experienced in that special branch who should undertake a scientific classification and diagnosis of all known species. In one important branch, indeed, the fishes, this work has been most satisfactorily carried out in Dr. Giinther’s admirable Genera and Species of all known fishes published under the mis- leading title of ‘* Catalogue of the Fishes in the British Museum,” and recently completed by the issue of the seventh volume. The sound philosophical views expressed in his preface to that volume (which, by some strange inversion, bears a signature not his own) can be appreciated by us all, and zoologists are all agreed as to the care with which they have been worked out in the text. Insects are, however, the great stumbling-block of zoologists. The number of described species is es'imated by Gerstaecker at above 160,000, viz. : Coleoptera, 90,000 ; Hymenoptera, 25,000 ; Diptera, 24,000 ; Lepidoptera, 22,000 to 24,000. Mr. Bates thinks that, for the Coleoptera at least, this estimate is too high by one- third, but even with that deduction the number would exceed that of plants, and it is probable that the number of as yet undiscovered species in proportion to that of the described ones is far greater in the case of insects than of plants. We can therefore no longer hope for a Genera and Species of insects, the work of a single hand, or indeed guided by a single mind. The great division of labour, however, now prevalent among entomologists may procure it for us in detail, with one drawback only, that the smaller the por- tion of the great natural class of Arthropoda to which the ento- mologist confines his attention, the less he will be able to appre- ciate the significance of distinctive characters, and the more prone he will be to multiply small genera—that is to enhance beyond their due value the races of the lowest grades—to the great incon- venience of the general naturalist who has to make use of the results of his labour. A Genera Plantarum is still within the capabilities of a single botanist, although he must, of course, trust much to the obser- vations of others, and it therefore cannot be so satisfactory as if he had examined every species himself. The last complete one was Endlicher’s, the result of several years’ assiduous labour, but now character ; butto prevent any confusion with ¢/e imaginary type, it would surely be better to call it an “‘example,” as, indeed, is often done. In geographical biology the word “‘type” is used again in another sense, which, however, does not lead to any misunderstanding. thirty years old. Dr. Hookerand myself commenced a new one, _ of which the first part was published in 1862, and which might have been brought nearly to a close by this time had we not both of us hadso many other works on hand to deter us, although the researches necessary for these other works have proved of great assistance to the Genera. As it is, the part now nearly ready for press carries the work down to the end of Composite, or about half through the Phzenogamous plants. In regard to works of a still more general description, the exposition of the families or orders of plants, we have nothing of impoi- tance since Lindley’s *‘ Vegetable Kingdom,” dated 1845, but republished with some additions and corrections in 1853, and Le Maout and Decaisne’s ‘‘ Traité Générale,” mentioned in my address of 1868, and of which Mrs. Hooker is now preparing an English translation, under the supervision of Dr. Hooker. Dr. Baillon has also commenced a ‘‘ Histoire des Plantes,” con- taining a considerable number of useful original observations, and illustrated by excellent woodcuts, but as a general work, one por- tion is of too popular a character, and in some cases too diffuse to be of much use to science, and the generic character too tech- nical for a popular work without any contrasted synopsis, and its great bulk in proportion to the information conveyed will always be a drawback. I cannot believe that the author can have been a party to the unblushing announcement of the French publisher, that it is to be completed inabout eight volumes. If carried out on the plan of the first one, it must extend to four or five times that number. In Zoology, Bronn’s most valuable ‘* Klassen und Ordnungen der Thierreichs,” continued after his death by Keferstein and others, which I mentioned in my address of 1866, has advanced but slowly. The Amorphozoa, Actinozoa, and Malacozoa, forming the first two volumes, were then completed, and Gerstaecker has since been proceeding with the Arthropoda, commencing with the Crustacea for the third volume, of which only the general matter and the Cirripedia and Copepoda are as yet published, and three or four parts of a sixth volume for birds have been issued by Selenka, treating the anatomical and other matters in greatdetail. Another general work of merit, although on a smaller scale, has been proceeding as slowly. Of Carus and Gerstaecker’s ‘‘ Handbuch der Zoologie,” the second volume, containing the Arthropoda, Malacozoa, and lower animals, had been already published in 1861, and to this was added in 1868 the first half of the Vertebrata for the first volume, with a promise that the remainder should appear in the autumn, but which promise has not yet been fulfilled. Among the other recently published systematic zoological handbooks of which I have memoranda as published in various Continental states, the most important are said to be Harting’s, published at Kiel, in the Netherlands, of which up to 1870 only three volumes had appeared, containing the Crustacea, Vermes, Malacozoa, and lower animals; A. E. Holmgren’s ‘‘ Swedish Handbook ;” Zoology, of which’ Mammalia were published in 1865, and Birds in 1868 to 1871; and Claus’s ‘*Grundziige,” and Troschel’s “‘ Handbook” (7th edition) for University Teaching in Germany. In a comparative sketch of the more partial monographs, faunas, and floras, I had wished to direct my attention more especially to the means afforded us of comparing the plants and animals of different countries; and with this view one of the questions I addressed to foreign zoologists was—‘‘ What works or papers are there in which the animals (of any of the principal classes) of your country are compared with those of other coun- tries?” The answers to this query have not been generally satis- factory. Where the zoclogy has been well investigated, we have popular handbooks, elaborate memoirs, and works of high scientific value, or splendidly illustrated. But short synoptical faunas, so useful to the general naturalist and corresponding to the floras we now possess of so many different countries, are very few; the statement of the general geographical range of each species, so prominent a feature in many modern floras, is still less thought of, and indications of allied or representative races in distant countries are equally rare. We have indeed several excellent essays on the geographical distribution of animals; I had occasion to allude to several of them in my address of 1869, but they are in general chiefly devoted to discussion, with statements of such facts only as bear upon the author’s conclusions, not records of* facts which may be useful to the geographical or general biologist. These must be collected from a great variety of separate works and papers, of which I have received long lists from Denmark, Sweden, Germany, Switzerland, Italy, France, and the United ti4 NATURE [Fune 8, 187% States. As yet I only have had time to refer to a few which appeared to bear more immediately on the objects I had in view, but I hope on some future occasion to return to the subject. In the meantime I must content myself with glancing rapidly over the different countries, taking them inthe order adopted in my former addreses, and endeavouring to show the progress making in supplying our deficiencies. Towards these deficiencies I would particularly call the attention of entomologists and terres- trial malacologists, for insects and land shells are of all others the animals whose life and local stations are the most closely dependent on vegetation. In the following notes I am further precluded from entering into details as to the zoological works or memoirs mentioned, by the consideration that they would be superseded by the analysis given in the annual reviews inserted in Wiegmann’s Archiv, and more especially in our own admirably conducted Zoological Record, which so strongly claims the support of everyone interested in the promotion of Zoological Science, (Zo be continued.) ZOOLOGY Note on Transversely Striated Muscular Fibre among the Gasteropoda.” J‘ studying the radula of a species of Acmea (probably 4. Borneensis Rye), obtained by Prof. A. S. Bickmore at Am- boyna, I noticed, on placing the structure under a power of 100 diameters, that certain of the muscular fibres which adhered to it, when torn from the buccal mass, had a different appearance from the others. On increasing the power to some 800 diame- ters, it was at once evident that the different aspect of these fasci- culi was caused by fine, but clearly defined, transverse striation. Suspecting that it was an optical delusion, caused by a very regular arcangement of the nuclei of the fibres, I subjected the muscle to various tests and to still higher magnifying powers. I also introduced under the same glass some of the voluntary dorsal muscles of a small crustacean for comparison. The struc- ture of the ultimate fibres in both appeared to be similar. These seemed to be composed of a homogeneous tube or cylindrical band of translucent matter, with nuclei interspersed at irregular intervals. In neither was there any appearance of separation into transverse discs, as is seen in the striated muscles of verte- brates. That the striated appearance was not due to contraction and folding of the muscle, was evident upon taking a side view of one of the fibres, when the strize on each side, as well as the intervening elevations, were seen to correspond exactly to each other. The only perceptible differences between the muscles of the crustacean and the striated muscles of the mollusk, appeared to be that the latter were much more finely striate ; the strice being six to eight times as numerous as in the former in the same space. No difference between the striated and nonstriated muscles of the Acmwa could be observed, except in the fact of the striation. In both the nuclei were irregularly distributed. The appearance of the striated fibre reminded one of a string of rhombic beads, which bore no relation to the position of the true nuclei. The striated fibres appeared, after a careful dissec- tion of the parts in a number of specimens, to be the retractors of the radula ; they were longer and in narrower bands than the nonstriated fibres, and comparatively much fewer in number. The striation was most evident toward the middle of the fibres, and became evanescent toward their extremities. Lebert and Robin (Miiller’s Arch. f. Anat. and Phys., 1846, p- 126) state that the primitive muscular fasciculi of invertebrates often have the nuclei and intervening clear spaces ‘‘ arranged in such regular order that they might, at the first glance, be mis- taken for transversely striated muscular fibres. The latter, how- ever, are actually found in one acephalous mollusk, /ec/en (and probably in Zima also), and some annelids,” and are constantly present in the voluntary muscles of Crustacea and Zusecta, In the further researches of M. Lebert (Annales Sci. Nat., t. xiii. 1850, p. 161), he observes that there is nothing extraordinaty in the discovery of transversely striated muscular fibre in Podysea (ZEschara) by Milne-Edwards, and in dctinia by Erdl, since “the further we have pursued the study of the comparative histology of muscular fibre, the more convinced we have become that transversely striated muscular fibre is to be found in a large * Communicated by the author, from the “ American Journal of Science and Aris,” vol, i., Feb, 1871. number of animals of very inferior organisation, without regard to their more or less advanced position in the animal kingdom,” Striated muscular fibre has lately been shown to exist in the ‘*tail” or appendix of Appendicularia by Moss (Trans. Lin. Soc., vol. xxvii. p. 300). It was already known to exist in Sa/fa, (Eschricht, ov. Salperne), in the articulated brachiopoda (Han- cock, Tr. Roy. Soc., 1857, p. 805), and in Fecten (Lebert, An- nales Sci. Nat. 1850, 3rd ser. t. xili. p. 166; and Wagner, Lehrb. d. vergleich. Anat., t. ii. p. 470, 1847), as well as in Lschara (Milne-Edwards, Annales Sci. Nat., series ii. t. iv. p. 3). I believe, however, that this is the first instance in which it has been shown to exist in the class Gasteropoda ; and this, as well as the rarity of such cases among the lower invertebrates, is a sufficient apology for bringing forward such an isolated fact. Other duties have not yet permitted me to determine whether this phenomenon is constant throughout the genus, or whether it does or does not occur among allied genera. W. H. Datu SCIENTIFIC SERIALS In the first paper in the American Naturalist for May, Prof. C. F. Hartt opens out quite a new field for investigation in the rock-inscriptions of Brazil, and illustrates it with nine plates of very great interest. The inscriptions occur on the rocks in various districts, and are many of them very rude, representing human and other figures, the sun, moon, and stars, and others very difficult to decipher. Prof. Hartt mentions as a curious circumstance that the hands and feet are always represented by radiating lines, usually only three digits being drawn for each hand and foot ; the number rarely reaches four, and never five. This, he thinks may be explained by the fact that many tribes of Brazil are unable to count beyond three or four. The antiquity of these rock paintings and sculptures is undoubted, being men- tioned by many ancient writers, as well as by Humboldt and others in more recent times. There can be no doubt that they ante-date the civilisation of the Amazons, and there is a strong probability that some of them, at least, were drawn befove the European discovery of America. A short paper, by Dr. F. R. Hoy, on Dr. Koch’s Missourium tetracaulodon, made by Prof. Owen into a Mastodon, points out several particulars in which Dr. Koch’s account of the discovery of the fossil is not to be relied on, especially the inference of the great antiquity of man deduced from it. Mr. J. H. Emerton gives an account of the so-called ‘* Flying Spiders,” which are merely blown about by the wind. Among the ‘‘ Miscellany” is an interesting note by Mr. A, Garrett, on the Distribution of Animals in the South Seas, es- pecially in the Viti Islands. The number is altogether one of unusual interest. Archiv fiir Anthropologie, 1870, Heft 3. An essay on “Theories of Sexual Generation,” by Prof. His, of Basel, is rather historical than speculative, tracing the two principal lines of opinion represented in early science by Hippocrates and Aristotle, as to the respective functions of the two parents, and the mode of transmission of their bodily characteristics to the offspring. Among modern writers Prof. His dwells especially on Harvey’s views. A paper by Dr. Welcker, ‘‘ On the compressed feet of Chinese ladies,” contains careful drawings, showing the shoe, the foot, and the abnormal position of the bones. As complete an account is given as the subject needs from an anatomical point of view. Dr. Jensen, occupied in studying the proportions of | the brain in the insane, arranges for this purpose, a ‘‘stereo- scopic-geometrical drawing apparatus,” by the aid of which to produce geometrical drawings on which measurements can be made. Dr. Schaafhausen’s dissertation on ‘‘ Cannibalism and Human Sacrifice,” is a valuable, though somewhat undigested contribution to the subject. Among the motives assigned for cannibalism, the principal are hunger, revenge, superstition, such as induces savages to devour a braye warrior to obtain his courage, and lastly, the gluttonous longing for a kind of flesh which is described as appetising. Human sacrifice may some- times be a relic of early cannibalism, an offering to deities who devour human flesh, or it may be an act of propitiation. There is evidence of the ancient or modern existence of cannibalism in most countries of the world, Great Britain being distinctly in- cluded. Even in modern times it occasionally breaks out in the civilised world, but on the whole its frequency among savages, and its general disappearance under improved social conditions, enable the writer, who argues in favour of a steady progression in the civilisation, to put it fairly into his argument, Sune 8, 1871 | NATURE 115 SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES LONDON “ Geological Society, May 24.—Prof. John Morris, Vice- President, inthe chair. Messrs. Mosley, Colvin, Noble, F,R.A.S., and Davey, were elected Fellows of the Society. The following communications were read :—(1) ‘‘On the principal Features of the Stratigraphical Distribution of the British Fossil Lamelli- branchiata.” By Mr. J. Logan Lobley, F.G.S. In this paper the author showed, by means of diagrammatic tables, what appears to be the present state of our knowledge of the general stratigraphical distribution of the fossil Lamellibranchiata in Britain. As a class, the Lamellibranchs are sparingly repre- sented in the Lower, and more numerously in the Upper Silurian group, and fall offagain in the Devonian ; they greatly increase in number in the Carboniferous, become scanty in the Permian and Trias, and attain their maximum development in the Jurassic rocks. They are also largely represented in the Cretaceous and Tertiary series. The stratigraphical distribution of the two great subordinate groups, the Siphonida and the Asiphonida, corre- sponds generally with that of the class; the Siphonida pre- dominate over the Asiphonida in Tertiary formations, whilst the reverse is the case from the Cretaceous series downwards. Nearly all the families of Lamellibranchs are represented in the Jurassic and Carboniferous rocks, and in the former very largely. The author remarked especially on the great development of the Aviculidz in Carboniferous times. Mr. Etheridge, after notic- ing the importance of the paper, remarked that possibly the great difference observed in the proportions of Lamellibran- chiata in different formations might to some extent be due to our want of knowledge. Of late years, in the Caradoc and Lower Silurian series, the number of species had been nearly doubled, principally through the persevering industry of one single observer, Lieut. Edgell. The same was to some extent the case in the Carboniferous rocks, owing to the collections of Mr. Car- rington. Much was also being done for the Oolitic series, in con- nection with which the names of Mr. C. Moore, Mr. Sharp, and Dr. Bowerbank ought to be mentioned. Mr. Griffiths and the Rey. Mr. Wiltshire were doing the same work for the Gault. What the late Mr. S. P. Woodward had done as to the distribu- tion of the different species of molluscs through time, Mr. Lobley was doing on a larger and more extended scale. Prof. Ramsay was glad to find that Mr, Lobley was, to some extent, doing the same for the Lamellibranchiata as Mr. Davidson had done for the Brachiopoda. He did not know how the case might be with the Silurian and Devonian formations, but in the Carboniferous strata the Lamellibranchiata were obtaining a preponderance over the Brachiopoda, He accounted for their comparative absence in formations of other ages, especially between the Upper Silurian and Rhietic beds, by the best known areas of those periods having been mainly continental, or containing principally freshwater or inland sea remains, so that the true marine fauna wasabsent. In Carboniferous times possibly the true relative proportions of the two forms had been preserved in the deposits. Mr. Judd was doubtful as to the safety of placing too great reliance upon figures. He questioned whether some of the conclusions as to the great increase of Lamellibranchiates between the Carboniferous and Jurassic periods could be substantiated. Much depended on the amount of the rocks present in different countries, and the study bestowed on each. ‘The conditions also for the preservation of the fossils might be more favourable at one time than another. Mr. Carruthers considered the tables as of the greatest value, as indicating the present state of our knowledge. He called attention to the difference of conditions under which deposits had accumu- lated, which must have to some extent affected the proportion of Lamellibranchiates preserved in the different formations. Mr. Charlesworth remarked on the occurrence of Zyigonéa in the Australian seas, and on there being varieties of form among specimens of existing species so great that if they were found fossil they might be regarded as of several species. Mr. Hughes considered that the data were too incomplete to justify the generalisations of some of the previous speakers. It had been pointed out that whenever the tables showed a very large num- ber of Lamellibranchs from any formation, that formation had been carefully worked out by local observers ; and therefore he would like to know in each case the proportion the Lamellibran- chiata bore to the total number of fossils found. It had been shown also that a larger proportion of Brachiopoda had been found in the older rocks, and of Lamellibranchiata in the newer, But in the older rocks whole genera of Lamelli- branchs are confined to horizons and localities which are not cut off by stratigraphical breaks, such as would allow us to think it atall probable that they can be characterised by peculiar genera, He thought the scarceness and irregular occurrence of Lamellibranchs in the older rocks could be best explained on the supposition that those portions of the older de- posits which were least favourable to Lamellibranchs happened to be those now chiefly exposed to our search, and that those few portions are only in part worked out. Mr. Jenkins observed that in thick deposits there was a far greater likelihood of numerous forms being present than in thin, for thickness meant time, and time meant variation. Prof. Morris dissented from this view, as in thin littoral deposits an enormous number of shells might be present, while in beds formed of deep sea they might be almost entirely absent.—2. ‘‘Geological Observations on British Guiana,” by Mr. James G. Sawkins, F.G.S. In this paper the author gave a general account of his explorations of the Geology of British Guiana when engaged in making the geological survey of that colony. He described the rocks met with during excur- sions in the Pomeroon district, along the course of the Cuyuni and Mazurunirivers, on the Demerara river, on the Essequibo and its tributaries, on the Rupununi river, and among the southern mountains. The rocks- exposed consist of granites and meta- morphic rocks, overlain by a sandstone, which forms high mountains in the middle part of the colony, and is fre- garded by the author as probably identical, or nearly iden- tical, with the sandstone stretching through Venezuela and Brazil, and observed by Mr. Darwin in Patagonia. Prof, Ramsay remarked upon the barrenness, from a geological point of view, of the district investigated by Mr. Sawkins, and especially called attention to the absence of fossils in the strati- fied rocks. He referred briefly to Mr. Sawkins’s labours in Trinidad and Jamaica, and to his discovery of metamorphosed Miocene rocks in the latter colony exactly analogous to the metamorphic Eocene rocks of the Alps. He was glad to sce that the author had brought forward examples of cross-bedding in metamorphic rocks, and considered that the results adduced were favourable to those views of the metamorphic origin of granite which he had himself so long upheld. Mr. D. Forbes, on the contrary, considered that the facts brought forward by Mr. Sawkins were confirmatory of the eruptive nature of the granites observed, He added that cross-bedding was common in igneous rocks and eyen inlavas, Mr. Tate remarked that in the country to the north of the district described in the paper metamorphic rocks abound. He considered that the series of metamorphosed Jurassic rocks extends across the whole north of South America, and perhaps into California. Similar sandstones to those de~ scribed occur in the basin of the Orinoco, and contain fossils which show them to be of Miocene age. Mr. Tate did not consider these sandstones as the equivalent of the Patagonian sandstones, as from the shells contained in the latter they would appear to be Pliocene or Pleistocene. Mr. Sawkins, in reply to a question from Mr. Tate, stated that the only gold found in the country had probably been carried down from the well-known gold dis- trict of Upata. He also entered intoa few additional details connected with the chief points in his paper, dwelling especially upon the physical features of the country, in ilustration of which several landscape drawings were exhibited. Royal Institution of Great Britain, June 5.—Sir Frederick Pollock, Bart., M.A., vice-president, in the chair, Silas Kem- ball Cook, Miss Elinor Martin, Dr. Charles Bland Radcliffe, and Mrs, Radcliffe were elected members of the Royal Institu- tion. The special thanks of the members were returned for the following donation to ‘‘The Fund for the Promotion of Experimental Researches” :—Sir Henry Holland, Bart. (thir- teenth annual donation), 40/, Anthropological Institute, May 29.—Prof. Busk, F.R-S., vice-president, in the chair. George Latimer of Puerto Rico was elected a member. Mr. F. G. H. Price read a paper ‘‘ On the (Quissama Tribe of Angola,” inhabiting that portion of An- gola situated on the south bank of the Quanza river. The country had lately been visited by Mr. Charles Hamilton, well known for his travels among the Kaffirs. The Quissama bear the reputation of being cannibals, but cannibalism, although undoubtedly practised by them to some extent, does not largely prevail. The men are well formed, and average about five feet eight inches in height, they are copper-coloured, have long, coarse, and in some instances, frizzled, hair; their heads are mostly well developed, and the Roman nose is not unfrequently met with, 116 NATURE | une 8, 1871 Their weapons are spears, bows aud arrows, and occasionally guns, the latter being rude copies from the Portuguese article. Mr. Hamilton was well received by the chief, who told him that he was the first white man that had seen the tribe at home. The men and women of the Quissama are addicted to hunting ; they are virtuous, practice monogamy, marry young, and are very prolific. The men largely preponderate in numbers over the women, the result, it is supposed, of infanticide, but of that practice Mr. Hamilton had seen no evidence. The Quissama believe in the existence of a Supreme Being. —A paper was read by Lieut. George C. Musters, R.N., on the races of Pata- gonia inhabiting the country between the Cordillera and the Atlantic, which the author had traversed during the years 1869 and 1870. The Patagonians consist of three races distinctly differing in language and physique, and partially differing in re- ligion and manners, Tehuelches or Patagonians, Pampas, and Manzaneros, the latter beingan offshoot ofthe Araucanians of Chile. The Tehuelches and Pampas are nomadic tribes subsisting almost entirely by the chase. The proverbial stature of the Patagonians was so far confirmed by the observation that the Tehuelches give an average height of five feet ten inches, with a-corresponding breadth of shoulders and muscular development ; the Manza- neros come next in order of height and strength, the Pampas being the smallest of the three races, The Manzaneros are remarkable for their fair complexions, whilst the Tehuelches are, literally speaking, Red Indians, Lieut. Musters had visited all the various tribes of those races, from the Rio Negro to the Straits of Magellan, for political purposes, and he estimated the population, which he described as diminishing, as follows :— Tehuelches 1,400 to 1,500, Pampas 600, and the remainder Manzaneros, amounting in all to about 3,000.—Dr. Eatwell contributed a communication on Chinese burials.—-Mr. Josiah Harris announced the arrival from the coast of Peru of various pieces of rag, of wooden images, pottery, and other articles of great interest ; and the chairman stated that the specimens would be exhibited and described at the next meeting of the Institute. —Mr. George Harcourt exhibited a flint implement found near a stream flowing from Virginia Water, anda bronze Celt discovered in the root of a tree in the parish of Thorpe, Surrey. Paris Academy of Sciences, May 1.—M. Chasles contributed a rather long but very important paper on Conic Sections. The illustrious mathematician gives the theorems rather than the mode of demonstrating them. It is a reminiscence of the old academy in the golden age of the seventeenth century. The theorems are very numerous.—M. Trécul read a rather long account of the analysis of the juices which can be extracted from aloes.—M. Decaisne read a memoir, which is printed at full length, on the Temperature of Children when they are taken ill.—M. Delaunay presented the second number of his monthly meteorological report for the month of April. It is to be noticed that April expired on a Sunday, and that M. Delaunay spared not a single hour, as his 7éswmé was ready on the following day. The observatory had suffered scarcely any injury up to the end of the second siege. No delegate of the Commune had presented him- self either to take possession of it or to blow it up. May 8.—It was only at this late date that M. Longuet’s death was officially made known tothe Academy. M. Delaunay, who presided over the proceedings, gave expression to a few becoming sentences of regret at the loss the Academy had experienced. M. Longuet was a physiologist of much ingenuity and ability. —M. Duchartre, member of the Botanical Section, read a rather long paper on our knowledge of Liliaceze.—M. Sedillat, the learned Arabic scholar, reada paper on the etymology of French words havingan Arabic origin. Their number isimmense, and M. Littré, in his great ‘‘ Etymological Dictionary,” supposes it to be even | much larger. The intercourse with Arabs was very active even in medizval times, as is proved by the history of the University of Paris, which so long defended Averrhoes. M. Sedillat gives many instances chosen from an immense number of others. —M. Stanislas Meunier sent a very interesting paper on meteorites. The experiments were made by him according to the precepts given by M. Daubrée, to whom M. Stanislas Meunier is assistant. M. Daubrée is nowa refugee at Versailles. The museum where these experiments were executed is said to be safe, | contrary to previous assertions. M. Stanislas Meunier explained | by what process serpentine mountains can be changed into | tadjerite. Tadjerite is found in some meteorites which belong to the museum collection. Specimens are also to be found in the | British Museum, Yale College, U.S., &c. M. Boilot, the scientific editor of the AZonitewr, read a paper which was written to show astronomers that they must study carefully the different kinds of combustion on the surface of the earth, natural or ar i- ficial, to gain some quasi-experimental knowledge of the celestial phenomena of the origin and variations of star light. The doctrine was illustrated by some interesting observations. —M. Quesneville, editor of the Aon:teur Scientifique, presented a set of his papers. —M. Tremeschini presented three drawings representing one large solar spot seen on the 6th, 7th, and 8th of May at noon. These drawings are inserted in the Comptes Rendus. M. 'Tremes- chini lives at Belleville, the spot where the rebellion fought its last desperate struggle. It is to be hoped that he escaped safe, though up to this moment nothing has been heard from him. BOOKS RECEIVED Encuisu.—A Memoir of the Indian Survey : C. R. Markham (India Office). —Light Science for Leisure Hours: R. A. Proctor (Longmans).—At Last, 2 vols.: Rey. Canoa Kingsley (Macmillan and Co.),—The Modes of Origin of Lowest Organisms: Dr. H. C, Bastian (Macmillan and Co.). Foreicn.—(Through Williams and Norgate)—Lehrbuch der Mechanik: Dr. Wernicke.—Le Soleil: Padre Secchi DIARY THURSDAY, June 8. Society oF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30.—On the important Excayaticns in Rome during the present season: J.H Parker, F.S.A. é Maruemaricat Society, at 8.—On Plicker’s Models of Certain Quartic Surfaces: Prof. Cayley.—On the Motion of a Plare under certain Condi- tions: Mr. S. Roberts. Roya INstITuTION, at 3.—Sound: Prof. Tyndall. FRIDAY, June 9. ASTRONOMICAL Socikrty, at 8, QveEKETT MicroscoricaL Cvs, at 8, Royat InstiTuTIon, at 9.—On Dust and Smoke: Prof. Tyndall. SATURDAY, June 10. Royat Institution, at 3.—On the Instruments Used in Modern Astro nomy: J. N. Lockyer, F.R.S. MONDAY, June 12. Roya GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, at 8.30. TUESDAY, June 13. PuoToGRAPHIC SocIETY, at 8. THURSDAY, June 15. Royat Society, at 8.30. SociETY OF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30. CuemicaL Society, at 8.—An Experimental Inquiry as to the Action of Electricity upon Oxygen: Sir B. C. Brodie, Bart. LINNEAN Society, at 8—On British Spiders: Rev. O. P. Cambridge.— Ona Luminous Coleopterous Larya: Dr. Burmeister. CONTENTS PaGe THe GENERAL OCEANIC CIRCULATION . + . «© « © © s = « © QF Sctence in Iraty. By W. Martievu WILtIAMs, F.C.S. . 98 SEELEY ON THE ORNITHOSAURIA. By H. Woopwarp, F.G.S.. 109 OURJBOOKISHEDKE-) ie) lcdcel > Miche toti ial stile ir cil aviaRnE= ror | LETTERS TO THE EDITOR :— Science Lectures for the People. —T. Fawcett, B.A... . . . 104 Preponderance of West Winds.—J. J. Murrny, F.G.S. 102 Remarkable Sun-spots. (W7th [//ustration.)—J. BiRMINGHAM 102 ANNUAL VISITATION OF THE ROYAL OBSERVATORY. . . - « + © 103 Tue Sctentiric VALUE OF CHEESE-FACTORIES 2 a of © See ee Hypravutic BUFFER FOR CHECKING THE Recor: oF Heavy Guns. (Waele Lélustraiion,) ce ee Ve) «aes be) eee ea ee ee INOTES) ae) 6) ew slius ts jel teviied el @ Rental can cnntS anna mata AMERICAN NOTES (suis cs pa, (<0 cou ite) oe ee 109 SCIENCE IN VICTORTA ©. J. 2G, vs) ie am eC ne, ie ante mE SRC Mr. BantTHAm’s ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS TO THE LINNEAN SOCIETY. 110 Zoo.tocy.—Note on Transversely Striated Muscular Fibre among the Gasteropoda By W. H.yD Arr 20 oy lager ee) c=) lel le bot es SCYENTIFIC SERIALS. . <7 a) cal sl ae ne) stare eles avs ns SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. © (ss © = [elie es] = =) a) ©) eiemexn BOOKSRECEIVED < jc: eee mo Fune 22,1871 | NATURE T45 brotherhood of men of letters; at the best he speaks to but a small audience, amuses rarely, excites sometimes without intention hopes that are delusive, and requires always, in order that he may be fairly understood, a de- gree of patience it is vain to expect from the multitude. To these difficulties others are added belonging to the work he accomplishes. The most original writers on science are destroyed constantly by the magnitude and overpowering character of the work they have written, and by the practical results that spring from the work, In other literature the book produced lives as the book, and the learner from it, age after age, must go back to the fountain head to drink and drink ; in science literature the book sinks into the fact it proclaims, and the fact re- mains the exclusive master of the field. A> striking example of this flashes across my mind at the present moment. Every reading man and woman knows that in the reign of Queen Elizabeth the book of Shakespeare’s plays had its origin, and nearly everyone who has read the book (and who has not?) remembers the curious say- ing in it, ‘I'll put a girdle round the world in forty minutes.’ But how many are there who have read another great book of that same reign, entitled ‘De Magnete ;’ or are aware that at the time when Shakespeare was writing his now-familiar phrases, the author of the book on the Magnet, the Queen’s physician, one William Gilbert, when his daily toils of waiting upon the sick were over, was working with his smith in the laboratory at his furnace, needle, and compass, was writing up for the first time the word ‘ Electricity,’ and was actually forging the beginnings of the very instruments that now, in less than forty seconds, put the girdle round the globe? Again, writers on science are lost sometimes in the blaze of their own success. They raise wonder by what they do, and fall beneath it. All knowledge newly born is miracle, but by-and-by, as the knowledge becomes familiar, the miracle ceases. In this way advances in science become part of our lives, while the men who write them down cease tous. When the Leyden jar was first described, Europe was mentally as well as physically convulsed with the thing ; now a Leyden jar is a common object—we all know it; but how few know of Mr. Cuneus, who first described this instrument of science? The whole civilised world is cognisant in this day that communication from one part of the world te the -other, by telegraph, is almost child’s play; but how many have seen or heard of Mr. Cavallo’s original Essay on Electricity as a means of communicating intelligence to places distant from each other? There is nothing more commonplace, in our day, than to know that a living human being can be placed in gentle sleep, and, while in blissful oblivion, can have performed on him what were once the tortures of the surgeon’s art ; but how few have heard or seen Sir Humphry Davy’s paperannouncing to mankind this grand beneticence! These are some of the difficulties of writers on science ; and yet there is another I must name, be it ever so lightly. I refer to the desperate struggles of the man of science who has nothing but science to carry him on in life. None but such as are placed as I am, practising as physicians in the metropolis of the world, and admitted at the same time, as men of science, into some knowledge of the subject upon which I now speak, can form a conception of the almost hopelessness of the position of the pure scholar of science. On this I say no more. I would awaken but not weary your sympathy .... muchof the difficulty these writers have had to bear I recognise with admiration, as their truest glory ; and I see that hope for better worldly prospects is near. A profession of science is no doubt organising. The world is at last asking men of science to employ themselves in teaching the world ; andthe teachers, bend- ing to the labour, are, in their turn, willing to suspect that they are but as children, or at best youths, in the race after knowledge. ‘Thisis most hopeful ; and it is hopeful also to find that men who claim to be conservators of a knowledge that was matured when science was unborn, are listening now to our scholars with an attentive ear, and are beginning to accept that the Lord of Nature, whether he reveal himself to the ancient law-giver in the burning bush that was not consumed, or to the modern astronomer in the burning glory of the omnipotent sun, is one andthe same Lord. Thus there is hope, I may say certainty, in the future for the literature of science ; for its poetry, its parables, its facts, nay, even for its religion.” FEARFUL EARTHQUAKE IN CHINA a1, HE American Minister in China, General Lowe, has just forwarded to the Secretary of State at Wash- ington the following account of the fearful earthquake which occurred in the Bathang, in the province of Szchuen, on the rith of April, which he has had trans- lated from the report of the Chinese Governor General of the province in -which it occurred :—* Bathang lies on a very elevated spot beyond the province about 200 miles west of Li-Tang, and about thirty post stations from the district town of Ta-tsien, on the high road to Thibet. About eleven o’clock on the morning of the 1th of April, the earth at Bathang trembled so violently that the government offices, temples, granaries, stone houses, storehouses, and fortifications, with all the common dwellings and the temple of Ting-lin, were at once overthrown and ruined; the only exception was the hall in the temple grounds, called Ta-Chao, which stood unharmed in its isolation. A few of the troops and people escaped, but most of the inmates were crushed and killed under the falling timber and stone. Flames also suddenly burst out in four places, which strong winds drove about until the heavens were darkened with the smoke, and their roaring was mingled with the lamenta- tions of the distressed people. On the 16th the flames were beaten down, but the rumbling noises were still heard under ground like distant thunder, as the earth rocked and rolled like a ship ina storm. The multiplied miseries of the afflicted inhabitants were increased by a thousand fears, but in about ten days matters began to grow quiet, and the motion of the earth to cease. The grain collector at Bathang says that for several days before the earthquake the water had overflowed the dykes, but after that the earth cracked in many places, and black, foctid water spurted out in a furious manner. If one poked the earth the spurting instantly followed, just as is the case with the salt wells and fire wells in the eastern part of the province ; and this explains how it happened that fire followed the earthquake in Bathang. As nearly as can be ascertained there were destroyed two large temples, the offices of the collector of grain tax, the local magistrates’ offices, the Ting-lin temple, and nearly 700 fathoms of wall around it, and 351 rooms in all inside ; six smaller temples, numbering 221 rooms, besides 1849 rooms and houses of the common people. The number of people killed by the crash, including the soldiers, was 2,298, among whom were the local magistrate and his second in office. The earthquake extended from Bathang eastward to Pang-Chahemuth, westward to Nan- Tun, on the south to Lintsah-shih, and on the north to the salt wells to Atimtoz, a circuit of over 400 miles. It occurred simultaneously over the whole of this region. In some places steep hills split and sunk into deep chasms, in others mounds on level plains became preci- pitous cliffs, and the roads and highways were rendered impassable by obstructions. The people were beggared and scattered like autumn leaves, and this calamity to the people of Bathang and the vicinity was really one of the most distressing and destructive that has ever occurred in China.” 146 ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE EELS SKULL ES skull of the Eel is much less specialised than that of most other Osseous (Ze/eostean) fishes. 1 was made aware of this many years since whilst pre- paring skeletons of the common kind (Azguzlla acuiéc- vostris), and of the conger (Murena conger). After- wards, when Prof. Huxley’s “ Croonian Lectures” (Proc. Roy. Soc.) came into my hands, the importance of the aberrant structures of this type of skull was shown to me ; and since that time I have been on the watch for further opportunities for dissecting and working out both this type, and also that of the Amphibia, which it serves to illustrate. In a few weeks’ time I shall be able to make myself understood with regard to those morphological changes which take place in the vertebrate skull as it passes from a low Ichthyic into the higher Amphibian type. This will be done by the illustration and description of the frog’s skull in the forthcoming part of the ‘ Philosophical Transactions,” an abstract of which paper has already appeared in these columns. At present the nomenclature of the parts of the cranium and face of the fish is in a state of painful confusion. I shall not, however, trouble the student with confusing references, but continue to use those terms which he will find in my other morphological papers. I may, however, remark that these differ in some instances from those used by Professor Huxley, for instance, his “ squamosal” is my “pterotic” (see “Elem. Comp. Anat.,” p. 188). This is a bone called “mastoid” by Cuvier, and this term was adopted by Prof. Owen. These anatomists came much nearer the truth than my friend ; but the bone only represents fav? of the human “mastoid ”—its antero- superior region. Again, the terms for the palato- pterygoid arcade are very confusing ; Cuvier’s “internal pterygoid,” also called ento-pterygoid by Owen and Huxley, does not correspond to the internal pterygoid plate , of man and the mammalia generally, but to a third piece, | which I call meso-pterygoid, and which occurs in a young pig’s and in a young fox’s skull in my collection ; I have also found it in the palate of all sorts of birds, except the fowls and Struthionida. The true representative of the human internal pterygoid is, in fishes, called “ transverse ” _ by Cuvier ; most correctly the “ pterygoid” by Owen; confusingly the “ ecto-pterygoid” by Huxley. I drop the frequently misapplied terms, “ecto-” and “ ento-ptery- goid,” altogether, and call the true “transverse bone” of the reptile—never seen in fishes—the “transpalatine.” Most of the other terms used by me agree with those used by Prof. Huxley in his ‘‘ Elements.” There is, however, in the hyoid arch one segment which requires its name,—that given to it by Prof. Owen— to be changed; I refer to that lump of cartilage which . becomes segmented off from the lower part of the hyoid , cornu by a joint cavity, and which has two ossifiic centres. | This has been called the “basi-hyal ;” but it is merely a distal and not a basal bone, the key-stone being the “slosso-hyal,” which passes into the basi-branchial bar. I would call it the ‘‘hypo-hyal,” as it is the manifest “serial homologue” of the “ hypo-branchials.” All these things I hope soon to make plain in a paper now in hand, on the “ Structure and Development of the Salmon’s Skull.” My materials at hand, from which I have studied the eel’s skull, are the adult conger’s skull, that of a small Afurena (? species), and the heads of large and small common eels. The smallest of these are the gift of Mr. F. Buckland ; they measure 2 inches 8 lines in length. The cranium of the eel is long, triangular, and depressed, the nasal region being very pinched and narrow, whilst the occipital is expanded, and sends out over-hanging outgrowths, — backwardly projecting crests, which are continuous in the conger, but distinct spurs in the eel. These crests in the eel are formed by the super-occipital at the mid-line; then a pair from the epiotics; and NATURE [Fune 22,1871 below, and external to these a bilobate pair, belonging largely to the pterotics, but also to the ex-occipitals. The flat top of the skull, up to the exit of the fifth nerve, is square, the top of the cranium then narrows suddenly to half the breadth of the square part. On each side, there is, in the broad part of the skull, a large overhanging eave, below which is the double recess which forms the glenoid cavities for the hyo-mandibular. If the large parietals which meet at the mid-line were removed, we should see the “ great upper fontanelle,” bounded behind by the per- fected occipital arch, and laterally by the cranial and auditory elements. Indeed, the term cranio-auditory elements would be a correct term for several of these bones, the auditory capsule coalescing very early with the rising crests of the investing mass, and the subsequent ossifications enclosing both the sense-capsule and the membranous cranium. Behind, the expanded occipital region is largely indebted to the “epiotics,” and “pterotics,” two pairs of which bones are really primarily related to the cartilaginous auditory sac. There is no opisthotic, and the large “ pro-otic” is surmounted by a part of the posterior sphenoid, which is to be found in the bird, but not in the reptile or mammal. I allude to the post-frontal, a great outstanding projection from the “ala magna,” a crested, fore-turned, supero-lateral element of the primordial skull. In front of the “ foramen ovale,” the “ ali sphenoids” wall-in the skull; they are unusually large for an osseous fish ; they rest upon an inverted “saddle” of bone, with a free fore- edge. This is the fish’s basi-sphenoid, and corresponds to the pre-pituitary part of the human basi-sphenoid, and to its anterior clinoid region. In high-skulled fishes this bone is Y-shaped, the descent of its long crus showing that the “meso-cephalic flexure” of the embryo is never wholly recovered from in these fishes; and its slender size showing that the connective band which brought the investing mass into union with the “trabeculz cranii,” was a feeble strip of cartilage. Behind the saddled-shaped basi-sphenoid of the eel is the open pituitary space, which, as in birds, is merely closed below by the ossifica- tion of sub-mucous fibrous tissue, in the form of the para- sphenoid. The large basi-occipital, which encloses all the retiring notochord that belongs to the skull, helps to form an elegant tri-radiate synchondrosis in the floor of the skull; for all that part of the “investing mass” from which the notochord had retired, is invested, not by a_basi- sphenoidal ossification, but by the huge “ pro-otics” which meet at the mid-line, behind the open pituitary space. The structures of the skull that have morphological continuity with the vertebral column cease behind the optic nerves, and even the parts surrounding the pituitary body are of a secondary or connective character, bringing the true cranial structures into fusion with parts de- rived from the first or pre-stomal facial arch, the trabe- cule cranil. Now there comes in a most important con- dition of the skull of the eel ; forthe anterior sphenoidal region has no cartilaginous walls whatever ; the roof is formed by the narrow frontals (frontal in the conger) ; the side walls are membranous, and the floor is that sub- mucous bone the para-sphenoid. In young eels, 5 in. long, the trabeculae may be traced to their union with the “investing mass” in the pre-pituitary region ; but there they unite with each other, and in the anterior sphenoidal region, instead of turning upwards to form a skull floor, they grow downwards, investing the convex upper face of the para-sphenoid (see Fig. B), Over the optic region the Azerotics overlap, in the conger they nearly reachas far as the hinder end of the bony ethmoid; and here the frontal sends out a few post-orbital snags, and sends downwards on each side a thick post-orbital process, which articulates with the ali-sphenoid. At this part the narrow skull bends downwards ina Roman-nosed manner. The solid nasal region in front is of equal length with the long membranous interorbital space ; these are separated by the large, thick, Fune 22, 1871) NATURE 147 ear-shaped unossified pre-frontals, or lateral ethmoids. The median ethmoid is ossified entirely by the thick, bony bar, which commences as a knife-shaped vertical plate, or parostosis ; here in the eel as in the Amphibia, the distinction between parostosis and endostosis at times breaks down, the parasphenoid withits long style, as far back as the pituitary space ; it coalesces with the ethmoid when the eel is five or six inches in length. _ Where the bony ethmoid and vomer unite there is a groove; along this the olfactory crus runs, protected outside by the grooved, soft, lateral, ethmoidal wing, which arose as an outgrowth of the trabecular bar; the “cornua” of the trabeculze (Fig. C) persist as filiform prolongations, continuous with the lateral ethmoids behind, and end in blunt points near | the fore part of the ethmo-vomerine bony mass. In the conger, but not in the eel, the vomer sends out a wing on each side for the lateral ethmoids to rest upon, The long tooth-bearing vomer splits | | evidently the distinct foramen for the “portio dura.” | The | parasphenoid is very deeply split at both ends, both for the vomer and the basi-occipital; it has large wings in the basi-temporal region, which underlie, in a squamose manner, the‘ lower edge of the prootics. These latter bones divide the foramen ovale; behind and below the posterior opening there is a small passage The vomer and parasphenoid are azygous splints applied to the under surface of the coalesced and metamorphosed trabecular bars. When the membranous cranium dips downwards in front (mesocephalic flexure) then the trabeculz are not only parallel with the base of the first cerebral vesicle, but also nearly so with their immediate successors, the mandibular bars; whilst thus contiguous they form a secondary connection, which, of course, lengthens as the trabeculz ascend with the cranial sac, and thus enlarge the mouth cavity. This bar is well chondrified in fishes Fic, A.—InnerR View oF MANDIBULAR AND Hyorp ARCHES OF A YOUNG EEL, 23 inches long : g-quadratum; a articulare ; d@. dentary ; cr. coronoid ; mh. pterygoid ; #.Ag. pterygo-palatine ; sphenoidal region ; Fic. C.—SECTION THROUGH THE Nasat REGION OF THE SKULL OF A YounG EEL, 5 inches long: ef, tr. c. trabecular cornu. ». pg. rudiment of cartilaginous g : Teckel’s cartilage ; fm. hyo mandibular ; sy, symplectic; s#./. stylo-hyal ; e.4. epi-hyal; ¢./. cerato-hyal ; 0/.f. opercular process ; mp p. metapterygoid process. Fic. B.—SEcTION oF ANTERIOR SPHENOIDAL REGION IN A YounG EEL, 5 inches long: ef#. ethnoid; 7# frontal ; 0.5. orbito- tr. trabeculz : fa.s. parasphenoid ; 7. vomer ; c. ¢. cranial cavity. ;, A. ethnoid ; 7. vomer ; All the figures are magnified about 25 diameters. generally, and in the tailless Amphibia. In the tailed Amphibia it is abortively developed, and no solid hyaline cartilage is found in this part in Sauropsida and Mammals. (See ‘‘ On Skull of ose Phil. Trans., 1869, 1. 8c, figs. I, 3, 6, 10, and 11, p. 767. 3 The a atee, has no solid cartilage in this bar, save a slight rudiment behind, as in the “ Urodela” (Fig. A), and the three ectostal plates that invest the large cartilaginous bar in most osseous fishes—the palatine, meso-pterygoid, and pterygoid—are represented by a needle-like, solid style of bone, pointed in front, and pedate behind where it attaches itself to the inside of the front edge of the quadrate. In old eels this style becomes a flattened bar, articulating by a squamose suture with the quadrate, and loosely attached to the lateral ethmoid and the maxillary in front. This bone is the counterpart of the single plate in the Lepidosiren’s mouth (see Huxley’s Elem., Figs. 84 and 85, D, pp. 208, 209) ; but the pterygo-palatine of that fish is applied to a thick cartilaginous connective that fills in the whole sub-ocular region. As in the Lepidosiren and the Amphibia, tailed and tailless, the eel has only one ossification on the pier of the mandibular arch, and the generalised nature of the fish is shown in the partial coalescence which takes place between this and the succeeding (hyoid) pier. In the Lepidosiren, as in the Chimeera, the coalescence is entire between all but the free segmented rays of the first and second post-stomal arches ; in the Urodelz we have a similar state of things, but in the Anoura coalescence only takes place in the lower half of the pier. [In all these it is cartilaginous con- fluence, but in the eel it is merely the anchylosis of the bony symlectic (Fig. A, sy., g.) with the quadrate. Although there is no metapterygoid perched upon the quadrate, yet that element sends upwards a meta- pterygoid process which runs between and within two large denticulations of the hyo-mandibular. This latter bone (/m.) is very massive, and being most strongly united both by synchondrosis and deeply serrated suture to the quadrate, the suspensorium of the eel is ex- ceedingly strong, quite as strong as, and more elastic than, ~ 148 NATURE [ Fane 22, 1871 nn EEE aE EEE SUSI SSSSSUSU ORES REE the quadrate of the Sauropsida. It forms an acute angle with the basi-cranial line, as in most other fishes, but in Murena hélena (see Huxley, Croon. Lect., p.34, and Osteol. Catal. Mus. Coll. Surg., vol. i., p. 14), the suspensorium is very frog-like, forming an obtuse angle. The well-developed heads of the hyo-mandibular fit into proper glenoid_cavi- ties, the foremost of which is made in the post-frontal and pro-otic, and the hinder pit is in the pterotic. The knob for the opercular is very large in the adult, and in eels five or six inches long the only sign of the separate- “ness of the symplectic is the transverse cartilaginous tract which connects it with the hyo-mandibular; but in my youngest specimen it can be seen separate, with its own ectosteal sheath (Fig. A, sy.); it is very short, and the cartilaginous interspace above is very large. From the middle of that synchondrosis there arises a small semi-segmented bud of cartilage, the “stylo-hyal” (sz. /.); this becomes ligamentous inthe adult ; in other Teleostei it forms a rather small cylinder, completely segmented off, and it acquires a bony sheath. The rest of the descend- ing hyoid cornu isa thickish arcuate rod of cartilage ossified by two ectosteal sheaths, the “ epi”- and “cerato-hyals.” In Teleostei generally, the distal end is cut off by a joint cavity, and ossifies from two more ossicles, forming the “hypo-hyal” segment ; this structure is not attained in the less specialised eel. The arch is finished by a long and stout glosso-hyal. Even the free bar of the first post- stomal arch—the mandible—has its peculiarities, for, contrary to rule, it has no angular splint—and the “ coronoid,” so seldom present in Teleostei, and so con- stant in Sauropsida, is well developed in the eel ; it is very small in old individuals of the cod-fish. The dentary alone is dentigerous, and is very large and strong, with a large coronoid process ; the “articulare” is short and massive. In the upper part of the face the specialised subcutaneous bones (faraqstoses) are very instructive ; several belong to the lateral-line series, but, modified and broken up into two rows in the head, they formtubularmucous bones ; theseare the nasals and “sub”- and “ pre-orbitals.” Another facial series, which may run obliquely from the snout to the hinge of the lower jaw, has only two on each side,—the pre-maxillary and maxil- lary. Here we have, contrary to rule, the short pre- maxillary edentulous and the maxillary bearing teeth. The specialised bones of the back-face and throat are worth mention; the pre-opercular is oblong, twisted, strongly convexo-concave, and burrowed by mucous glands. The opercular fits by a deep cup to the knob on the hyo-mandibular ; like the feebler sub-opercular, it is strongly falcate ; the latter fits by a sliding joint to the pedate upper end of the wedge-shaped large inter- opercular. The long, thick-based, slender-pointed “ bran- chiostegals” are eleven in number on each side in the common eel; the basal bone of this wondrously specialised series of dermal bones is the so-called “ uro- hyal ;” it is knife-shaped behind, and in front terminates in a massive head, facetted for the cerato-hyals. I call this bone the “ basi-branchiostegal ;” for the “ uro-hyal ” of | the bird is the remnant of the basi-branchial bar. The student can easily obtain both the gigantic conger and the larger specimens of the common eel, and, having become familiar with the parts of the skull and face of such an ordinary teleostean as the cod, and of the larger amphibian types, both tailed and tailless, he will then be able to gain a much clearer idea of the fundamental harmony existing between such diverse types, if this intermediate eel-type be once well understood. The development of the skull in the culminating amphibian, the frog, has yielded me already such satisfactory results that I am somewhat restless to know the early conditions of that of the fish: then whole groups of low vertebrate types will begin to be seen in harmonious relation. W. K. PARKER NOTES Tue following is a list of the Presidents of Sections nominated by the Council of the British Association for the approaching meeting at Edinburgh :—Section A, Prof. P. G. Tait, of Edinburgh ; Section B, Dr. Andrews, of Belfast ; Section C, Prof. Geikie ; Section D, Prof. Allen Thomson; Section E, Alex. Keith Johnston, sen. ; Section F, Lord Neaves; Section G, Prof. Fleeming Jenkin. The Evening Discourses will be delivered by Prof. Abel and Mr. E. B. Tylor. Ir is stated that the labours of the Royal Commission on Coal, appointed a few years ago by Sir George Grey, are on the point of completion, and the result is the demonstration of the fact that, assuming a certain annual increase in the rate of consumption, sufficient economically gettable coal exists in Great Britain and Ireland to last from 800 to 1,000 years. We shall be very glad to see such an important fact demonstrated. WE have to record the death of Mr. George Grote, Vice- Chancellor of the University of London, whose serious ill- ness we mentioned a fortnight since. He died on Sunday last, after a long illness, in his seventy-seventh year. We can ill afford to lose men who have so long and so ably thrown their influence and their abilities into the cause of the higher education of all classes of the community. WE regret to announce that Mr. Numa Edward Hartog, Senior Wrangler of the University of Cambridge in 1869, died on Mon- day last of smallpox. Mr. Hartog was still, in common with other Nonconformists, excluded from the substantial reward of his exertions ; but in the present Session he gave important evi- dence before the Lords’ Committee on University Tests, and it is due perhaps to the sympathy which his exclusion excited that the Lords proposed a measure which would have admitted him to a Trinity Fellowship. Before, however, he could take advan- tage of the passing of the University Tests Bill the man who was expected to be the first to reap its fruits had passed away. AT the recent examination for the newly-established Diploma in State Medicine given by the University of Dublin, the first place was taken by Mr. J. W. Moore, ex-scholar Trinity College, Dublin ; the second by Dr. A. W. Foot, Junior Physician to the Meath Hospital and County of Dublin Infirmary ; the third by Mr. Yeo, who obtained the Junior Medical Exhibition in 1864, and the Senior Medical Exhibition in 1866 ; and the fourth by Mr. Todhunter, a gentleman already well known in certain circles for his literary abilities. THE new museum and library at Clifton College were inaugu- rated on Saturday last by a conversasione. There was a good collection of objects of interest contributed by gentlemen of the neighbourhood ; some music, and a speech from the Rev. Princi- pal of the College, interested the large company, and Prof. Church delivered an address on ‘‘ Colour.” THE new buildings of St. Thomas’s Hospital on the southern Thames Embankment, opposite the Houses of Parliament, were opened yesterday by the Queen in person. THE Victoria Institute concluded its fifth session on Monday. Its;members are now 305 in number, seventy having joined since February ; the papers for the coming session include two on subjects connected with the vegetable kingdom. THE managers of the London Institution, in accordance with the recommendation of the annual meeting of proprietors, have resolved to afford opportunities during the ensuing season for the reading and discussion of papers on subjects of special interest in science, literature, commerce, and the arts, provided they receive sich offers as will insurea succession of suitable communications. It is believed that this proposed extension of the use of the Lecture Theatre in Finsbury Circus will produce a series of attractive meetings similar in character to those of the Society of Fune 22, 1871] NATURE 149 Arts, but representing more directly the business and thought of the City. The managers do not intend to restrict the reading and discussion of papers to the proprietors of the Institution, or to limit the range of subjects otherwise than by the provisions of the charter, which precludes politics and theology. ON Saturday last, the 17th, the Rugby School Natural His- tory Society made an excursion through Charnwood Forest. Mr. Hambly, the manager of the Mount Sorrel granite works, conducted them over his workshops and quarries ; and Mr. Ellis showed them his slate pits at Swithland, They also visited Woodhouse Eaves, the Beacon, the Monastery, and Bardon Hill. The geologists, botanists, and entomologists were alike well content with the results of a very pleasant day’s excursion. The party numbered forty-one. SIR JOUN PAKINGTON, as President of the Institution of Naval Architects, has addressed a letter to the President of the Board of Trade, in which, among other suggestions, he proposes as an additional clause in the ‘‘ Prevention of Accidents Act” that in future adjusters of compasses shall be duly certified by the Board of Trade, after examination, as properly qualified. WE are requested to state that the value of the Natural Science scholarship at Magdalen College, Oxford, will be 95/., and not 8o/, as stated last week, and that the name of the successful competitor for the Johnson Memorial Prize Essay is John G, Gamble, not James S. Gamble. Dr. Murcuison, F.R.S., has been this week recommended hy the Grand Committee for election by the Governors as Physician to St. Thomas’s Hospital, Mr. Croft for election as Surgeon, Dr, John Harley and Dr. Frank Payne as Assistant Physicians, and Mr, Francis Mason and Mr, Henry Arnott as Assistant Surgeons. Dr. HOOKER reports that the upper valleys of the Atlas range are very steep and picturesque, and are thickly inhabited by a fine race of people called Shelloos. The first positive indication of ancient ice action met with was a stupendous moraine at about 6,000 feet—a perfectly unmistakeable one, but, curiously enough, with no traces above or below it, no roches moutonneées, no striated or grooved surfaces, and no perched blocks, except on the moraine itself, The height of the peaks of the axis is very uniform for a considerable distance, and they have very steep faces ; there are no glaciers nor perpetual snow, properly so called ; but snow lies all the year in steep gullies of the north face, stretching down- wards for probably 5,000 feet from the summit. The vegetation is chiefly Spanish, THE following works on Science are amongst the publishers’ announcements for the next few weeks:—From Messrs. Longman—Dr, Ueberweg’s ‘‘System of Logic and History of Logical Doctrines,” translated by Thos. M. Lindsay ; ‘‘ Cooper’s Dictionary of Practical Surgery and Encyclopzedia of Surgical Science,” new edition by S, A. Lane; in Gleig’s School Series: ‘‘Animal Physiology,” by Dr. E. D. Mapother ; ‘‘ Phy- sical Geography,” by W. Hughes. From Mr. Murray— “Rambles among the Alps, 1860—1869,” by E. Whymper. From Griffith and Farran—‘‘The Theory and Practice of the Metric System of Weights and Measures,” by Prof. Leone Levi, F.S.A.; ‘‘A Compendious Grammar and Philological Handbook of the English Language,” by J. Stuart Colquhoun, M.A., barrister-at-law. From W. and R. Chambers—‘ Class Book of Science and Literature; Zoology from do.; Botany from do. ; Geology from do,” ; ‘‘Standard Animal Phy- siology,” Part I. for Standard 1V.; ‘‘ Standard Geography,” Part I. for Standard 1V.; “Standard Physical Geography,” for Standards IV., V., VI.; ‘‘Mackay’s Arithmetical Exer- cises,” for Standard Work, Parts I., 1I., I1I., 1V.; Part V., em- bracing Metric System; “ Standard Algebra ;” “Explicit Euclid,” Books I. and II. From S. Low, Son, and Co.—a complete treatise on the ‘Distillation and Preparation of Alcoholic Liquors,” translated from the French of M. Duplais, by Dr. M. McKennie; a treatise on ‘‘ The Manufacture of Vinegar,” by Prof. H. Dussance. From Cassell, Petter, and Galpin— “*Selected Obstetrical and Gynecological Works of Sir J. Y. Simpson,” edited by Dr. J. Watt Black ; “Model Drawing,” by Ellis A. Davidson, being the new volume of Cassell’s Tech- nical Manuals, with numerous illustrations and drawing copies ; the ‘Technical History of Commerce,” by Dr. Yeats, LL.D. ; the ‘‘ Natural History of Commerce” (second edition), by Dr, Yeats, LL.D. WE reprint the following sentence from the recently published address of the President of the Tyneside Naturalists’ Field Club, commending it to the notice of similar institutions throughout the country now that the season for excursions is commencing :— ““We have no law excluding ladies from our club, but yet we have no lady members. Ladies, however, sometimes attend our meetings, and it would, I think, be an advantage to the club (may I hint also that it might be an advantage to the ladies?) if more of them came, and oftener. It is of infinite importance that mothers should be able to impart to their children an intelligent interest in Nature. They cannot do this unless they first possess that Interest themselves, and in what way can it be more pleasantly developed and refreshed than by meetings such as ours ? It may perhaps be objected that the length and occasionally the rugged character of our walks prove an obstacle to the presence of the weaker sex ; but my impression is that this is not the case to any very serious extent, and in many of our excursions ladies have proved themseves quite equal to walks as long and as arduous as are at all desirable for our purposes. I would there- fore recommend—not any new rule, which is needless—but simply that we should persuade our lady friends to join the club as members, and not as only casual visitors.” WE have received the prospectus of a proposed American Archeological Review and Historical Register, devoted to Archzeo- logy, Anthropology, and History, to be devoted to the rapidly increased interest displayed in these subjects in America, and designed not to meet the wants of men of science only, but of all interested in the Origin and Antiquity of Man. Its contents will include original contributions, the reports of learned societies in America and abroad, and a department of ‘‘ Notes and Queries.” The Review is intended to be published either monthly or quar- terly in New York, and will be edited by Dr. Wills de Hass. WE learn from the American Naturalist that Messrs. J. A. Allen and Richard Bliss, jun , of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Cambridge, Mass., with Mr. C. W. Bennett, of Holyoke, Mass., started late in April on a six months’ collecting trip to the Plains and the Rocky Mountains. The primary ob- ject of the expedition is to collect the larger mammals of the West. THE Ohio Legislature has appropriated 21,000 dols. for conti- nuing the survey of that State, and 18,000 dols. for publication of the results. This survey is under the direction of Prof. Newberry himself ; and his corps, which has been employed for some time, will be increased by Prof. J. T. Hodge, Prof. J. H. Stevenson, and others, for the purpose of more speedily finishing the work. MANY scientific societies have been desirous of taking advan- tage of the International Exhibition and of the Albert Hall to hold meetings in connection with the Exhibition, and to bestow attention on scientific visitors. The small theatres have, how- ever, been occupied by specimens exhibited, and the Albert Hall is considered too large. A BRILLIANT meteor of unusual form was seen at Panama on the morning of May 1 at half-past two. It was due south and 150 NATURE | fune 22, 1871 about 30° above the horizon. It was of the form of a darting flame, parallel to the eaith’s surface from east to west. The lead was of dazzling whiteness, the middle bright yellow, and the tail violet. It ended ina train of brilliant sparks of about 2° in length, and was visible about two minutes. The wholesky was of a rosy colour, and particularly in the cast. The same tinge was visible in the evening at half-past seven. A SCIENTIFIC sanitary question has arisen in India. On the ground of necessity, public offices have been supplied with anti- thermic arrangements; but the economical fit, still strong, has led to a government decree that it cannot afford such provision, and that kuskus windows and their essentials must be provided at the expense of the officials. This will afford an additional pressure on the agitation for transferring the public departments to the English towns, sanitaria, or tea plantations in the hills. Tr is stated that Assurance Companies in India have declined to accept the lives of the offcers of the Geological Department there on account of the exposure to which they are subjected. A UniteD Service Institution for India has been formed, and it is gratifying to observe that it is to be established at Simla in the Himalayas, in a healthy district instead of an unhealthy place. THE severe earthquake of the 25th of February in Chile has called attention to the views of Mr. Darwin and Prof. Rudolph Falb of Prague. Mr. Darwin was in Chile in the great earth- quake of February 20, 1835. It is observed that the recent earthquake began at the same time, 11.30 A.M. Mr. Darwin considered that the space from under which the volcanic matter was erupted in Chile was 720 miles in one line and 4oo in another, and that the existence was indicated by a subterranean table of Java of the area of the Black Sea. Prof. Falb maintained that the influence of the moon is the chief cause of earthquakes, and in a letter to NATURE of the 14th of April, 1870, he explained and defended his doctrine, and referred to the earthquakes of Manilla, the volcano of Puraco in Columbia, and convulsions in Peru. Tis prophecies of a great earthquake in Peru, which occasioned so much alarm, were not realised. The Manilla earthquake, he says, took place two hours and a half after the culmination of the moon. Itis affirmed thatthe late earthquake in Chile had no relation to the culmination of the moon. It is to be noted that the great earthquake in Honolulu in the Hawaian Islands took place on the night of February 19, six days before that of Chile. AN earthquake was felt at Rawul Pindee and Murree, in the Tlimalayas, in April. THE Russian Government are believed to be organising an expedition to New Guinea for the purposes of scientific research and exploration. It is, however, believed in Australia that this is only an indirect method of obtaining a foothold in that coun- try, and it is proposed that the Government of Victoria should send an expedition to New Guinea, in order to obtain by treaty certain portions of territory for purposes of settlement. Should this design be carried into effect, it is to be hoped that every facility will be given to Naturalists to accompany the expedition into this large and comparatively unknown country. THE Friend of India states that from the report on the general state of the weather in the North-West Provinces and Oudh during March, it appears that the direction of the wind, as in the preceding two months, was for nearly the whole month from the north-west in the N.W. portion of the provinces, and west elsewhere. During the first half of the month a tendency to change to the east was occasionally perceptible, and this was especially the case during the time of the barometric depression from the 13th to the 20th. The month as a whole was much drier than usual, : MR. BENTHAM’S ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS TO BHE LINNEAN SOCIETY (Continued from page 114) [XN geographical biology Denmark proper is of no great im- portance except as a connecting link, on the one hand, be- tween the Scandinavian peninsula and Central Europe, and, on the other, as the separating barrier between the Baltic and the North Seas. Low and flat, without any great variety in its physical features, it is unfavourable for the production or main- tenance of endemic erganisms, and forms an inseparable portion of the region of Central Europe. But the Arctic possessions in- cluded in the kingdom, Greenland, Iceland, and the Farce Islands, are of great interest ; and Denmark itself is remarkable for the number of eminent naturalists, zoologists as well as botanists, produced by so small a state. Its reputation in this respect, established by the great names mentioned in my review of Transactions in my Address of 1865, is being well kept up by Bergh, Krabbe, Liitken, Mérch, Reinhardt, Schiddte, Steen- strup, and others in zoology; whilst Lange, CE&rsted, and Warming are among the few who now devote themselves more or less to systematic botany. Their general zoological collection, when I last visited it, many years since, was not extensive, although rich in northern animals, and very well arranged under the direction of Steenstrup, and the insects in the Storm Gade Museum were very numerous; whilst at the University was deposited the typical collection of Fabricius. The Herbarium at the Botanic Garden, valuable for the types of Vahl and other early botanists, has been in modern times enriched by the extensive Mexican collection of Liebmann, the Brazilian ones of Lund and others; whilst (Ersted’s Central-American and Warming’s Brazilian plants are also at Copenhagen, but whether public or private property I know not. The botanical and zoological gardens ere of no great importance, but the biological publications are kept up with some spirit, especially the Transacticns of the Royal Society of Science, Schiddte’s continuation of Kréyer’s ‘‘ Tidsskrift,” and the ‘* Videnskabelige Meddelelser” of the Natural History Society; and some of the authors have adopted a practice strongly recommended to those who write in languages not understood by the great mass of modern naturalists, that of giving short résumés of their papers in French. On the most important contributions to systematic zoology since those mentioned in my address of 1865, I have received the following memoranda :—Prof. Rein- hardt, in publishing in the Transactions of the Royal Danish Academy (1869) nine pesthumous plates, executed under the direction of the late Pref. Eschricht, illustrating the structure of various cetacea, has accompanied them with short explanations. Prof. Reinhardt has further published, in the ‘‘ Videnskabelige Meddelelser ” for 1870, a list of the birds inhabiting the Campos district of central Brazil; notes on the di-tribution, habits, and synonymy are copiously added ; and the introductory remarks on the geographical distribution, &c,, are very suggestive, and ought to be translated for the benefit of the friends of ornithology in England and elsewhere. The same ‘‘ Videnskabelige Med- delelser”’ contains an essay by Dr. Liitken on the limits and classification of ganoid fishes, chiefly from a paleontological point of view, accompanied by a synopsis of the present condition, in systematical and geological respects, of that important branch of. paleichthyology. In Mollusca, Dr. Bergh has published, in Kroyer’s ‘‘ Tidsskrift” for 18€9, one of his elaborate, anatomical, and systematic monographs of the tribe Phillidese, wif, many plates, of which a detailed notice is given in the ‘ Zoological Record,” vol. vi. p. 559. In insects, Prof. Schiédte, in the same journal for 1869, has given an elaborate essay containing new facts and views on the morphology and system of the Rhynchota, analysed in the ‘‘ Zoological Record,” vol. vi. p. 475. To Dr. Krabbe we owe the description of 123 species of tapeworms found in birds, an elaborate monograph accompanied by ten plates, and print:d in the Transactions of the Royal Danish Society for 1869, with a French 7ésxmé. (Noticed in ‘ Zoologi- cal Record,” vol. vi. p. 633.) In Echinoderms, Dr. Liitken’s valuable essays on various genera and species of Ophiuridze, re- cent and fossil, with a Latin synopsis of Ophiuride and Eury- alidze, and a general French réswmé, forming the third part of his ‘* Additamenta ad Historiam Ophiuridarum,” in the Transac- tions of the Royal Danish Society for 1869, have been analysed in the ‘‘Zoological Record,” vol. vi. pp. 369, 462, &c. No Fune 22, 1871 | contribution to systematic botany of much importance has ap- are in Denmark since those mentioned 4 my Address of I 5 There exists no general Danish Fauna ; but I have a rather long list of detached works and essays from which the Danish inhabitants of the different classes of animals may be collected. Of these the most recent are Collin’s Batrachia, in Kroyer’s ** Tidsskrift”? for 1870, and Mérch’s marine Mollusca, pub- lishing in the “* Videnskabelige Meddelelser” for the present ear. With regard to Iceland, the only works mentioned are Steen- strup’s terrestrial mammals, or rather mammal, of Iceland, in the ** Videnskabelige Meddelelser” for 1867 ; and Moérch’s Mollusca in the sime journal for 1868. C. Miiller’s account of the b rds of Iceland and the Faroe islands dates from 1862, and Liitken’s of the Echinoderms from 1857, and I find no mention of any special account of the insects of the is!and; whilst in botany, C. C. Babington has given us, in the eleventh volume of our Linnean journal, an exvellent revision of its flora, the phzenogamic portion of which may now he considered as having been very fairly investigated ; and FE, Rostrup, in the fourth volume of the Tds- skrift of the Botanical Society of Copenhagen, has enumerated the plants of the Faroe Islands. The Scandinavian peninsula is, on several accounts, of great interest to the biologist. It includes a lofty and extensive mountain-tract, with a climate less severe than that of most parts of the northern belt ar similar la itudes, and the uniformity of the geological formation is broken by the limestone districts of Scania. It thus forms a great centre of preservation for organic races beween the wide-spread tracts of desolation to the east and the ocean on the west, and has therefore been treated as a centre of creation, whence a Scandinavian flora and fauna has spread in various directions. As the home of Linnzus it may also be considered as classical ground for systematic biology, the pursuit of which is now being carried on with spirit, as evidenced by such names as Holmgren, Kinberg, Liljeborg, Malm, Malm- gren, G. O. Sars, Stal, Torell, and others in zoology; and Agardh, Andersson, Areschoug, Fries, Hartmann, and others in botany. Two of the academies to whose publications Linnzus contributed, those of Upsala and Stockholm, continue to issue their Transactions and Proceedings ; and to these are now added the memoirs published by the University of Lund. They lost Linnzeus’s own collections, and the Zoological Museum at Upsala, when I saw it many years since, was peor, that of Stockholm better, and in excell-nt order. In the herbaria, Thunbery’s and Afzelius’s collections are deposited at Upsala, and Swariz’s at Stockholm, where the herbarium of the Academy of Sciences has been of late years considerably in- creased under the care of Dr. Andersson. The Scandinavian Fauna and Flora have been generally well investigated. The numerous Floras published of late years show considerable attention on the part of the general public. I observe that Hartmann’s Handbook is at its tenth edition ; Andersson has published 500 woodcut figures of the commoner plants, taken chiefly from Fitch’s illustrations of my British Handbook ; and my lists contain many papers on Swedish Cryp- togams. The relation of the Scandinavian vegetation to that of other countries has also been specially treated of by Zetterstedt, - who compared it with that of the Pyrenees, and by Areschoug, Andersson, Ch. Martins, and others, as alluded to in more detail in my Address of 1869. Many works have suc- ceeded each other on the Vertebrate Fauna since the days of Linnzeus ; amongst which those of Liljeborg as to Vertebrata in general and of Sundeyall as to Bird~ are still in progress. The Crustacea, Mollu-ca, and lower animals have been the subjects of numerous papers, the marine and freshwater faunas having been more especially investigared by the late M. Sars and by G. O. Sars; and Th. Thorell, in the Upsala Transactions, has given an elaborate review of the European genera of spiders, evidently a work of great care, preceded by apposite remirks on their generic classification, and a general comparison of the Arachnoid faunze of Scandinavia and Britain, all in the English - language although published in Sweden. This work, however, does not extend to species, beyond naming a type (by which I trust is meant an example, not the type) of each genus ; nor is the geographical range of the several genera given, There ap- pears to be no general work on Scandinavian insects The fauna and flora of Spitzbergen have specially occupied Swedi-h naturalists. To the accounts of the Vertebrata by Malmgren, and of the Lichens by T. M. Fries, have now been added, in recent parts of the Transactions or Proceedings of the NATURE woe I 151 Royal Swedish Academy, the Insects by Holmgren, the Mollusca by Morch, the Phzenogamic Flora by T. M. Fries, and the Alga by Agardh. ; An excellent and elaborate monograph of a small but widely spread genus of Plants, entitled ‘* Prodromus Monographize Georum,” by N. J. Scheutz, has appeared in the last part of the Transactions of the Academy of Upsala. Several interesting features in the geographical distribution of some of the species are pointed out, amongst which one of the most curious is the almost perfect identity of the G. coceieum from the Levant and the G, chilense from South Chile, the differences being such only as would scarcely have been set down as more than varieties had both come from the same country. The whole memoir is in the Latin language; the specific diagnoses are rather long, but the observations under each section and species point out the connection with and chief differences from the nearest allies. The whole of the botanical literature published in or relating to Sweden has been regularly recorded in annual catalogues, in- serted by T. O. B. N. Krok in the ‘‘ Botaniske Notiser” of Stockholm. The chief interest in the biology of Russia consists in its com- pirative uniformity over an enormous expanse of territory. Extending over more than 130 degrees from East to West, and above 20 degrees from South to North, without the interposition of any great geological break in mountain,* or ocean, all changes in flora or fauna, in the length and breadth of this vast area are gradual ; whilst the mountains which bound it to the south and to the east, and the glacial characters of the northern shores, offer to the Russian naturalist several more or less distinct biolo- gical types, such as the Caucasian, the Central Asiatic, the Mant- churian, and the Arctic, all blending into the great Europeo- Asiatic type, and the three first-named, at least apparently, con- stituting great centres of preservation. By the careful discrimi- nation of the various races which give to each of these types its distinctive character, the study o/ their mutual relations, of theareas which each one occupies without modification, of the complicated manner in which these several areas are interwoven, of the gradual changes which distance may produce, of the cessation of onerace and the substitution of another without apparent physical cause, the Russian, even without travelling out of his own country, can contribute, more than any other observer, valuable materials for the general history of races. In botany I have on former occasions referred to Ledebour’s ‘‘ Flora Rossica” as the most extensive complete flora of a country which we possess, and to the numerous papers by which it has been supplemented. Several of these are still in progress, chiefly in the bulletin of the Society of Naturalists of Moscow, and I have notes of local floras and lists from various minor publications. The last received volume of the Memoirs of the Academy of Petersburgh include the botanical portion of Schmidt’s travels in the Amur-land and Sachzlin, in which the geographical relations of the flora are very fully treated of ; and the first part of a very elaborate ‘‘ Flora Caucasi” by the late F. J. Ruprecht, which may be more properly designated Commentaries on the Caucasian Plants than a flora in the ordinary sense of the word. It is an enumeration of species, with frequent observations on affinities, and a very detailed exposi‘ion of stations in the Caucasus, but without any reference to the dist ibution beyond that region; above 300 large 4to pages only include the Polypetalze preceding Legu- minosze, and the lamented death of the author will probably pre- vent the completion of the work. N. Kaufmann, Professor of Botany at the University of Moscow, an active botanist of great promise, whose death last winter is much deplored by his col- leagues, had published a Flora of Moscow in the Russian language, which had met with much success. In the zoology of Russia the most important recent work is Middendortf’s ‘* Vhierwelt Sibi- ras,” analysed in the ‘‘ Zoological Record,” vi. p. 1, which, with the previously published descriptive portion and the botany of the journey by Trautvetter, Ruprecht, and others, torms a valuable exposition of the biologyof N.E. Siberia, a cold and inhospitabie tract of country, where organisms, animal as well as vegetable, are perhaps poorer in species and poorer in individuals than in any other region of equal extent not covered with eternal snows. Middendorff’s observations on this poverty of the * The celebrated chain of the Oural, which separates Asia from Europe is, in the greater part of its length too low, and the ascent too gradual to have much influence on the vege: ton. The so-caled ridge between Perm and Fkater nburg is, according to Ermonn, not 1600 feet above the level of the sea, and rises from land which, for a breadth of above 120 miles, is only 700 feet lower. 152 NATURE [Sune 22, 1871 fauna of Siberia, its uniformity and conformity to the European fauna, on the meaning to be given to the species, on their variability and on the multiplicity of false ones published, on the complexity of their respective gengraphical areas, on their ex- tinction and replacement by others, &c., are deserving of the careful study of all naturalists. L. v. Schrenck’s Mollusca of the Amur land or Mantchuria (reviewed in the ‘‘ Zoological Record,” iv. p. 504) is equally to be recommended for the manner in which the specific relations, the variability, affinities, and geographical distribution of Mantchurian Mollusca are treated. The publications of the first meeting of the Association of Russian Naturalists include a review of the Crustacea of the Black Sea by V. Czerniavski, an account of the Annulata Chee- topoda of the Bay of Sebastopol by N. Bobretzki, and a paper on the zoology of the Lake of Onega and its neighbourhood by K. Kesslar, including a review of the fishes, Crustacea, and Annulata of the Lake of Onega, and of the Mollusca collected in and about the Lakes Onega and Ladoga, and a list of the butter- flies of the Government of Olonetz. The historical and scientific memoirs published by tbe University of Kazan, of which several volumes have recently reached us, include a systematic enumera- tion and description of the birds of Orenburg (329 species), with detailed notes of their habits, &c., by the late Prof. E. A. Evers- mann, edited after his death by M. N. Bogdanoff, forming an Svo volume of 600 pages in the Russian language. There is not in Russia at the present moment sufficient encou- ragement on the part of the public to induce the publication of independent biological works beyond a few popular handbooks ; but the Imperial Academy of Petersburg has, on the other hand, been exceedingly liberal in the assistance it affords, and active in its issue of Transactions with excellent illustrations, as well as of its bulletin of proceedings. The volumes recently received include J. F. Brandt’s ‘‘ Symbol Sirenologicse” and researches on the genus /yrax (reviewed in ‘‘ Zoological Record,” v. p. 3, and vi. p. 5), A. Strauch’s Synopsis of Viperidze, with full details of their geographical distribution, E. Metschnikoff’s studies on the development of Echinoderms and Nemertines, and N. Miklucho-Maclay’s Memoir on Sponges of the N. Pacific and Arctic Oceans, with remarks on their extreme variability inducing the multiplication of false species. In botany, Bunge’s Monograph of the Old-World species of Astragalus is the result of many years labour and careful investigation. The eight sub-genera and 104 sections into which this extensive genus is divided appear to be very satisfactory ; but the species (971) are probably very much too numerous, and we miss that com- parison with American forms which, considering the very numerous cases of identity or close affinity, is essential for the due appreciation of the N. Asiatic species. Bunge has also published a monograph of the He/iotropia of the Mediterraneo- Oniental region in the Bulletin of the Society cf Naturalists of Moscow, which continues its annual volumes. The parts re- cently received continue several of the botanical enumerations already noticed, together with various smaller entomological papers. ( Zo be Continued) GEOLOGY On the Supposed Legs of the Trilobite, Asaphus platycephalus* AT the request of Mr. E. Billings, of Montreal, I have re- cently examined the specimen of Asaphus platycephalus belonging to the Canadian Geological Museum, which has been supposed to show remains of legs. Mr. Billing, while he has suspected the organs to be legs so far as to publish on the subject, + has done so with reserve, saying, in his paper, “that the first and all-important point to be decided. is whether or not the forms exhibited on its under side were truly what they appeared to be, locomotive organs.”’ On account of his doubts, the speci- men was submitted by him during the past year to the Geological Society of London; and for the same reason, notwithstanding the corroboration there received, he offered to place the specimen in my hands for examination and report. Besides giving the specimen an examination myself, I have submitted it also to Mr. A. E. Verrill, Prof. of Zoology in * From the American Yournal of Science and Arts, Vol. 1, May, 187. _+ Q J. Geol. Soc., No 104, p. 479, 1870, with a piate giving a full-sized view of the under surface of the trilobite, a species that was over four inches in length. Yale College, who is well versed in the Invertebrates, and to Mr. 5. I. Smith, assistant in the same department, and excellent in crustaceology and entomology. We have separately and to- gether considered the character of the specimen, and while we have reached the same conclusion, we are to be regarded as in- dependent judges. Our opinion has been submitted to Mr, Billings, and by his request it is here published. The conclusion to which we have come is that the organs are not legs, but the semi-calcified arches in the membrane of the ventral surface to which the foliaceous appendages or legs were attached. Just such arches exist in the ventral surface of the abdomen of the Macrura, and to them the abdominal appendages are articulated. This conclusion is sustained by the observation that in one part of the venter three consecutive parallel arches are distinctly connected by the intervening outer membrane of the venter, showing that the arches were plainly 77 ¢he membrane, as only a calcified portion of it, and were not members moving free above it. This being the fact, it seems to set at rest the question as to the legs. We would add, however, that there is good reason for believing the supposed legs to have been such arches in their continuing of nearly uniform width almost or quite to the lateral margin of the animal; and in the additional fact, that although curving forward in their course toward the margin, the successive arches are about equidistant or parallel, a regularity of position not to be looked for in free-moving legs. The curve in these arches, although it implies a forward ventral ex- tension on either side of the leg-bearing segments of the body, does not appear to afford any good reason for doubting the above conclusion. It is probable that the two prommences on each arch nearest the median line of the body, which are rather marked, were points of muscular attachment for the foliaceous appendage it supported. With the exception of these arches, the under surface of the venter must have been delicately membranous, like that of the abdomen of a lobster or other macruran. Unless the under surface were in the main fleshy, trilobites could not have rolled into a ball. James D. DANA SCIENTIFIC SERIALS Annales de Chemie et de Physigue. The whole of the last part of the ‘‘ Annales” is occupied by M. Berthelot’s A/éthode universelle pour réduire et saturer @hydragéne les composes organiques, which is a vésumé of the elaborate and exhaustive researches on the action of hydriodic acid on organic substances in which he has been engaged for the last three or four years. Most of the results have been already published from time to time in the Bulletin de la Société Chimigue de Paris, and this classical re- search is now completed by the publication of the details of the methods of analysis and the thermochemical considerations in- volved. The author has found that any organic compound can be transformed into a saturated hydro-carbon, having, in general, the same number of atoms of carbon as the original substance, by heating it for a sufficient length of time to a temperature of 275 C., with a large excess of an aqueous solution of hydriodic acid of the specific gravity of 2:0. The proportion of the acid is varied according to the nature of the substance submitted to its action, twenty or thirty parts being sufficient to reduce an alcohol of the fatty series, whilst a member of the aromatic series and such substances as bitumen, wood charcoal, and coal, require, at least, one hundred times their weight ; the large excess of acid serving the purpose of dissolving the iodine set free during the reaction, thus preventing its destructive action on the organic compound, and also in allow- ing the quantity of hydriodic acid necessary for the reduction ot the substance, to be withdrawn from the solution without re- ducing its strength so ‘ar that the reaction ceases. One of the most remarkable results exhibitedin the application of this method is that of the direct transformation of benzene into the saturated hydrocarbon, hexylene hydride, C; Hg + 8 HI = C, H,,+ SI, affording, as it does, an instance of a direct passage from the aromatic to the fatty series. When other members of the phenyl series are treated with hydriodic acid, the ultimate pro- duct is the same; but there is an intermediate step in the reaction, resulting in the formation of benzene, which, by the continued action of the acid, is transformed into the corresponding saturated hydrocarbon, The fifth and last part of the paper is Fune 22, 1871] of great interest froma theoretical point of view, since it com- prises the results of the author’s experiments on bitumen, wood charcoal, and coal. The former of these substances, under the influence of hydriodic acid, yields hexylene hydride, the saturated hydrocarbon corresponding to benzene, from which it may be inferred that bitumen is a derivative of benzene, produced by condensation and loss of hydrogen. Charcoal and coal, when treated according to M. Berthelot’s method, are transformed into a mixture of various saturated hydrocarbons, identical with those found in petroleum oil. In fact the coal is changed into petroleum oul, THE most important paper in the first three numbers of vol. xiii. of the Att della Societa Italiana di Scienze Natwrali (April and November 1870, and January 1871), is a continuation of Prof. Delpino’s article on ‘‘Dichogamy in the Vegetable Kingdom.” In this paper the author passes in review the various modes in which the impregnation of plants is effected, with especial reference to the provisions for the impregnation of one plant by the fecundating organs of another.—M. A. Curd publishes a note on parthenogenesis among the Lepidoptera.— M. F. Sordelli contributes a note on the anatomy of the genus Acme, and on some of the hard parts of Cecilianella acicula, illustrated with a plate ; and further an anatomy of Limax Dorie, Bourg., also illustrated, and including a tabular arrangement of the species of the genus Zzzax, for the elucidation of the characters of two new species, which the author describes under the numes of Z. punctulatus and L. Bettonii,—The Secretary of the Society, Dr. C. Marinoni, notices some remains of Uyszus sfeleus from the Cave of Adelsberg.—M. G, Bellucci gives an account of some evidences of prehistoric man in the territory of Terni.—M. L. Ricca communicates some observations on dichogamy in plants made by him upon the Alps of Val Camonica in 1870 ; and also a systematic catalogue of the vas- cular plants growing spontaneously in the olive-zone of the valleys of Diana, Marina, and Cervo, with indications of the special conditions of growth, times of flowering of each species, and occasional remarks upon their characters.—At p. 130 is the description of asupposed hybrid Orchis, O. cortophoro-laxiflora. —From M. C. Bellotti we have some observations on the disease of flaccidity, which destroys so many silkworms (morts-flats) in France and Italy ; and from Dr. Taramelli a memoir, illustrated with an elaborate coloured plate, on the ancient glaciers of the Drave, Save, and Isonzo. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES LonpboNn Geological Society, June 7.—Mr. Joseph Prestwich, F.R.S., president, in the chair. Messrs. Henry Collinson and Thomas Milnes Favell were elected Fellows, and Dr. J. J. Kaup, of Darmstadt, was elected a foreign member of the society. The following communications were read :—1. **On the persistence of Caryophyllia cylindracea Reuss, a Cretaceous Coral, in the Coral-fauna of the Deep Sea.” By Prof. P. Martin Duncan, F.R.S. The author first referred to the synonyms and geological distribution of Caryophyllia cylindracea, Reuss, which has hitherto been regarded as peculiar to the White Chalk, and as necessarily an extinct form, inasmuch as it belonged to a group possessing only four cycles of septa in six systems, one of the systems being generally incomplete. The distribution of the Caryephllie of this group in the Gault and the Upper Chalk, the Miocene, and the Pliocene, was noticed, and also that of the species with the incomplete cycle. The fal- sity of this generalisation was shown to be proved by the results of deep-sea dredging off the Havannah, under Count Pourtales, and off the Iberian peninsula under Dr. Carpenter and Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys. The former dredged up Caryophyllia formosa with four complete cycles, and the latter obtained, from depths between 690 and 1090 fathoms, a group of iorms with four complete and ey omplete cycles. This group had a Cretaceons facies ; one of the forms could not be differentiated from Caryophyliia cylindracea, Reuss ; and as a species of the genus Sathycyathus was found at the same time, this facies was rendered more striking. The re- presentation of the extinct genera Zyochosmilia, Larasmilia, Synhetia, and Diblasus, by the recent Amphihelie, Paracyathi, and Caryophyllie was noticed, and it was considered that as the Cretaceous forms throve under the same external conditions, some of them only being persistent, there must be some law NATURE 153 which determines the life-duration of species like that which restricts the years of the individual. It was shown that deep-sea conditions must have prevailed within the limits of the diffusion of the ova of coral polyps somewhere on the Atlantic area ever since the Cretaceous period. Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys remembered that at the spot where the coral in question was dredged up the sea-bottom was extremely uneven, varying as much as fifty fathoms within a quarter of a mile. It was also not more than forty miles from land. The species of mollusca dredged up were extremely remarkable, and many were totally different from what he had previously seen, They were, how- ever, living or recent; none of them were Eocene or Miocene, much less Cretaceous, like Zerebratula caput-serpentis. He quoted from Mr. Davidson other instances of the persistence of forms, especially of the genus Zzmgu/a from the Silurian forma- tion. The persistence of this species of coral, as well as that of Foraminifera, from the Cretaceous to the present time, was therefore not unique, and other cases of survival from even earlier times might eventually be recognised. Dr. Carpenter, after commenting en the reductions that extended knowledge enabled naturalists to make in the number of presumed species, could not accept the mere identification of species as of the highest importance in connecting the Cretaceous fauna with that of our own day. The identity of genera was, in his opinion, of far more importance. He instanced Zchinothuria and Rhizocrinus as preserving types identically the same as those of a remote period, and as illustrating the continuity of the deep-sea fauna from Cretaceous times. The chemical and organic constitution of the deep-sea bottom of the present day was also singularly analogous to that of the Chalk sea. The low temperature at the bottom of the deep sea, even in equatorial regions, was now be- coming universally recognised, and this temperature must have had an important bearing on the animal life at the sea-bottom. Prof. Ramsay thought that there was some misapprehension abroad as to the views held by geologists as to continuity of conditions. They had, however, always insisted on there having been an average amount of sea and land during all time; and the fact of sea having occupied what is now the middle of the Atlantic since Cretaceous time would create no surprise among them. If, how- ever, the bed of the Atlantic were raised, though probably many Cretaceous genera, and even species, might be found, there would on the whole be a very marked difference between these Atlantic beds and those of the Chalk. Mr. Seeley had already, in 1862, put forward views which had now been fully borne out by recent investigation, His conviction was that, from the genera having persisted forso long a time, the genera found in any for- mation afforded no safe guide as to its age, unless there were evi- dence of their having since those formations become extinct. Mr. Etheridge maintained that the species in different formations were sufficiently distinct, though the genera might be the same. Recent dredgings had not brought to light any of the charac- teristic molluscan forms of the Cretaceous time ; and it would be of great importance to compare the results of future opera- tions with the old Cretaceous deep-sea fauna. Prof. Rupert Jones, with reference to the supposed sudden extinction of chambered Cephalopods, remarked that Cretaceous forms had already been discovered in Tertiary beds in North America, and also that cold currents could not have destroyed them, seeing that icebergs came down to the latitude of Croydon in the Chalk sea.—2. ‘‘ Note on an /chthyosaurus (2. enthekiodon) from Kimmeridge Bay, Dorset.” By J. W. Hulke, F.R.S. In this paper the author described the skeleton of an Jchthyo- saurus from Kimmeridge Bay, agreeing in the characters of the teeth with the form for which he formerly proposed the establishment of the genus Lxthekiodon. The specimen in- cludes the skull, a large portion of the vertebral column, numerous ribs, the bones of tbe breast-girdle, and some limb- bones. The first forty-five vertebral centra have a double costal tubercle. The coracoids have an unusual form, being more elongated in the axial than in the transverse direction, and this elongation is chiefly in advance of the glenoid cavity. The articular end of the scapula is very broad. The paddles are excessively reduced in size, the anterior being larger than the posterior, as evidenced by the comparative size of the proximal bones. The species, which the author proposed to name /. ethekiodon, most nearly resembles the Liassic /. ¢e- nurrostris. The length of the preserved portion of the skeleton is about roft., the femur measures only 2in., and the humerus 2°7in.—3. “Note on a Fragment of a Teleosaurian Snout from Kimmeridge Bay, Dorset.” By J. W. Hulke, F.R,S. In this 154 NATURE [Fune 22, 1871 paper the author described a fragment of the snout of a Teleo- saurian obtained by Mr. J. C. Mansel, F.G.S., from Kimmeridge Bay, and which is believed to furnish the first indication of the occurrence of Telosaurians at Kimmeridge. The specimen con- sists of about 17in. of along and slender snout, tapering slightly towards the apex, where the premaxillae expand suddenly and widely. The nostril is terminal and directed obliquely forwards ; the preemaxillze ascend 2°5in. above the nostril, and terminate in an acute point ; and each praemaxilla contains five alveoli. The lateral margins of the snout are slightly crenated by the alveoli of the teeth, of which the three front ones are smaller than the rest ; most of the teeth have fallen out, but a few are broken off, leaving the base in the sockets. Mr. Seeley thought it likely that Mr. Hulke would eventually be led to re- establish his genus ythekiodon. He remarked on_ the peculiar characters presented by the specimen, and referred especially to the coracoids, which were unlike those of Jchthyo- saurus, but presented a close resemblance to those of Plesio- saurus. He considered that there were indications of its having been connected with a cartilaginous sternum. The scapula furnished an important character in its widening, which formed a distinct acromion process. Mr. Seeley remarked that double- headed ribs occur only in animals with a four-chambered heart ; and that, considering this and other characters, there was no reason for placing /chthyosaurus lower than among the highest Saurians. He considered that the Teleosaurian snout differed from all known types. Dr. Macdonald believed that what is called the coracoid has nothing to do with the shoulder-girdle, and thought it might be a part of the palate. Mr. Manselstated, in answer to the President, that the fossils were obtained from about the middle of the Kimmeridge Clay. Mr. Etheridge suggested that it would be desirable to ascertain whether the horizon of the /chthyosaurus described was the same as that of the specimens from Ely. Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys inquired as to the food and habits of the /chthyosaurus. Mr. Hulke, in reply, stated that, from the presence of a stain and of numerous small scales, under the ribs, the food of the /Athyosaurus probably consisted of Squids, and small fishes. He showed that the so- called coracoid was clearly a part of the shoulder-girdle. Geologists’ Association, June 2. — Rev. T. Wiltshire, president, in the chair. A paper on ‘‘ Flint” was read by Mr. Hawkins Johnson, F.G.S. After stating the reasons which had induced him to pay special attention to the subject of the forma- tion of flint, the author described the characters and mode of occurrence of nodular and tabular flint and chert. The various combinations into which silicon enters were then recapitulated, and a description of sponges introduced a statement of the theory contended for in this paper to account for the formation of chalk flints. This theory is simply that s/icon replaced the caréon of the sarcode of the sponges of the Cretaceous seas. Flints are therefore merely silicified sponges. The empty shells of echino- derms were frequently used by sponges which in many cases outgrew and surrounded the shells, and these sponges afterwards becoming silicified we find the tests of echinoderms either wholly or partly embedded in chalk flints. Prof. Tennant dwelt upon the opinions of Dr. Bowerbank, and pointed out in opposition to the views of that authority that agates could not have derived their origin from sponges, since they were found in volcanic rocks. Mr. Deane, who had been associated with Dr. Mantell in his researches with respect to the origin of flints, stated that, contrary to the general belief that fossils were not found in any flints except those from the Upper Chalk, organisms had been discovered in flints from the Lower or Grey Chalk. Dr. Bedwell, who had paid great attention to this subject for a long time, denied Dr. Bowerbank’s assertion that a central layer of chalk is not present in horizontal as it is in vertical tabular flint, and he could not height, being produced by the silicification of sponges which grew on each side of a fissure in the bed of the chalk sea, as had been contended fur by Dr. Bowerbank and Mr. Johnson. _ Prof. Morris, after complimenting the author on the value of the paper and the knowledge of the subject which he had displayed, re- ferred to the investigations into the ong n of flint by the observers of the last century, and gave a very interesting résumé of the principal facts connected with the occurrence of flint in the strati- fied rocks. The Professor contended for the segregation of the silica ot the chalk around nuclei, in opposition to the theory ad- vocated by Mr. Johnson, which was first propounded by Dr. Brown of Edinburgh. The amount of diffused silica in the ] Upper Chalk is much less than in the Lower Chalk, in which flints arerare. The tests of echinoderms are never silicified, nor are phosphatic animal substances, such as bone. He believed that the sponges of the old seas, from what we know of the sponge- gravel and the Upper Greensand, were chiefly silicicus, and not ceratose ; and that they were extremely abundant is shown by the fact that in the Haldon Hill Greensand masses of chert occur eight feet thick, which are quite full of the spiculz of sponges. Mr. Johnson briefly replied, but was scarcely prepared then to combat the observations of Professor Morris. Very fine collec- tions of flints showing peculiarities were exhibited by Messrs. Johnson, Bedwell, Evans, Leighton, Deane, and Meyer. Mathematical Society, June 8.—Mr. W. Spottiswoode, F.R.S., president, in the chair. Messrs. W. Chadwick, M.A., and J. Griffiths, M.A., were elected members of the society.— Prof. Cayley, V.P., stated results he had arrived at in his inves- tigation of Pliicker’s models of certain oceanic surfaces. He had been able to identify eight out of the fourteen models in the Society’s possession (presented by Dr. Hirst.) — W. Samuel Roberts. M.A, gave an account of his paper “ On the Motion of a Plane under certain Conditions.”—Prof. Henrici, V.P., ex- hibited cardboard models of two ellipsoids, of a hyperboloid of one sheet, and of an elliptic paraboloid, also stereograms of the models of surfaces exhibited at former meetings of the society. Entomological Society, June 5.—Mr. J. W. Dunning, F_L.S., vice-president, in the chair.—The Secretary read a letter from the Rev L. Jenyns, of Bath, with reference to the reported showers of insects or other organisms at Bath, noticed at the last meeting. Mr. Jenyns had examined some of these organisms, and found they were Zfusoria, probably Vibrio undula of Miiller, many of them being congregated into spherical masses enveloped in a gelatinous substance. They fell during a heavy shower of rain.—Mr. Butler exhibited specimens of Ze7- doptera, wpon which he and Mr. Meldola had experimented with a view to ascertain the action of dyes. Many species had been subjected to aniline dyes, and all kinds of colours produced. Mr. Butler also found that when the insects were immersed in a solu- tion of soda for the purpose of causing the dyes to be more readily taken, the colouring matter of the scales was completely discharged and collected at the bottom of the solution. Mr. Bicknell had subjected Govopteryx rhammi to the action of cya- nide of potassium, acting upon a suggestion made last meeting, and the yellow colour was changed to orange-red.—Mr. W. C. Boyd exhibited an example of Ramia crategata, captured near London, the apical portion of one wing of which was changed to brown.—Mr. Miiller exhibited the bell-shaped nest of Ag/ena brunnea, a spider ; also galls of an undescribed species of Phy- tophus on Betula.—Mr. F, Smith exhibited three rare British species of Hymenoptera, captured by Mr. Dale in Dorsetshire, consisting of Wyrmecomorphus rufescens (Proctotrupide), Ichneu- mon glaucopterus, and Osmia pilicornis.—Mr. Holdsworth, of Shanghai, communicated notes on the method practised by the Chinese in cultivating the silk-producing Bombyx Pernyi.—Mr. Butler read ‘‘ Descriptions of Five New Species of Diurnal Ze- pidoptera from Shanghai.”—Mr, Baly communicated ‘* Descrip- tions of a new genus, and of some recently-discovered species of Phytophaga.”—Mr. Kirby communicated ‘‘Synonymic Notes on Lepidoptera.” Statistical Society, June 20.—Mr. Hyde Clarke read a paper ‘On the Transmissibility of Intellectual Qualities in Eng- land.” As one kind of test of intellectual exertion, he took the statistics of the writers of books in the Biographia ; of 2,000 authors, 750 were born in country districts, and 1,250 in town districts. Examining the towns and the distribution in them, 333 were allotted to London, 73 to Edinburgh, and 53 to Dublin. f h | The largest numbers in the tables beyond these were found in admit the possibility of vertical walls of flint, sometimes of great | cathedral and collegiate cities. The deductions he drew were that intellectual activity is distributed unequally, but that it is more among the town or more highly educated population than among the rural populations. He pointed out that the larger the ce ncentrated educated population, the larger 1s the intelleciual development, and he referred to the like examples of Greece, Rome, and modern Europe, where the same law is to be traced, The great modern centres of industry in England occupy a low relative position in the list, and are scarcely to be noticed, but they are now beginning to contribute. He affirmed that the literary class was produced from the educated class, and not from the illiterate classes. While no educational effort will produce men of great genius, he inferred that literary attainments are in ; . Fune 22, 1871 | ~president, in the chair. NATURE 155 relation to literary culture or the culture of the educated classes, and that by extending education to other classes of the population, the intellectual capacity of the community will be extended and propagated within certain limits. MANCHESTER Literary and Philosophical Society, April 4.—‘‘ Notes on drift of the eastern parts of the counties of Chester and Lancaster.” By E. W. Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S., president. Having in a previous paper given a short description of the higher drift found in these counties, the author now pro- ceeds to consider the thick surface covering of the general drift, which nearly hides from our view the underlying strata, except where they are exposed in river courses or in canal or railway cuttings. about 700 feet above the sea, and does not alter much in its appearance, whether it is seen at Blackpool, Ormskirk, or Liverpool, or at Burnley, Rochdale, Glossop, or Macclesfield, except being usually more divided as it is found in!and, and approaches the sides of the Pennine chain. It consists of beds of till, clay, sand, and gravel. It has beentreated on by various authors, a list of whose works are given. Annual Meeting, April 18. —Mr. E. W.'Binney, F.R.S.,'F.G.S., The report of the Council was read by one of the secretaries. The Council have the satisfaction to report that the past year has been one of steady progress for the Society. - The following gentlemen were elected officers of the Society and members of the Council for the ensuing year :—President : Mr. Edward William Binney, F.R.S., F.G.S. Vice-presidents : Mr, James Prescott Joule, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.C.S., Mr. Edward Schunck, F.R.S., F.C.S., Mr. Robert Angus Smith, F.R.S., IP.C.S., Rey. William Gaskell. Secretaries: Mr. Henry Enfield Roscoe, F.R.S., F.C.S., Mr. Joseph Baxendale, F,R.A.S. Treasurer: Mr. Thomas Carrick. Librarian: My, Charles Bailey. Other Members of the Council: Mr. Peter Spence, F.C.S., Mr. William Leeson Dickinson, Mr. Henry Wilde, Mr. Robert Dukinfield Darbishire, F.G.S., Prof. Osborne Reynolds, and Mr. William Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S. Dr. Joule, F.R.S., drew attention to the remarkable atmo- spheric phenomenon which had been seen by several persons in Derbyshire and elsewhere, on the evening of Good Friday, April 7, and stated that he had witnessed a similar appearance near Glasgow on the day before it was observed in this neigh- bourhoed. ‘The perpendicular ray extended upwards from the sun to an allitude of 30°, and was very clearly defined. It was observed from half an hour hefore, until after the sun had set. The phenomenon was also witnessed, at the same time, by Prof. J. Thomson, who was sailing on the Firth of Clyde. CAMBRIDGE Philosophical Society, May 15.— ‘On Dr. Wiener’s model of a cubic surface with twenty-seven real lines,” Prof. Cayley, F.R.S.—‘ On the tides in a rotating globe covered by a Sea of depth constant at all points in the same latitude, attracted by a moon always in the plane of the equator; considered with reference to the tidal retardation of the earth’s angular motion about its axis,” Mr, Rohrs. ‘* On the motion of imperfect fiuid in a hollow sphere, rotating about its centre under the action of impressed external periodic forces, considered with reference to the phenomena of precession and nutation,”’ Mr. Rohrs. May 29.—‘‘On an illustraticn of the empirical theory of vision,” Mr, Coutts Trotter. “On a table of the logarithms of the first 250 Bernoullis Numbers,” Mr. Glaisher. Nrw York Lyceum of Natural History, Oct. 24, 1870.—‘‘The Geo- logical Position of the Remains of Elephant and Mastodon in North America,” by Dr. J.S. Newberry. The genera Zvephas and Afas- fodon existed on the globe during the Miocene Tertiary Epoch and were represented by various species from that time to the advent of man. The question is, when the two species Z/e- fhas primigenius and Alastedon giganteus are first met with in | ascending the geological scale. In Europe it is claimed that re- mains of these species are found in the true Boulder Drift, and in California in the Pliocene Tertiary deposits. Whether either of these statements is strictly true remains to be decided hy future investigations. In central and eastern North America the remains of elephant and mastodon are found abundantly in peat bogs and other superficial and recent deposits, also in some strata of unconsolidated material which are considered as belonging to This generally reaches to an elevation of | the drift, although there has been much difference of opinion whether these beds form part of the true undisturbed drift, or whether they consist of re-arranged drift-materials or what is called ‘‘Modified Drift. The facts now offered seem to prove conclusively that the remains of elephant and mastodon are found in the true and unchanged drift, but only in the more recent of the drift deposits. The presence of these great mammals must therefore be considered as one of the incidenis in the history of the drift, but as incidents belonging only to the last chapters in this long and somewhat eventful history. In order that the ad- vent of the elephant and mastodon may be properly placed in the sequence of phenomena embraced in the Drift period, it will be necessary to make a brief review of these phenomena so far as they are known tous. The geological periods immediately antecedent to the Drift are the Cretaceous, which was a period of marked continental submergence, when the ocean covered most of the western half of the continent and reached several hundred feet higher than now over the basis of the eastern h'ghlands ; and the Tertiary with its three subdivisions Eocene, Miccene, and Pliocene. The Eocene was a period of continental progressive emergence—land area gradually expanding, climate subtropical. In the Miocene and Pliocene epochs the topography was ina general way what it is now, but in detail the surface was con- siderably more diversified, especially by the presence of great fresh-water lakes which occupied much of the surface on both sides of the Rocky Mountains. At this time there was probably a land connection between the noithern part of North America and Europe on the one hand and Asia on the other. The climates of Alaska and Greenland were then as mild as that of Virginia now ; the flora was luxuriant and varied, and was com- mon to Europe, Iceland, Spitzbergen, Green!and, our continent, and North-eastern Asia; palms grew farther north than the Canadian line. The fauna was much richer than now, including elephant, rhinoceros, and many other animals not now living in either of the Americas, and indeed as large a number of the great mammals as are now found in Africa. The superficial boulders and gravels of the Drift are clearly the result of iceberg action. It is proved by the undisturbed condition of the clays below, that they must have been /oated to their present resting places, just as boulders, sand, and gravel are floated from Greenland to the banks of Newfoundland, and there spread broadcast over the sea bottom. In the Drift deposits above the blue clay, remains cf Flephant and Mastodon have been re- peatedly found, still more frequently in the Peat-bogs of the pre- sent surface, and the much-discussed question has been, whether these mammalian remains were deposited with the upper layers of the Drift or were buried in them by subsequent shifting, as in the valleys of streams. The facts to which attention is now specially directed would seem to decide that question. It has long been known that in many parts of the valley of the M'ssis- sippi, wells penetrating twenty, thirty, or more feet, the super- ficial accumulations of dvi/ted materials—clays and sands, with gravels and boulders brought from the far north—encounter sticks, logs, stumps, and sometimes a distinct carbonaceous soil. Combining facts of this character, of which records have been accumulating from year to year, with those brought to light by recent investigations directed specifically to this object, it is proved that over a great area at the West a sheet of buried tim- ber, a vegetable soil, beds of peat covered with sphagrous moss, erect stumps, and in some cases standing trees, form a distinct line of demarcation between the older and newer drift deposits. In or above the horizon of this ancient soil have been found numerous animal remains : Lvephas, Mastodon, Castoroides (the great extinct beaver) and some others. PARIS Academy of Sciences, June 5.—M. Faye inthe chair. M. Delaunay gave some supplementary infcrmation relative to the attempts made by the Communists to set fire to the National Observatory. The director of the establishment says that M. Yvon Villarceau was scmewhat incorrect in the description of the damage done to the instruments belonging to the gecdesic service, of which he is the chief and superintendent. The National Observatory, which was built more than two centuries ago under the reign of Louis XIV., is a very strong building, with thick walls, and the garden itself is at an elevation of roft. from the level of the surrounding land. The extent of the garden is about half an acre. The Communist forces had garrisoned it, and i: was only when obliged to retreat that they tried to burnit down, which attempt was defeated only by the personal exertions of the staff, their families, and well-disposed persons in the vicinity, 156 NATURE | Fune 22, 1871 The spherical copper caps of the equatorials were perforated by many holes from Versaillists’ rifles, and the equatorials themselves were slightly hurt. But altogether the damage done is nothing i1 comparison with the harm which was contemplated.—Dr. Guyot sent a paper on Dynamite, and the means of protecting storchouses from spontaneous explosion. Dynamite is known to be a mixture of sand and nitro-glycerine. When it is wrapped in a cartridge, made as usual with paper, the capillary attraction works on the nitro-glycerine, which is slowly separated from the sand, and impregnates the protecting matter. In this new form nitro-glycerine is almost as explosive as in its ordi- nary liquid state, which may very easily be proved.—M. Elie de Beaumont read a circular noticing that the next session for the British Association will be held this summer at Edinburgh. The learned perpetual secretary expects that many members will try to attend it, so that French science may have a fair representa- tion, which is seldom the case on these occasions. June 12.—M. Delaunay in the chair. The greater part of the members, who were obliged to escape from Paris, have resumed their seats. M. Leverrier was congratulated on haying resumed his professorial duties at the Sorbonne, where he has opened this very morning his regular course of lectures on Mathematical Astronomy, Almost every scien- tific editor of the Parisian papers has returned also to his seat.—M. Serret presented a memoir on the principle of least action, economy of mechanical work by natural forces acting from certain centres by attraction. Euler and Lagrange had confined their exertions to show that the first differential was always zero. This was not sufficient, as such a differential may belong to a maximum if the second differential becomes negative, which was left to be demonstrated by Euler and Lagrange. The work was very difficult indeed.—M. Becquerel read a very long paper on atmospheric electricity. It was worked by himself as well as by his son, as the first part of a theory which can be reviewed only when completed. M. Becquerel, advocating the opinions started by Pelletier, thinks that the electricity of the upper regions is positive, and he says, moreover, that it comes from the sun, which isa focus of positive force. The electrical connection from the sun to our upper atmosphere is maintained through celestial space, which is not an absolute vacuum, but is filled with gases at a low pressure. The electricity of the earth is negative, and every thunder clap is a discharge between the earth and the upper regions through the air.— M. W. de Fonvielle sent a note reviewing the organisation of the Postal Telegraphic servicein England, and showing that the French Government is wrong in maintaining two different administra- tions. The case of the French Government is very bad, as the two administrations were amalgamated during the war by the Tours delegation, under M. Steenackers, and ultimatelyseparated. M. Buys Ballot, the celebrated director of the Utrecht Meteoro- logical Observatory, asked from the Portuguese Government the establishment of a Meteorological station, or rather system, in the Azores Archipelago. This will result in the issuing of regular reports when the south-western gales are on their way to visit the British Islands and Western Europe. M. Delaunay, who read over the note at full length in the name of M. Buys Ballot, strongly advocated the proposition of his learned colleague. It is greatly to be hoped that the Portuguese Government will yield very shortly to the suggestion. Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Letters, June 9.— The first sitting for a long period, as almost every member had been a refugee outside Paris, except a few officials. M. Haureau, di- rector of the National Printing Office, explained that nothing was disturbed at this establishment. The Oriental Department is in excellent working order. The manuscripts of several mem- bers, which are kept thereas well as valuable documents, are safe, owing to the mild rule of M. Debock, a working com- positor, who was appointed a delegate by the Commune, and who protected also the National Archives, which are located in an adjoining building.—M. Alfred Maury, who had been left as Director of Archives by the Commune, had much trouble in pro- tecting it against Communist fury, even with an order signed by Debock. M. Maury was praised for the energy exhibited and the courage shown in remaining at his post, running the risk of being taken as a hestage. He was much assisted in his work of protection by the gate-keeper, who severally turned out small parties of incendiaries coming with petroleum to execute their infamous orders. M. Leon Renier said that the stock of Borghesi works printed by the Academy, has perished at the same time as the Louvre Library. But the Borghesi manuscripts are safe. The 7th volume had not been distributed, and it will be necessary to print it again at the expense of the Academy, which had a limited credit for thé whole edition. M. Leopold Delisle said that the manuscripts of the National Library, which had been concealed in the Archives, are safe. A few shelves had been slightly attacked by damp, but the real damage amounts to very little. There are seven nominations required in order to fillup the vacancies ; death has removed four members, two ordinary members and one foreign associate. The Academy has adopted a proposition of M. Renan to fill up the vacancies gradually. On the 16th the Academy will appoint a commission for reporting upon the respective merits of candidates as foreign associate members. On the 23rd the Academy will examine the titles of the candi- dates for filling the seats of MM. Villemain and Alexander, whom the Academy lost before the Prussian siege. On the 30th the Academy will appoint a committee for reporting upon the candidates to two honorary memberships ; but the nomination for the last two ordinary memberships will be postponed till next winter. BOOKS RECEIVED EnG.isH.—Scrambles among the Alps, 1860-1869: E. Whymper (Mur- ray).—The Antiseptic System: Dr. A. Sansom (H. Gillman).—Introductory Text-book of Meteorology: Dr. A. Buchan (Blackwood and Sons).—Manual of Modern Geography: Rev. A. Mackay, 2nd edition (Blackwood and Sons). ForeiGN.—(Through Williams and Norgate)—Die Grundziige des gra- phischen Rechnens u. der graphischen Statik: K, yon Ott.—Der Seidenspin- ner des Maulbeerbaumes: F. Haberlandt. PAMPHLETS RECEIVED EnGLIsH.—Chemical Phenomena of the Blast Furnace, Pt. II.: J. Lowthian Bell.—Annual Address by the President of the Royal Geographical Society. —Practical and Experimental Philosophy, Pt. II ; R. Willis —Report of the Winchester College Natural History Society.—Vaccination viewed politi- cally: F. W. Newman.—An Essay ou Unsolved Ethical Questions: D. Rowland. — Transactions of the Northumberland and Durham Natural History Society. —On Barometric Differences and Fluctua- tions: J. K. Laughton.—Thirty-eighth Annual Report of the Royal Corn- wall Polytechnic Society.—A Catalogue of Hardy Perennials, &c.: W. Robinson.—British Statesman and Churchman, No. 1o.—Will the Earth be- come a Sun-Spot ?: R. Holmes. AMERICAN AND CoLoniAL.—Australasian Medical Gazette, No. 37.— Catalogue of the Iowa University, 1870-71.—Lectures delivered at the In- dustrial and Technological Museum, Melbourne, during the Spring Session of 187c.—Population: its Law of Increase: N. Allen.—The Physiological Laws of Human Increase: N. Allen. ForgiGn. —Ueber einige Trematoden und Nemathelminther: R. von W. Sakow.—Ofversigt af konigl., V. Akademie, Forhandlingen.—Die Geo- graphische Verbreitung der See-graser. DIARY FRIDAY, June 23. QuEKETT Microscopicat Cup, at 8. MONDAY, June 26. Roya GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, at 8.30. WEDNESDAY, June 28. Society or Arts, at 8.—Anniversary Meeting. CONTENTS Pics Stave MEDICINE .« SLD ones rs 137 Primitive Cutturze. II....... ay (owe 138 Our Book/SHEERIS (60). Ge vs) es) oe ©) fei Nie! Ye -ive. Yel toga 140 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR :— Thickness of the Earth's Crust—Mr. Hopkins and M. Delaunay.— Archdeacon)J. H Prawn FOR-S..) =) sii yo eerie The Duties of Local Societies. -H. UttyeTT .. ... . . 14% Colour-—The Hons JWaiStRupe ee gerretes en ce A Hint to the Longsighted.—W. T. Raprorp . 3 142 Lignite and Selenite. . . .. . < Leta) ceueamrey te 142 Arctic Auroras.—P. KRropoTKINE . igo ORS 142 Day Auroras in the Arctic Regions.—J. JEREMIAH 142 Science iN Piarn EnGutsu. I. By W. Rusuton ° 42 Moss Locus _ By J. AITKEN a gata Wve Rta seray sete ire” bye mate WriTERS ON SCIENCE caters rene UM: FEARFUL EARTHQUAKE IN CHINA . fo Beil kp pve aes jm le; ga eee 1 ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE EEL’s SkuLt. By W. K. Parker, F.R.S. $ (Wath Tilustrations:) 52a eee eee 146 iol) BO OueCIR EOE. 00:0, O60 v0 GREG lg Gog a 1 wis Mr. BeNTHAM’s ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS TO THE LINNEAN SOCIETY (Gasskared) vos 1. i aera Cte STIs ur nk 150 GroLocy.—On the Supposed Legs of the Trilobite, Asaphus platy- cephalus: By: J-/H. DANAN Scie So lcnls (nec ane aR ORI: SclENTIFIC SERIALS . . hoo. Ghaus © 5 a6 8 . x52 SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES MMsig citcteciilc heitcs items cia cinerea ae 153 Books AND PAMPHLETS RECEIVED. . . oe : + 156 DDEARY, fol tal os a 6p) eueel Sitel iN Git MOM al THURSDAY, JUNE 29, 1871 RAMBLES ROUND LONDON Saturday Afternoon Rambles Round London, Rural and Geological Sketches, By Henry Walker. Hodder and Stoughton. 1871.) HE title of this book is suggestive of one of "the (London : | movements of modern times, the Saturday Half- | holiday, a movement in the right direction, if the reci- pients of the boon fully appreciate and understand how to use it beneficially. This may be done in various ways, either in the study of the subjects contained in the different museums in the Metropolis devoted to Art, Manufactures, or Natural Science ; or in excursions in the vicinity, either for obtaining health or becoming ac- quainted with the various natural objects met with in the rambles, thus adding to the stock of intellectual and physical enjoyment, enlarging knowledge, and, perhaps, adding some new fact to the already rich stores of local observation. The institution of Field Clubs and Natural- ists’ Societies is not altogether new in principle, but their steady increase is a marked feature of late years ; and while they have largely contributed to stimulate more systematic researches, they have at the same time exer- cised a social influence in bringing together persons whose tastes and pursuits have generally for their common object the investigation of the varied manifestations of creative intelligence. To those whose love of natural history leads them into the field, this small volume will be found a useful companion and guide, as it gives in a very able and pleasant manner much useful information respecting the more favoured spots easily accessible by the naturalist around London. We can believe that these “Saturday Half-Holiday Rambles” have been the means of emancipating many young men from the gas-light hours on the Saturday to a good long afternoon of daylight. Many of them who have rural tastes, and even tastes for natural history, have never heard of the Quekett, the Geologists’ Association, the South London Microscopical, and other London societies, part of whose programme consists of natural history rambles on the Saturday afternoon. So huge a place is London that there is danger of the amateur natu- ralist foregoing much that he might profit by, for want of such knowledge. The more we know of London life, the more do we see that this is the kind of work for young men closely engaged in the exhausting pursuits of a great city. Natural history pursuits are just the recreation they need ; and the movement inaugurated by the energetic Secretary of the Saturday Half-holiday Committee of the Early Closing Association appears to fill up a gap in the previously existing modes for employing their time. The Saturday Afternoon Rambles comprise London park and forest trees, Battersea Park, with its subalpine and tropical floras, Kew Gardens, visits to Burnham and Knockholt Beeches, Hampstead Heath and Hornsey, and autumn tours round Godalming. Interesting, however, as is the present landscape scenery of these districts, the author carries us back to the more ancient geography of the London area: the old sea-bed in Middlesex, and VOL, IV. 157 the subsequent changes it has undergone, and by which the present physical features have been produced. Among the many interesting geological features to be noticed in the neighbourhood of London, the Thames valley is one, and is fully described in the work before us. Few of us are aware, except those acquainted with Mr. Prestwich’s work, “ The Ground beneath Us,” that the familiar Thames of to-day has a pre-historic history dis- tinct from its association with man and his fortunes, from which it is too commonly supposed to derive its sole in- terest and charm Still, the Thames, if we trace it from its source to the sea is replete with considerable interest, especially when we take into consideration the origin and character of the strata over which it flows in its onward course. These rocks reveal to us successive changes in the physical features and distribution of land and water during long past periods in the history of the globe ; they tell us of successive oceans, or perhaps to some extent of a continuous ocean, more or less tropical in character, abounding in various forms of life adapted to the then existing conditions, which forms were successively re- placed either by evolution or by new creations, coincident with the different inorganic changes which that area has undergone. Without entering into a description of these changes (which we feel will be fully illustrated in the forth- coming work by Prof. Phillips), we will attempt to trace from the book before us the origin and condition under which the deposits in the Thames valley were accu- mulated, such as those which may be observed from the neighbourhood of Kew to Erith, and beyond it. The present stream, the parent of commerce and of civilised life, with its valley so rich in interesting landscapes, is but a diminished representative of a pre-historic larger river, by the agency of which, to a considerable extent, the present valley was formed. Even in the vicinity of London we have traces of older sea beds, such as the chalk, the London clay with its subordinate estuarine beds of the Woolwich series, and its overlying marine strata of middle Eocene age represented by the Bagshot sands, capping here and there the summits of the adjacent hills, and these again overlain by deposits of much later age, and indicating considerable change in the climatal condi- tions of the period, namely, the beds of glacial age which abut upon the northern heights of the valley, as at High- gate and elsewhere. That the present physical features of the Thames valley are of remote antiquity there can be little doubt, and many have been the opinions sug- gested as to its origin and age. Some have considered it partly of preglacial or glacial age, others as due to the torrential action of vast bodies of water produced by the summer thaws when the winters of England were of an arctic severity, or that the river itself was the agent by which the valley was formed. Suffice it, however, to say that from the corresponding nature of the strata on each side, which shows they were once continuous, for instance between Highgate and Norwood, it is evident, as suggested by Mr. Prestwich, that the valley of the Thames acquired its present dimensions in a period of greater atmospheric waste than the present, and of river erosion of greater intensity. Whether or not its features were partially moulded previous to the glacial period, it is probable that during the emergence of the land K 158 NATURE [| Fune 29, 1871 from the glacial sea, its present contour was more pro- minently determined, and it has been subsequently further modified and enlarged by the older river and its tributaries. There is even some reason for believing that its present outflow was not its former one, but that, acording to Mr. S. V. Wood, jun. (whose researches are so well known) the river probably drained southward into the Weald, being barred in by a ridge of lofty land zow cut through by the Thames river. - The deposits of the ancient river afford memorials of considerable interest, for they tell us that along its forest-clad margins lived numerous mammalia, most of which have become extinct in the British area, although some of the genera are now restricted to the Europeo- Asiatic continent. Thus we find remains of the rhino- ceros, elephant, hippopotamus, bear, and lion entombed in the valley deposits, affording a proof that at that period or previously England was joined to the Continent, over which land these animals probably migrated, so that the insular position of England is but of comparatively modern date. A further study of these remains yields to us the important evidence that in this area there were repre- sentatives of a northern and southern fauna,—the com- mingling of which, as the reindeer and musk ox with the hippopotamus and rhinoceros, may have arisen from the Thames area having been on the borders of two distinct zoological provinces. While, however, the majority of the Mammalia belong to extinct species, the Mollusca with which they are associated are, with two or three exceptions, still found in Britain; one shell, however, the Cyrena fluminalis, is at present restricted to the Nile; this assemblage in the old brick-earth deposits of the Thames valley indicating a greater tenacity of life in the molluscan than in the mammalian fauna. WEINHOLDS EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS Vorschule der Experimental phystk. Von Adolf F. Wein- hold, Professor an der KGnigl. héheren Gewerbschule zu Chemnitz. Erster Theil. (Leipzig, 1871. London: Williams and Norgate. Pp. 208.) HIS is by far the best school-book of Physics we have ever seen. Its leading characteristic will be understood by many readers from the statement that it is intended to be for Physics what Stéckhardt’s well-known “Vorschule der Chemie” is for Chemistry. The author endeavours, as far as possible, to bring the reader into personal contact with physical experiments and pheno- mena. He does this by describing in detail, not only how to produce the phenomena and make the experiments of which he speaks, but also, in most cases, how to make the necessary apparatus with such materials as are to be got in almost any country-town. The result is that we cannot imagine a boy who possesses, in any degree, what is called a “ mechanical turn” reading this book, without wanting to set to work at oncetomake experiments for him- self. One of the main objects of the book is, in fact, to give a definite and useful direction to the “taste for making all sorts of things,” which, as the author says, is so common amongst boys. With this intention he has made a careful choice of such experiments as, “‘ by their pleasing nature, are adapted to awaken an interest in physical studies, but has avoided, as far as possible, the introduction of mere playthings, and has altogether excluded everything like conjuring tricks.” With regard to the expenditure re- quired for making the experiments described, the author estimates it at about fifty thalers (7/ 10s.) or a little more, but points out to those who are unwilling or unable to incur the gradual outlay of this sum, how much may be done for far less, A hammer and pair of pliers, “a small vice, a hand-vice, a few files, some sheet brass and wire, a spirit-lamp, a stock of glass tubing, and one or two retort-stands, suffice for a great deal, and should be pro- vided before everything else.” We are glad to think that there are nowadays in this country a considerable and increasing number of school- masters whoare anxious to introduce Experimental Physics as a regular part of school work, but who aredeterred partly by the expense of the apparatus commonly thought neces- sary, and partly from the want of clear and full instructions as to howit should be used when they have got it. To any such we can do no greater service than to recommend them immediately to obtain Prof. Weinhold’s book, and to follow implicitly the directions he gives. We must not, however, leave it to be supposed that this work is simply a collection of practical instructions for making apparatus and experiments. Although each subject, even in the part now before us (which includes the general properties of bodies, statics, dynamics, hydro- statics, and hydrodynamics) is discussed from the point of view afforded by the particular experiments which it is intended that the reader should make for himself, the general conclusions to which the results of these experi- ments lead are always clearly and carefully pointed out ; and a student who would work patiently through the book would lay a broad and sound foundation for a more special study of Physics, and would certainly know far more of the subject than the majority of those who have gone through in the ordinary way books of much greater pretensions. Above all, he could not fail to acquire one in- dispensable qualification for further progress, namely, the faculty of thinking about physical phenomena as of things which actually exist, and are just as fit subjects for the exercise of common sense as any of the facts of everyday life. This we consider is in itself no small excellence ; for whoever has had any experience in teaching the ele- mentary parts of Physics, must have become aware that very often the chief result of the @ Arzorz method, adopted in nearly all English books on the subject, is to make students think that the forces and motions of which Natural Philosophers talk are, if not fictions invented on purpose to puzzle them, at least so unlike anything that is ever met with in common experience, that it is useless to try to understand anything about them. In fact we believe that, except for students whose previous training has accustomed them to recognise the special cases that are included under general mathematical expression, the majority of English treatises on the fundamental parts of Physics are rather a hindrance than a help to a clear conception of the ideas they profess to explain. The true method of teaching Physics, at least to beginners, we believe to be the one adopted in this book, whereby the learner is made to acquire an actual personal acquain- | tance with all the most important facts of the science, through the observations which establish them having been brought within the range of his personal experience. Sune 29, 1871] If this is done at all thoroughly, the modes of expressing the laws of physical phenomena in technical mathematical language may almost be left to suggest themselves when the requisite progress shall have been made in pure mathe- matics. BOOK SHELF The Sub-tropical Garden; or Beauty of Form in the Flower-Garden. By W. Robinson, F.L.S. With Illus- trations. (London: Murray, 1871.) THIS volume is a sequel to the valuable works which Mr. Robinson has already given us—“ The Wild Garden,” and “ Alpine Flowers for English Gardens.” The title is a misleading one, and is thus dcfined by the author :— “ Sub-tropical gardening means the culture of plants with large and graceful or remarkable foliage or habit, and the association of them with the usually low-growing and bril- lint flowering-plants now so common in our gardens, and which frequently eradicate every trace of beauty of form therein, making the flower-garden a thing of large masses of colour only.” It is a pity that Mr. Robinson has assisted to perpetuate so erroneous a designation, which conveys the idea of the culture of tender plants fitted only for our hothouses. The greater part of the volume is occupied with an alphabetical list of plants suitable for the above purpose, with description of the peculiarities of their foliage, mode of cultivation, and propagation, &c. The accompanying cut is intended to suggest the effects to be obtained from young and vigorous specimens of hardy, fine-leaved trees. Inall these points Mr. Robinson AILANTUS AND CANNAS may be safely followed as a guide, combining great prac- tical knowledge of gardening, an extensive acquaintance with the native habits of plants, and an artist’s eye to the beauty of form andcombination. The following sentence gives his idea of what gardening should be. “ Nature, zz puris naturalibus, we cannot have in our gardens, but Nature’s laws should not be violated ; and few human beings have contravened them more than our flower-gar- deners during the past twenty years. We should com- pose them from Nature, as landscape artists do. Wemay NATURE E59 have in our gardens, and without making wildernesses of them either, all the shade, the relief, the grace, the beauty, and nearly all the irregularity of Nature.” A. W B. The Meteoric Theory of Saturn's Rings, considered with Reference to the Solar Motion in Space; also a paper on the Meteoric Theory of the Sun. By Lieut. A. M. Davies, F.R.A.S. (London: Longmans & Co.) PROF. CLERK MAXWELL, in his remarkable essay “On the Stability of Saturn’s Rings,” which gained the Adams Prize in 1856, exhaustively examines the various theories of the constitution of these rings, and decides what are the impossible mechanical conditions for their maintenance and what is the possible one. He shows that they cannot be solid or rigid; he disposes of the possibility of their being continuously fluid, and he con- cludes that “‘the only system of rings which can exist is one composed of an indefinite number of unconnected particles revolving round the planets with different velo- cities according to their respective distances.” Lieut. Davies appears not to have seen Prof. Maxwell’s work, as he ascribes to the perusal of a derived exposition of it the enlistment of his interest in favour of the Satellite theory of the rings. Having espoused this theory, he has sought an explanation of Saturn’s possession of a ring system in the supposition that the planet has picked up streams of meteors inits path through space ; this path being a spiral resulting from the planet’s orbital motion in conjunction with the proper motion of the solar system. The spirals traversed by the four planets beyond Mars are projected in accord- ance with Lieut, Davies’s assumption of the solar motion, in order to show that Saturn is (excepting Jupiter) more favourably circumstanced than other planets for encoun- tering wandering streams of meteors that are drawn towards the sun ; while, from consideration of the masses and the distances of the two- planets from the sun, it is argued that Saturn is better circumstanced than Jupiter for attaching such streams permanently to his system in the form of rings. The details of Lieut. Davies’s work can only interest those who are closely concerned with cos- mical hypotheses. We will merely remark that he appears to place too great faith in figures : he gives the hourly rate of the solar motion in space toa mile, and quotes the solar parallax to four places of decimals! The velocity is avery uncertain element of the solar motion, and a small altera- tion of the rate assumed by Lieut. Davies would greatly modify his conclusions. The book includes a paper on the meteoric theory of the sun, a theory with which the author is blindly enraptured. He claims that it “accounts for every phenomenon hitherto observed on the solar surface.” He holds that the “ willow leaves” are meteoric flights just falling into the sun ; that the spots are spaces upon which no meteors are raining ; that the periodicity of spots is due to the action of the planets in pulling “the meteoric matter outwards from the surface of the sun into Jarger orbits, thus temporarily delaying its precipitation,” and that “the form of the spots bespeaks their origin as extraneous to the solar machinery. Were they cyclones in the atmosphere, they would invariably present a rotatory appearance 0 This must result were the origin of the spots in a plane parallel to the tangential plane at the sun's surface ; but would not do so if their origin lay in the normal to that plane, as it does in the meteoric theory. A careful study of Mr. Carrington’s valuable series of observations of solar spots is decidedly unfavourable to the conclusion that they have forms of rotation.” Lieut. Davies is either innocently or wilfully ignorant of the pal- pably cyclonic appearance which spots frequently present, and which has been frequently depicted by observers who have studied the characteristic features of individual spots. This study did not concern Mr. Carrington. The devotees of the meteoric theory of the sun’s maintenance will not feel that it has been much advanced by Lieut. Davies’s over-straining advocacy. 160 NATURE [Fune 29, 18715 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR [Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his Correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. | The Eclipse Photographs In his letter published in NATURE on the Ist of June, and to which Mr. Brothers courteously replies in your issue of the 15th, the writer briefly touched upon four different points bearing on the value of the eclipse photographs. Those points are :—Ist, The possibility in a comparatively cloudless sky of a luminosity akin to that represented under the name of the corona on page 370 of the number of NATURE issued on March 9, but caused only by moisture in our atmosphere, as illustrated by his instance of what he termed a lunar halo; 2ndly, The presence of a luminosity on what he apprehends should have been the dark disc of the moon, as represented in the photograph of the American observers at Cadiz ; 3rdly, The indifferent definition of the published photograph ; and 4thly, The evidence as pre- sented by the photograph of the identity of the coronal rifts. Referring to the first of these points, Mr. Brothers ‘fails altogether to see the connection between the solar corona and a lunar halo.” If the term halo, as applied to any appearance pertaining to the moon, is confined to the ring of light so frequently to be observed apparently surrounding the lunar disc, the writer would substitute the word ‘‘luminosity” for halo. The appearance he alluded to resembles Mr. Brothers’s wocdcuts of the corona already mentioned, more than anything else to which he can compare it, and in common phraseology may be described as a patch of light surrounding the apparent position of the moon, extending from it to a distance varying from about one degree to two or two and a-half, and having an irregular or rifted outline. The phenomenon in question was observed by the writer when the atmosphere was in such a condition that no trace of cloud whatever was visible for a distance round the moon of some thirty or forty degrees. He mentions this merely to show that even when no visible condensation of moisture is present, an appearance—attributable to nothing but atmospheric moisture, and analogous to what is termed the solar corona—is not to be regarded as out of the common, and nothing to be wondered at. Touching the second point, Mr. Brothers would seem to be of opinion that a solar corona may be seen even when the dark disc of the moon intervenes between it and the observer’s eye ; for he says of the luminosity in question that if caused by our atmosphere it would extend all round and all over that disc. The point at issue here is a very simple optical question, in the discussion of which space would be merely wasted, and in reference to which the writer would simply reiterate the opinion he has already ex- pressed, that the luminous appearance as seen extending on to the disc of the moon in the Cadiz photograph, is (if it were visible outside the camera) attributable to nothing but the influence of the terrestrial, or of a lunar atmosphere. Whilst speaking of the American observer’s picture, he would remark in answer to two observations by Mr. Brothers, first, that he is not in “ possession of exclusive information ” concerning the circumstances of its pro- duction ; and secondly, that he does not assume that it was taken under conditions less favourable than those prevailing at Syracuse. He does, however, assume that that photograph either represents only the phenomenon to which the instrument used in its production was directed, or that it represents some- thing in addition to that phenomenon. If its representation is confined to the phenomenon, then upon the grounds al- ready shown, he considers that what is called the coronal light in the Cadiz picture not only may be, but most certainly is, in part at any rate, merely the result of atmospheric moisture. If, however, the American observers were unfortunate enough to re- present in their photograph a luminosity not belonging to the eclipse at all, then he considers that what did belong to the eclipse is not distinguishable in their picture from what did not. In short, whether the Cadiz picture does or does not represent only what itshould do, the writer is of opinion that any evidence it can afford respecting the identity of the coronal rifts must be other than satisfactorily conclusive. Concerning the third point, namely the ‘‘ indifferent defini- tion,” to which he directed attention, Mr. Brothers admits the validity of his remarks, so far as Syracuse picture No. 5 is con- cerned ; and this picture, it may be observed, Mr. Brothers would seem to consider the best of his series, inasmuch as it is the only one procurable of the opticians in Manchester, and also is the one selected for an engraved representation in the pages of NATURE. Respecting the last of the four points on which the writer has taken the liberty to remark, viz. the evidence afforded by the photographs of identity in the coronal rifts as seen at Cadiz and Syracuse, he is of opinion that he has already said sufficient to justify his observation that that evidence is not ‘‘ satisfactorily conclusive.” If, however, Mr. Brothers should entertain a dif- ferent opinion, and the Editor of Nature think the matter worthy of further space, he will make a few other remarks, look- ing at the subject from an altogether different point of view. In conclusion, the reader should be reminded that the subject under discussion is not the astronomical question—Is the sun sur- rounded by a medium which is illuminated by his rays and rendered visible under favourable circumstances to the eye of a terrestrial observer? but, assuming this to be the case—Is the luminosity indicated in the photographs under consideration a representation of that medium or is it not ? The writer dors not doubt the existence of such a medium round the body of our great luminary (‘hough, assuming it, ought there not to be some trace of it visible above the western horizon, immediately after sunset ina dry climate ?), but he does doubt whether the patch of light depicted in the photographs of the late solar eclipse is in the main other than a phenomenon of terrestrial meteorology. D. WINSTANLEY The Mr. Proctor entirely misunderstands me if he thinks that my criticism on his account of the solar parallax had reference to any failure on his part to give prominence to the discussion between Mr. Stone and myself, or to correctly apprehend that discussion. To point out all the imperfections and inaccuracies in his account would take a whole column of NaTuRE, and I have neither the time nor the disposition to make such a display of the accidental errors of a fellow-worker in the astronomical field. But, if Mr. Proctor desires it, I will constitu'e him judge in his own case in form and manner as follows ; I will send him privately the list of specifications on which my criticism was founded. If, in his opinion, this list fails completely to sustain the proposition that his history of recent researches on the solar parallax is ‘‘imperfect and inaccurate in a remarkable degree,” he is to publish it with any defence he chooses to make. Other- wise he may keep it for his own private use in case he brings out a second edition of his work. The kind spirit in which he has taken my remarks is highly appreciated, and I shall be happy to hear from him privately on the subject. Simon NEwcomsB Solar Parallax Halo in the Zenith AT 20 minutes to 6 p.M. on Saturday roth inst., I witnessed a natural phenomenon which I understand is very unusual. It was a portion of a halo around the zenith. Take the zenith 6°98 Potash. 5 1°49 Soda 5 5 5 eX ey/ Water . ° . . 11°46 100'00 So that this mineral is almost identical with jollyte. The fact that it fills the minute pores and cavities of the fossils can be seen in transparent slices, especially under pola- rised light, and also in decalcified specimens. The filling is not, however, so perfect as in the New Brunswick specimens above alluded to. The best, which I suppose to be Upper Silurian, is worthy of the attention of those who may have access to it, as presenting an interesting example of Silurian fossils preserved in the same way with the Laurentian Eozéon. It affords another palzozoic illustration of a mode of preservation of the structures of fossils, which, though perhaps more prevalent in the Lau- rentian and Cretaceous than in any intervening periods, is to be met with here and there throughout the geological series, and is of equal interest to the palaontologist and the chemical geologist. J. W. DAWSON Montreal, June 8 NEW THEORY OF SUN-SPOTS LATE number (1,835) of the Astronomische Nachrich- ven reproduces from the notices of the Royal Saxon Scientific Society a paper on the above subject by Pro- fessor Zéllner. The author believes that he is the first who has attempted to account for the periodicity of the spots by agencies confined to the sun itself, while he re- jects the notion of planetary influence to which the phe- nomenon has been commonly attributed. In this, how- ever, he is not quite correct, for in the April numbers of Cosmos last year there appeared a transcript of a paper read before the Belgian Academy of Sciences, by M. Bernaerts, who tries to explain the various phenomena of the sun spots without reference to any extra-solar action. Prof. Zéllner, like M. Bernaerts, accepts the theory of aliquid forming the surface of the sun; but while the Belgian savant considers the spots as perforations in the licuid layer traversed by downpouring currents of gases that had previously risen through the liquid from the gaseous nucleus, Prof. Zéllner believes the spots to be formations of slag or scoriz caused by a certain local cooing of the liquid surface. Over this glowing liquid is aglowing atmosphere, which contains, in a vaporous state, a portion of the matter belonging to the liquid. ‘The same as on the earth, if this atmosphere is cloudless | oes : and calm, radiation and cold are induced ; and where this occurs the slag-like products are formed, and spots become visible. But vaporous condensation is also a consequence of the cold. Clouds, therefore, are de- veloped, the radiation is checked, the liquid surface re- gains its former heat, and the spots are dissolved and dis- appear ; so that the very cause that effects their forma- tion also tends to their dissolution. ‘The repetition of the same operations gives the spots the character of “ inter- mittent phenomena ;” but their occurrence, as wellas their duration, depends on such a complication of meteoro- logical processes that those phenomena cannot be con- sidered otherwise than as perfectly casual. The action of a spot on the atmosphere in cooling it, and causing cloudlike condensations that oppose radia- tion and restore the heat, makes the presence of a great spot unfavourable to the formation of other spots, and Prof. Zollner arrives at the conclusion that “a sun-spot exerts within a certain area, and according to its size, an influence that prevents or obstructs the formation of other sun-spots.” Thus, it appears, he explains the zsolation of the spots. But they occur also in groups over a wide extent of surface, and he infers that “the same conditions of the solar atmosphere that induce the formation of a spot in any one place, prevail in general over a larger space than that occupied by the spot, so that within the area influenced by those favourable conditions, the simul- taneous production of other spots is more likely than elsewhere.” The size of the spots depends plainly not on the amount of radiation alone, for the slag like pro- ducts have cohesive properties like our ice-flakes. I candidly admit that all this is by no means so very plain to me after reading the theory of the isolation of the spots; and I would refer the reader to the original for a better understanding of the two theories relating to the isolation and the grouping, than I have been able to attain to. I would al.o refer to the original for tke Professor’s views of the oscillations of solar temperature and the periodicity of the spots, which he discusses in several paragraphs. The appearance of the spots in certain zones on both sides of the equator he explains as the effect of currents in the liquid stratum. He asks us to imagine, in the first place, a motionless, atmosphere-enveloped globe maintained at a constant high temperature ; and, after explaining the results, he tells us to fancy: such a globe with a liquid envelope heated at bottom by contact with the surface beneath it, and cooled above by radiation. The lower parts of the liquid have a tendency to rise on account of their lower specific gravity, but their ascent anywhere is impossible unless somewhere else a sinking takes place. With equal conditions everywhere prevail ng, no motion in either direction could occur; but those equal conditions do not exist on the sun, whose axial rota- tion diminishes the force of gravity at the equator, This therefore favours an ascent of the heated lower portions of the liquid at the equator, and a sinking of the cooler upper parts in the regions of the poles. Two streams are thus induced ; one below flowing toward the equator, and one above in a contrary direction. The former as it progresses gains in temperature by contact with the hot surface of the globe ; while the latter in its sub-aerial route loses heat by radiation. Thus the polar regions of the sun are made cooler than the equatorial, as has, in fact, been shown by Secchi’s investigations. These movements in the enveloping liquid ( //i/ssigen Umhillungen) are the cause of atmospheric disturbances, producing in certain places a lowering of tempera- ture and condensation. The fall in temperature is favoured in two ways—by the mixing of the equa- torial and polar streams in high latitudes, and by the ascent of an air-current at the equator. As this air- current cools in rising its vaporous constituents are partly condensed in the form of clouds. Yet these clouds need not at all be of so low a temperature as to appear to us 164 NATURE [Fune 29, 1871 like darkened areas ; but, on the contrary, when we con- sider the high temperature of the sun, we may conceive them to be formed of matter in a glowing state, so that products of condensation such as these could scarcely, if at all, be perceived on the luminous disc of the sun. On the other hand, the author believes that in the cases of the great and still warm planets, Jupiter and Saturn, we see the sun-illumined aqueous clouds that rise in bright belts at the equator. We believe the author’s object is to show that, while the visible effects of condensation appear in the atmospheres of Jupiter and Saturn, it is only on the liquid surface that they are exhibited by the sun, and thus its atmosphere remains transparent. We have, accordingly, in the equatorial zone and in the higher latitudes distinct regions of preponderating atmospheric cloudiness, and between them, like the zones of the trade winds on the earth, lie areas of relative clearness. All this, if I rightly understand the author, is not apparent to the observer, but its effects are seen on the glowing liquid solar surface, where, beneath the un- clouded areas, radiation is more induced than in other places, and the formation of sun-spots is the consequence. To the foregoing causes of atmospheric disturbance must be added the eruptions of hydrogen that are shown by the spectroscope. On the whole it is the s¢///ness and clearness of certain parts of the atmosphere that induce the formation of spots ; and, as the final result of his arguments, Prof. Zollner sums up as follows :— “The sun-spots are slag-like products of a cooling pro- cess caused by the radiation of heat from the glowing liquid surface, and they dissolve again in consequence of disturbances of equilibrium in the atmosphere which are brought on by themselves. If these disturbances are not merely local, but of more general extent, then, at the times of such general atmospheric disturbances, the formation of new spots is but little favoured, because the essential conditions of a considerable lowering of temperature are wanting, namely—s¢c//ness and clearness of the atmo- sphere. When the atmosphere, after the dissolution of the spots, gradually tranquillises, the process begins anew, and it assumes a eriodic character, while the conditions of the solar surface are to be regarded as constant in the mean. of lengthened periods. The local distribution of the spots must, according to this theory, depend on the zones of greatest atmospheric clearness, which, as has been shown, are generally coincident with the zones of the greatest development of the spots.” Such, as they appear to me, are Prof. Zdllner’s views of the sun’s spots ; and if, as is quite possible, I have not everywhere succeeded in comprehending him, I freely admit that any misconstruction I have made may be attributable to my own shortcomings rather than to h’s. At the same time I cannot but regard his style as considerably difficult and diffuse, and not perfect in the logical concentration which is so necessary for the clear enurciation of a theory. In some points his conclusions seem, undoubtedly, to agree with observations—for in- stance, as regards the vaporous masses that are formed over the spots, and which appear sufficiently attested by their strong absorption lines in the spectrum. In the main, however, I cannot say,so far as I may venture to give an opinion, that he has been more successful than other theorists on the same subject ; and among several objections which have occurred to me as affecting his views, I will venture to state the following :— 1. Regarding the establishment of currents in the liquid envelope, Prof. Zéllner affirms that in this way alone could the more heated and specifically lighter portions of the liquid at the bottom make their way to the surface ; but this appears to me incorrect when we consider that in freezing water there is an interchange of the upper and lower strata until congelation begins, and this without the intervention of currents, 2. He defines the spots as scoriaceous products floating on the liquid surface. The liquid, however, is moving in a current from the equator poleward, and, if so, I would ask how is it that the spots show no tendency to be carried along with it in that direction? I do not believe that any such general tendency has been observed. 3. He makes no attempt to account for the very striking and suggestive appearances of the penumbra, which led Wilson to regard the spots as openings or depressions in the photosphere. Neither does he try to explain the dis- tinct boundaries of the nucleus, the umbra, the penumbra, the light bridges, nor the deeper shading of the penumbra round its exterior limits. 4. The current cools in its advance poleward, and the polar regions are, as the professor tells us, the coolest parts of the sun. ‘Then if, according to his theory, the spots are the products of cold, why do they not increase in development up to the poles? He assumes, indeed, that the cold induced in the polar regions produces clouds in the atmosphere, which are unfavourable to the production of spots ; but they are so only as they check radiation and contribute to heat, and if, notwithstanding this, the polar regions are still found to be the coldest, and if cold is the cause of the spots, there seems a defect in the hypothesis. The professor points to an analogy between the spot zones and the clear zones of the trade winds oftheearth. The cases are, however, very different ; for our own atmosphere is subject to external influences, namely, the action of the sun, as well as those belonging to the earth itself. Of course,anything from the eminent pen of Prof. Zéllner must be received with the utmost respect, but I conceive that his theory of the sun-spots, as I have attempted partly to show, presents many difficulties ; and I cannot avoid stating my humble belief that, notwithstanding all that has been thought and written on the subject, and in spite of the modern discoveries of some of the constituent elements of the sun, we are but little nearer a true concep- tion of its organisation or economy than the theorists of the days of Hipparchus. J. BIRMINGHAM PROFESSOR TYNDALL ON THEORIES OF DISEASES WE reprint this article from the Sritish Medzcal Fournal, since it shows how closely connected are the most abstract inquiries with the most practical questions :— “The surest basis for Medicine is upon the broad foundations of exact scientific observation ; and we shall all welcome such contributions as so able a physicist as Professor Tyndall can make either to our knowledge or to our facilities for testing the foundations of our beliefs. The electric beam, which has in his hands played a large part in many able investigations and demonstrative ex- periments, was lately brought into play to demonstrate the ubiquity of dust in the atmosphere. To some very charming experiments Mr. Tyndall joined some theories which, if capable of proof, were yet not demonstrated by anything which he said or did. The ubiquity of these air- borne particles was perfectly well known, and their illu- mination by the electric beam, while it has given a more complete demonstration of their presence than was otherwise obtainable, has not added anything to our knowledge of their chemical or biological relations. His experiments, however, have had the valuable effect of demonstrating the uses of cotton-wool as a filter for them, and the advantage of inspiring him with interest in a subject in which we can but be pleased that one of ‘he most brilliant of investigators and expositors of physcal science should be interested — the investigation of the origin of zymotic disease, Fune 29, 1871] NATURE 165 “Tn many respects the address shows a considerable ad- vance over previous discourses by the same lecturer on this subject. The fact that the dirt or dust is in large part inor- ganic and in large part ‘dead,’ is now put prominently for- ward. Prof. Tyndall has, in fact, profited greatly by the les- sons of Dr. Gull—we shall not venture to assume that it is by anything which we have had to say by way of comment upon his previous addresses—and does not now assume to tell us anything more about the nature of this dirt than we knew before. He proceeds only to reason upon the subject, deriving his information, however, chiefly from chance communications from various physiologists and medical correspondents. One correspondent tells him that ‘blood free from dirt’ will take longer to putrefy out of the body, and Von Recklinghausen’s experiments are brought in reinforcement of the still more striking results and experiments of Prof. Lister; another in- forms him that vaccination through a bleb raised by blistering is less likely to produce secondary abscesses than by the ordinary method; and Dr. Budd assures Prof. Tyndall that, ‘from the day when he first began to think of these subjects, he has never hada doubt that the specific cause of contagious fevers must be living organisms.’ The last is, of course, a very interesting proof of early wisdom, but is not of the nature of a strict demonstration. The circumstance mentioned by Mr. Ellis reminds us that we have, on the other hand, seen it stated in print by one gentleman that he had to abandon vaccination by blistering because it was, in his practice, more productive than any other of suppurative and inflam- matory accidents. But all this is really beside the ques- tion. The whole course of subcutaneous surgery, the whole range of Prof. Lister’s experience, the daily expe- rience of the difference in progress between simple and compound fractures, a thousand facts and observations, and the accepted and proved theories of surgical practice, have long convinced every surgeon that, in proportion as air and that which air bears are excluded from the fluids of open wounds, and from the organic fluids of the body, suppurative and putrefactive processes will be lessened and warded off. So much Prof. Tyndall might, so far as our profession is concerned, have taken for granted ; and if he chooses to read, for instance, such papers as those we have published of Adams on subcutaneous osteotomy, he will see how largely this knowledge affects our practice in other directions than those to which he has referred. But, after proving to us what we know, Prof. Tyndall takes a leap, and assumes precisely those conclusions which we are desirous of his aid in testing. All these facts are as much accordant with the doc- trines of Liebig and the experiments of Bastian, as with the doctrines of Schwann and the experiments of Pasteur. Granted that air-borne particles are prime agents in initi- ating putrefactive and fermentative change, is this by a development of pre-existent living germs, a growth of deposited ova, or by a communicated molecular motion of dead organic matter in a state of change? Is it from germs or from fermentative organic particles ? We wish we could see that Prof. Tyndall had advanced our knowledge at all concerning this, the central knot of the tangle. It does not help us when he quotes certain known examples of parasitic disease, such as arises from pébrine. Because the itch is the result of the activity of the acarus, it does not follow of course that all skin-diseases are parasitic. Mr. Tyndall declares indeed, that the successful workers and profound thinkers of the medical profession are daily growing more convinced that ‘contagious disease gene- rally is of the same parasitic character’ as the silk-worm disease. We cannot find on what he bases that very broad statement. Where are the works of the ‘most suc- cessful workers and profound thinkers’ which support that statement? It will be very kind of the lecturer to in- form us whom he thus dignifies, and to what growing Series of authorities he refers. Certainly not to the re- searches on cholera of Gull, Baly, or Cunningham and Lewes : these negative the parasitic theory. Salisbury started a parasitic theory for measles, but his observations have been generally discredited, if they were ever ac- cepted. Hallier’s observations have certainly not gained in authority by the results of many recent investigations such as those of Burdon Sanderson. We are not aware of a parasitic theory of scarlet fever being held by any one. The theory concerning typhoid fever, which Dr. Budd holds strongly and defends ably on purely logical grounds, is as distinctly controverted by Dr, Murchison, “Prof. Tyndall, however, lays just stress upon one im- portant aspect of the question, which is precisely that which has long fascinated medical observers, and which is of the deepest importance. To it also, however, he adds nothing ; and from it he draws, with admirable and unquestioning boldness, precisely the conclusions as to which we have all been debating whether they be the true and only conclusions. Small-pox and scarlatina are, to use the graphic words of Miss Nightingale, in ordinary medical experience, ‘dog and cat,’ so that one cannot change into the other any more than Tabby can give birth to Fido. When she says that she has seen with her own eyes one or other spring up in a corner of a room from neglected dirt, Miss Nightingale uses, of course, a purely figurative language, and her evidence must be taken guantum valeat, But when Mr, Tyndall declares, on the other hand, that zymotic diseases are all of primal inheri- tance—long descended primeval germs, never changing, never dying out, and ever passing on by lineal descent— he treads also upon ground less secure than he supposes, That this is the ordinary observed mode of extension of contagious diseases no one will dispute. That they have no other many will dispute. When he declares that, for the similarity or identity of effect of like particles acting on like fluids, we have no physical parallel, he obviously leaves out of view the whole series of phenomena of crystallisation from saturated fluids. “To sum up: The tendency of modern research is cer- tainly not so favourable as Mr. Tyndall believes and ex- pects it to be to the theory of the parasitic origin of con- tagious disease. We should rather declare it to be un- favourable to that theory. The theory of the permanency and unrelated individuality of zymotic types of disease is not, as he assumes, an undisputed or unquestioned theory. We have to set against it, first, the theory of the correla- tion of zymotic diseases, which is growing into importance, and likely to attract more attention now than heretofore ; second, the observations of statisticians of the comple- mentary character of epidemics of zymotic diseases, and their apparent interchangeability in periods of decline; the theories of the spontaneous origin of zymotic disease by no contemptible observers, and in diseases as distinctly communicable as typhoid ; and the observations, experi- ments, and reasonings of Pouchet and of Bastian, which have not yet been met, and which cannot be disposed of by a few words of philosophic doubt. We appreciate very highly the value of Prof. Tyndall’s assistance in solving these questions. We entirely concur in his opinion that, as a physicist, he has a great power of use- fulness in this field of investigation ; and, if we refer him to the work of Gull, Baly, Cunningham and Lewes, Farr, and Murchison, it is because we are desirous that he should not be content to win easy triumphs with audiences uninstructed in the questions he discusses, or with the partisans of the theory he has adopted, but that he should enter into the heart of the question and face its real difficulties. It would be infinitely satisfactory if we could all arrive at as simple a sole theory of disease as that which Prof. Tyndall accepts entire, symmetrical, and rotund, from the supporters of the germ-theory ; but we fear the solution is not yet in hand. It is satisfactory to have enlisted his sympathies, and we shall all be glad of | his solid and sincere assistance.” Az T0600 NATURE [Fune 29,1871 THE CHESTNUT TREE OF MOUNT ETNA | HE traveller in Sicily will recollect the little village of Giarre, about half way between Messina and Cata- nia; and since the opening of the railway between these cities, with a station at no great distance from its princi- pal street. On the sea-side below the town is the shipping port of Riposto, and between Riposto and Giarre lies a fertile plain, rich in olive and vine-yards. Géiarre itself | has not much to boast of, except perhaps it might do so of the glorious views to be seen from the slight elevation on which it stands. One long principal street, a large plain chapel, a very second-rate inn, and then there is nothing more to be said of the village. It is, however, the nearest town with an inn tothe famous giant chestnut tree of Mount Etna, and as such is visited by tourists. This fine old tree grows in the Bosco or woody region close above the town and on the slope of Mount Etna. A narrow, steep road, gradually ascending, leads from Giarre to La Macchia, the broad bed of a river now (in the end of May) from it a very fine view of Etna is obtained. The moun- tain, however, from this side looks low and by no means as imposing as when seen from the sea. A little beyond S. Alfio the road turns to the left still leading upwards ; until all of a sudden the giant tree breaks upon the view, the road itself running through its very midst. It stands about 4,000 feet above the sea level, and it requires a good three and a half hours to walk to it from Giarre. It has been calculated that this tree is about 1,000 years of age. It is a tree, therefore, old enough to have its early history lost in myth; but stillit has its story ; and this story tells us that long ago a certain Queen of Aragon was passing by this way, when, from the effects of the weather, she and her suite, which consisted of one hundred mounted persons, took shelter under the shadow of its trunk and boughs, and so to this day and from this fact it is known as the Castagno di Cento Cavalli. This story is said to be generally believed, and, at any rate, does not appear to have been much discussed. Not so the tree; and very many opinions may be quoted all more less differing as to rolling down nought but clouds of dust, is passed, and | its age and size. Some believe, or have believed, that the the lava beds formed by the eruptions of 1689 and 1735 | tree was as large as the story tells us it was, that the in- are traversed, and at last S. Alfio is reached. This village is about four and a half miles from Giarre, and terior of the vast trunk has since then decayed away ; leaving a number of separate pieces, each large enough to THE CHESTNUT TREE OF MOUNT ETNA form a big tree, which pieces are covered with bark only on their outer surface. Others assert that there were here several large trees, more or less joined together, and demonstrate on the pieces of these trees still standing the | barky layers surrounding the whole of their stems. Not very long ago there were still four pieces standing, each of them of the dimensions of a very large tree. In the space surrounded by these pieces stood a hut, in which the annual crop of chestnut fruit was stored. One of these trees, or portions of the tree, has since disappeared. The hut has now been removed, and the road, sufficiently wide to allow of a carriage, runs between the remaining pieces and over the ground on which the hut was built. As you approach, one large piece of the tree is to the left-hand side of the road, and two larger pieces are to the right. It is very probable that many of the pieces believed to have belonged to the one original vast stem, were really stems themselves of independent trees, and such would | appear to be the case with the large trunk to the left of the | present roadway. But there isa strong probability that the two immense pieces to the right of the road were at one time united, and that they form part of the original tree. The annexed woodcut is from a photograph of these pieces. | 30th of them are deeply hollowed out. The base of the | trunk to the right of the woodcut is very much decayed | away, and several men could shelter in it ; and the portions of the stems seen on looking at the picture are devoid of true bark. If these two portions once formed a single stem, then, indeed, though it might not have thrown a shadow sufficiently large to shade a hundred horsemen, yet it must have been a very giant among all the forest trees. Even now, in its decadence, the three stems are objects of sufficient interest to lead us to ask for them the reader’s attention. BR /PsWwe SCIENCE IN PLAIN ENGLISH Il. i considering the importance of Technical Education with reference to the practical arts, and the claims of Science as an element of culture, we are led to study the methods of teaching. It has been the custom in English to borrow the technical terms of Science from the so-called “learned languages,” particularly Latin and Greek. To such an extent has this been carried that unless a term bears the marks of such a derivation it is hardly recognised by the public as a technical term. Fune 29, 1871] NATURE 167 The Germans, on the other hand, in teaching science, em- ploy their own language to a large extent, and impose a definite scientific meaning upon common words. It is are- markable evidence of the formative power of the German language, that it should have been able to produce an imi- tation of the systematic chemical nomenclature of the French school so complete that it is used in Germany as familiarly as the original system is in France and England. The fact that the most cultivated nation in the world, the Germans, find that they can teach science in their verna- cular, deserves the most careful consideration—it seems to furnish at once an argument and an example. In discussing this question, it is necessary to examine the capabilities of the English language with reference to the purposes of public instruction, but in the first instance we may glance at the development of scientific language in some of the countries of Europe during the last three hundred years. When the progress of science rendered it necessary to employ new terms in order to express new ideas, two diffe- rent methods were adopted by different nations, Let us compare the French and English with the German and Dutch method. When, for instance, the French wanted to express in one word the “ knowledge of the stars” or the “ study of the stars,” they borrowed the Greek word astronomia, and called it astronomze. In like manner the English said astronomy but the Germans expressed the meaning of the term in their own language, calling it Strn-kunde or “star-knowledge ;” similarly the Dutch said Starvre-kunde, and they have continued using such words to the present day. In English, then, it has been the custom to take Latin or Greek compounds ready made, although in many in- stances we might have translated them if we had chosen to do so. If we look to the literal meaning, the original difference between sfhere, globe, and da// is that the first is Greek, the second Latin, and the third Saxon. So the Germans call a hemi-sphere a “half-ball,” and the g/ode upon which we live the “ earth-ball.” Now if, in any language, the compound words are, to a great extent, derived from other tongues, such words will be comparatively unintelligible to those who are not con- versant with foreign languages. In such a case, the common people wiil learn the words rather by practice and association than by any exact knowledge of the original meaning; and to the same degree the learned must enjoy a privilege which the illiterate do not possess. Hence there is, in English, a broad distinction between the speech of the general public and the language of science. Suppose that a working man, in this country, wishes to study Botany, he cannot read one of the ordinary works on that subject, without having his attention distracted by scores of new words which are either Latin or Greek, or else are derived from those languages. Thus he is often disheartened ; or, if he succeeds, it is a long time before he overcomes the check which he experienced at the outset, and many a likely student is thus discouraged at the very threshold of his studies. But the German writers, when they make books for their people, proceed upon a different plan. For if they give the Latin and Greek terms, it is only in brackets, and by way of parenthesis ; while inthe body of the work they use plain German words, and keep on employing such terms throughout the whole work. Hence, at the first reading, a German youth may go straight on, without paying attention to the Latin terms, and so make himself master of the facts. Afterwards, at a second or third reading, he may study the learned terms, which are re- peated in brackets, from time to time, in order to catch the eye of the reader, and thus imprint themselves upon his memory. For instance, in describing the parts of a flower, the writer does not begin by talking about a “calyx,” but speaks of the cwf (calyx), and calls the leaves of the cup cup-leaves (sepals). Similarly, the “corolla” is the crown, and its leaves are crown-/eaves (petals). Thus, when he wishes to tell the learner that a crows (corolla) has several leaves, he does not tell him that the “corolla is polypetalous,” but that the “crown is many-leaved,” or that the “ crown-leaves are many.” There is a danger that some of the terms thus employed may not be quite accurate. But the Germans are willing to risk the chance of misapprehension for the sake of making an impression on the mind of the reader, and gaining his attention. If then, half a loaf is better than no bread, it seems more advisable that an unlettered man who wishes to study science, should go through a book which is intelligible, though not absolutely accurate, rather than attempt to read a treatise which is admirably cor- rect, but so full of hard words, that he is tempted at every line to throw down the book in despair. We have to consider whether such a method can be carried out in English, There can be no doubt that the public would welcome:any proposal for the publication of elementary scientific works written in a simple style. Some steps have already been taken in this direction, and scientific writers appear to be cautiously feeling their way. But the plan has not been carried out systematically or boldly, nor has the language of science been fully examined in reference to popular instruction. Nor are scientific men entirely convinced that the pro- posed simplification is practicable, or even desirable. Some of them deny that the English language is equal to the task, because we have lost that power of making com- pound words which confessedly existed in Old English, and which still exists in German. Others contend that even in German the method is characterised by want of precision, and gives rise to confusion ; hence they main- tain that it is better to frame the scientific terms in words which are not familiar to the common ear, in order to ensure precision and to guard against error. But in arguing this question two points may be ob- served. First—That men of high attainments are less averse to the proposed method than men of inferior ability. Secondly—That all are more disposed to see it tried in some other science than in the one which they themselves profess. The grammarian, or the mathema- tician would not greatly object to a plan for simplifying Botany ; “for that,” they say, “is a science of hard names.” But the botanist replies, “ No, you must not touch Botany ; suppose you were to try Mathematics.” The argument cuts both ways. It is evident that each acknowledges the value of fixed technical terms in his own science, and yet is not unwilling to see a simplifi- cation introduced in other branches of study. The objections urged against the proposed method are of two kinds :—(1) that the system itself is misleading, and the method inaccurate ; (2) that even if the plan be practicable in German it is not possible in English. We shall, in the next article, review these objections in their order, WM. RUSHTON = es NOTES WE are glad to learn that steps are being taken to bring about such a general application from men of science to the Govern- ment for further deep-sea explorations as we referred to some little time ago. This is as it should be. We hear also, that, on the invitation of some of the leaders of science there, Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys will proceed to America in the middle of August, to inspect, in company with Prof. Agassiz, the collections obtained in the American dredgings. Such a proceeding will be of the utmost value to science, and no one is more fitted than Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys to perform such an important work. 168 NATURE | une 29, 1871 ————— a ””:~*” = Aas As we are going to press we hear of the death of M. Clapa- réde, one of the most distinguished naturalists whom Switzerland has produced. We hope in a future number to give an account of his labours, now unfortunately ended at an early age. Tur “Scheme of Education” Committee of the London School Board have sent in their report recommending science teaching in primary schools. We shall take an opportunity of referring to it on a future occasion. Forty of the teachers under the Science and Art Department are now in London for the purpose of undergoing practical ee years chemical or what they are doing. There will be ysics next month, ArT a meeting of the Senate of the University of London held on Monday last, Sir Edward Ryan was elected to the office of Vice-Chancellor fro ze7’., in the place of the late Mr. George Grote. NOTWITHSTANDING the alleged increased severity of the Matriculation examination at the University of London, and the large proportion who have failed of recent years, the number of candidates presenting themselves at the examination held during the present week is larger than in any previous year, being over six hundred. THE Ladies’ Educational Association has now been definitely connected with University College, London, where all the lectures will in future be held, an arrangement which will doubtless be of great advantage to both students and teachers. ‘The Association has already issued its syllabus for the Michael- mas and Lent Terms of next winter session, The curriculum includes courses for ladies by the professors of Latin, Hebrew, English, French, Italian, German, Philosophy of Mind and Logic, Jurisprudence, Hygiene, History, Constitutional Law and History, Mathemetics, Physics, Practical Chemistry, Geology, and Archi- tecture. here will also be classes for Drawing and Painting in conrection with the Slade School of Fine Art ; and, during the Lent term, Prof. Oliver will deliver a course of ten lectures on the Structure of Plants and General Phenomena of Vegetation, with reference more especially to the general bearing of vegetation upon landscape. Dr. Hooker and party returned last week from their visit to North Africa. The number of species of plants brought home is estimated at about 1,200, among which it is expected there will be a considerable number entirely new. A MEETING of the friends and pupils of the late Prof. Goodsir was held in Edinburgh, in June, 1867, under the presidency of Dr. Dunsmure, and it was resolved, ‘* That steps be taken to form a lasting memorial of Prof. Goodsir’s distinguished career as an original investigator, and teacher of Anatomy and Physi- ology, and that the most appropriate manner of commemorating Prof. Goodsir’s services, was to establish in the University of Edinburgh a Fellowship in Anatomy and Physiology, to be called the Goodsir Fellowship.” A Committee was formed, and sub- sequently added to, to collect subscriptions, and to decide as to the conditions on which the Fellowship should be awarded, Honorary secretaries were appointed in various parts of the country, and in the Colonies. It was expected that a sufficient fund would have been collected within two years to found the Fellowship. At the present date, however, not more than 620/. has been subscribed, The hope of establishing an endowment in the University on the scale of a Fellowship has, therefore, been abandoned, and it is now proposed to institute a Scholarship in Anatomy and Physiology. In order to carry out this project worthily, it is necessary to raise the sum already collected to 1,000/., and renewed efforts are accordingly being now made to provide this amount, Tue Harveian oration on the Progress of Therapeutics was delivered last week in the Royal College of Physicians by Dr, T. K. Chambers, after which the biennial Baly medal for the most distinguished researches in physiological science prosecuted during the past two years, was presented by the president to Dr. Lionel S. Beale. TueE Royal Agricultural Society has decided on appointing a Consulting Botanist, at a salary of 1oo/. per annum, the engage- ment to be an annual one. It will be the duty of the botanist to examine plants, seeds, &c., for members of the society, and to report the principal work performed from time to time for its members, and to undertake the work at fixed rates, to be ar- ranged before his appointment, and to furnish papers to the Journal on special subjects of botanical interest. The appoint- ment of an Entomologist to the Society has also been in con- templation. AN International Congress, for the progress of Geographical Science, will be held at Antwerp from the 14th to the 22nd of August. A number of questions in Geography, Meteorology, Navigation, Ethnology, &c., will be submitted for discussion, An exhibition will also be held of objects connected with the purpose of the Congress, maps, plans, instruments used in navi- gation, &c., and prizes will be awarded for the best object ex- hibited in each class. THE excursion of the Geologists’ Association to Yeovil and neighbourhood on the 29th of May and three following days was a very successful one. Near Yeovil Junction station the Yellow Micaceous sands, considered by Dr. Wright to be of Upper Liassic Age, were examined, and characteristic fossils obtained. The large collection of Mesozoic fossils collected by the Rey, Edward Bower, at Closworth Rectory, was inspected, as well as that of the Rey. T. C. Maggs, of Yeovil. The next morning, under the guidance of Prof. Buckman, the party ascended the fine escarpment of Babylon Hill, where bands of concretionary sandstone contain fossils essentially Oolite and not Liassic. The characteristic fossils of the well-known ‘‘ Cephalopod-bed,”’ con- sidered by Prof. Buckman to be at the top instead of at the base of the series, as generally supposed, were obtained at the celebrated Half-way House Quarries, and at a small but very prolific quarry on the Professor’s own estate at Bradford Abbas, The following day the far-famed quarries of Ham Hill were visited, and the great bed of Inferior Oolite Freestone, which has supplied ma- terial for the churches and other buildings of the district for cen- turies, was carefully examined. The Middle and Upper Lias were also investigated at South Petherton; and on the fourth day the interesting and picturesyue Keuper Cliffs at Seaton were examined, and the coast section followed until the ‘‘ Landslip ” was reached, extending for a distance of about six miles. Tue thirty-seventh Anniversary Meeting of the Statistical Society was held on Thursday, the 22nd of June, Mr. William Newmarch, F.R.S., president, in the chair. The following is the list of president, council, and officers elected to serve for the ensuing twelvemonths, viz. :—President—Dr. William Farr, F.R.S. Council—Dr. T. G. Balfour, F.R.S., R. Dudley Baxter, Samuel Brown, Dr. Hyde Clarke, L. H. Courmey, W. Fowler, M.P., F. Galton, F.R.S., Robert Giffen, Rt. Hon, W. E. Gladstone, M.P., W. A. Guy, M.B., F.R.S., Archibald Hamilton, J. T. Hammick, F. Hendriks, J. Heywood, F,R.S., F. Jourdan, Prof, Leone Levi, Sir Massey Lopes, Bart., Fune 29, 1871] NATURE 169 M.P., W. G. Lumley, Q.C., J. MacClelland, Dr. F. J. Mouat, W. Newmarch, F.R.S., R. H. I. Palgrave, R. H. Patterson, F. Purdy, W. H. Smith, M.P., T. Sopwith, F.R.S., Col. W. H. Sykes, M.P., F.R.S., Ernest Seyd, W. Tayler, Prof. Jacob Waley. Treasurer—J. T. Hammick. Honorary secretaries— W. G. Lumley, Q.C., F. Purdy, Jacob Waley. TuE Winchester College Natural History Society, founded on March 12, 1870, has just issued its first Report, which includes some useful papers, and botanical, entomological, and palzonto- logical lists of the neighbourhood, It gives promise of good and useful work to be done in future years. WE have received the thirty-eighth annual report of the Royal Comwall Polytechnic Society. As might be expected from the locality of the society, the majority of the papers bear on subjects connected with mining and metallurgy ; though there are also some meteorological tables, and a useful list of addenda to the fauna of the county. A marked feature of the report is the number of woodcuts illustrative of various adaptations of machi- nery, &c., connected with the subjects of the papers. Dr. LAUDER Linpsay has reprinted his essay on the Physio- logy and Patholegy of Mind in the Lower Animals, in which he insists that the mind of the lower animals does not differ in kind from that of man; and that they possess the same affections, virtues, moral sense, and capacity for education, and are liable to the same kinds of mental disorders. Mr. W. Rosinson, author of ‘* The Wild Garden,” ‘‘ Alpine Flowers for English Gardens,” &c., publishes a useful Catalogue of Hardy Perennials, Bulbs, Alpine Plants, Annuals, Biennials, &c., intended as a help to exchanges between cultivators of hardy plants, analogous to those that have long been common among botanists. WE have received Nos. 203-206 of the “‘ Biicher- Verzeichniss” of Friedlander and Son, of Berlin, comprising the following sub- jects—‘‘ Geology, Mineralogy, and Crystallography,” ‘‘ Botany,” “Zoology,” and “Mathematics, Physics, Astronomy, and Technology.” Mr. PENGELLY has reprinted two papers read before the Devonshire Association for the Advancement of Science, Litera- ture, and Art, “‘ On the rainfall received at the same station by gauges at different heights above the ground,” and “On the supposed influence of the moon on the rainfall,” in which he thus sums up the conclusions arrived at :—‘‘ 1. That under un- objectionable conditions, and at the same station, less rain will be received by a gauge high above the ground than by one nearer the surface ; 2. That the total defect will increase with increase of height; 3. That the defect will not increase so rapidly as the height.” And again:—‘‘The result of my observations then may be briefly summed up thus: At Torquay, the second quarter of the moon, or that which terminates on the day before each full moon, had the least number of wet days, the heaviest average daily rate of rain, and the greatest aggregate rainfall; whilst the third quarter, or that commencing on the day of each full moon, had the greatest number of wet days, the lightest average daily rate of rain, and the second greatest aggregate rainfall. The differences are but slight ; but it must be borne in mind that the moon’s meteosological influence can be but slight. The results, however, do not accord with any of those mentioned by the authors so largely quoted at the com- mencement of this paper, yet they are such, and only such, as are calculated to induce any one to pause before giving an opinion for or against the alleged connection of the moon with our rain- fall. Perhaps I cannot better conclude than by echoing the words of M. Arago, ‘The subject requires to be examined afresh.’ ”” Ir is reported that about June 7, an earthquake took place on the south coast of Asia Minor, opposite Rhodes, resulting in the almost total destruction of the small town of Marmaritza. STRONG earthquakes continue in Peru. There was one in Arequipa on April 11. The movements were from east to west, and the duration forty to fifty seconds. It is worthy of notice that on the same April 11 two slight shocks of earthquake were felt at Rangoon, in Burmah, the direction being from north to south. On the night of the 16th another earthquake was felt, EARTHQUAKE shocks were felt on May 21st in the vicinity of Rochester and Buffalo, in the state of New York; at Augusta, in Georgia ; and at Quebec, Ottawa, and other points in Canada, THE remote island called Sunday Island, in the Pacific, has been subjected to a terrible volcanic eruption so that the inhabit. ants have been removed to Norfolk Island, to join the descends ants of the Bounty Mutineers. ON February 22 several shocks of earthquake were felt at Puno, in Peru, and on March 4 a slight earthquake of thirty seconds at Arequipa after several rainy days, On February 7 two distinct shocks of earthquake were felt in the department of Minititlan, in Mexico, followed by a wave rising one foot. AMONG the late remarkable disturbances in the Pacific basin are to be numbered those affecting the waters of the ocean around the guano Islands of Guanape on the Peruvian coast, which took place on the 5th of February. During the whole of that day the sea was much agitated, though nothing particular was noted in the tides, On the morning of the 6th there was some- thing strange about the currents, with a westerly wind freshening with dangerous force. The winds and currents ruling along the Peruvian coast are from the S.E., but on the 6th this was not so, for they veered round and came from the W. at six miles an hour (? currents). Thenit was noticed that as the day grew on the currents seemed to flow in from all directions, forming numerous whirlpools, while alarm for the shipping was caused by the increasing strength of the west wind. The nights of the 6th and 7th were consequently times of alarm to the masters of the guano ships, which were dashed against each other. The phenomena had a great resemblance to those at Arica and the Chincha Islands on the 15th of August, 1868. On the 9th of February the appearances were calmer, and the wind veered round to S.E. A? Pichicani, in Peru, an extraordinary meteor appeared on February 12. It was of a red colour, balloon-shaped, with the end ar neck pointed to the earth, and exploded as it reached the surface, leaving a dark cloud on the plain, injuring the roofs of several huts, and knocking down a fence of about 500 yards belonging toa farm, Among the fragments of this meteorite were found dead fish of several species, supposed to have been lifted out of the river. Similar phenomena had been observed near Huacochullo and Atucachi. INDIAN papers report that the tea prospects in Darjeeling this year are so favourable that up to the present time (May) the crop has been from twice to three times what it was at that date last season. THE report of the Curator of the Natal Botanic Garden for 1870 states that there had been shipped to various public and private gardens 5 Ward’s cases, 22 boxes, and 11 parcels, and that there had been received 13 Ward’s cases, 9 boxes, and 22 parcels. Iris reported from Chile that the Planchon Pass across the 170 NATURE | Fune 29, 1871 Andes, the main line from Chile to Buenos Ayres, has been dis- turbed for about three miles by the eruption of hillocks. Aw Australian paper states that a live frog had been brought to the office that had been found three or four days before incased in the solid rock, in the drive of the Sultan mine, Barry’s Reef, at a depth of 4ooft. below the surface. The little animal Jooked bright-eyed and very lively, and was apparently none the worse for its long term of solitary imprisonment, SCIENCE IN AMERICA* HE forthcoming number of the American Journal of Science will contain an extremely interesting announcement in regard to American palzontology, namely, the discovery by Prof, Marsh in the Cretaceous beds of the Rocky Mountain region, of a huge pterodactyl, or flying lizard. This form has long been Known as characteristic of the deposits of Europe, and has always attracted much attention from its combination of the characters of the bird and reptile ; but until this announcement by Prof. Marsh the family was not supposed to be represented in the New World. The addition therefore of the pterodactyl, to the list of American genera, shows a marked increase in palaonto- logical affluence, and gives additional point to the statements made some time ago, that America, instead of being greatly inferior to the Old World in the variety of its vertebrate fossil remains, now bids fair to greatly exceed it in this respect. The name assigned to this new species is “ Pterodactylus Oweni” (in honour of Prof. Richard Owen of London), and it is believed to have had an expanse between the tips of the wings of at least twenty feet—We regret to learn that during the recent revolution on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec a large number of valuable collections in natural history, made for the Smith- sonian Institution by its correspondent in that region, Prof. Sumichrast, were entirely destroyed in the course of the conflicts of the opposing parties.—The annual report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1869 has, after an unusual delay, just made its appearance from the public printing-office, and contains the customary variety of interesting matter, which has made this report so much sought after by persons of scientific tastes in the United States. Preceded by the secretary’s usual report of the operations of the Institution for the year, it contains in an ap- pendix numerous articles, partly original, and partly translations from such foreign journals as are not readily accessible to the American student. Among these may be mentioned biographies of Thomas Young, Augustus Bravais, Von Martius, and Mari- anni; an important original paper by Dr. Sterry Hunt on the chemistry of the earth ; and one by Marey on the phenomena ot flight in the animal kingdom; an extended paper by General Simpson, upon the march of Coronado in search of the seven cities of Cibola; one by Sir John Lubbock, on the social and religious condition of the lower races of man, &c. The report is in no way inferior in interest to its predecessors. —Salt Lake City has lately been the scene of considerable activity, in connection with the arrival there of several govern- ment exploring parties, for the purpose of fitting out for their summer's campaign. Among these may be mentioned Mr. Clarence King, who continues his geological and topographical exploration of the fortieth parallel eastward through Colorado ; Major Powell, who renews his examination of the canons of Green River and the Colorado, and who is detained at Salt Lake City in consequence of the late melting of the mountain snows, the low stage of water preventing him from passing through the canons ; and a portion of Prof. Hayden’s party is also at the same place collecting animals and supplies for a visit to the Yellow Stone region.—By advices from South America we learn that on the 25th of April last Chili was visited by two of the severest earthquakes that have been experienced in the country since 1851. The first shock in Valparaiso was not preceded by any warning sound, and its suddenness and intensity created considerable alarm, the streets of the city being filled in a short time by people who rushed out from their dwellings in a state of indescribable confusion.—Many of our readers are familiar with the names of Mr. Thomas Say, of Philadelphia, and Mr. C. A. Leseur, as having been among the most prominent of our naturalists during the early part of the present century, and as having added many new species to the lists. The labours of Mr. Say were directed largely toward the invertebrata, embracing more particularly the insects, shells, and crustaceans. Many of * Communicated by the Scientific Editor of Harper's Weekly, his explorations were in the vicinity of Beesley’s Point, New Jersey, where species were obtained by him that have ever sinc remained almost unknown to science. Several examinations have been more recently made on the New Jersey coast, for the express purpose of recovering these forms ; and one of the most successful was prosecuted last spring, under the direction of Prof. Verrill, of Yale College, who, with several companions, spent a week at Somers Point and Beesley’s Point. The results of their labours were much greater than they had anticipated, as they not only obtained a large proportion of all the missing forms, but secured quite a number of new species, and detected the occurrence, for the first time, of others previously known as belonging much farther south, among them two echinoderms, of which Cape Hatteras was the limit previously ascertained. Their ‘‘catch” for the week summed up about 175 species of marine animals—about 25 of fishes, 50 of crustaceans, 25 of worms, 50 of mollusks, and 15 of radiates and sponges. MR. BENTHAM’S ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS TO THE LINNEAN SOCIETY (Continued from page 152) ERMANY, or rather Central Europe from the Rhine to the Carpathians and from the Baltic to the Alps, is, as to the greater part of it, a continuation of that generally uniform but gradually changing biological region which covers the Russian empire. It is not yet affected by those peculiar western races which either stop short of the Rhine and Rhone or only here and there cross these rivers with a few stragglers ; the mountains, however, on its southern border show a biological type different from either of those which limit the Russian portion, indicating in many respects, as I observed in 1869, a closer connection with the Scandinavian and high northern than with the Pyrenean to the west or the Caucasian to the east. The verifying and follow- ing up these indications gives a special interest to the study of German races, their variations and affinities. In so far as formal specific distinctions are concerned, all plants and animals, with the exception of a few of those whose minute size enables them long to escape observation, may now be considered as well known in Germany as in France and England ; and in Germany especially the investigation of anatomical and physiological characters has of late years contributed much to a more correct appreciation of those distinctions and of the natural relations of organicraces. But much remains still for the systematic biologist, and especially the zoologist, to accomplish. Among the very numerous floras of the country, both general and local, there are several which have been worked out with due reference to the vegetation of the immediately surrounding regions, but corre- sponding complete faunas do not appear toexist. A few in some branches have been commenced ; but in these, as in the numerous papers on more or less extended local zoology, as far as I can perceive, animals, and especially insects, seem to be considered only in respect of the forms they assume within the region treated of, frequently with a very close critical study of variations or races of the lowest grades, but neglecting all comparison with the forms a species may assume or be represented by in adjoining or distant countries. Germany holds a first rank amongst civilised nations in respect of her biological works in most departments; they probably exceed in bulk those of any other country. Her publishic g scientific academies and other associations, her zoological museums and gardens, her botanical herbaria and university gardens, her zoologists and botanists of world-wide reputation, are far too numerous to be here particularised. She excels all other nations in the patient and persevering elaboration of minute details, although she must yield to the French in respect of clearness and conciseness of methodical exposition. Her speculative tendencies are well known, aud the great impulse given to them since the spread of ‘‘Darwinismus” appears to have thrown systematic biology still further into the background ; the sad events of the last twelvemonth have also temporarily suspended or greatly interfered with the peaceful course of science. Thus the zoological works contained in the lists I have received are almost all dated in 1868 or 1869, and have been already analysed in the reports of Wiegmann’s ‘‘ Archiv” and in the 5th and 6th volumes of the ‘‘ Zoological Record,” and the principal ones relating to exotic zoology will have to be referred to further on. In Systematic Botany also but little of importance has been published within the last ten years beyond the great ‘ Flora Brasiliensis,” which, since the death of Dr. vy, Martius, has been Sune 29, 1871 | accively proceeded with under the direction of Dr, Eichler, and to which I shall recur under the head of South America. Rohrbach has published a carefully worked-out conspectus of the difficult genus S7/ene, and, in the “Linnea,” a synopsis of Lychnideze ; and Bockeler, also in the ‘‘ Linnza,” is describing the Cyperaceze of the herbarium of Berlin, a work very unsatis- factory, considering the detail in which it is carried out, as it takes no notice whatever of the numerous published species not there represented, nor of any stations or other information relating to those described other than that what are supplied by that her- barium. It is not a monograph, but a collection of detached materials for a monograph. Switzerland comprises the loftiest and most extensive moun- tain-range of which the biology has been well investigated—the Alps, which have lent their name to characterise the vegetation and other physical features of mountains generally, when attaining or approaching to the limits of eternal snows. ‘The relations of this Alpine vegetation, both in its general character due to cli- matological and other physical causes, and in its geographical connection with other floras, has been frequently the subject of valuable essays, several of which I have mentioned on former occasions ; and it is most desirable that the results obtained should be verified by or contrasted with those which might be derived from zoological data, and more particularly by the observation of insects and terrestrial mollusca. As a first step it is necessary that the plants and animals of the country should be accurately defined and classed in harmony with those of adjoining regions. This has been done for plants. The Swiss Flora has been well worked up both by German and by French botanists ; it is included in Koch’s Synopsis and some other German Floras. De Can- dolle and other writers on the French Flora had to introduce a large portion of the Swiss vegetation, and the compilers of the rather numerous Swiss Floras and handbooks* have generally followed either the one or the other, so that there remains but little difficulty in the identification of Swiss botanical races ; but here, as elsewhere, methodical faunas of the country are much inarrear, I have the following notes from M. Humbert of what has been published in this respect during the last three years. V. Fatio, ‘* Faune des Vertébrés de la Suisse,” 8vo, vol. i. Mammiféres, 1869 (reported on in “ Zoological Record,” vi. p. 4): the second volume, Reptiles, Batrachia, and Fishes, to appear in the course of the present year, the 3rd and 4th vols. (Birds) to follow. This fauna is the first which has been pub- lished on the Vertebrata of Switzerland. Hitherto there have only been partial and incomplete catalogues. The species are carefully described, and there are numerous notes on their distri- bution and habits, from the authoi’s observations made in all the Swiss collections and in the field. There are also interesting historical details upon certain animals which have more or less completely disappeared from Swiss territory, such as the stag, the roebuck, and the wild boar, as also on the mammifers, whose remains have been found in recent deposits. G. Stierlin and V. de Gaward, “Fauna Coleopterorum Helvetica,’ in the Nouveaux Mémoires of the Helvetic Society, xxiii. and xxiv,, a catalozue with stations and often limits in altiiude, supplementing Heer’s “ Fauna Coleopterorum Helvetica.” H. Frey’s cata- logues of and notes on Swiss Microlepidoptera, in the ‘* Mit- theilungen” of the Swiss Entomological Society, P. E. Miiller, Note on the Cladocera of the great lakes of Switzerland, from the ‘‘ Archives” of the Bibliot! éque Universelle, xxxvii., April, 1870 = In his excellent memoir on the Monoclea of the neigh- bourhood of Geneva, Jurine had only described the small crustacea of ponds and swamps. He hat not investigated the species which inhabit the Lake of Geneva, and he had also neglected some very interes ing iorms which are only to be met with in large expanses of water, such as Sythotrephes longimanus and * In the list of publications of the last three years only, sent me by M. A. De Candolle, are the following new Swiss Botanical Handbooks ;—J. C. Du- e¢mmun, ‘' Taschenbuch fiir d n Schweizeri chen Botaniker,” 1 vol. 8vo of so24 pages, with some analytical woodcuts: few details on stations. R. T. Simler, ‘‘ Botanischer Taschenbegleiter der Alpenclubisten,” 1 vol. 12mo, 4 plates: alpine species only. Tissiére (late Canon of «t. Bersard, now deceased), ** Guide cu Botaniste au Grand St Bernard ” x vol. 8vo: a cata- Jogue with detailed 1 calties. J. Rtiner, * Prodrom der Wal statter Gefasspflanzen,” 1 vol. 8vo: a catalogue with details ©s to localivies. Mortiner, * Flore anatytique de lt Suisse,” 1 vol remo: imuated from an older German ‘‘ Excursions Flora fur die »chweiz,” by A Gremli A new (3rd edition of L. Fis her's * Flora von fern ' and Fischer-Oosters © Kubi beinenses ;”’ the latter work, together with som» contributions to the Swiss Fiora of A. Gremli, adding 98 pages to the volumes of Batological literature we already vossess, wi hout advancing a step either in giving us a clear notion of what 1s a species of Bramble, or in facilitating our naming those we meet with, unless in the precise localities indicated by the several authors. NATURE 171 Leptodora hyalina. M. Miller points out the differences there are between the Cladocera of the centre of the Jakes and those of the margins. The former, which float freely over the lake, have a peculiar stamp, marking also the marine crustacea of open sea ; their bodies have an exireme transparency, and they show a great tendency to the development of long and rigid balancing organs. The latter, on the contrary. are little transparent, have stunted forms, and are without balancing or other elongations which might interfere with their movements amidst solid objects, such as stones and aquatic plants near the shores ; most of these littoral species show, moreover, a development of some organ that assists them in moving upon solid bodies, M. Miiller finds also a very great connection between the Cladoceral faunas of Switzerland and Scandinavia. The Association zoologique du Léman, founded upon the model of the Ray Society, has for its object the publication of monographs relating to the basin of the Léman or Lake of Geneva, that is, the region comprised between Martigny and the Perte du Rhone, with the valleys of the affluents received by the Rhone in this portion of its course. It has been carried on as successfully as could have been expected from a scientific under- taking of this nature, reckoning at the present moment nearly 200 members. It has already published papers by A. Brot on the shells of the family of Naiadz, with nine plates; by F. Chevrier on the Nyssze (Hymenoptera); by V. Fatio on the Arvicelz, with six plates; by H. Fourniet on the Dascillidz (Coleoptera), with four plates ; and is now issuing a more im- portant work, the result of long and patient investigation, G. Lunel’s ‘‘ Histoire Naturelle des Poissons du Bassin du Léman,”’ in folio, with twenty plates beautifully executed in chromolitho- graphy. Two parts, with eight plates, have already appeared, and the work is in rapid progress. A specimen of the plates, received from M. Humbert, lies on the tables of our library. I have also a rather long list of papers on the zoology of the same district or of the Canton de Vaud, inserted in the Bul- letin of the Société Vaudoise of Natural History, and of others on the zoology of other districts, from various other Swiss Transactions, all of which are noticed in our ‘‘ Zoo- logical Record,” vols. v. and vi. To these must be added J. Saratz’s ‘‘Birds of the Upper Engadin,” from the 2nd volume of the Bulletin of the Swiss Ornithological Society, 1870. The valley of the Upper Engadin commences at 1,860 metres above the level of the sea, and ends at 1,650 metres, where commences the Lower Engadin. The list therefore given by M. Saratz includes no point situate below that elevation. He classes the birds of this valley and of the mountains which enclose it into—1, sedentary birds; 2, birds which breed in the Upper Engadin, but do not spend the winter there; and 3, birds purely of passage. He enumerates 144 species, and gives upon every one notes of its station, times of passage, abundance or rarity, &c. Meyer-Niir has a short note in the ‘‘Mittheilungen” of the Swiss Entomological Society (iii. 1870) on certain relations observed between the insect faunas of Central Europe and Buenos Ayres—a question worthy perhaps of some considera- tion in connection with the above-mentioned coincidence of a Chilian and East-Mediterranean Gem and a very few other curious instances of identical or closely representative species of plants in the hot dry districts of the East Mediterranean, the central Australian, and the extratropical South American regions. ws Swiss naturalists continue their activity in various branches of biology. E. Claparéde’s very valuable memoirs on Annelida Chzetopoda and on Acarina have been fully reported on in the “* Zoological Record,” as well as Henri de Saussure’s entomo- logical papers, which have been continued in the more recently published volumes of the Memoirs of the Société de Physique of Geneva and of the Swiss Entomological Society. In Botany, since I last noticed De Candolle’s ‘* Prodromus,” the sixteenth volume has been completed by the appearance of the first part, containing two important monographs—that of Urticacez, by Weddell, and of Piperaceze, by Casimir De Candolle, together with some small families by A. De Candolle and J. Miiller. The ‘social disturbances of the last twelvemonth have much de- layed the preparation of the seventeenth volume, which is to close this great work; but it is hoped that it will be now shortly proceeded with. Of Boiijsier’s ‘‘ Flora Orientalis,” mentioned in my address of 1868, the second volume is now in the printer’s hands. Dr. G. Bernouilli, who had re- sided some time in Central America, has published, in the 172 Memoirs of the General Helvetic Society (vol. xxiv.) a review of the genus Zieobroma, after having compared his specimens in the herbaria of Kew, Berlin, and Geneva. The biological interest of the Mediterranean Region, which includes Southern Europe, the north coast of Africa, and those lands vaguely termed the Levant, is in many respects the opposite of that of the great Russian empire. Extending from the Straits of Gibraltar to the foot of the Caucasus and Lebanon, over 40 to 45 degrees of longitude, by 10 to 12 degrees of latitude, from the southern declivities of the Pyrenees, of the Alps, the Scardus, and the Balkan, to the African shores, it shows, in- deed, a certain uniformity of vegetation through the whole of this length and breadth; but ict has evidently been the scene of great and frequent successive geological convulsions and disturbances, which, whilst they have wholly or partially destroyed some of the races most numerous in individuals, have at the same time so broken up the surface of the earth as to afford great facilities for the preservation or isolation of others represented by a comparatively small number of individuals. The consequence is that there is probably no portion of the northern hemisphere in the Old World, of equal extent, where the species altogether, and especially the endemic ones, are more numerous, none, I believe, which contains so many dissevered species (those which occupy several limited areas far distant from each other), and certainly none where there are so many strictly local races, species or even genera, occupying in few or numerous individuals single stations limited sometimes to less than a mile. In all these respects the Mediterranean region far exceeds, abso- lutely as well as relatively, the great Russian region, which has three times its length and twice its breadth ; it presents, also, perhaps almost as great a contrast to a more southern tract of uniform vegetation extending across the drier portion of Africa and Arabia as far as Scinde. This diversified endemic and local character exemplified in the plants of the Mediterranean region has, as far as I can learn, been observed also in insects. Of the three great European peninsulas which form the prin- cipal portion of the region, the Italian is the narrowest and has the least of individual character in its biology, but it is the most central one, and, including its continental base with the declivity of the Alps, may be taken as a fair type of the region generally ; it is also by far the best known. Italy was the first amongst European nations to acquire a name in the pursuit of natural science after emerging from the barbarism of the middle ages ; and although she has since been more devoted to art, and has allowed several of the more northern states far to outstrip her in science, she has still, amidst all her vicissitudes, produced a fair share of eminent physiologists as well as systematic zoologists and botanists ; and within the last few years the cultivation of biology appears to have received a fresh impulse. It is only to be hoped that it may not be seriously checked by local and political intrigues, which appear to have succeeded, in one in- stance at least, in conferring an important botanical post on the least competent of the several candidates. Amongst the various publishing academies and associations mentioned in my address of 1865, the Italian Society of Natural Sciences at Milan issues a considerable number of papers on Italian zoology ; and a few others in zoology and palcontology are scattered over the publications of the Academies of Turin and Venice and of the Technical Institute of Palermo. From the lists I have received, there appear to have been recent catalogues of Sicilian and Modenese birds by Doderlein in the ‘* Palermo Journal,” of Italian Araneida and Modenese fishes by Canes- trini in the ‘‘ Milanese Transactions,” and of Italian Diptera, commenced by Rondani in the Bulletin of the Italian Entomo- logical Society. Malacology, so peculiarly important in the study of the physical history of the Mediterranean region, has produced numerous papers, chiefly in the Milanese Transactions, and in Gentiluomo’s ‘‘ Bulletino Malacologica,” and ‘* Biblioteca Malacologica ” published at Pisa. I also learn that at the time of the decease of the late Prof. Paolo Savi, in the beginning of April, the manuscript of his ‘‘ Ornitologia Italiana” was com- plete, and had just been placed in the printer’s hands. In Botany, Parlatore’s elaborate ‘‘ Flora Italiana” has continued to make slow progress. We have received up to the second | art of the fourth volume, reaching as far upward as Euphorbiaceze, having commenced with the lower orders. Botany ceased with the year 1847, as | presumed to have been the case when I mentioned it in 1865, and has since been re- placed by a ‘‘Nuovo Giornale Botanico Italiano,” which con- tinues, with tolerable regularity, issuing four parts in the year, NATURE The od Journal of | [Sune 29, 1871 the last received being the second of the third volume. The most valuable of the systematic papers it contains are Beccari’s de- scriptions of some of his Bornean collections. Delpino, well known for his interesting dichogamic observations, as well as for some rather imaginative speculations, has also contributed to systematic botany a monograph of Marcgraviacez:, but, un- fortunately, without sufficient command of materials for the com- pilation of a useful history of that small but difficult group, and with a useless imposition of new names to forms which he thinks may have been already published, but has not the means of verifying. De Notaris, under the auspices of the municipality of Genoa, has published a synopsis of Italian Bryology, forming a separate octavo volume of considerable bulk. Of the other two great European peninsulas I have little to say, notwithstanding their great comparative biological import- ance. The Western or Iberian Peninsula is the main centre of that remarkable Western flora to which I specially alluded in 1869, and which, more perhaps than any other, requires com- parison with entomological and other faunas. But Spain is sadly in arrear in her pursuit of science. With great promise in the latter half of the last century, and certainly the country of many eminent naturalists, especially botanists, she has now for so long been subject to chronic pronunciamentos that she leaves the natural riches of her soil to be investigated by foreigners. Willkomm and Lange’s * Prodromus Flore Hispanicze,” which, when I last mentioned it, was in danger of remaining a frag- ment, has since been continued, and, it is hoped, will shortly be completed by the publication of one more part. I have no notes on any recent zoological papers beyond Steindachner’s Reports on his Ichthyological tour in Spain and Portugal, and the Catalogues of the Zoological Museum of Lisbon publishing by the Lisbon Academy of Sciences. The Eastern Peninsula, Turkey, and Greece, with the exception of some slight attempts at Athens, has no endemic biological literature, and, with its present very unsatisfactory social state, affords little attraction to foreign visitors. The Levant, in respect of Botany at least, has has been much more fully investigated ; but there, asin Turkey, much yet remains to be done; and pending the issue of Boissier’s second volume already mentioned, I know of nothing of any im- portance in the biology of the East Mediterranean region as having been worked out within the last two or three years. As a hiatus, however, and yet a link between the Indian and the European Floras and Faunas, it will am ply repay the study to be bestowed upon it by future naturalists. ( Zo be continued) ASTRONOMY On the Great Sun-spot of June 1843 * ONE of the largest and most remarkable spots ever seen on the sun’s disc appeared in June 1843, and continued visible to the naked eye for seven or eight days. The diameter of this spot was, according to Schwabe, 74,000 miles; so that its area was many times greater than that of the earth’s surface. Now, it has been observed during a number of sun-spot cycles that the larger spots are generally found at or near the epoch of the greatest numbers. The year 1843 was, however, a inimum epoch of the eleven- year cycle. It would seem, therefore, that the formation of this extraordinary spot was an anomaly, and that its origin ought not to be looked for in the general cause of the spots of Schwabe’s cycle, As having a possible bearing on the question under con- sideration, let us refer to a phenomenon observed at the same moment, on the Ist September, 1859, by Mr. Carrington, at Redhill, and Mr. Hodgson, at Highgate. ‘‘ Mr. Carrington had directed his telescope to the sun, and was engaged in observing his spots, when suddenly two intensely luminous bodies burst into view on its surface. They moved side by side through a space of about thirty-five thousand miles, first increasing in brightness, then fading away. In five minutes they had vanished, . . . It is a remarkable circumstance that the observations at Kew show that on the very day, and at the very hour and minute of this unexpected and curious phenomenon, a moderate but marked magnetic disturbance took place, and a storm, or great disturbance of the magnetic element, occurred four hours after midnight, extending to the southern hemisphere.” The opinion has been expressed by more than one astronomer that this phenomenon was produced by the fall of meteoric matter upon the sun’s surface. Now the fact may be worthy of * From the “ American Journal of Science and Arts,” vol. i., April 1871. a Fune 29, 1871] note that the comet of 1843, which had the least perihelion distance of any on record, actually grazed the solar atmosphere about three months before the appearance of the great sun-spot of the same year. The comet’s least distance from the sun was about 65,000 miles. Had it approached but little nearer, the resistance of the atmosphere would probably have brought its entire mass to the solar surface. Even at its actual distance it must have produced considerable atmospheric disturbance. But the recent discovery that a number of comets are associated with meteoric matter, travelling in nearly the same orbits, suggests the inquiry whether an enormous meteorite following in the comet’s train and having a somewhat less perihelion distance, may not have been precipitated upon the sun, thus producing the great disturbance observed so shortly after the comet’s peri- helion passage. DANIEL KirKWwoop Bloomington, Indiana SCIENTIFIC SERIALS OF the Siteungsberichte der naturwissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft Isis in Dresden we have received the concluding part of the volume for 1869, containing the proceedings of the Society for the months of October, November, and December. Its contents are as usual of the most varied character, and we shall therefore notice only a few of the more prominent papers. In the section for prehistoric archeology Dr. Mehwald gave an interesting notice of the researches made in Norway by a young student, M. Lerange, and further a general account of ancient mining and mining implements. Under the zoological section we find an abstract by Prof. Giinther of the faunistic results of recent deep-sea dredgings, founded of course chiefly upon the reports of MM. Pourtales and Agassiz, and our countrymen Messrs. Thomson, Jeffreys, and Carpenter. Under the head of mathe- matics, physics, and chemistry, is a paper by M. F. Otto on the calamine deposits in Upper Silesia, which would have better taken its place as a geologico-mineralogical paper. An im- portant botanical paper is the revision by Dr. L. Rabenhorst of the Cryptogamia collected in the East (especially in Fersia) by Prof. Haussknecht, in which the author catalogues a considerable number of Fungi and Lichens, and describes several new species and a new genus of the former class. The new genus Seivos- porium belongs to the Discomycetous family Phacidiacei, and the species S. oce//atum, which is figured, lives upon dry stems of Astragalus deinacanthus Boiss. “Che new species described belong to the genera Syzchytrium (2), Ustilago (2), Uromtyces (1), Puccinia (2), Cyathus (1), Montaguea (1, figured), Coprinus (1), Dothidea (1), Melogramma (1), and Rhytisma (1). THE fourth part of vol. xxii. of the Zeitschrift der deutschen geologischen Geselischaft (1870) contains several very important memoirs. The first of these is upon new and little known Crustacea from Solenhofen by Prof, Kunth, illustrated with two plates, and includes detailed descriptions of the Stomatopod Sculda pennata (Miinst), and of two new species of the same genus ; and among the Isopods of Uda rostrata (Miinst) form- ing the type of a new family Urdaide, Reckur punctatus (Miinst), also referred to the genus Urda, Narauda anoma/a (Miinst), and a species of 2ga.—From M. Lemberg we find a detailed and valuable chemico-geological investigation of some calcareous deposits of the Finnish Island of Kimito, in which the author not only describes the chemical composition and mechanical con- dition of the rocks under consideration, but discusses at consider- able length some interesting points connected with the general theories of rock-formation.—M. E. Kayser commences a series of studies of the Devonian of the district of the Rhine with a disquisition on the deposits of that age in the neighbourhood of Aix la Chapelle.—M. C. Weiss publishes an investigation of the Odontotopterides, in which he discusses the forms to be re- ferred to that group, and comes to the conclusion that the whole may be placed under the genus Odontopteris, which he divides into two sections, Nenofpterides and Callipterides, the former in- cluding as sub-genera, A/ixoneura, Xenopteris, and Lescuropteris ; and the latter Callipteris, Anotopteris, Cullipteridium. He gives a list of the species referable to each of these sub-genera, with remarks upon their characters and distribution ; several of them are described as new and figured, with others, in the three plates with which the memoir is illustrated. —These papers are followed NATURE 173 by some mineralogical notices by Prof. Rammelsberg treating of the meteoric stone of Chantonnay, of the sulphide of iron of meteoric irons, the composition of Lievrite, and the Anorthite rock of the Basto.—In the concluding paper of this number M. G. Berendt notices the occurrence of Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits near Grodno on the Niemen. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES LoNDON Royal Society, June 15.—‘‘ On the Fossil Mammals of Aus- tralia. Part V. Genus WVofotherium Ow.” By Prof. R. Owen, F.R.S. The genus of large extinct Marsupial herbivores which forms the subject of the present paper, was founded on specimens transmitted (in 1842) to the author by the Surveyor-General of Australia, Sir Thomas Mitchell, C.B. They consisted of muti- lated fossil mandibles and teeth. Subsequent specimens con- firmed the distinction of Vototherium from Diprotodon, and more especially exemplified a singular and extreme modification of the cranium of the former genus. A detailed description is given of this part from specimens of portions of the skull in the British Museum, and from a cast and photographs of the entire cranium in the Australian Museum, Sydney, New South Wales. The descriptions of the mandible, and of the dentition in both upper and lower jaws, are taken from actual specimens in the British Museum, in the Museum of the Natural History at Worcester, and in the Museum at Adelaide, S. Australia, all of which have been confided to the author for this purpose. The results of comparisons of these fossils of Mototherium with the answerable parts in Diprotedon, Macropus, Phascolarctos, and Phascolomys, are detailed. Characters of three species, WVototherium Mitchelli, N. inerme, and iV. Victorze, are defined chiefly from modifications of the mandible and mandibular molars. A table of the localities where fossil Mofotherium has been found, with the dates of discovery, and the names of the finders or donors is appended. The paper is illustrated by subjects for nine quarto Plates. **QOn the Organisation of the Fossil Plants of the Coal-mea- sures. Part II. Lepidodendra and Sigillariz.” By Prof. W. C. Williamson, F.R.S. The Lepidodendron selaginvides described by Mr. Binney, and still more recently by Mr. Carruthers, is taken as the standard of comparison for numerous other forms. It consists of a central medullary axis composed of a combination of transversely barred vessels with similarly barred cells; the vessels are arranged with- out any special linear order. This tissue is closely surrounded by a second and narrower ring, also of barred vessels, but of smaller size, and arranged in vertical laminz which radiate from within outwards. These laminze are separated by short vertical piles of cells, believed to be medullary rays. In the transverse section the intersected mouths of the vessels form radiating lines, and the whole structure is regarded as an early type of an exogenous cylinder ; it is from this cylinder alone that the vascular bundles going to the leaves are given off. This woody zone is surrounded by a very thick cortical layer, which is parenchy- matous at its inner part, the ceils being without definite order, but externally they become prosenchymatous, and are arranged in radiating lines, which latter tendency is observed to manifest itself whenever the bark cells assume the prosenchymatous type. Outside the bark is an epidermal layer, separated from the rest of the bark bya thin bast-layer of prosenchymna, the cells of which are developed into a tubular and almost vascular form ; but the vessels are never barred, being essentially of the fibrous type. Externally to this bast-layer is a more superficial epiderm of parenchyma, supporting the bases of leaves, which consist of similar parenchymatous tissue. Tangential sections of these outer cortical tissues show that the so-called ‘‘decorticated ” specimens of Zefidodendra and of other allied plants are merely examples that have lost their epidermal layer, or had it converted into coal ; this layer, strengthened by the bast-tissue of its inner surface, having remained as a hollow cylinder, when all the more internal structures had been destroyed or removed. From this type the author proceeds upwards through a series of examples in which the vesse/s of the medullar become separated from its central ce//u/ar portions and retreat towards its periphery, forming an outer cylinder of medullary vessels, which are arranged without order, and enclose a defined cellular axis. At the same 174 time the encircling ligneous zone of radiating vessels becomes yet more developed, both in the number of its vessels and in the diameter of the cylinder relatively to that of the entire stem. As these changes are produced, the medullary rays separating the lamince of the woody wedges become more definite, some of them assuming a more composite structure, and the entire organisation gradually assuming a more exogenous type, At the same time the cortical portions retain all the essential features of the Lepidodendroid plants. We are thus brought, by the evidence of internal organisation, to the conclusion that the plants which Brongniart has divided into two distinct groups, one ef which he has placed amongst the vascular Cryptogams, and the other amongst the Gymnospermous Exogens, constitute one great natural family. Stigmaria is shown to haye been much misunderstood, so far as the details of its structure are concemed, especially of late years. Inhis memoir of Sigid/aria elegans, published in 1839, M. Brongniart gave a description of it, which, though limited to a small portion of its structure, was, as far as it went, a remark- ably correct one. The plant, now well known to be a root of Sigdlaria, possessed a cellular pith without any trace of a distinct outer zone of medullary vessels, such as is universal amongst the Lepidodendra. The pith is immediately surrounded by a thick and well-developed ligneous cylinder, which contains two distinct sets of primary and secondary medullary rays. The primary ones are of large size, and are arranged in regular quincuncial order. They are composed of thick masses of mural cellular tissue. A tangential section of each ray exhibits a lenticular outline, the long axis of which corresponds with that of the stem. These rays pass directly outwards from pith to bark, and separate the larger woody wedges which constitute so distinct a feature in all transverse sections of this zone, and each of which consists of ag- gregated laminze of barred vessels, disposed in very regular radiating series. Thesmaller rays consist of vertical piles of cells, arranged in single rows, and often consisting of but one, two, orthree cellsineach vertical series. These latter are very numerous and intervening betweenall the numerous radiating Jaminze of vessels that constitute thelarger wedges of woody tissue. The vessels going to the rootlets are not given off from the pith, as Gceppert supposed, but from the sides of the woody wedges bounding the wfer part of the several large lenticular medullary rays ; those of the Zower por- tion of the ray takingno part in the constitution of the vascular bundles. The vessels of the region in question descend vertically and parallel to each other until they come in contact with the medullary ray, when they are suddenly deflected, in large num- bers, in an outward direction, and nearly at right angles to their previous course, to reach the rootlets. But only a small number reach their destination, the great majority of the deflected vessels terminating in the woody zone. A yery thick bark surrounds the woody zone. Immediately in contact with the latter it consists of a thin layer of delicate vertically elongated cellular tissue, in which the mural tissues of the outer extremities of the medullary rays become merged. Externally to this structure is a thick parenchyma, which quickly assumes a more or less prosenchy- matous form, and becomes arranged in thin radiating lamine, as it extends outwards, The epidermal layer consists of cellular parenchyma with vertically elongated cells at its inner surface, which feebly represents the bast-layer of the other forms of Lepi- dodendroid plants. The rootlets consist of an outer layer of parenchyma, derived from the epidermal parenchyma. Within this is a cylindrical space, the tissue of which has always disap- peared. Inthe centre is a bundle of vessels surrounded by a cylinder of very delicate cellular tissue, prolonged either from one of the medullary rays, or from the delicate innermost layer of the bark, because it always accompanies the vessels in their progress outwards through the middle and outer barks. The facts of which the preceding is a summary lead to the conclusion that all the forms of plants described are but modifi- cations of the Lepidodendroid type. The leaf-scars of the specimens so common in the coal-shales, represent tangential sections of the petioles of leaves when such sections are made close to the epidermal layer. The thin film of coal of which these leaf-scars consist, in specimens found both in sandstone and in shale, does not represent the entire bark as generally thought, and as is implied in the term “‘decorticated,” usually applied to them, but is derived from the epidermal layer. In such speci- mens, all the more central axial structures, viz., the medulla, the wood, and the thick layer of true bark, have disappeared through decay, having been either destroyed, or in some instances detached and floated out ; the bast-layer of the epiderm has arrested the NATURE | Fune 29, 1871 destruction of the entire cylinder, and formed the mould into which inorganic materials have been introduced. On the other hand, the woody cylinder is the part most frequently preserved in Stigmaria; doubtless because, being subterranean, it was protected against the atmospheric action which destroyed so much of the stem. It is evident that all these Lepidodendroid and Sigillarian plants must be included in one common family, and that the separation of the latter from the former as a group of Gymnosperms, and as suggested by M. Brongniart, must be abandoned. The remark- able development of exogenous woody structures in most mem- bers of the entire family indicates the necessity of ceasing to apply either to them, or to their living representatives, the term Acrogenous. Hence the author proposes a division of the vascular Cryptogams into an Exogenous group, containing Zyco- podiacee, Eguisetacee, and the fossil Ca/amitacee, and an Endo- genous group containing the Ferns; the former uniting the Cryptogams with the Exogens through the Cycadee and other Gymnosperms, and the latter linking them with the Endogens through the Palmacee. “«Contributions to the History of the Opium Alkaloids. Part II. On the Action of Hydrobromic Acid on Codeia and its derivatives.” By C. R. A. Wright, D.Sc. It has been shown in Part I. of this research* that the action of hydrobromic acid on codeia gives rise, without evolution of methyl bromide, first to bromocodide, and secondly to two other new bases termed respectively deoxycodeia and bromote- tracodeia, the latter of which, under the influence of hydro- chloric acid, exchanges bromine for chlorine, yielding a corre- sponding chlorinated base, chlorotetracodeia; when, however, the action of hydrobromic acid is prolonged, methyl bromide is evolved in some little quantity. By digesting codeia with three or four times its weight of 48 per cent acid for five or six hours in the water-bath, vapours were evolved which, condensed by the application of a freezing-mixture to a colourless mobile liquid, the borling-point of which was found to be 10°°5 to 11°°5, and the vapour of which burnt with a yellow-edged flame, ex- ploded violently with oxygen, forming carbonic and hydro- bromic acids. It becomes, therefore, of interest to examine in detail the action of hydrobromic acid on each of the three bodies produced from codeia under its influence. “ On the Physiological Action of the foregoing Codeia deriva- tives.” By Michael Foster, M.D. The hydrochlorate of chlorotetracodeia and the hydrobromate of bromotetramorphia, in doses of a decigramme by subcutaneous injection or by the mouth, produced in adult cats in a very few minutes a condition of great excitement, almost amounting to delirium, accompanied by a copious flow of saliva and great dilatation of the pupils. Nicturation and de‘zecation occurred in some instances, and vomiling was observed on two occasions with the morphia-salt, but was very slight. The excitement was very peculiar, being apparently due partly to increased sensitive- ness to noises, and partly to an impulse to rush about. The same doses of the morphia-salt given to a young kitten produced the same flow of saliva, dilatation of pupils, and excitement (without vomiting); but the stage of excitement, which in adult cats passed gradually off in a few hours, was followed by a condition marked by a want of co-ordination of muscular movements, and presenting the most grotesque re- semblance to certain stages of alcoholic intoxication. This stage was followed in turn by sleepiness and stupor, in which the kitten was left at night ; in the morning it was found dead, Two observations have shown that these salts paralyse (in dogs and cats) the inhibitory fibres of the pneumogastric ; they also seem to Jower the internal tension, but want of material has prevented me from ascertaining how this is brought about. On rabbits neither salt, even in doses of a decigramme, seems to have any effect, except perhaps a slight excitement. There is no dilatation of the pupils, no flow of saliva, and, if one observation can be trusted, no paralysis of the inhibitory fibres of the pneumogastric. No marked difference was observable between the two salts, except that the morphia salts seemed rather more potent than the corresponding codeia bodies. The salts of deoxycodeia and deoxymorphia given by mouth or by subcutaneous injection in doses of a decigramme, produced in adult cats, almost immediately after exhibition, a series of con- * Proc. Roy. Soc. vol, xix. p. 372 Fune 29, 1871 | NATURE I vulsions much more epileptic in character than tetanic. In one case there was a distinct rotatory movement. In a few minutes these convulsions passed away, leaving the animal exhausted and frightened. Then followed a stage of ex- citement with dilated pupils and flow of saliva, very similar to the effects of the tetracodeia and tetramorphia salts, but less marked. Doses of half a decigramme given to adult cats produced the stage of excitement only, without the convulsions. In no case, with any specimen of product, has vomiting been witnessed. Trials with rabbits gave only negative results. Like the tetra- codeia and tetramorphia products, the deoxycodeia and deoxy- morphia salts appear to paralyse the inhibitory fibres of the pneumogastric. No marked differences could be observed between the hydro- chlorates and hydrobromates of deoxycodeia or deoxymorphia. “On the Calculation of Euler’s Constant,” By J. W. L. Glaisher, F.R.A.S. Zoological Society, June 20.—R. Hudson, F.R.S., vice- | president, in the chair. The Secretary read a report on the addi- tions made to the Society’s Menagerie during the month of May, 1871. Amongst these particular attention was called to a Ta- mandua Ant-eater ( Zamandua tetradactyla) from Santa Martha, obtained by purchase, May 29, being the first specimen of the singular Mammal ever exhibited alive in the Society’s collection. —Prof. Macdonald, of the University of St. Andrew’s, Scotland, exhibited and made remarks on a series of specimens illustrative of the cranial bones of Fishes. —An extract was read from a letter received from Mr. Walter J. Scott, giving notice of a living speci- men of the Australian Cassowary which had been lately cap- tured in Queensland by Mr. Haig, and which Mr. Haig was anxious to present to the Society.—Prof. Newton exhibited and made remarks on some supposed eggs of the Sanderling (Cadidris arenaria), procured by the North German Polar Expedition —A communication was read from the Rey. O. P. Cambridge, con- taining notes on the Arachnida collected by Dr. Cuthbert Colling- wood during his recent travels in the Chinese seas. —A communi- cation was read from Dr. John Anderson, Curator of the Indian Museum, Calcutta, containing notes on some rare species of Rodents collected by Mr. Forsyth during his recent expedition to Yarkand.—Messrs, Sclater and Salvin read a revised List of the species of Laridze which have been found to occur within the limits of the Neotropical region, These were stated to be 32in number, whereof one belonged to the sub-family Rhynchopine, 14 to the Sterninz, 16 to the Larinze, and one to the Lestridinz. —A communication was read from Dr, J. E. Gray, F.R.S., con- taining notes on the Bush-bucks (Cep/a/ophi) contained in. the collection of the British Museum, together with the descriptions of two new species of the genus from the Gaboon.—A second communication from Dr. J. E. Gray contained some notes on the skull of a roebuck in the British Museum, originally received from the Museum of the Zoological Society of London.—Mr. Sylvanus Hanley communicated thedescription of a new species of Moz0con- dylea from Sarawak, Borneo, which he proposed to call JZ Walpolei.—Mr. D. G. Elliot read a reviewof the genus Pu/loris, Sw.—Mr. D. G. Elliot also read a description of a supposed new species of Guinea-fowl from Ugogo, Central Africa, founded on a drawing made by Colonel Grant during the expedition of Messrs. Speke and Grant, which he proposed to name Mumida Granti.— Mr. R. B. Sharpe read a paper on the Birds of Cameroons, Western Africa, based upon collections recently formed by Mr. A. Crossley in that locality. The Avi-Fauna of the country was shown to be almost identical with that of Gaboon. A species of Thrush was believed to be new to science, and was proposed to | be called Zurdus Crossleyi.i—Mr. John Brazier communicated some notes on the localities of Doli melanostoma, Conus rhodo- dendron, and other species of land-shells found in Australia and in the adjacent islands of the Australian seas.—Mr. W. Saville Kent read a paper on two new Sponges from North Australia, the principal peculiarity of which consisted of their being arranged round a-central stem or axis. These he referred to a new genus proposed to be called Caulispongia. — Prof. Flower com- municated a paper by Mr. J. B. Perrin on the myology of the limbs of the Kinkajou (Cercoleptes caudivolvulus), to which were added some remarks on the myology of the limbs of the Paradoxurus typus and Felis caracal, and more particularly with reference to the chief points of difference between these | animals, BRISTOL Observing Astronomical Society.—Observations to May 31, 1871. Zhe Sun.—Mr. T. W. Backhouse writes that on March 19 at 21h. 30m. aspot on the sun’s S. hemisphere had an umbra 19,000 miles long, but its greatest width was but 3,500 miles, This spot passed the centre of the sun on the 21st. On the 22nd at 3h. there was a curious curve of numerous small spots starting from it. An extensive group which passed N. of the sun’s centre on the 23rd contained on the 27th at 5h. the largest spot then on the sun. Its penumbra was 29,000 miles in diameter, and its umbra 14,000 miles long ; yet if it existed at all on the 24th at 21h. it must have been quite small. A spot in the sun’s S. hemisphere which passed the middle of the sun on April 11, and which was not large on the 6th, on the 7th at 2th. 35m. had a penumbra 63,000 miles long. On the gth at 21h. 15m. it was about 41,000 miles long, and its chief umbra 13,000 miles in diameter, and mostly of a light shade. On April 20 at 21h. 45h. a spot also in the southern zone had an umbra 25,500 miles long ; but its /part was very narrow, its f part was very irregular. Its fpart became broader, and on the 24th at 20h. was separated from the f part. The umbra had previously shortened, being only about 21,000 miles long on the 23rd; at 2th. on the 23rd it passed the same centre. On the 28th at 3h. 20m. the penumbra was 38,000 miles long. At that time there was another large solar spot also in the S. zone, which had a penumbra 33,000 miles in diameter then ; but on May 4 at 5h. 15m. it was 43,000 miles long and 35,000 miles wide, and it is now (May 8) larger still. Its umbra was roundish and much mottled, and on May 4 at 4h. was 17,000 miles long and 14,500 wide. On the 5th at 21h., however, there was a very slender bridge of light across it towards the southern part, and another farther north two-thirds across it. The latter still remains (May 8, 3h. 30m.), and nearly cuts the umbra in two ; but the former has disappeared. Mr. Albert P. Holden, of London, reports as follows :—‘* April ro, 1871. A large spot, surrounded by an extensive penumbra, has recently appeared, which I observed at 2h. this day. The chief spot was rather long and narrow, except at one end, which was considerably wide, and the narrow portion was crossed by three complete (and one partial) bridges. The penumbra was unusually pale, and the umbra of a decided light-brown hue. In the upper part of the broad portion of the umbra was a large nucleus mtensely black, and so large and dark as to be visible with a very low power. Almost joining the ‘yawning gulf’ of the nucleus was a light triangular patch, not quite so lightas the penumbra. From the great ease with which the nuclei have been seen on this and other occasions it would seem as if they increased in visibility with the approach of the maxima of the sun-spot period. When they are visible, as on the present occasion, the windward penumbra of the spot in which they occur are always unusually light in colour.”— Mr. William F. Denning, of Bristol, observed the sun with his roiin., and gin. reflector on May 26, but with the exception of a large scattered group the spots were neither large nor inter- esting. ‘Sapiter, Mr. Albert P. Holden says: ‘‘On February 20 at 7h. 30m. I observed this planet, and found the usual equatorial belts to present a most remarkable appearance. The whole equator was covered by what appeared to be great masses of clouds stretching across the planet in four parallel, but rather irregular, rows, each row containing about four or five distinct masses of cloud. As I was using a diagonal eyepiece I thought at first the mirror had become covered with moisture, but found the phenomenon to be really on the planet’s surface. With a low power the whole equator had a mottled appearance, but higher powers brought out the masses of cloud very distinctly. The clouds coming over prevented my observing whether the rotation of the planet would change the scenery of the disc at all.” Edmund Neison, of London, writes with regard to Jupiter : ‘The only result worth mentioning is the gradual deepening of the tinge of the equatorial belts and the increase in the general orange tinge of the whole disc. In fact, on May 15 it appeared to have changed to a distinct red. This is probably due merely to the low altitude of the planet, and its immersion in the orange mists of sub-sunset.” Mars.—Mr. Albert P. Holden, with his 3in. refractor, has ob- tained some very good views of this planet. He writes: “‘ The Kaiser Sea and Dawes Ocean come out very distinctly. This planet seems to bear magnifying much more readily than other ob- jects, eighty to the inch of aperture giving most excellent views,” 176 NATURE | une 29, 1871 Paris Academie des Sciences, June 19.—M. Claude Bernard in the chair. M. Claude Bernard reada letter from Mr. Alexander Herschel, noticing the death of his father on behalf of himself and of his eldest brother now in India. The lamented Sir John Herschel was the senior foreign associate member of the Institute. The foreign associate members are only five in number; it is con- sidered the highest honour the Academy can offer to a foreigner. The President noticed also the {death of the celebrated General Probert, who was an academician of long standing, and had de- voted his whole life to the study of projectiles. His memoirs are numerous in the Comftes Rendus, but more numerous at the War Office. He was of opinion that the Prussian steel gun should be adopted by the French artillery, but his Imperial Majesty being a great artillerist, his opinion was totally disre- garded. The vacancies to be filled amongst members and asso- ciates are now six. ‘They have never been so numerous. There were twelve correspondents to elect before the investment of Paris took place. M. Dumas presented a memoir on the reci- epee action of magnetism and electricity circulating in a vacuum. The memoir was written by M. De La Rive, a foreign associate member of the Academy, and describes experiments tried with an apparatus analogous to the magnificent instruments exhibited by M. De La Rive at the ‘‘Champde Mars” universal exhibition, — M. Elie de Beaumont, the other perpetual secretary, has directed public attention to the extraordinary cold experienced on the 18th May and 3rd June 1871, and asked for observations relating to it. Eyery information must be directed to him, and will be men- tioned in the Comptes Rendus. Several other communications are duly acknowledged, and will be printed. Some of them relate to other seyere depressions of temperature witnessed late in the season in former years ; hoar frost was observed as late as in July 1802, which appears to have been one of the worst years ever known for low temperature in the summer.—M. Grémand de Lany, the senior member of the Scientific Staff of the Parisian papers, has published an interesting book on the Academy of Sciences during the siege of Paris, giving a fair idea of the amount of work executed by members resident in Paris during that eventful period of its annals. The Academy has to appoint a committee for reporting upon the memoirs sent to com- pete for the great prize of mathematics proposed by the govern- ment. The subject proposed belongs to the theory of elliptical functions. No qualification of nationality is required. The names of the competitors are kept sealed and opened only if suc- cessful. MM. Bertrand, Hermite, Serret, Leonville, and Bonner were appointed.—A most interesting discussion took place on a paper relating to the treatment of typhus during the Mexican campaign, showing that typhus is unquestionably contagious, as well as many other diseases of the same kind. The cold and moisture is not so much to be feared as stagnant hospital air, and treatment under canvas even in cold weather is perhaps the best that can be imagined.—M. Campion, the first assistant to M. Payen, presented a memoir on the manner of blasting rocks with dynamite. That paper is a kind of 7éswmé of M. Campion’s experiments during the first investment of Paris. He was closely engaged in dangerous operations, practised for protecting the town. According to every probability, he will be appointed a member to fill the chair of his professor.—Five or six other papers were read, too long to report. VIENNA I. R. Geological Institution, May 2.—Dr. Giimbel, of Munich, gave an account of his investigations of the different forms of Dactylopora, found chiefly in the Triassic limestones of the Alps. Notwithstanding some differences in the structure, he recognised in them a strong resemblance to living and tertiary Dactylopora. Great and constant varieties in the forms led him to distinguish a large number of different species.—Mr. F. Pick, who had visited the Isle of Milo in the month of March, made a report of the numerous earthquakes which had been observed there since the beginning of the year. From the middle of January up to the month of March they continued incessantly, and during the time between the last days of February till the 3rd March more than twenty shocks were felt daily, not seldom two or three in one hour. The St. George volcano on Santorin was seen on March 20 in continuous, but feeble activity.—M. v. Lill discovered the rare Ullmannite (Nickel-Antimon-Pyrites) at a new locality in Carinthia, the Rinkenberg, near Bleiburg, where it is imbedded in slaty schists and crystalline dolomite. — Another mineralogical discovery of interest communicated by T. Niedzwiedski is the occurrence of Trinkerite at Gams, near Hieflau, in Styria. This fossil resin, which contains more than 4 per cent. of sulphur, was first described a few months ago by Dr. Tschermak, of Carpano, in Istria, where it was found in a coal of — Eocene age. At Gams it is imbedded ina dark coloured rock, which belongs to the Gasau (Upper Cretaceous) formation. —Prof. : E. Suess on the Tertiary land fauna of middle Italy. The study — of the rich collections of fossil mammalia in the museums in Pisa — and Florence enabled the author to parallelise the different faunce of the Upper Tertiary beds of middle Italy, which had been distinguished quite correctly by Falconer, Lartet, &c., with those of Austria. The first mammalian fauna of the Vienna Basin, the fauna of Eibiswald, with Amphicyon intermediaries, Hyotherium Sommeringi, Palzomerix, Crocodilus, Trionyx, &c., is repre- sented in Italy by the fauna of the lignites of Monte Bamboli. The second fauna of the Vienna Basin, the fauna of Eppelsheim with Mastodon longirostris, Hippotherium gracile, &c., 1s not yet known in Italy. The fauna of the Arno Valley, on the con- trary, which is represented in a marvellous richness in the museum of Florence, seems to be wanting in the Vienna Basin, This third fauna is characterised by Zvephas meridionalis, Machairodus, Bos etruscus, Hippopotamus major, &c. ; traces ot it M. Suess thinks he has recognised in some fossils from the caverns of the Karst (Istria). The fourth fauna, with Z/ephas primigenius which is to be found everywhere in our loess, has been discovered also in some localities of Tuscany in the so- called Pauchina, a clay similar to the loess.—M. Schwackhofer exhibited a series of rocks rich in phosphoric acid, which occur in the Silurian, as well as in the Cretaceous beds of Eastern Gallicia, the discovery of which he hopes will be of great use for agri- cultural purposes. BOOKS RECEIVED : EnG.LisH.—The Homing or Carrier Pigeon: W. B. Tegetmeier (Rout- edge). AmerIcAN.—The Monthly Reports of the Department of Agriculture for 1868-69 ; The Annual Report of the Commission of Agriculture, 1868; The Annual Report of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1862: Government Printing Office, Washington.—The Elements of Physics: Prof. Hinrichs. ForEIGN.—Die Pflanzenstoffe, &c.: Drs. A. and Th. Husemann (Schluss). —(Through Williams and Norgate) —Discussion der wahrend der totale Son- nenfinsterniss am August 1868 angestellten Beobachtungen und der daraus folgenden Ergebnisse: Prof. E. Weiss.—Elektrodynamische Mass-bestim- mn gent W. Weber.—Physische Zusammenkiinfte der Planeten: C. von ittrow. DIARY MONDAY, Jury 3 ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY, at 7. Royat Institution, at 2.—General Monthly Meeting. FRIDAY, Jvry 7. Geotoaists’ AssoctaTIon, at 8.—On the Upper Limits of the Devonian System: J. R. Pattison. CONTENTS Pacz RamBies Rounp LonDoN. . . - « « « « PC i, Ceo WEINHOLD’s EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICS. . » « + © 2 «© « « . 158 Our Book SHetr. (With Illustration.) . . « « «© « 159 LETTERS TO THE EpIToR :— The Eclipse Photographs.—D, WINSTANLEY. . . « «2 « « The Solar Parallax.—Prof.S. NEwcomB . .....-.. « Halo in the Zenith —R. M. BARRINGTON . . . s ae What is Yellow Rain?—J. JEREMIAH . . 2... ee ee Black Rain(—Ky Erg, (hoLeS) ge 5) shies ae) cee eee ee A New View of Darwinism.—Henry H. Howortu . .. - Ocean Currents.—J. K. LauGHTon sla, low ae ec feat etre ne Alpine Floras.—J. J. Murpny, FG.S.. . ..... + « = ZO2 A Suggestion.—Lieut. S. P. OLiver, R.A. . . 2... 2 2 Hyprous SILicaTes INJECTING THE Pores oF Fossits. By Principal Dawson, F.R.S. .. .. ec Neprefiep te Cel Paha . New Tueory oF Sun-Spots. By J. BIRMINGHAM. . . c Proressor TYNDALL ON THEORIES OF DISEASES. «. . : o Tue CHESTNUT TREE OF Mount EtNA. (With Jilustration.) ~. . Science IN Pain Encuisu. II. By W. Rusoton ..... . NOTES 0.0.6, ie |.» ters a RRM ce Mea etd = fe) ie Win) Be’ Neg Dl = ae ScIENCE IN AMERICA. . . : =) fail Mr. BeNTHAM’s ANNIVERSARY ADDRESS TO THE LINNEAN SOCIETY (Continued) < . VS DEO Soe, a) tat een el be) Ca ee AstTRonomy.—On the Great Sun-Spot of June, 1843. By Prof. D. KEYREWOOD* «5. POR eh eee @ ee mre ScrmNTinic'SBRIALS. 4/cijcetet i =| (eile. sa ie Sar We Signe > SocIETIBS AND ACADEMIES. « © 2 + + © © © © © e «© © © « Booxs RECBIVED: 4) Glick ss 0 ected = Heusen) oie DIARY: oe ye, a) weiss ww) tw ie) op Ta) Loe eg eee me eer NATURE THURSDAY, JULY 6, 1871 SENSATION AND SCIENCE HE morbid craving for excitement, which is charac- teristic of mental indolence, as well as of effete civilisation, has led to the introduction of Sensation (as it is commonly called), not merely into our newspapers and novels, but even into our pulpits. It could not be expected that our popular scientific lectures would long escape the contamination. We have watched with regret its gradual introduction and development, and have often meditated an article on the subject. But now, when a splen- did opportunity has come, we feel how unfit we are for the task. None but a Spurgeon can effectively criticise a Spurgeon;none buta Saturday Reviewer could be expected to tackle with delicacy and yet with vigour the gifted author of the “ Girl of the Period.” So we must content ourselves with the spectacle of the Rev. Prof. Haughton as criticised by himself. We have not been able to attend his recent lectures at the Royal Institution, but we have it on excellent authority that they were racy (z.e. sensa- tional) in the extreme. Happily we find in the British Medical Fournal what is described as an authorised ver- sion of them. A few extracts from this will enable us to dispense with a great deal of comment. We shall first take the Science, and then permit the Sensation to speak for itself. . Prof. Haughton’s subject is The Principle of Least Action in Nature; and we are told that he believes he has succeeded in discovering in this the true principle on which the Science of Animal Mechanics must be founded, and has been enabled to sketch out the broad outlines of its foundation. Maupertuis’s Principle of Least Action is indeed “ well known to mathematicians,” but is by no means easy of explanation to the ordinary reader. We can, therefore, sympathise with the lecturer in his repeated failures to make it intelligible. But we cannot admit any justifi- cation of the constant use of the same words, sometimes in one sense, sometimes in a totally different one. Toa mathematician (Prof. Haughton speaks as at once mathe- matician, anatomist, medical man, natural philosopher, “expert” at shot-drill, the crank, and the treadmill, clergyman, &c., &c., and even as potential farmer and landlord-shooter !) we should have thought that, when once x, y, z, or whatever else, is introduced, it has and continues to have a definite meaning, until zz a new problem it comes to be applied to something possibly quite different. How then can we account for such sentences as the following ?— “The great problem—the problem of doing a given amount of work wth a minimum of effort.” “Nature aims at producing a given quantity of work with the least quantity of material.” “T could show that these [tendons of the legs andarms of animals] are constructed w7th a wonderful economy of force of the same kind as that with which the bee con- structs its cell” “ By what force, or by what intelligence, do the limbs of animals describe their proper path? Who places the VOL, IY. 177 socket of each joint in the exact position (which can be calculated with unerring certainty by mathematics) which enables the muscle to perform its allotted task with the least amount of trouble to itself 2” “The Principle of Least Action is that the arrangement and mutual position of all muscular fibres, bones, and joints must be such as to produce the required effect wth the minimum amount of muscular tissue.” “ Before proceeding to apply this principle of least action or least trouble to nature,” &c. In all these extracts the italics are ours. If the reader but glance them over, he will not require to read the lec- tures to see what a very Proteus is this so-called principle. There is no knowing where to have it. It is a minimum, an economy, a least quantity, and what not ; sometimes of effort, sometimes of material, then of trouble, andanon of muscular tissue, or of force of the same kind as that with which the bee constructs its cell! But the most curious feature about it is that in none of its metamor- phoses does it in the slightest degree resemble the least action of Maupertuis, with which it would seem through- out to be held as identical. Even in his remarks on this perfectly definite mathe- matical question, Prof, Haughton commits a grave error, for he says :— “Tf I take the points A and B in the planet’s path, S representing the sun, I only require to know those points A and B, and the sun S, to calculate for you, from the Principle of Least Action—which I can do to the millionth part of an inch at each point of this orbit—the path that the planet must describe, on the supposition that it is a lazy, intelligent animal, trying to swim round the sun in such a manner as to give the least trouble to itself.” It seems to us that all that the principle of least action can tell us, is that, supposing the sun’s attraction to vary inversely as the square of the distance, the planet will describe some conic section or other, whose focus is S, and which passes through A and B. Which it will be of the innumerable conics satisfying these con- ditions, ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola (or possibly circle) there is nothing to indicate, within quadrillions of miles —yet we are told it can be done to the millionth of an inch!! As to what a “lazy, intelligent animal” (of course, not acted on by gravity) would do in “trying to swim [in what ?] round the sun,” we unfortunately possess no information. But this is merely another proof that we are dealing with Sensation where we looked for Science. Here we have caught our instructor in a palpable and inexcusable blunder, and we could easily point out many others of a similar kind in his remarks on light, &c. It is not so easy to do so, or rather to make the general reader aware that we have done so, when he leaves strictly mathematical applications, and plunges headlong into a wild sea of speculation without previous careful defini- tion of his terms. These terms are, in fact, as he em- ploys them, so elastic, that it is only by contrasting (as we did above) portions of his lectures with other portions in which the same words acquire other and different meanings, or in which different words are employed for the same meaning, that we see how excessively loose and slipshod is the whole affair. Another little group of quotations will admirably illustrate this :— “The law of /east action is attended to in every L 178 department of nature down to the most minute details. . . . . Wot even one grain of material is ever used, when less would suffice for the purpose.” This is, no doubt, admirable, and would suit the most frantic of the mischief-making teleologists. But, alas ! like the Editor of the Zzttle Pedlington Observer, “ What in one line we state we retract in another.” For there follows— “We can demonstrate by mathematics that in the use of every such muscle [triangular, &c.] there zs a neces- sary loss of force. . . . 1 have always maintained that beauty of form . . . was one of the pre-existing conditions in the mind of the Contriver of the universe, as well as economy of force.” As intermediate to these two quotations, and in itself amusing from its doxhommiée and condescension, we may take the following :— “ Nature, according to my principle, is entitled to employ these two forms of muscles whenever she pleases.” The reader may take our word that these are but single gems, selected from among many similar and often richer ones, mainly on the Principle of Least Trouble (in copying out for press). As to really scientific matters, occasionally referred to in these lectures, we need merely mention that the author is ignorant of, or ignores, Dr. Pettigrew’s extraordinary researches on wings and other adaptations for progres- sion ; researches which ought to be thoroughly mastered by any one who attempts to write on the subject of animal mechanics ; and that, in his remarks on the strength of the uterine muscles, he seems to have entirely forgotten to notice how thoroughly least action theories (at least as applied by him) have been upset in a late number of the Dublin Quarterly Fournal of Medical Science. We promised Science first and Sensation afterwards. In attempting to collect the Science we have got hold of little but Sensation: so we need give only one extract more. Would it have been considered possible (till the 23rd of last May) that a Dublin professor, an M.D.,a D.C.L., an F.R.S., and a clergyman of the (till lately) Established Church, should, even in jest, speak as follows in the Royal Institution in London ?>— ets A brilliant idea came across my mind - . . . What in the world is to hinder me from taking a farm in Westmeath, deliberately and wilfully refusing to pay my rents, and in due time shooting my landlord, and, instead of using him as a New Zealand tenant would, dissecting him at my leisure?” We have only toadd that the British Medical Fournal, in publishing the above, conspicuously prints the re- mark :— “Tn reproducing the zAszsszma verba of the lecturer, and giving them a permanent place in scientific literature, an enduring service will be rendered to Science.” Which means, we hope, that all men, scientific or other- wise, will, once for all, take warning from this terrible example. If such be the result, Prof. Haughton will, in- deed, not have lectured in vain, But if the Br7tish Medical Fournal intends its remarks to signify approval, we can say of it and of Prof. Haughton, in the language of Cervantes— No rebuznaron en valde El uno y el otro Alcalde, NATURE | Fuly 6, 1871 BASTIAN ON THE ORIGIN OF LIFE The Modes of Origin of Lowest Organisms : including a Discussion of the Experiments of M. Pasteur, and a Reply to some Statements by Professors Huxley and Tyndall. By H. Charlton Bastian, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., &c. (Macmillan and Co., 1871.) T may be as well to state at the outset that the present volume is not Dr. Bastian’s long-promised work on “The Beginnings of Life ;” and it would have been better had some title been devised to prevent the confusion that will inevitably be caused by its appearance at this juncture. We have here, however, a condensed sketch of the whole controversy on Spontaneous Generation, and a statement of some very important researches conducted by the author since the discussion which followed Prof. Huxley’s Presidential Address at Liverpool last September. {t will be remembered that the objections to Dr. Bastian’s experiments and to the results he deduced from them were twofold. It was said that we have no proof that these minute organisms (Bacteria, &c.), or their germs cannot resist the heat to which they were subjected. It was also said that no proof was given that the supposed organisms found by Dr. Bastian in these boiled and hermetically sealed liquids were alive. The motions exhibited might be “ Brownian” motions, and the experimenter probably found nothing in his vessels but what he put into them. The answer to these objections is now given. The test of vitality is said to be, not movement, which is ad- mitted to.be uncertain, but the ower of reproduction. It is found that if a portion of liquid containing Bacteria is divided into two parts, one of which is boiled, and a drop from each of these portions is mounted as a micro- scopic object, under a covering glass surrounded by quickly-drying cement, the unboiled specimen exhibits a marked increase from day to day in the quantity of im- prisoned Bacéeréa, while the boiled specimen continues unchanged during the same time. Making use of this test of vitality, it was next ascertained what degree of heat was fatal to these low organisms. By using a lower and lower temperature, it was found that exposure to 140° F. for ten minutes destroyed Bacteria, while after ex- posure to 131° F. for the same time they rapidly multi- plied. Somewhat higher organisms—V72d770s, Am@ebe, Monads, Vorticelle, &c., were, however, killed by ex- posure to 131° F. for five minutes. It was subsequently ascertained that a four hours’ exposure to a temperature of even 127° F, destroyed Bacteria and Torule. It is argued that, as in all these experiments the solutions used swarmed with Bacteria, &c., in various stages of increase, their hypothetical “ germs” cannot be supposed to have been entirely absent ; and that we may therefore conclude that the “germ” has no greater power of resisting heat than the animal itself. Dr. Bastian also criticises many of the experiments of Pasteur, and the arguments founded on them. He main- tains that the corpuscles found by the latter to exist in the atmosphere, and which “resemble” spores of fungi, have never been proved to be such ; and even if they were so proved, it would not account for the constant occur- rence of Sacteyia and other low organisms, whose “germs” are quite unknown, and which there seems no reason to believe could retain their vitality in a dry state Fuly 6, 1871] NATURE 179 in the atmosphere. The fact that vessels with bent necks or with plugs of cotton-wool do not produce organisms, while other vessels not so protected produce them in abundance, is shown, by numerous experiments, not to be universal. The evidence now adduced is held to prove that a variety of conditions hitherto not attended to affect the result, such as temperature, the strength of the solu- tion, and especially the presence of particles of organic matter, other than “germs,” derived from the atmo- sphere. A summary is given of sixty-five compara- tive experiments, which are believed to show, among other things, that the non-production of Bacteria, &c., in infusions and other suitable liquids, is so common an occurrence that the negative experiments of Pasteur and others have no weight as compared with the positive results obtained by a considerable number of observers, to whom the author refers, as well as by himself. Some of these comparative experiments are very sug- gestive. Hay infusion, for instance, exposed to air, pro- duced abundance of Bacteria in forty-eight hours, and these had increased considerably in sixty-eight hours. A similar infusion, sealed up after the fluid had become cold, behaved ina similar manner. The same in a flask with neck two feet long and having eight acute flexures, remained unchanged for twelve days. A similar infusion, hermeti- cally sealed during ebullition, on the other hand, showed turbidity in forty-eight hours, which subsequently increased, and Bacteria, Vibriones, Leptothrix,and Torule were found in abundance. Here, then, whatever inference may be drawn from the first three experiments is entirely negatived by the fourth. Other experiments show that ammonia- tartrate solution sealed zz vacuo at a temperature of go° F. produced in eighty-four hours abundance of Bac- teria; while the same solution, if boiled at 212° F. and exposed to the air in flasks covered with paper caps, re- mained quite clear for nine days; yet as soon as it was inoculated with living Bacteria, they increased rapidly and produced turbidity. These, and a number of other equally suggestive experiments, indicate that the conditions favour- able to the origin and to the zucrease of these low forms are not always identical. Both are very complex, and we cannot avoid the conclusion that the advocates of the universal germ theory have been somewhat hasty in found- ing their doctrine upon insufficient data, for the most part of a negative character. We have here, undoubtedly, an important addition to the experimental evidence by which alone the question can be decided, and we are glad to observe the unpre- judiced and philosophical spirit with which Dr. Bastian discusses this most interesting and important problem. A. R, WALLACE THE WORKSHOP The Workshop. Edited by Prof. W. Baumer, J. Schnorr, and others. (London: J. Hagger, 67, Paternoster Row.) (mass RY year of dur national progress strengthens the national appreciation of the wisdom expressed in those words of the late Prince Consort, when he told the manufacturers of Birmingham that “the introduction of Science and Art as the conscious regulators of productive industry is destined to play a great and important part in the future development of this nation, and the world in general.” I take the liberty of italicising the word “conscious,” remembering well the emphasis with which it was spoken, and being strongly impressed with the vast importance of this qualification. Science of some sort, and art of some sort, have always regulated the operations of productive industry, The club of the savage is not uncommonly carved with much art, and shaped and poised with sound practical know- ledge of the whereabouts of the weapon at which will be concentrated the whole force of the blow when it swings through the curve which the stroke of the arm will give it. The savage artisan is, however, utterly unconscious of the dynamical principles upon which the centre of oscillation or percussion is determined, and upon which his own skill depends. He follows a blind instinct but one degree higher than that which impels the bee to construct its honey-comb upon sound statical principles. The more civilised workman who merely proceeds according to the “rule of thumb” and the traditions of his trade, is in a similar intellectual condi- tion to that of the bee and the savage. In his daily occupation his specially human faculties are scarcely ex- ercised. The constructive instinct which he possesses in common with the beaver or the wasp is sufficient to guide his muscles in doing such work in sucha manner. To talk of the “dignity of labour” when labour is thus con- ducted is merely to indulge in senseless and vicious phrase- mongering. The whole life and being of the artisan becomes changed immediately his daily work is conusctously regulated by science and art. It then becomes an elevating instead of a brutalising occupation ; the “dignity of labour” is re- moved from the sphere of platform verbiage to that of practical fact, and the workshop becomes a school of intellectual and moral culture, We must always remember that the character of a man is formed by the daily, hourly, and continuous habits of his life, that no quantity or excellence of mere Sunday ser- mons, or occasional evening meetings, can overpower these. The philanthropist who would practically influencce the character of the workman must operate upon him in and through the workshop ; and it appears to me that there are no conceivable means so effectual for this purpose as the converting his bread-winning work from a mere mechanical brutal drudgery into a moral and intellectual exercise. To understand thoroughly the scientific prin- ciples involved in all the operations of any common handi- craft is to know a great deal more than our greatest philosophers are yet acquainted with, and therefore the field of the consciously scientific artisan is wide enough for the intellectual effort of a life time. If, in addition to the physical science of his trade, he is conscious of his own social relations and functions, if he knows the part which he is playing in the great machinery of society, the motive to his industry will not be that of a merely sordid grubbing for wages, but the sense of duty and the chivalry of reciprocal beneficence will be introduced, and will perpetually operate as necessary results of this scientific consciousness of his own social functions. If soldiers and sailors can be taught to glorify their work, and rise to heroism in their efforts to do their duty and serve their country, why should not the spinner, the weaver, the tailor, the agriculturist, the miller, and the 180 NATURE [Fuly 6, 1871 baker do the same? Surely it is as noble and as glorious and as serviceable to one’s country, to be engaged in clothing the naked and feeding the hungry, as in shooting and drowning our fellow creatures ? I have referred above only to the artisan, but have chosen him and the workshop merely for the sake of typical illustration ; the remarks apply equally to all who are engaged in useful industry, to the distributor as well as to the producer, to the capitalist and organiser of labour as well as to the labourer himself. The grocer, for example, who should understand and take intelligent interest in the natural history of the products that cross his counter, and the social machinery that brought them there from all the corners of the earth, would be a very different being from the mere parcel-tying and change- counting machine that usually weighs our tea and coffee. I have thus dwelt upon some of the grounds for giving special emphasis to the word “conscious,” believing that the advocates of Technical Education are too apt to regard the subject from a merely technical point of view. It is of the utmost importance that we should be convinced of the perfect harmony which naturally and necessarily exists between moral and material welfare, when the best and soundest means of obtaining either one or the other are followed, especially as there does exist in the minds of a certain class, both of workers and dreamers, a foolish prejudice and misconception, leading them to regard the advocates of Technical Education as a set of cold-blooded materialists, who look upon the workman as a mere pro- ductive engine which they seek to improve only in order to get more out of him. My opportunities of learning the opinions and feelings of the better class of self-im- proving workmen have been rather extensive, and I have met with this idea more frequently than one might suppose were possible. Certain flashy and trashy hollow-headed writers, who are constantly babbling about “the mate- rialistic tendencies of the age” have encouraged these ideas, and as the arts of smart writing and showy oratory are so very easily acquired, this class of sentimentalists is very numerous, The work above-named, which has suggested these re- marks, is published in shilling parts, each containing a large number of well-selected and well-executed illus- trations of art workmanship, a supplementary sheet of detailed working drawings, and essays on art-industry and miscellaneous technological subjects. Most of the illus- trations are representative of continental art, and the cha- racter of the whole work is essentially German, including the typography, and some clerical errors in the English. As the chief use of such a work is to supply the English manufacturer with ideas that may help to emancipate him from slavish adherence to mere trade customs and models, this feature is advantageous, provided it does not foster the too common fallacy of believing that our continental neighbours have a monopoly of artistic taste—a fallacy which is sometimes carried to the length of an extravagant prejudice. I have little doubt that if an equal amount of industry and taste were exerted in selecting models from the Eng- lish fittings, English furniture, and English ornaments of English mansions, another and retaliatory ‘‘ Workshop ” of equal intrinsic merit, and equally suggestive to the con- tinental workman, might be compiled. There are several designs for German porcelain stoves, which are especially worthy of the attention of the English manufacturer. Their value is not confined to their artistic merits ; the introduction to this country of such stoves would add much to the comfort and economy of English households, by taking the place of our barbarous open fire-places which give 90 per cent. of their heat to the clouds, and with the residue roast us on one side while the other is exposed to the cold blasts that converge from all sides towards the chimney, round which we are com- pelled to huddle whenever we have any really cold weather, such as that of last winter. The contrast between the genial, well-diffused warmth of the sitting-rooms of a well-ordered North German household and those of Eng- lish houses of a corresponding class is anything but favour- able to “the Englishman’s fireside ;” and as reason has so little power against prejudice, it may be well to call in art to the aid of science, in order to try whether the elegant designs of some of the German fire-places may have some effect upon those who reply to all demonstrations of the inefficiency and wastefulness of the English fireplace, that they must have an open fire “to look at,” or on account of its “cheerful appearance.” A work of this kind, that a man may purchase or bor- row from a library, and thus deliberately study at home, has a special value over and above that of Art Museums and International Exhibitions, though of course in these he has the great advantage of seeing the objects themselves. The great fault of the work is the want of direct con- nection between the letter-press and the engravings. There are essays on various branches of art-manufacture, and illustrations of these ; but the illustrations are dis- tributed at random throughout the work, which, although published in separate parts, has no part complete in itself. A re-arrangement and proper classification of the materials of this book would greatly increase its value. The pub- lishers may possibly suppose that by devoting certain shilling parts to knockers, hinges, gates, railings, and other ironmongery illustrations, another part to jewellery, another to mantelpieces, others to cabinet-work, &c., they would be holding out an inducement to their customers to buy only isolated numbers, while by the present ar- rangement, which sprinkles each man’s special require- ments throughout the work, they compel their sub- scribers to take the whole series. Whatever be the motive or origin of this arrangement, or want of arrangement, the commercial result must be to prevent many practical men from purchasing it at all, who would be glad to pos- sess those parts relating to their own trades. As a mere picture-book, the confused miscellaneous arrangement may be the most popular, it gives great variety to the contents of each number ; but in reference to higher usefulness this is a serious drawback to the merits of an otherwise valuable work, W. MATTIEU WILLIAMS LETTERS TO THE EDITOR [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his Correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous communications, | A New View of Darwinism I AM much obliged to Mr. Howorth for his courteous expres- sions towards me in the letter in your last number. If he will be Fuly 6, 1871] NATURE 181 so good as to look at p. 111 and p. 148, vol. ii. of my “‘ Varia- tion of Animals and Plants under Domestication,” he will find a good many facts and a discussion on the fertility and sterility of organisms from increased food and other causes. He will see my reasons for disagreeing with Mr. Doubleday, whose work I carefully read many years ago. CHARLES DARWIN Down, Beckenham, Kent, July 1 THE very ingenious manner in which Mr. Howorth first mis- represents Darwinism, and then uses an argument which is not even founded on his own misrepresentation, but on a quite dis- tinct fallacy, may puzzle some of your readers. I therefore ask space for a few lines of criticism. Mr. Howorth first ‘‘takes it”’ that the struggle for existence ‘¢ means, in five words, the persistence of the stronger.” This is a pure misrepresentation. Darwin says nothing of the kind. ‘© Strength ” is only ore out of the many and varied powers and faculties that lead to sucess in the battle for life. Minute size, obscure colours, swiftness, armour, cunning, prolificness, nauseous- ness, or bad odour, have any one of them as much right to be put forward as the caus: of *‘ persistence.” The error is so gross that itseems wonderful that any reader of Darwin could have made it, or, having made it, could put it forward deliberately as a fair foundatioa for a criticism. He says, moreover, that the theory of Natural Selection ‘‘has been expressively epitomised” as ** the per-istence of the stronger,” ‘‘ the survival of the stronger.” By whom? I should like to know. I never saw the terms so ap- plied in print by any Darwinian. The most curious and even ludicrous thing, howeyer, is that, having thus laid down his pre- misses, Mr. Howorth makes no more use of them, but runs off to something quite different, namely, that /a¢vess is prejudicial to fertility. “‘ Fat hens won’t lay,” ‘‘overgrown melons have few seeds,” ‘‘ overfed men have small families,’-—these are the facts by which he seeks to prove thit the s¢vozgest will not survive and leave offspring! But what does nature tell us? That the strongest and most vigorous plants do produce the most flowers and seed, not the weak and sickly. That the strongest and most healthy and best fed wild animals do propagate more rapidly than the s arved and sickly. That the strong and thoroughly well-fed backwoodsmen of America increase more rapidly than any half- starved race of Indians upon earth. No fact, therefore, has been adduced to show that even ‘‘the persistence of the stronger” is not true ; although, if this had been done, it would not touch Natural Selection, which is the “survival of the fittest.” ALFRED R. WALLACE Our Natural History Museum IN a few days the country will be called upon to vote 30,000/, or 40,000/. towards the erection of the new Natural History Museum at Kensington. 7,000/. were voted last year for the purpose of drawing up estimates and preparing the site, and our present one at Bloomsbury has become such a crying evil that we can scarcely anticipate a refusal of the grant. So liberal a sum being offered at the shrine of Science, the * community at large will necessarily expect great things of her, and first among all a radical redress of all existing grievances. Yet, if rumour whispers true, the prospects of the future are scarcely so brilliant or pregnant with promises of better things to come as they should be. Plans have been drawn up and decided upon, and the chiefs of the present Natural History Departments have been subsequently consulted as to the amount of space required for the several collections under their charge. This is itself a faulty commencement, for the building should be constructed for the requirements of the collections, and not the collections cut to the size of the building, and, as might have been anticipated, such policy already threatens to prove produc- tive of disappointment and dissatisfaction. Some departments will profit by the change, while others, including the one mostly needing an elargement of its borders, will absolutely have less than the present amount of space awarded it. We refer to the zoological one, whose present overcrowded and semi-arranged co dition is a disgrace to he nation. And yet, onthe c mpletion or the present plans, this cramming process is threatened to be still further carried out, though it is to be hoped the voice of opposition and common sense will save us yet from so unfortunate a catastrophe. We hear again that no consideration whatever has been devoted to the subject of a library for the new building, nora single foot of space allotted to the purpose of constructing one. Such a blunder as this surpasses the first one. The scientific volumes in the present library are in constant requisition by the officers of the various departments to assist them in the determination and arrangement of the specimens. Many of these again are unique or only replaceable at a great cost, and the inconvenience and loss of advantages that will arise to the official staff on being separated from the collection of works they now have access to, cannot be over-estimated. If the Natural History collections must be removed, an edifice suitable for their thorough utilisation, and replete with every convenience for prosecuting scientific research, including efficient laboratories, should be erected. But to commence at the root of the evil. No progress can be expected under present auspices, or so long as the chief adminis- tration of the establishment, and the appointment and promotion of all officers, is vested in the hands of some fifty or sixty trustees, out of whom not more than two can be said to take a direct interest in the promotion of Natural Science. Nor, again, so long as such little discrimination is exercised in the distribution of these officers. Curiosity has prompted inquiries which have elicited anything but satisfying discoveries. We find men with talents for one branch of natural history stationed in departments where their particular talents cannot be utilised ; recent zoolo- gists in the geological department, paleontologists in the recent botanical one, and men peculiarly gifted for literary pursuits and without the slightest taste for scientific research, in the former. Taking next the department of Recent Zoology, the inadequacy of the present staff and the ill-proportioned attention that is de- voted to particular sections, to the entire neglect of the remaining ones, are painfully apparent. In the Vertebrate division, though abundant room for improvement, there is not so much cause for censure; but on descending to the lower and far more bulky one of the Invertebrates, what do we find? Of astaff of five, two are conchologists, and the remaining three entomologists, while the Crustacea, Arachnida, and the whole of the old group of the Radiates, including the Echinodermata, Molluscoida, Ccelenterata, and Procozoa, are left to shift for themselves, and make way for the necessities of the others. Have we no men in England capable of superintending the ar- rangement of these neglected classes? or is it that the present remuneration for scientific work, for all but those highest in authority—so slender as to necessitate their utilising every leisure hour in eking out other means of subsistence, and taxing their brains, to the detriment of the amount of work discharged in official hours—deters them from coming forward? At any rate, the evil should be attended to, and the present glaring incon- gruities abolished. Whether new buildings are erected at Ken- sington, or the existing ones enlarged, it is absolutely incumbent that the administration shall be thoroughly reorganised. A per- manent committee of some dozen eminently scientific men should supply the place of the present host of uninterested trustees, and the staff of officers should be distributed in accordance with the plan adopted in the Paris and various Continental Museums. Each zoological section should have its superintendent, with a number of assistants varying according to its requirements, while one governing mind should assume the responsibility and direct the machinery of the whole ; and until such reformation is accomplished, there is no hope of any practical improvements, We do not see why the two large wings of the present establish- ment, now occupied as residences by the superior officers, should not be converted into exhibition rooms ; space enough being reserved for one official residence on either side ; and if necessary, additional suitable ones might be rented in the immediate neigh- bourhood, and the collections thus saved the unavoidable wear and tear of removal, and at the same time preserved in their pre- sent convenient position of access to the general public. But the exodus has been decided upon, and the question itself is of secondary importance compared with that of administration. On a future occasion I would direct attention to a few other points. BATHYBIUS Steam Lifeboats THE Glove of Friday last contained a report of the proceedings of the Committee of the Steam Lifeship Fund, from which it would appear that the subject of the construction of a steam lifeship is seriously contemplated. As one who has for several years given great attention to this most desirable object, perhaps you will allow me to give the results of my labours. 182 NATURE [Fuly 6, 1871 It has already appeared to me that the object to be attained was not the construction of a lifeship, but rather the fitting of lifeboats with steam machinery, thereby improving their efficiency and diminishing the risk of life, as a boat so constructed could be worked, and that more efficiently, by at most three men, instead of the large number now required to man them. The only means of propulsion which can be applied is, in my opinion, the hydraulic propeller, as, the turbine being enclosed, all risk of fouling pieces of wreck, weed, &c., is thereby avoided. To atrempt to use a lifeboat fitted with a screw or paddle would only be courting danger and disaster. Such being the case, the boat designed by me consists of three tubes, the outer ones being circular, and the centre one in which the propeller works being semicircular, and placed underneath the platform grating connect- ing the two circular tubes. The three tubes would be turned up and unite at the ends, and would somewhat resemble a whaleboat. The peculiar advantage of the hydraulic propeller when applied in this manner is, that the boat could be tumed round on its own centre, and sent ahead or astern by the man in charge by simply turning a handle, without issuing an order to any one, an advan- tage which I need hardly say is of the very greatest moment under such circumstances as those in which lifeboats are usually employed. The system of towing lifeboats by means of steam tugs to some point as near as possible to the site of the wreck, is one attended with danger, and the lifeboat, when cast off, is deprived of its means of propulsion at the very time when engine power would be most effective in enabling it to contend with the broken water round a wreck. Iremember a case at Bombay, when a lifeboat proceeding to a wreck was towed right under, and the Chinese crew swept out of the boat and nearly all drowned. Tubular lifeboats, I need hardly say, are no novelty, and the addition of a centre tube to carry the propeller and the steam engine and boiler will certainly not diminish their efficiency. JOHN FELLOWES Naval and Military Club, Piccadilly, July 3 The Internal Stucture of the Earth ARCHDEACON PRATT’s letter in NaTURE for June 22 calls for some remarks on my part. He communicates a few marginal notes written by Mr. Hopkins on a copy of the second part of my ‘Researches in Terrestrial Physics,” which appeared in the ‘Philosophical Transactions,” and seems seriously to regard these curt expressions as judicial utterances beyond which there can be no appeal. ) In the first place, I am accused of incorrectly stating the nature of Mr. Hopkins’s hypothesis as to the non-existence of friction between the fluid nucleus and solid shell of the earth. The words quoted from my paper as incorrect immediately follow a symbolical expression presented by Mr, Hopkins as the final result of his analysis, and my remark distinctly refers to this mathematical expression, and to nothin: else. Remembering that the whole of Mr. Hopkins’s mathematical investigations on the internal structure of the earth culminated in the deduction of this very expression, it is well to examine what are the words he uses in the course of his investigations which refer to the existence of friction between the shell and nucleus. In his first memoir, ‘‘ Philosophical Transactions,” 1839, he says, ‘and since there will be no friction with the assumed perfect fluidity of the interior matter,” p. 386. In his second memoir, I do not recollect thar anything about friction is mentioned ; but in his third, which summarises the whole of his pre- ceding labours, after presenting the formula already alluded to, he states that it was established on the suppostion of ‘the transition being immediate from the entire solidity of the shell to the ferfect fluidity of the mass.” He afterwards gives reasons for believing that a stratum of imperfect fluid probably exists between the shell and the perfect fluid, and he further uses the words, “ Consequently ¢he assumption made in our investiga- tions of the absence of all tangential action between the shell and fluid will not be accurately true,” p. 43. As my remark relers to these investigations and their immediate result, it is unnecessary to say to whom the charge of inaccuracy may just y apply. In affirming the existence of friction between the shell and nucleus to such an extent as to cause both to rotate as one solid mass, friction between the particles of the fluid is clearly implied ; for if no such friction existed, the film of liquid touching the shell and moving with it might slip over the remainder of the nucleus. ? I have, therefore, been all along at issue with Mr. Hopkins on this point, when I concluded that the rotation of the shell and nucleus must take place as if the whole were solid. Mr. Hopkins declares this conclusion to be ‘‘a mechanical impossibility.” It isthis “impossibili y”’ which has been reaffirmed by M. Delaunay in stronger terms than those I used. It has been shown to be not merely possible, but rigorously true, in a particular case, by an experiment of M. Champagneur, which I have myself recently verified, and it has been further so clearly illustrated in these pages by two correspondents A. J. M. and A. H. Green (May 18, p. 45) as to require no further observation. The coincidence of the axes of instantaneous rotation of the shell and nucleus necess irily follows if the whole moves asa solid mass ; and to charge me with implying the coincidence in one of my formulz is equivalent to charging me with being strictly consistent On this point Mr. Hopkins is of course at issue with M. Delaunay as well as with myself. The next imp »rtant question referred to on which I totally differ from Mr. Hopkins is that of the form of the inner surface of the shell. If the shell has been gradually formed by solidification from a fluid mass, it is evident that the rate of progressive solidification at the interior of the shell must depend on the rate of refrigeration of the surface of the nucleus. This takes place, and has probably taken place for ages, at an almost insensible rate of slowness, and therefore also the succes- sive additions of matter to the shell’s inner surface. Between the perf: ctly solidified and comparatively rigid part of the shell and the fluid nucleus, the matter on the point of becoming solidified is probably in a pasty or imperfectly fluid state (as Mr. Hopkins has admitted), and it is this matter which is subjected to a moulding action by the changes of shape of the nucleus, as I pointed out in the publication already alluded to. This pasty matter becoming slowly impressed with the shape of the nucleus, and freely yielding to the impression as it passes to the solid state, the more rigid part of the shell, precisely as the outer case of a mould, is saved from strain, and cannot undergo a corresponding change of figure. In the discus- sion which followed the reading of my commun cation to the French Academy of Sciences on March 6, it appears from the Comptes Rendus that M. Elie de Beaumont made some remarks which illustrate and support this view of the process of formation of the shell. The conclusion to which I was thus led, that the inner surface of the shell could not be less elliptical than its outer surface, was reaffirmed soon after the publication of my researches by an eminent mathematician, the late Baron Plana, of Turin. All this Mr. Hopkins considers as quite inadmissible, and very reasonably, too, in the opinion of Archdeacon Pratt, and all the results deuced therefrom are judi- cially pronounced to be ‘‘ valueless.” But my conclusion as to the interior ellipticity of the shell is only a necessary deduction flowing trom the fundamental principles from which my inquiries start, a principle upon which I am as much at issue with Mr, Hopkins as upon anything referred to in his marginal notes. As this is the really viral divergence between us, a few words of ex- planation are desirable The hypothesis of the entirely fluid state of the earth anterior to its present state forms the groundwork of mathematical in- quiries as to the earth’s figure. The problem, as hitherto treated, always involved an additional hypothesis either openly or tacitly implied, namely, that the distribution of the particles composing the earth underwent no change by the earth’s transition from a completely fluid condition to its present state, While Mr. Hopkins tacitly assumed this second hypo'hesis throughout his investizations, [ have reason to believe that it was for the first time rejected in my paper on the ‘*Figureand Primitive Formation of the Ear‘h,” which forms the first of my ‘‘ Researches in Terrestrial Piysics.” By this step we are at liberty to investigate, with the aid of mechanical and physical laws and the known properties of the earth’s materials, the probable arrangement and laws of density of the interior strata of the shelland nucleus. In attempting to doso, I was led to conclusions as to the earth’s internal structure widely differing from those of Mr. Hopkins. I have great difficulty in believing that the crude comments on my researches communi- cated to Archdeacon Pratt, could have been intended to meet the public eye. Long before Mr. Hopkins sent these remarks to Archdeacon Pratt, he wrote to me promising to comment pub- licly upon my conclusions ; and since then an opportunity oc- curred for poi-ting out in his presence at a meering ot the British Association what I conceived to be the inconclusive charac- ter ofhis results, Mr, Hopkins promised to reply, but neither this Fuly 6, 1871] NATURE 183 nor his former promise was ever realised. He avoided public discussion, whil as it now appears he fvivately depreciated results incompatible with his own. To Archdeacon Pratt I am grate- ful for producing evidence of the kind of weapon which I had long suspected to have been employed by my distinguished adversary. HENRY HENNESSY Dublin, July 1 Oceanic Circulation Mr. LAUGHTON treats an experiment which was only intended to be illustrative as if it had been advanced as probative, and tests it by a doctrine of ‘‘thermometric gradients” which does not correspond to the facts of the case. A uniform reduction of the temperature of ocean-water from the Equator to the Pole would doubtless give a ‘‘thermometric gradient” of infinitesimal minuteness. But the water of the circumpolar area, on which what Sir John Herschel truly designated the intense action of polar cold is exerted, brings with it so much of equatorial heat that a very decided increase of its specific gravity must be produced by the cooling process to which it is subjected within the polar area, This increase will be adequate, as I have attempted to show, to produce a continuous downward movement of the whole mass of water subjected to the cooling process ; and such a movement, however slow, will make itself perceptible in a continuous outflow of the chilled dense water along the deepest floors of the great oceanic basins, and in a continuous indraught of warmer surface water into the polar area. The proof that such is the case seems to me to be afforded by the fact that temperatures not much above 32° seem to be uniformly met with at depths exceeding 2,000 fathoms, even under the equator ; a fact of which Mr. Laughton and those who think with him have not, so far as I am aware, offered any account. That there is nothing in depth, Zev se, which produces this depression is shown by the absence of it in the Mediterranean. It would be difficult, if not impossible, to carry out a probative experiment that should represent the actual conditions of the case. Taking the distance from the pole to the equator at 6,250 miles, and the average depth to which the chilled water would descend at 2$ miles, we should require a trough having a propor- tion of 2,500 to 1 between its length and its depth, or (in round numbers) a length of half a mile to a depth of a foot. Let it be supposed that cold were continuously applied by a powerful freezing mixture to the surface of the water occupying one extremity of the trough as far as one-tenth of its length, and that heat were applied to the surface of the water occupying the opposite extremity to a corresponding extent, the intervening water being neither heated nor cooled artificially, would, or would not, a continuous circulation from the one end of the trough to the other come to be established? To me it seems that what Sir John Herschel calls the ‘‘common sense of the matter” teaches that the continuous descending movement given to the water at the polar end of the trough must in time propa- gate itself to the equatorial, provided only that the conducting power of the sides and floor of the trough were sufficiently bad to prevent the chilled stratum which falls to the bottom at one end from losing its cold before it reaches the other. When such masters of Thermotics as Pouillet and Herschel consider that the doctrine of a general oceanic circulation sus- tained by differences of temperature is conformable to the facts at present known, I would suggest whether it would not be wise if those who are interested in the subject, instead of attempting to controvert their views on theoretical considerations, were to use their endeavours to collect additional data for practically testing them. By the kindness of the Hydrographer to the Admiralty I hope, in the course of the present season, to obtain some further information of a reliable kind ; and I am doing my utmost to urge upon our Government a systematic inquiry into what the Secretary of the Scottish Meteorological Society has truly desig- nated (in a recent letter to me) as ‘‘ the most important problem in Terrestrial Physics.” July 3 WILLIAM B, CARPENTER r I sHOULD need Mr. Laughton’s hint if I had ever supposed that the cause of the vertical circulation of the ocean could be determined by such an experiment as I suggested. The experi- ment was specially intended to throw light on the easterly and westerly oceanic movements. For this purpose it is only neces- sary that the rate of rotation of the shallow cylinder should be - duly adjusted to the observed rate of the vertical motions. But even in this respect the experiment would afford but an illustra- tion, not a demonstration. The subject of oceanic circulation is altogether too wide and too difficult for discussion in letters. Every point touched on by Mr. Laughton requires many columns for its full discussion. I just note that the infinitesimal nature of the thermometric gradients scarcely seems a sounder objection to the temperature theory of oceanic circulation than to the temperature theory of atmospheric circulation. In one case, as in the other, we must integrate the effects of the solar light on tropical and subtropical regions, RICHARD A. PROCTOR Day Auroras Last evening, about eight o’clock, being in the grounds belonging to the Radcliffe Observatory, I was exceedingly sur- prised at seeing what I have xo doubt of being true auroral streamers, forming a little to the east of the south meridian, reaching an altitude of about 25°, and after travelling some dis- tance in a westerly direction, vanishing. This lasted at least ten minutes, when the sky, which had been overcast nearly all day again became so. I pointed the streamers out to several people who were near me, some of whom watched them with me, as a proof of what I had before doubted, namely, that auroras are visible by daylight. : Joun Lucas, Assistant at Radcliffe Observatory Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford, June 28 The I REGRET that I have misinterpreted the severity of Prof. Newcomb’s remarks respecting my chapter on the Solar Parallax. The fact is, that so far back as February 1 I was warned by an eminent astronomer that Prof. Newcomb had vowed here last November that he would annihilate all who upheld the finality or correctness of Mr. Stone’s researches. Prof. Newcomb must be sensible that his offer to supply infor- mation as to the history of inquiries into the solar parallax during the last few years is a very generous one; and that it will be immensely to my advantage to profit by his exceptional fami- liarity with the subject. I thank him very earnestly. I have an especial distaste for inquiries into the historical parts of scien- tific subjects, and shall rejoice to be saved the labour of looking up authorities, &c., in this particular matter. If I find my account requires alteration, I shall admit the fact without a par- ticle of hesitation. It is indeed most desirable (though not, perhaps, for students of science, for whom I specially write, and who need trouble themselves little on the matter) that to each worker in the subject of the solar parallax his due proportion of credit should be assigned ; and asin this case not only J, but Sir John Herschel, as well as the Council of the Astronomical Society, would seem to have done Prof. Newcomb less than justice, the sooner recantation is made the better. Prof. Newcomb refers to ‘‘the kind spirit in which I have taken his remarks ;” meaning rather, perhaps, the appreciative way in which I have spoken of his labours. His critique, regarded as a whole, was not, I take it, kindly meant; and though I by no means feel annihilated by it, I should be speaking untruly if I seemed to admit its justice. If I failed to note how I viewed his comments, it was only because I found a pleasanter subject to speak about in those important researches whereby he has advanced astronomy. RICHARD A. PRocTOR P.S.—I take this opportunity of noting that the remark in my former letter respecting the work of Mr. De La Rue and F. Secchi in 1860 must not be understood as implying that the account in F. Secchi’s book Ze So/ei/ is incorrect. On the contrary, I have no doubt itis strictly accurate. I was fortunate in securing a copy of Ze Soleil before Paris was beleaguered, and derived consi- derable assistance from its perusal. Solar Parallax Lee Shelter PERHAPS it is worth noting that a lee shelter is almost as effectual asa screen to the windward. The fact may be quite well known and understood ; but I did not become aware of it till I was on Bognor Pier, when a strong gale was blowing directly on the broadside. There are seats backed and covered overhead and on the sides, alternately, on the one or other side of the pier, and on this occasion all the seats to the windward were occupied, so that, wanting a rest, I had to put up with one 184 of those directly facing the gale. I naturally expected to have it strong in my face ; but, on the contrary, I found I had almost as perfect a shelter from the wind as if I had been on the other side. C, M. INGLEBY Malvern Wells, July 3 AFFINITIES OF THE SPONGES Vi H. J. CARTER is devoting much attention at the present moment to the study of the Protozoa. In March last he published in the Anmals and Magazine of Natural History the results of his investigations on Coc- coliths and Coccospheres, stating his opinion that these minute bodies are of vegetable and not animal organisa- tion, as hitherto supposed. Should his supposition prove correct, it will materially modify the theory of the mode of support of animal life at great depths, advocated by many recent deep-sea explorers. In the pages of the same journal for this month (July), Mr. Carter lays before us the results of his more recent researches into the ulti- mate structure of the marine calcareous sponges, and which entirely harmonise with those already arrived at by Prof. James Clark, of Boston, U.S. The sum total of these are that the Spongiadz, as a group, are most closely allied to the Flagellate Infusioria ; the animal portions of the genera Leuconia, Grantia, and Clathrina among the calcareous sponge-forms, and Sfongilla, [sodictya, Hy- meniacidon, and Cliona among the silicious representa- tives examined by Mr. Carter, being found by him to con- sist, for the most part, of aggregations of the same peculiar funnel-bearing ciliated cells characteristic of the new Flagellate Infusorial genera Codosiga, Salpingeca, Bico- seca, &c., introduced by Prof. Clark. The only point at issue between these two explorers in the same field is, whether each separate cell possesses a distinct mouth, or is capable of engulphing food, after the manner of an ordinary Rhizopod, through any portion of its body. Mr. Carter here adopts the latter view. The most important result of Mr. Carter’s investiga- tions is, however, the additional evidence he brings forward in refutation of Ernst Haeckel’s no longer tenable hypothesis, that the sponges are most closely allied to, and should even be collated in the same primary group as, the Ccelenterata. Prof. Haeckel’s opinions have already been strongly opposed by myself (See Azz. and Mag. Nat. Hist. for March and September 1870) ; and Mr. Carter’s recent investigations practically deprive Prof. Haeckel and those supporting his views of their last foot-hold. The Calcispongiz is the group on which Ernst Haeckel and his collaborateur Mickluco-Maclay have more particularly concentrated their attention ; it is the especial one, again, they have made choice of, as demonstrating in their opinion, more closely than any, the relationship they would seek to establish. Prof. Clark and Mr. Carter, however, prove beyond doubt their bond of union with the Flagel- late Infusoria, the addition of a general investing sarcode layer and a spicular or horny supporting skeleton being, indeed, the only clearly defined characters that separates them from the group. In seeking to establish other affinities, Mr. Carter is scarcely so happy. In his opinion, the Spongiade are more closely allied to the compound Tunicata than to the Ceelenterata, but he allows himself to be led further away here by analogous or general external resemblances than even Prof. Haeckel. To effect his purpose, he proposes that the branchial openings in the gelatinous mass of Botryllus “are analogous if not homologous” with the pores of the Spongiadz, while the common cloacal cavity and fzecal orifice are respectively analogous to the excre- tory canal system and vent. Fascinating as these ex- ternal resemblances may appear at first sight, we must penetrate a little beneath them, and before Mr, Carter can hope to substantiatethe affinities he would establish, he must demonstrate to what extent the individual zooids of the As- NATURE [ Fuly 6, 187% cidian colony canbe correlated withthe single or aggregated. ciliated cells of the sponges. In the former we have highly-organised animals, possessing a well-developed neural, heemal, digestive, and respiratory system, while in the latter, simple uniciliated cells and undifferentiated sar- code are the only materials to be dealt with. Mr. Carter, again, would institute comparisons between the tough, gelatinous, or albuminous mass in which the Ascidian zooids are embedded, and that sarcode layer more or less generally diffused throughout all sponge structures ; but in the first we have formed matter, like bone, horn, or shell, no longer possessing vital properties, while in the sarcode of the sponge we have living substance constantly alter- ing its conditions of relationship, secreting the supporting skeleton, and contributing to the general welfare of the sponge community. Mr. Carter’s inference in support of his proposition, drawn from the presence of calcareous bodies resembling spiculee being met with in certain com- pound Ascidia, is but of little importance, considering that comparisons on the same grounds might be made between the sponges and the Nudibranchiate Mollusca ; these latter likewise frequently secreting calcareous spiculz in the substance of their integument. The hiatus between the Spongiadz and the Tunicata is far too wide to admit of such an institution of homological comparisons ; the group of the Coelenterata is evidently the nearest related to the former, but even here there are at present too many important links wanting to justify our uniting thetwoin one sub-kingdom, as proposed by Haeckel. Inter se, the sponges constitute a very natural division of the Protozoa, intimately related on the one hand through their special ciliated cells to the Flagellate Infusoria, and by the remaining sarcode layer, or skeletal secreting por- tion, to the simpler Rhizopoda. In the paper here alluded to, Mr. Carter describes, under the name of 77ychogypsia,a new calcareous sponge form differing from all others with which he is acquainted in possessing linear fusiform and no triradiate or quadri- radiate spicules. The genus Aphroceras, described by Dr. Gray in 1858 (see Proc. Zoo. Soc., pp. 113, 114), is recognised by the same characters. W. SAVILLE KENT ON RECENT MOA REMAINS IN NEW ZEALAND iy January 1864 a remarkably perfect specimen of Dinornis robustus, Owen, found on the Manu- herekia Plains in the interior of the Province of Otago, was transmitted to the museum at York, and formed the subject of a memoir by Prof. Owen in the Transactions of the Zoological Society for 1869. These remains were considered unique on account of the well-preserved con- dition of some parts of the skeleton, portions of the liga- ments, skin, and feathers being still attached to some of the bones, whereas Moa bones in the condition in which they are usually found are partially fossilised, or have at least undergone a sufficient change to deprive them not only of all ligamentous appendages, but to some extent of their proper proportion of organic matter. The dis- covery in the following year of the unique specimen (now in the museum) of a Moa’s egg containing the bones of an embryo chick and attached membranes—within twenty miles of the same locality—was recorded by me in 1867 (Proc. Zool. Soc. p. 991.) I have now to announce the acquisition of another interesting specimen from the same district, being the cervical vertebrae of a Moa, apparently of the largest size, upon the posterior aspect of which the skin, partly covered with feathers, is still attached by the shrivelled muscles and ligaments. I saw the specimen in question in the possession of Dr. Thomson, of Clyde, who obtained it from a gold miner, It was discovered in a cave formed by an over- Fuly 6, 1871 | NATURE 185 hanging mass of mica schist, but the particulars of the locality have not yet been accurately ascertained, or whether any other parts of the bird are still to be found. Dr. Thomson has kindly undertaken to prosecute a further search, and to forward the specimen already obtained to the museum for examination. These interesting discoveries render it probable that the inland district of Otago, at a time when its grassy plains and rolling hills were covered with a dense scrubby vegetation or a light forest growth, was where the giant wingless birds of New Zealand lingered to latest times. It is impossible to convey an idea of the profusion of bones which, only a few years ago, were found in this district, scattered on the surface on the ground or buried in the alluvial soil in the neighbourhood of streams and rivers. At the present time this area of country is particularly arid as composed with the prevalent character of New Zealand. It is perfectly treeless ; nothing but the smallest-sized shrubs being found within a distance of sixty or seventy miles. The surface features comprise round-backed ranges of hills of schistose rock withswamps on the top, deeply cut by ravines that open out on basin-shaped plains formed of alluvial deposits that have been everywhere moulded into beauti- fully regular terraces to an altitude of 1,700 feet above the sea level. That the mountain-slopes were at one time covered with forest, the stumps and prostrate trunks of large pine trees, and the mounds and pits on the surface of the ground which mark old forest land, abundantly testify, although it is probable that the intervening plains have never supported more than a dense thicket of shrubs or were partly occupied by swamps. ‘The greatest num- ber of moa bones were found where rivers debouch on the plains, and that at a comparatively late period these plains were the hunting grounds of the Aborigines can be proved most incontestably. Under some overhanging rocks in the neighbourhood of the Clutha river, at a place named by the first explorers Moa Flat, from the abund- ance of bones which lay strewn on the surface, rude stone flakes of a kind of stone not occurring in that district were found associated with heaps of Moa bones. Forty miles further in the interior, and at the same place where the Moa’s neck was recently obtained, Captain Fraser dis- covered in 1864 what he described to me as a manufactory for such flakesand knives of chert as could be used as rough cutting instruments in a cave formed by overhanging rocks, sheltered only from S.W. storms, as if an accumu- lation by a storm-stayed party of natives. With these were also associated Moa bones and otherremains. Again, on the top of the Carrick Mountains, which are in the same district, but at an altitude of 5,000 feet above the sea, the same gentleman discovered a gully, in which were enormous heaps of bones, and along with them native im- plements of stone, among which was a well-finished cleaver of blue slate, and also a coarsely-made horn-stone cleaver, the latter of a material that must have been brought from a very great distance. Still clearer evidence that in very recent times the Natives travelled through the interior, probably following the Moas as a means of subsistence, like natives in other countries where large game abounds, was obtained in 1865-6 by Messrs. J. and W. Murison. At the Maniototo Plains, bones of several species of Dinornis, Aptornis, Apteryx, large Rails, Stringops, and other birds, are ex- ceedingly abundant in the alluvium of a particular stream, so much ‘so that they are turned up by the plough with facility. Attention was arrested by the occurrence on the high-ground terrace which bounds the valley of this stream, of circular heaps composed of flakes and chips of chert, of a description that occurs only in large blocks along the base of the mountains at about a mile distant. This chert is a very peculiar rock, being a “cement” or “water quartz,” or sand and gravel converted into a hard quartzite by infiltration of silicious matter, The resem- blance of the flakes to those they had seen described as found in the ancient Kitchen-Middens, and a desire to account for the great profusion of Moa bones on a lower terrace-shelf nearer the margin of the stream, led the Messrs. Murison to explore the ground carefully, and by excavating in likely spots, they found a series of circular pits partly lined with stones, and containing, intermixed with charcoal, abundance of Moa bones and egg-shells, together with bones of the dog, the egg-shells being in such quantities that they consider that hundreds of eggs must have been cooked in each hole. Along with these were stone implements of various kinds, and of several other varieties of rock besides the chert which lies on the surface, The form and contents of these cooking-ovens correspond exactly with those described by Mantell in 1847 as occurring on the sea-coast, and among the stone implements which Mantell found in them, he remembers some to have been of the same chert, which occurs 77 s¢¢z at this locality fifty miles in the interior. The greater part of these chert specimens found on the coast are with the rest of the collection in the British Museum. There are other circumstances which incidentally support the view that while the Moas still existed in great numbers, the country was open and regularly traversed by the natives engaged in hunting. Near the old Maori ovens on the coast Mantel! discovered a very curious dish made of steatite, a mineral occurring in New Zealand only on the west coast, rudely carved on the back in Maori fashion, measuring twelve by eight inches, and very shallow. The natives at the time recognised this dish by tradition, and said there should be two of them. It is very re- markable that since then the fellow dish has been discovered by some gold diggers in the Manuherikia Plain, and was in use on a hotel counter at the Dunstan township as a match-box, till lately, when it was sent to England, and, as I am informed, placed in a public museum in Liverpool. The manner in which the Maoris use their cooking ovens suggests to me an explanation of the mode in which these flakes of chert came to be found in such profusion, while only a few of them show any signs of having been trimmed in order to fit them for implements. The native method of cooking is to heat the hardest stones they can find in the fire, and then placing the food to be cooked on top, to cover the whole with leaves and earth, and through an opening pour in water, which coming in contact with the hot stones, causes the forma- tion of steam by which the food is cooked. If masses of the white chert be heated and quenched with water in the manner described, the result is the formation of flakes of every variety of shape with sharp cutting edges. It is natural to suppose that when one of these flakes was found of shape convenient for a particular purpose, such as a knife, cleaver, or spear-head, it was trimmed and dressed in the manner of a gun-flint, when the edge became defective, rather than thrown away, and favourite forms might be preserved and carried even as far as the coast. This suggested explanation of how a race advanced probably far beyond the period of such rude-looking implements might yet find it convenient to manufacture and use these, is supported by the circumstances that along with the trimmed chert flakes the Messrs. Murison found finished adzes of aphanite and even jade, which shows that the hunting natives had the same implements as those which are so common among the natives at the present day, though their use is now superseded by iron. In the ovens on the coast, besides flakes and rough knives of chert and flint, are found flake-knives of obsi- dian, a rock which only occurs in the volcanic district of the North Island, and also adzes and stone axes of every degree of finish and variety of material. Although there is no positive evidence in the latter case that more highly finished implements were in use by a people contem- poraneous with the Moa, whose remains, collected by 186 NATURE [Fuly 6, 1871 human agency, are so abundant in the same place, never- theless the fact of a similar association occurring far in the interior affords strong presumptive evidence on this point, as the finely-finished implements must have been carried inland and to the same spots where the Moa re- mains occur, to be used at native feasts, of which these bones are the only other existing evidences. So far I have been dealing with evidence gathered in the South Island of New Zealand of the recent co-exist- ence of Man and the Moa, but in the North Island there is no lack of similar proofs. During the summer of 1866, H.E. Sir George Grey, K.C.B., made a fine collec- tion at Waingongoro on the west coast of this island, being the same Jocality from which Mantell gathered the magnificent series of bones which he forwarded to Europe in 1847. At this place, along with the bones of the Moa and other extinct birds, were found those of dogs, seals, and many species of birds that are common at the pre- sent day, such as the albatross, penguin, nestor, and porphyris, and notably the notornis, a gigantic rail, which tilla comparatively recent date, was supposed, like the Moa, to be extinct, and of which as yet only two living examples have been obtained. Associated withtheseremains Sir George Grey obtained artificially formed stone fiakes of avery peculiar kind, being chips from rolled boulders of hard crystalline sandstone, produced by.a single blow, probably when the stone was heated and quenched in water. The stones from which these chips were obtained had evi- dently been used, in the first instance, for cooking, as the ancient Umus, or cooking-ovens, are chiefly formed of them ; and, indeed, in the sandy tracts on the west coast, where stones are rare, the identical stones that in former days were used for cooking Moas are still in use by the natives of the district for cooking pigs and shell-fish. Here again we find that the same necessity and circum- stance which suggested the use of the chert flakes in the South, gave origin to a similar adaptation of the chips from the sandstone boulders. It is of some interest to find that native tradition points to the sandy flat at Waingongora, called Te Rangatapu, as the spot where the first Maori immigrants to the district originally settled ; and there appears to be nothing in the abundant traces which they have left of these great feasts, which we must refer to that period, that would indicate any difference in their domestic habits from those of the Maoris now ex- isting, and who, no doubt, are their direct descendants. What has been advanced affords strong presumptive evidence that the Moas, although belonging probably to a race that was expiring from natural causes, was finally exterminated through human agency ; and on this subject Mr. Murison has suggested how infallibly the wholesale consumption of the eggs, which were evidently highly prized as an article of food, must have led totheir rapid extinction, without its being necessary that the birds themselves should have been actually destroyed. That wide-spread- ing fires contributed, in some instances, to the destruction of these wingless birds, is rendered probable from the occurrence of little heaps of bones, in spots where flocks of them would be overtaken when fleeing before the destroying element. At the south-west extremity of a triangular plain, by the side of the Wakatipu Lake, in 1862, I counted thirty-seven of such distinct skeleton- heaps, where the steep rocky slope of the mountain, covered with fallen blocks and tangled shrubs, meets the lake, and would, therefore, stop the progress of the fugitives in that direction. From what we know of habits of birds akin to the Moas, we may fairly infer that they did not frequent heavily-timbered country, but roamed over coppice-covered plains and mountain slopes. This view is supported by the comparative rarity of Moa remains in forests, the few exceptions being easily accounted for. The whole of the eastern district of the South Island of New Zealand back to the Southern Alps was completely surveyed and mapped as early as 1862, and had been thoroughly explored at least ten years before that date, without any of these gigantic birds being met with ; but there is a large area of rugged mountainous country, especially in the south-west district of Otago, which even to the present time is only imperfectly known. The moun- tain sides in this region are clothed with open forest, in which Kiwis, Kakapos, and other expiring forms of apterous birds are still to be found in comparative abun- dance, but where we could scarcely expect to meet with the larger species. Nevertheless, owing to the lofty tabular configuration of this district, the mountains afford very extensive areas above the forest limit—which are covered with Alpine shrubs and grasses—where it is not impossible that a remnant of this giant race may have remained to very recent times. The exploration, however, to which the country has been subjected during the last few years, by parties of diggers prospecting for gold, forbids any reasonable hope that any still exist. I may here mention that on one of the flat-topped mountains near Jackson’s Bay, visited in January 1863, I observed, at an altitude of 4,000 feet, numerous well-beaten tracks about sixteen inches wide intersecting the dense scrub in all directions, and which, owing to the height of the scrub (two to four feet) could only been formed in the first instance by the frequent passage of a much larger bird than either the Kiwi or Kakapo, which, judging from the droppings, were the only birds that now resorted to them. On the sides of the tracks, especially near the upper confines of the forest, are shallow excavations, 2ft. to 3ft. in diameter, that have much the appearance of having been scraped for nests. No pigs or any other introduced animals having penetrated to this part of the country, it appears manifest that these were the tracks of some large indigenous animal, but from the nature of the vegetation it is pro- bable that such tracks may have been for a very long period in disuse, except by the smaller ground birds, with- out becoming obliterated. The above facts and arguments in support of the view that the Moa survived to very recent times, are similar to those advanced at an early period after the settlement of the colony, by Walter Mantell, who had the advantage of direct information on the subject froma generation of natives that has now passed away. As the first explorer of the artificial Moa beds, his opinion is entitled to great weight. Similar conclusions were also drawn by Butler, who is per- sonally familiar with the facts derived from the North Is- lands, in an article which appeared inthe Zoo/og7stfor 1864. The fresh discovery therefore of well-preserved remains of the Moa only tends to confirm and establish these views ; and it would have been unnecessary to enlarge on the subject by the publication of the foregoing notes, which for the most part were written several years ago, but for the entirely opposite conclusions advanced by Dr. Haast in a recent address, which, from the large amount of in- teresting and novel matter it contains, will doubtless have a wide circulation. JAMES HECTOR ON THE GASEOUS AND LIQUID STATES OF MATTER DISCOURSE was delivered on Friday evening, June 2, at the Royal Institution in Albemarle Street, by Dr. Andrews on the “Gaseous and Liquid States of Matter,” from which we make the fol- lowing extracts :—“ The liquid state of matter forms a link between the solid and gaseous states. This link is, however, often suppressed, and the solid passes directly into the gaseous or vaporous form. In the intense cold of an arctic winter, hard ice will gradually change into transparent vapour without previously assuming the form of water. Carbonic acid snow passes rapidly into gas when exposed to the air, and can with difficulty be liquefied in open tubes, Its boiling point, as Faraday has Fuly 6, 1871] shown, presents the apparent anomaly of being lower in the thermometric scale than its melting point, a statement less paradoxical than it may at first appear, if we remember that water can exist as vapour at temperatures far lower than those at which it can exist as liquid. Whether the transition be directly from solid to gaseous, or from solid to liquid and from liquid to gaseous, a marked change of physical properties occurs at each step or break, and heat | is absorbed, as was proved long ago by Black, without producing elevation of temperature. Many solids and liquids will for this reason maintain a low temperature, even when surrounded by a white hot atmosphere, and the remarkable experiment of solidifying water and even | mercury on a red hot plate, finds thus an easy explana- tion. The term spheroidal state, when applied to water floating on a cushion of vapour over a red hot plate, is, however, apt to mislead. The water is not here in any peculiar state. It is simply water evaporating rapidly at a few degrees below its boiling point, and all its pro- perties, even those of capillarity, are the properties of ordinary water at 96°°5C. The interesting phenomena | NATURE 187 exhibited under these conditions are due to other causes, and not to any new or peculiar state of the liquid itself. The fine researches of Dalton upon vapours, and the memorable discovery by Faraday of the liquefaction of gases by pressure alone, finished the work which Black had begun. Our knowledge of the conditions under which matter passes abruptly from the gaseous to the liquid and from the liquid to the solid state may now be regarded as almost complete. “Tn 1822 Cagniard de la Tour made some remarkable experiments, which still bear his name, and which may be regarded as the starting point of the investigations which form the chief subject of this address. Cagniard de la Tour’s first experiments were made in a small Papin’s digester constructed from the thick end of a gun barrel, into which he introduced a little alcohol and also a small quartz ball, and firmly closed the whole. On heating the gun barrel with its contents over an open fire, and observ- ing from time to time the sound produced by the ball when the apparatus was shaken, he inferred that after a certain temperature was attained the liquid had disap- Fic. 1—Cloud below critical point peared. He afterwards succeeded in repeating the ex- periment in glass tubes, and arrived at the following results. An hermetically sealed glass tube, containing sufficient alcohol to occupy two-fifths of its capacity, was gradually heated, when the liquid was seen to dilate, and its mobility at the same time to become gradually greater. After attaining to nearly twice its original volume, the liquid completely disappeared, and was converted into a vapour so transparent that the tube appeared to be quite empty. On allowing the tube to cool, a very thick cloud was formed, after which the liquid reappeared in its former state. “Ttis singular that inthis otherwise accurate description Cagniard de la Tour should have overlooked the most remarkable phenomenon of all—the moving or flickering strice which fill the tube, when, after heating it above the critical point, the temperature is quickly lowered. This phenomenon was first observed by the lecturer in 1863, Fic. 2—Strie above critical point appearances exhibited by the ascending and descending sheets of matter of unequal density are most remarkable, but it is difficult to give an adequate description of them in words or even to delineate them. “These strize arise from the great changes of density | which slight variations of temperature or pressure pro- when experimenting with carbonic acid, and may be ad- | mirably seen by heating such liquids as ether or sulphu- rous acid in hermetically sealed tubes, of which when cold they occupy about one-third of the capacity. The | duce when liquids are heated in a confined space above the critical point already referred to; but they are not formed if the temperature and pressure are kept steady. When seen they are always a proof that the matter in the tube is homogeneous, and that we have not liquid and gas in presence of one another. They are, in short, an extraordinary development of the movements observed in ordinary liquids and gases when heated from below. The fact that at a temperature o°'2 above its critical point carbonic acid diminishes to one-half its volume from an increase of only s, of the entire pressure is sufficient to account for the marked characters they exhibit. “Tf the temperature is allowed to fall a little below the critical point, the formation of cloud shows that we hive now heterogeneous matter in the tube, minute drops of liquid in presence of a gas. From the midst of this cloud 188 NATURE [Fuly 6, 1871 (as shown in Fig. 1) a faint surface of demarcation ap- pears, constituting the boundary between liquid and gas, but at first wholly devoid of curvature. We must, how- ever, take care not to ‘suppose that a cloud necessarily precedes the formation of true liquid. Ifthe pressure be sufficiently great, no cloud of any kind will form.” After describing the results obtained by the lecturer with carbonic acid under varied conditions of tempera- ture and pressure, of which a full account has already appeared in NATURE,* Dr. Andrews remarked that it would be erroneous to say that between liquid and gas there exists one intermediate state of matter, but that it is correct to say that between ordinary liquid and ordinary gas there isan infinite number of intermediate conditions of matter, establishing perfect continuity between the two states. Under great pressures the passage from the liquid to the gaseous state is effected on the application of heat without any break or breach of continuity. A solid model, constructed by Prof. J. Thomson, from the data furnished by the experiments of the lecturer, exhi- bited very clearly the different paths which connect the liquid and gaseous states, showing the ordinary passage by break from the liquid, as well as the continuous pas- sages above the critical point. After referring to the experiments of Frankland on the change produced by pressure in the spectrum of hydro- gen, and to those of the same able chemist and Lockyer on the spectrum of the spark in compressed gases, Dr. Andrews described the remarkable change from a trans- lucent to an opaque body, which occurs when bromine is heated above the critical point; and then drew attention to the general fact that when the critical point is reached, the density of the liquid and gas become identical. In order to establish the continuity of the solid and liquid states, it would be necessary in like manner, by the combined action of heat and pressure, to obtain the solid and liquid of the same density and of like physical properties. To accomplish this result would probably re- quire pressures far beyond any which can be reached in transparent tubes, but future experiment may show that the solid and liquid can be made to approach to the re- quired conditions. ON AN ADDITIONAL TRUE RIB IN THE HUMAN SUBF ECT HE almost absolute rule that there are seven true ribs in the human subject has, like every other rule, its exceptions. Occasionally instances are met with in which there are eight sternal ribs on one or both sides. But Nature does not effect her evolutions by fer sa/tum transi- tions between extreme points, but steadily makes pro- gress by degrees almost imperceptible to human intelli- gence. So in the matter of rib transition, there are various grades met with between the presence of a complete eighth sternal rib on the one hand, and its absence on the other. In the sternum of a female subject recently dissected at the Royal College of Surgeons, the right seventh and eighth rib cartilages blended together about a quarter of an inch distant from the mesosternum. On the left side the eighth rib cartilage was arrested about an inch and a half from the mesosternum. The latter was free at its sternal end. In anvther subject—a moderately muscular male—the eighth rib cartilage on the right side extended within an inch of the mesosternum, its extremity being free. On the left it was aborted at the distance of two and a half inches from the mesosternum. In the latter subject the sternum was exceedingly large; all the rib cartilages, especially the seventh on the left side, were well developed, and the xiphisternum was very much elongated, spatulate, and curved in an anterior direction, Occasionally See NaTuRE, vol. ii. p. 278, specimens are met with in which the sixth rib cartilage is implanted upon the distal extremity of the mesosternum (rather than upon its distal lateral aspect), lying in front of © the xiphisternum, and separated from its fellow of the opposite side bya small interval. In the receding angle formed by their divergence, the seventh sternal ribs are placed, lying directly upon the xiphisternum, and articu- lating with it, barely attaining an attachment to the meso- sternum. This closely simulates the arrangement met with when the eighth sternal rib is present. In another adult male skeleton, I found a complete speci- men of an eighth sternal rib, but only on the right side. It articulated with the xiphisternum, and not with the meso- sternum. On the left side the seventh sternal rib cartilage was larger than the corresponding one on the right side, and articulated with both the mesosternum and xiphi- sternum.* On examining the skeletons (human) in the Hunterian Museum, I noticed another instanceof an eighth sternal rib in an adult male African negro, occurring on the right side only. It was in every respect similar to the preceding. This is the only instance out of the fifteen skeletons (human) con- tained in the museum which deviated from the average standard number of seven true ribs. It is just possible that it may be more frequently present and remain unde- tected. In maceration the cartilages are very frequently removed, and articulators prepare artificial ones in their place corresponding to the average seven. On examining the higher quadrumana, &c., I noticed that this additional true rib was present only in one young chimpanzee, but not in the gorillas and orangs. It was present in the gibbon and silvery gibbon, the pig-tailed mon- key, Macacus Rhesus, Galeopithecus, and Indri. The aye- aye, the slender lemur, and the squirrel monkey, have each nine true ribs, The grand galago, the awantilo, the slender loris, the douroucouli, and the potto, have each ten true ribs. Prof. Flower very kindly called my attention toa paper on the axial skeleton of the Primates by Mr. St. George Mivart,} in which these rib variations are de- scribed as follows: — “In the highest forms of the Primates, the number of true ribs is seven, but in Hylobates there are sometimes eight pairs. In Sem- nopithecus and Colobus there are generally seven, but sometimes eight pairs of true ribs. In the Cyno- pithecinze the normal number is eight. In the Cebidze there are generally seven or eight pairs, but in Ateles sometimes nine. In Hapale there are sometimes as few as six, sometimes as many as eight; seven or eight in Galago, Lemur, and Indris; nine in Cheiromys. The highest number, as might be expected, is found in the Nycticebine, there being as many as ten pairs of true ribs in Perodicticus and Loris.” Professor Flower remarks { that “in the higher Simiina the ribs do not differ very notably from those of man, except in number ; but in the lower forms, and especially in the Lemurina, they more resemble those of the Car- nivora.” In the Carnivora the number of nine sternal ribs is fairly constant. There are some exceptions, however, e.g. the Esquimaux dog—the Arctic wolf and Proteles have only eight true ribs. The common badger (eles taxus) has ten true ribs—the tenth rib being implanted on the apex of the xiphisternum. The ninth rib in all these animals is more or less intimately associated with the xiphisternum, but rarely forming so decided an articula- tion with it as in the badger. - In a dog’s sternum lately in my possession, the xiphi- sternum had the ninth rib articulated directly with it. * This does not obviate the rule laid down by Prof. Flower in his recent admirable book on the Osteology of the Mammalia, that the xiphisternum never carries any true rbs. This isthe average rule. But variations are frequent, although they cannot be considered in a text-book on average, and notirregular, Osteology. + Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London June 27, 1865. 1 Osteology of the Mammalia, p. 89. a Fuly 6, 1871 NATURE 189 The former (xiphisternum) was bifid through its whole length. The scientific value of this additional sternal rib—in a Darwinian sense—is simply great. It evinces in a clear and forcible manner a latent disposition in the human subject, either to revert to an original and lower condition, or to retain traces of that previous condition. We have already seen that some of the lowest forms of Primates have ten true ribs, others have nine, some eight, and others again seven, as in the human subject. But it is interesting, indeed, to find that the conflict between the major number ten and the minor seven takes place in the lower Primates. As we pass up to the higher Primates, there seems to be a decided tendency towards fixity at the number of seven true ribs. But yet a few solitary examples—besides the human subject—illustrate the lower type, as in the chimpanzee already mentioned. The number of ribs in the lower forms of monkeys seems to be a repetition of that in the Carnivora, and subject to the same fluctuations between seven and ten true ribs, Although the few specimens which I have examined of the higher Primates show a decided tendency towards fixity at the number of seven, yet I believe that in a very large number of skeletons of each of the higher species, various | transitional grades would be met with closely according with those in the human subject. It is somewhat remark- able that each of the variations of the eighth rib in the human subject which I have described should all be on the right side. From the preceding facts it may be decidedly inferred | that the tenth, ninth, and eighth true ribs are gradually lost in the transition from the lower to the higher Primates, except in a few isolated examples. The recurrence of the eighth true rib in the human subject cannot be looked | upon as an accident, any more than the presence of a distinct peroneus quartus, and a moderately large extensor primi internodii hallucis coming from the tibialis anticus, exactly as in the chimpanzee, in the same individual whose sternum, with an almost complete eighth rib, has been described. J. BESWICK-PERRIN NOTES THE men of the North do not seem disposed to let grass grow under their feet in respect to their proposed College of Physical Science, at INewcastle-upon-Tyne. Of the 35,000/. required, in addition to to the Durham University endowment, to carry out their plans, upwards of 23,600/. has been already subscribed. Three of the professorial chairs have now been filled, viz. :—Experimental Physics: A. S. Herschel, M.A. Chemistry: A. Freire-Marreco, M.A. Geology: David Page, LL.D., F.R.S.E. No decision has yet been made public in respect to the professorship of Mathematics. together with the chair of Experimental Physics, is in the hands of the Dean and Chapter of Durham. general satisfaction, and are sufficient assurance of the desire of the Committee to obtain the services of the men within reach, without reference to local influence or predilections. Indeed it seems to us just possible that the claims of one eminent local geologist may | have suffered somewhat through the fear of a charge of partiality. Few family names stand higher in the scientific world than that of Herschel, and its present representative is well known asa teacher of experimental philosophy. M. Freire-Marreco has long served the University of Durham as its reader in chemistry and the Newcastle College of Medicine as its lecturer. Apart from his acquirements as a chemist and his ability as a teacher, there is perhaps no one who is so thoroughly versed in the chemical technology of the industries of the North of England. Dr. Page’s elementary works on geology are widely appreciated, and if one may judge of his capacity as a lecturer by his power of interesting a general audience, he is eminently fitted to instruct This appointment, | These selections will give | the rising generation of mining engineers. We learn that the opening of the College is fixed for October 7, and shall watch with pleasure the progress of the undertaking, bidding it heartily “*God speed.” AT a meeting of the Council of University College, London, held on Saturday last, a scheme for the establishment of a Sharpey Physiological Scholarship in the College was adopted. It is expected that the annual value of the Scholarship will be about 100/. Str Dominic CorriGAn, Bart., M.D., M.P., has been ap- pointed Vice-Chancellor of the Queen’s University in Ireland, in the room of the late Sir Maziere Brady, Bart. ONLY one gentleman has this year obtained the degree of D.Sc. of the University of London, Mr. W. A. Tilden, in Chemistry. M. H. Sartnre-CLatr-DEVILLE, one of the most learned and popular members of the Institute, was a candidate at the recent French election on the moderate Republican ticket. M. Broca, the celebrated anthropologist, who will soon be a member of the Institute, was also a candidate on the same ticket, as was also M. Wolowsky, a member of the Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques. We learn that M. Wolowski has been returned at the head of the poll, and that MM. Scheurer-Restner and Laboulaye have also been elected for Paris. The Institute is fast becoming, not actually a political body, but a body more closely connected with politics than it was formerly. For some time past a resumé of the sittings of the Academy has been inserted regularly in the Fournal Officiel, which is becoming every day more scientific in itscharacter. The National Society of Men of Letters recently held its ordinary meeting, when it was proposed to erase from ts list of members MM. Victor Hugo, Pyat, and Rochefort, who are being prosecuted for their deeds during the Commune. But the meeting rejected the motion. THE Revie des Cours Scientifigues commences with July 1 a new series, with the new title Za Revue Scientifique, under the old editorship of MM. Yung and Alglave. The first number of the new series contains a sketch of the labours of the late M. Claparede, translations of Profs, Huxley and Tyndall’s addresses at the Liverpool meeting of the British Association, and some fresh notes by Prof. Van Beneden on Commensalism in the Animal Kingdom. Tue weekly journal, Z’Zns¢itut, has just entered on the fortieth year of its existence. Herr RUMKER has communicated to the current passing through two in- sulated wires in the sounding line at about every one hundred fathoms by means of the wheel-work of the Massey or similar apparatus. In the changes of temperature an electro-thermal pile eighteen inches long, insulated, surrounded by a non-con- ductor except at one end, is used in combination with a Thomp- son’s reflecting galvanometer, not liable to derangement on ship- board. At every one hundred fathoms, when the chronograph registers the depth, the observer notices the readings of the gal- vanometer, which readings are reduced to Fahrenheit degrees. —Onz= of the most original and important contributions to the zoology of the day is that constituting the third number of the Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Cambridge, treating upon the mammals and winter birds of East Florida. The author, Mr. J. A. Allen, an assistant of Prof. Agassiz, is well known for the thoroughness of his research into the verte- brara of America, and the critical attention paid by him to the proper limitation of species, both in their relationshins to each other, and in their geographical distribution. In the present work he givesa summary of the views to which he has bees led within a few years past by his studies of the immense collec- tion in the Cambridge Museum, and makes numerous important generalisations. Among these he corroborates the conclusion previously announced by others, of the diminution in size of the American birds in proportion as their birthplace is more southern, and also that there is a similar ditference existing be- tween the animals of the higher and lower altitudes. He also finds that with the more southern locality of summer abode there are corresponding differences in colour and proportion, as well as in habits, notes, and song, the vivacity of the bird de- creasing as its size increases. The principal difference in colour with the more southern localities consists in the darker tints and the reduced extent of any white markings, with other features that our space will not permit us to give at the present time. The entire work is one eminently worthy of careful study, and destined to exercis? a very important influence upon the methods of zoological res-arch. — Lite advices from Prof. Hayden’s expedition announced that he was to leave Ogden, Utah, on June 9 for Virginia City and Fort Ellis, in Montana, a distance of about 430 miles, with the special object of proceeding from the last-menuoned place to the explo- ration of the Yellow Stone Lake and its immediate vicinity. It * Contributed by the Scientific Editer of /Zarfer’s Weekly, is [Fuly 13, 1871 prio, Fully 13, 1871 | is an interesting fact that the head waters of tributaries of the ~ Columbia, the Colorado, the Missouri, and the Yellow Stone _ rivers rise within a short distance of each other in this mysterious _ region; which, in addition, is characterised by the extraordinary _ development of hot springs, spouting geysers, mud volcanoes, extensive beds of sulphur, gypsum, the silicates, &c. The party, as at present organised, embraces thirty-two persons, including specialists in all branches of science, and accompanied by several artists, who take advantage of Dr. Hayden’s protection to visit the interes'ing region referred to. The party carries materials for a boat, which is to be launched on the Yellow Stone Lake, and used in a thorough hydrographical and topographical survey of it. As the expedition will probably remain in that vicinity during the summer, we may hope for a complete solution of all the remaining questions in regard to its physical features and natural history. A competent photographer with the expedition expects to make instantaneous views of the spouting geysers, so as to enable those who cannot visit the locality to have a correct idea of their character. A company of cavalry will escort the expedition into the Yellow Stone Lake region, although no trouble from the Indians is anticipated. In the course of the journey from Ogden to Fort Ellis it is proposed to make an accurate map of a belt fifty miles wide, so as to furnish a basis for reference in subsequent explorations.— In the monthly report of the Department of Agriculture for March and April of the pressnt year, we find a valuable paper upon the cultivation of the Cinchona in Jamaica, by Dr. C. C. Parry, the botanist of the Department, who accompanied the San Domingo Investigating Committee, and in returning spent some time in Jamaica. As the general result of his inquiries in regard to the cultivation of this plant, and the possibility of introducing it into any portion of the United States, he states, first, that the peculiar conditions of soil and climate suitable for the growth of the best varieties of cinchona plants cannot be found within the present limits of the United States, where no suitable elevations possessing an equable, moist, cool climate, free from frost, can be met with ; second, that the island of San Domingo, located within the tropics, and traversed by extensive mountain ranges attaining elevations of over 6000 feet above the sea, presents a larger scope of country especially adapted to the growth of cinchonas than any other insular region in the western hemi- sphere ; third, that the existence of successful cinchona planta- tions in Jamaica within two days’ sail from San Domingo, would afford the material for stocking new plantations in the latter island at the least possible expense of time and labour.--In a recent communication to the Academy of Na'ural Sciences of Philadelphia, by Prof. Leidy, attention was invited to certain teeth of fossil mammals, forwarded to him for examination by Prof. Whitney. One of these was a fragment belonging to the Mastodon americanus, obtained from a depth of eighty feet beneath the basaltic lava of Table Mountain, Tuolumne County, California, where it was found associated with the remains of human art. There was also a molar of a large fossil horse, found sixteen feet below the surface on Gordon Gulch. Two other teeth, somewhat similar in character, were determined as belong- ing to the species of Pvotohippus. In other specimens Dr. Leidy found evidences of the existence of a gigantic animal of the camel tribe, allied to the llama. CORRESPONDENCE OF NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN AURORZ J TAKE the liberty of sending you a paper containing corresponding observations of Aurora Borealis and Australis, with the request to insert them in your valuable journal. Corresponding Observations of Aurora Polaris, made in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. In the years 1859-65 I kept up a correspondence with the active director of the Flagstaff Observatory at Melbourne, (Australia), Mr. George Neumayer, in order to make observations concerning the contemporaneous appearance of aurora polaris in the northern and southern hemispheres.* * See Results of the magnetical, nautical, and meteorological observations made at the Flagstaff Observatory, Me'bourne, «nd at various statioas in the colony of Victoria, Meib urne, 1860 _H is, ‘“* Wochenschrift fiir Astronomie und Meteorologie,” 1859, 1860, 1861, 1863, 1865. NATURE 214 Some years since, when Dr. Neumayer returned to his native country, this correspondence was interrupted. But the numerous appearances of aurora borealis which oc- curred last year, induced me to recommence this corre- spondence with the present director of the same estab- lishment, Mr. C. Moerlin. Sending him a list of all the appearances of aurora borealis and magnetical disturb- | ances in the year 1870 known to me, I begged him to favour me with the corresponding observations viewed by him. I subjoin the answer of Mr. Moerlin. I received your letter of December 2, 1870, and in reply shall be most happy to comply with your request, of informing | you periodically of the occurrence of the aurora australis, and of magnetic disturbances observed here. To this end I have made out a list, which is enclosed, of aurore observed since January 1, 1870, containing the dates and times (Melbourne mean time) of their occurrence, from which it appears that at most of the dates you mention in your letter, as having observed the aurora borealis, the aurora australis has been observed here. The greatest magnetic disturbances occurred on April 5 and October 25; on the latter day the disturbances continued during two days ; the minimum of easterly declination occurred about 5 A.M. on the 26th, and the maximum about 6 A.M. on the same day, the range being 51’ of arc, with corre- sponding disiurbances in the other two elements. Unfortunately the sky was completely overcast during the night, with a slight break only at midnight, when the display was very beautiful, but visible only for a few minutes ; but during the evening of the 25th an intense, but ever varying, luminosity only of the whole southern sky was the sole indicauon of aurora. I would remark that at all the dates on which aurorz were observed, magnetic disturbances invariably took place of a greater or less extent ; but disturbances occurred also at other times, of the very same nature as took place generally during aurora dis- plays, on which, however, no aurorz were observed. These dates I give you enclosed also, separately, as these may be of interest to you in connection with the possible occurrences of the aurora borealis on one or the other of those dates. I shall continue from this date to send you periodical notice of the occurrence of the aurora australis and magnetic disturbances at Melbourne, and shall be happy to furnish any information respecting physical phenomena, which you may desire, and I may be able to give. C. MOERLIN Melbourne Observatory, Feb. 7 Date and time of occurrence of the Aurora Australis observed at Melbourne during the period from January 1, 1870, to February 21, 1871, during which, at the same time, great disturbances in the magnetic elements generally took place. LEAT 72749053550: LONG. 9" 39™ 54°8' E. 1870, January 8.—During the evening the aurora was seen at Adelaide, South Australia, as reported by Mr. Food, Superintendent of Electric Telegraph. February 1.—A fine display between 8 and Io P.M.; shortly after nine some magnificent streamers. April 5 —Became visible shortly after 7" P.M., and lasted all through the evening and night. The display at times was most brilliant, particularly at ro 30™ P.M.,and again at 12 30", Slight disturbances in the magnetic elements occurred during the afternoon, which increased shortly before 7" P.M. At to" 45™ P.M. a rapid decrease of easterly declination and increase of horizontal force took place, which lasted until a few minutes before 11" P.M., when both elements as rapidly returned to their former state. Comparatively slight disturbances until 12 30", when a similar movement to the above mentioned took place, but to a smaller extent. The minimum of easterly declination took place a few minutes before 11" P.M., and the maxi- mum at 1o minutes before 6° a.M, on the 6th, and the range of the disturbance amounted to about 54’ of arc, while the range in the horizontal force was 0'06273 of the abso- lute (English) unit, =0'02892 Continental unit. May 20.—Faint display, most distinct at 10" 30" P.M. August 22.—At 6" 40™ P.M. some fine streamers visible, but not for long. September 21.-—Visible from about 6" to 8" P,M., but not 214 NATURE very brilliant ; 24, visible from shortly before 9° P.M.; the finest display took place 11" P.M.; 25, traces visible during evening in S.S.E.; 30, traces visible during evening, S.E. October 21.—Visib!e during the evening, at 10" 30™ P.M., some fine streamers 30° and 40° high ; 25, visible at times during the evening, though completely overcast, as a luminous sheet, extending from S.W. to S.E.; 26, shortly after midnight a beautiful display, though cloudy. November 9.—Visible shortly after midnight until early morning, again during the wholeevening; fine red streamers visible through bright moonlight ; 15, auroral light visible during the evening, but no streamers ; 17, visible at 9° 30" p.M., for a short time; 18, visible all through the evening; 19, visible all through the evening; at 9" 20™ P.M. very fine streamers ; 20,visiblefrom 11" P M. ; at 10 minutes past midnight, a fine display, with streamers extending from S.E. to S.W. At 4" A.M. on the 21st the whole ex- tent of the southern sky, from the horizon upwards, was illuminated by a reddish light, terminating in something resembling a corona, but no streamers at all were visible ; a thunderstorm occurred towards daylight, and the whole appearance vanished instantaneously at 4" 40" A.M, when a terrific thunderclap occurred ; 23, visible between 11” P.M. | and midnight ; 24, traces visible all through the evening ; 25, traces visible all through the evening ; 29, visible from 8® 30" to ro" P.M., but not brilliant. December 10—Faint streamers visible all through the evening ; 16, visible all through the evening, at 10" P.M. very fine streamers, and at intervals, up to 2" A.M. on the 17th, a very fine display ; 17, visible during the evening, some fine streamers at 9" P.M. 1871, January 3.—Visible during the evening ; 13, visible after 11" P.M, no streamers, but strong reddish light in S.S.W.; 15, at midnight, faintly visible ; 20, visible during evening, but only faint; 21, visible during evening, but only faint. February 12, visible for a short time at 9" P.M. List of dates when great disturbances in the magnetic elements took place, of the same nature as during auroral displays, but when no auroras were visible, or at least observed : 1870: January 3, 4; February 10, 11; March 20, 21; April 22, 23, 28; May 16; June 13, 14, 16, 17; 22, 2 July 5,28 ; August 3, 7, 19, 20, 21, 23 ; September 4, 5, 6, | 7, 8, 16, 18, 26, 27 ; October 1, 15, 24; November Io, 22, 27: December 5, 6, 7; 9, 11, 15, 22, 23,25, 27. 1871: January 5> 6, 10, 27, 28, 39; February 4, 5, 9, 13, 14, 15. We add to the above-mentioned aurorz australes and magnetical disturbances observed in Melbourne the fol- lowing ones observed in our own hemisphere : 1870, January.—To the aurora on January 8, at Mel- bourne, corresponds the aurora borealis on 8th at Oxford, Liverpool, Cockermouth, and North Shields. To the magnetic disturbances on January 3 and 4 correspond the disturbances observed on the same days at Rome; on January 3 aurore boreales were observed in Piedmont and in France ; also in England at Guernsey, Worthing, Royston, Norwich, Boston, Eccles,and Culloden. Aurora borealis visible on the 4th in England at Wisbech. February.—To the aurora australis visible on February 1, from 8 to 10", at Melbourne, correspond the aurora bore- alis seen at many places of the Europe on the same day, at Miinster, Munich, Ruhrort, Nevtomysl, Peckeloh, Lennep, at Upsala (5" 50™ to 13"), also at Cceslin, Petersburg, KG6nigsberg, Paris, London, Calais, Cracow, Stockholm, Rome on the 22nd and the aurora borealis in England at Little Wratting, Stonyhurst, and York. April—To the aurora australis on April 5, at Mel-_ [Huby 13, 1871 on the 2Ist correspond the magnetic disturbances at bourne, correspond the aurora australis observed at many places of Europe on the same day, at Miinster, Peckeloh, Lennep, Bonn, Linzig, Diilken, Brunswick, Niederorschel, Stettin, Kurnik, Munich, Feldkirch, Wol- gast, Berlin, France and Italy, Paris, Austria, Athens, at Upsala, Petersburg, Riga, Pulbus, and Stockholm. To the magnetic disturbance on April 23 correspond — the magnetic disturbances at Rome, and the aurora borealis at Papenburg on the same day. May.—To the aurora australis on the 20th at Melbourne corresponds the very fine aurora borealis at Minster, which also was seen on the same day at Mannheim, Paris, and London, and the great magnetic disturbances visible in Rome and Munich. June.—To the magnetic disturbances in Melbourne on the 13,14, 16,17 correspond the magnetic disturbances ~ at Rome onthe samedays. (Bulletino Meteorologico dell’ Osservatorio del Collegio Romano, No. 7, vol x.) July.—To the magnetic disturbances on July 8 and 28 at Melbourne correspond the disturbances at Rome on the same days. August.—To the aurora australis on the 22nd at Mel- Volpeglino near Tortona in Italy. To the magnetic disturb- ances in Melbourne on the 3, 7, 19, 20, 21, 23 correspond the contemporary disturbances of the magnetic instruments at Rome. With the magnetic disturbances on the 7th the aurora borealis at Upsala coincides. With the dis- turbance on the 19th the aurora borealis at Miinster and at Carthaus near Diilmen. With the disturbances on the 2oth the aurora borealis at Minster, Groeningen, Peck- eloh, Oesel, Leipzig, and Upsala. To the magnetic dis- | turbance on the 23rd corresponds the aurora borealis at Glasgow. September.—To the aurora on the 25th in Melbourne | corresponds the aurora borealis at Carthaus, Danzig, Peckeloh, Weisenheim, also at Arnsburg, Oesel in Schleswig, Lichtenberg, Hamburg, Upsala. To the aurora australis on the 26th at Melbourne corresponds the aurora borealis at Lichtenberg, Weisenheim, Upsala, Glasgow. To the aurora on the 3oth at Melbourne cor- responds the aurora borealis on the same day at Upsala and Lichtenberg. To the aurora australis on the 2Ist at Melbourne correspond the contemporary aurora borealis at Upsala, Schleswig, Arnsburg, Lichtenberg, Hamburg, Norburg, Alsen, and the magnetic disturbance at Rome. To the aurora on the 24th at Melbourne corresponds the contemporary aurora borealis at Carthaus near Dil- men, Niederorschel, Groeningen, Danzig, Wolgast, Peck- eloh, Weisenheim, Norburg, Alsen, Eger, Prague, Oder- berg by the Inn, Kremsmiinster, Moncalieri, Vienna, Stockholm, Hawkhurst, London. On the same day great disturbances of the magnetic instruments were observed | at Rome and at Kremsminster. October.—To the aurora australis on the 21st at Mel- _ bourne corresponds the aurora borealis on the same day and in England at Eastbourne, Royston, Little Wrat- | ting, Norwich, Wisbech, Boston, North Shields, and Culloden. To the magnetic disturbances on 11th at Melbourne correspond the aurora borealis observed on the same day at Upsala, and in England at Taunton, Wilton, Streatley, Cardington, York, Hawsker, North Shields, March.—To the magnetic disturbances at Melbourne in England, and on the former day in Westphalia and England. To the aurora australis on the 25th at Mel- bourne corresponds the brilliant aurora borealis which was seen at many places in Germany, England, Russia, Sweden, Italy,* Greece, and Turkey on the same day. To the aurora on the 26th at Melbourne corresponds the aurora borealis on the same day in Hamburg, Lichtenberg, Keitum, Athens, and in England. To the magnetic disturbances on the Ist at Melbourne corresponds the aurora borealis at Peckeloh, Upsala, and in England, and the magnetic dis- turbances on the same day. Tothe magnetic disturbances onthe 15that Melbourne correspond the contemporary mag- * Bulletino Meteorologico dell’ Osservatorio del Collegio Carlo Alberto in Moncalieri. 7 | : bourne corresponds the aurora borealis on the 21st at — Fuly 13, 1871 | NATURE 215 netic disturbances in Rome, and the aurora borealis at Up- sala. Tothe magneticdisturbance on the 24th at Melbourne —_ 7 correspond the great magnetic disturbances at Rome, and the very fine aurorze boreales on the same day in Ger- many, Russia, England, Turkey, Greece, and Sicily. November.—The aurora australis of November 9 at Melbourne, lasting from midnight till the morning twilight, corresponds to an hour to the aurora borealis which was seen at clear full moon on the evening of the 8th in Schles- wig, and to the magnetic disturbances at Rome on the 8th and oth. To the aurore australes on the 15th, 17th, and 18th at Melbourne correspond the aurorz boreales on the 14th, 17th, and 18th in England. To the great aurora australis on the 19th at Melbourne corre- spondsthecontemporary aurora borealis at Miinster, Nieder- orschel, Peckeloh, Schleswig, alsoat Upsalaand in England. To the aurora on the 23rd in Melbourne corresponds the aurora borealis in England of the 22nd and 23rd. To the aurora australis of the 24th corresponds the aurora borealis at Upsala of the 24th and in England. The magnetic disturbances at Rome on the 19th, 20th, 23rd 24th, 25th, and 29th coincide with the aurora australis, on the same days, and the magnetic disturbances at Rome on the 1oth, 22nd, and 27th, with the disturbances at Mel- bourne on the same days.* Besides the aurora borealis on the 22nd in England, and on the 27th in Briinn coin- cide with the contemporary magnetic disturbances at Melbourne. December.—To the aurora australis on the 6thand 17th at Melbourne corresponds the aurora borealis at Peckeloh, Keitum, and in England. To the aurora on the 17th at Melbourne corresponds the contemporary aurora borealis at Miinster, Schleswig, Breslau, Keitum, and in England. The magnetic disturbance on the 22nd at Melbourne coincides with the aurora borealis on the 22nd in Schleswig. January 1871.—To the aurora australis on the 3rd and 13th at Melbourne correspond the magnetic disturbances at Rome on the same day, and to the aurora australis of the 13th corresponds the aurora borealis on the same day at Miinster, Breslau, Cologne, Schleswig. To the aurora on the 15th at Melbourne corresponds the aurora borealis at Breslau and Schleswig on the 15th. To the aurora on the 20th at Melbourne corresponds the aurora borealis on the 19th at Thurso. February.—To the aurora australis on the 12th at Melbourne corresponds the aurora borealis on the 12th at Miinster and Niederorschel, Peckeloh, Wolgart, Moncalieri, Coeslin, Breslau, the pharos of the Weser, on the west coast of England, Eger, Datschitz, Florence, Rome, Volpeglino, and the aurora borealis on the 13th at 3 A.M.at Rome. The magnetic disturbances on the 4th at Melbourne correspond to the magnetic disturb- ances at Rome on the same day. To the magnetic dis- turbances on the 5th at Melbourne corresponds the aurora borealis at Breslau. To the magnetic disturb- ances on the 9th at Melbourne corresponds the aurora borealis at Cleve and Thurso. EDWARD HEIs Minster, Westphalia, June 30 SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES LonDON ' Entomological Society, July 3.—A, R. Wallace, president, in the chair. Prof. Westwood exhibited the minute-book of pro- ceedings of an Entomological Society existing in London in 1780, but which appeared to have been dissolved after about a year. The members seemed to have consisted of Messrs. Drury, Honey, Swift, Francillon, Jones, and Bentley ; the meetings being held weekly.—Mr. S. Stevens exhibited a collection of * Bulletino Meteorologico del Collegia Romano, dell’ Osservatorio di Palermo edel Collegio Carlo Alberto a Moncalieri. Coleoptera recently made in Ireland, the most interesting species being Chiemius holosericeus from near Killaloe. Mr. Champion exhibited an example of Hyws hirtus recently captured by him in the New Forest ; also rare British Hemiptera. Mr. Blackmore exhibited a collection of insects of all orders from Tangiers ; locusts were extremely destructive there, and on the shore the pedes- trian is often up to his ankles in the dead and dying accumula- tions of these insects.—Mr. Dunning read a letter from the Rey. Mr. Wayne, of Much Wenlock, calling attention to the damage done to his strawberries in consequence of a Myriopod effecting an entrance into the interior of the ripe fruit ; also complaining that his youngcarrots were destroyed by a dipterous larva, probably that of Psi/a rose, which bored into the root.—Mr. Druce exhibited a collection ofrare Diurnal Lepidoptera, including species of Papilio, Euryades, Heliconia, Eresia, Catagramma, Agrias. Paphia, &c.— Mr, Stainton exhibited an example of Botys fuscalis captured by the Rev. R. P. Murray in the Isle of Man, to the head of which a portion of the puparium still adhered; the insect was flying briskly when taken, notwithstanding that it must have been nearly blind. Mr. Albert Miiller exhibited a leaf froma vine growing at Basle showing the-damage done by Phytoptus vitis —Mr. Riley, State Entomologist for Missouri, exhibited a collection of American insects with their transformations.—Prof. Westwood read a paper on new species of exotic Papilionide. Mr. S. S. Saunders read a monograph of the Strepsiptera, describing twenty-one species ; he considered the group as undoubtedly pertaining to the Coleoptera, in the vicinity of RAzpiphorus. Mr. C. O. Waterhouse read a memoir on some species of Cazt- tharis. The Baron de Selys Longchamps communicated a statistical sketch of the Odonata ; the number of species of dragon flies now known he estimated at 1,344. Society of Biblical Archeology, July 4.—Samuel Birch, LL.D., F.S.A., in the chair. The Rev. F. K. Cheyne, M.A., was duly elected a member of the society, The Rev. B. T. Lowne, M.R.C.S., read a paper ‘‘On the Flora of Palestine.” He considered that it comprised eight distinct elements, four of the dominant existing floras of Southem Europe, Russian Asia, North Africa, and that of Arabia and North Western India, Each of these floras was stated to occupy a distinct region of the country. Interspersed with these are found numerous examples of plants belonging to palzearctic Europe, constituting its fifth element. The Arctic flora of Hermon and Lebanon con- stitutes the sixth. Mr. Lowne thought further that the cedars of the Lebanon, and the papyrus of the Jordan lakes were the remnants of two ancient and almost extinct floras belonging to two distinct geological periods.—James Collins read a paper “©On the Gums, Perfumes, and Resins mentioned in the Bible,” particularly pointing out the fact that few of them were indi- genous to Palestine, and that many have been wrongly named by the Greek and later botanists. In the course of his observa- tions Mr. Collins detailed the characteristic differences between the true and false Balm of Gilead, ladanum, sandal wood, &c., and the greater or less efficacy of their medicinal properties. Mr. Lowne and Mr. Collins brought for exhibition a large number of mounted specimens, and a complete collection of gums, perfumes, &c., to illustrate their respective papers. PARIS Académie des Sciences, June 28.—M. Claude Bernard in the chair. M. Robin presented a new edition of his great work on the Microscope.—M. Elie de Beaumont presented a most valuable book by M. Rivat, who died recently, and who was one of the chief engineers in the mining service, containing a new method of extracting silver from sulphuric ores, with the assistance of super-heated steam. The quantity of steam required was originally very great, and is now reduced to {th of what it was when the first experiments were tried. ‘Ihis process of quantitative analysis is largely used in the Laboratory of the Ecole des Mines, at Paris.—Father Secchi sent a memoir on a sup- posed relation between protuberances, sun-spots, and ‘‘faculz,” as discovered by him.—M. Struve and others sent a letter on be- half of the German astronomers, who will meet at Vienna, and asking for the presence of French astronomers. Some _instru- ments destroyed by the Communists were intended for that meeting.—M. Delaunay has circulated amongst the members a small notice relating to an intended meteorological atlas of France, and presented the volume of meteorological observations made at the National Observatory, which he calls the ‘‘ Obser- vatory of Paris.” M. Charles Sainte-Claire Deville rose im- mediately in order to present the French Academy with the observations made at the observatory of Montsouris. The two observatories are at a distance of something less than a mile, and a deadly feud appears to exist between them.—M. Ch. Sainte- Claire Deville then read a paper relating to the part taken by him in the projecting of the meteorological atlas of France in 1847.—M. de Falen and Fisher described bathymetrical obser- vations and researches executed on the coasts of France, in 1847, in depths varying up to 250 fathoms. The submarine fauna has no peculiarity worth mentioning. M. Gustave Tis- sandier, one of the postal aeronauts, presented a 7ésuzzé of the re- sults obtained by the sixty-four postal aeronautical expeditions during the siege of Paris. He merely gives however the num- ber of letters and pigeons sent, but not the number of pigeons returned to Paris, and of letters duly posted in the post-offices of the French postal service delegated in the provinces. July 3.—M. Claude Bernard in the chair.—M. Delaunay read a letter fom M, Marie Davy, in answer to M. Ch. Sainte-Claire Deyville’s communication on the Physical Atlas of France. The learned astronomer, supporting M. Marie Davy, admits that the idea of constructing a physical atlas belongs to M. Ch. Sainte Claire Deville, who originated it in 1847 ; but he contends that in 1868 he tried to start it, since nothing had been done during twenty-one years. M. Delaunay contends moreover that it is a duty for the National Observatory to undertake such a publication. It is to be hoped that M. Delaunay’s exertions will not interfere with M. Sainte-Claire Deville’s own publications, and at all events, that we shall have at least an atlas worthy of the French reputation in meteorological matters. But the safer way for both contending parties should be to agreein a common work. Such a resolution would diminish the expenses to the Republic, and enlarge the chances of common success. M. Sainte-Claire Deville’s brother, the chemist, was not returned a member for Paris, although he received more than 50,000 votes. —M, Delaunay presented for M. Latterade a most extraordinary memoir on “The Theory of two Suns.”” M. Latterade contends that the warm period which is demonstrated by the presence of tropical fossils in Sweden and Norway was produced by the proximity of a very powerful star which had given to the earth an immense quantity of heat, and which from that time has receded into the abysses of celestial space. M. Latterade contends that the sa- plementary sun has not disturbed the elements of the planets, because its attractive power was smaller than its warming power. He states, moreover, that the warming power does not vary according to the mass, like the attractive power. This communi- cation was referred gravely to a committee composed of three members.—M. Champion sent a new memoir on nitro-glycerine, which he has studied with so much care during the investment of Paris. It is not only a very dangerous study, but also a very painful labour, as violent headaches are experienced by persons engaged in such operations. The whole of the memoir is worthy of being read attentively by working chemists. We will not try to analyse it, but merely mention two facts. Electricity is without action on glycerine as proved by Ruhmkorff, and explosion does not take place at 360° Fah. as supposed, but at 540° only.—M. Quatrefages presented an interesting memoir from M. Dareste, who is pursuing with con- | stant success his studies on artificial monstrosities, produced by different operations on eggs during incubation. ‘The learned physiologist examines the alterations produced in the blood, and finds the number of corpuscles is very small indeed under special circumstances.—Father Denza sent from Italy an account of the aurora borealis observed in Italy on the evenings of April 9, 10, 18, and 23. Father Denza mentions other aurorz boreales on the 7th, 12th, and 18th of June. This last display was very brilliant, and was accompanied with very great magnetical disturbances. It coincidei, moreover, with great storms ob served in England and other countries.—Baron Larey announced that Dr. Castano is just leaving France for a climatological and medical inspection of Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and perhaps Iceland, as well as the Faroe Islands.—In its secret sitting the Academy is discussing the titles of several candidates to fill the room of M. Lamé, who was mostly engaged in abstruse researches | on the application of high mathematics to molecular physics | M. Puiteux was chosen as candidate | during his whole lifetime. in the first line. He will be certainly returned on the roth. M. Lamé cannot have any fitter or more qualified successor.—M. Delaunay has published the result of observations for the month of June. The greatest excess of black bulb thermometer zz vacuo exposed to the sun over the ordinary thermometer in the shade was 354° Fah. on June 1, and the smallest on the 5th, when it was only 4°, | containing corections of errors in Kunzek’s meteorological obser- — vations made at Lemberg.—Dr. von Monckhoven exhibited a VIENNA “Imperial Academy of Sciences, May 11.—Dr. Neilreich : communicated a critical revision of the species, forms, and hybrid forms of the genus /Yieracium hitherto observed in Austria and — Hungary. The author remarked upon the peculiar difficulty of deciding what constitutes a species among the Hawkweeds, and | pointed that by one course, the number of species is inordinately ~ increased, whilst the other diminishes it to an unnatural mini- — mum. In his treatment of the Hawkweeds of Austria and Hun- gary he has adopted a middle course, namely, the establishment of what he calls “artificial species.” — Prof. E. Linnemann transmitted a memoir on the simultaneous formation of propylic aldehyde, acetone, and allylic alcvhol with acroleine, by the desic- cating action of chloride of calcium upon glycerine.—Prof. F. Simony presented the conclusion of his memoir upon the glaciers of the Dachsteingebirge.—Prof. V. von Lang communi- cated a paper on the dioptrics of a system of centred spherical — surfaces.—Prof. C. Jelinek communicated a note by Prof. Handl — blowpipe constructed by him for the production of the Drum- mond light, which permits the use of hydrogen, common gas, or alcohol as the combustible material. He also dis- cussed some of the incandescent materials which may be em- ployed, of which he seems to prefer white marble. Prof. Briihl transmitted three plates of the anatomy of the lice, intended for early publication, for the purpose of claiming priority in case of his results being hit upon by Dr. v. Graber, in his memoir on the same subject lately communicated to the Academy of Sciences. May 16.—The following memoirs were communicated :— “ Graphical determination of the stereographic and allied projec- tions of the lines of the geographical sphere,” by Prof. J.O.Streiss- ler ; ‘The pressure of water as a motor,” by M. F. Schindler.— Director C. von Littrow presented a report upou the determina- tion of the latitude and azimuth effected by Prof. E. Weiss at Dablitz.—M. F. Unferdinger communicated two mathematical papers, one upon four integrals, the other upon the theory of that spherical triangle in which one angle is equal to the sum of the other two. BOOKS RECEIVED ENGLIsH.—Mycological Ilustrations: W. W. Saunders, W. G Smith, A.W. Bennett, part (Van Voorst).—Darwinism Refuted : S. H. Laing(E. Stock).— A Treatise oa Asiatic Cholera: C. Macnamara (Churchill)—A History of British Birds: W. Yarrell, edited by A. Newton, part 1 (Van Voorst).—The Census of England and Wales for 1871, Preliminary Report. AmeErIcan.—A Treatise on Diseases of the Nervous System; W. A. Ham- mond (New York, Appleton). ForerGn.—Das Leben der Erde: N. Humnel (Leipzig, Fleischer).—Die Grundsatze graphischen Rechnens, part 1: K. Von Ott (Prag, Calve). CONTENTS Tue Next Tora Sovar Eciirse . TyNnDALL's ‘‘ Hours of EXERCISE IN THE Bure PaGE <. koje) Moo Fee ee By the Rey. T. G, Bonney, F.G.S. SEC hes oe ec ge Gt SS eS 193 Our Book Suetr. (Weth Illustration.) . . . « «. a 199 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR :— A New View of Darwinism.—H. Howortu; Lawson Tair . . 200 Recent Neologisms.—Dr. C. M. INctepy. . ... . 207 Affinities of the Sponges —E. ParFitT . . . .... 201 Cramming for Examinations . + 202 Great Heat in Iceland during the aaa: Sumas at Beci CHAN . 202 The Late Thunderstorm.—R. L. Jack . . . . 2... se 202 Saturn’s Rings.— Lieut. A. M. Davies, R.N. . 202 On an Error in Regnault’s Calculation of the Heat Conv seit ats Work in the Steam Engine.—A. W. Bickerton, F.CS. . 203 Tue Causes OF THE COLOURSOF THESEA. By Lieut.-Col.W. M‘MasTER 203 THE TEMPERATURE OF THE SUN. By J. Ericsson . 204 GREYTOWN AND ADJACENT CounTRY. es Lieut. S. P. Our ER, [Rk in (With Iilustration.) 5 eC maUO, Tue Date or THE INTERMENT IN THE Aun RIGNAC Caves By We Boyp Dawkins, F.R.S. Tel es ietcetgicy ve Sei ea Nt Aaa toute 208 DAYLIGHT AURORAS:. |. | [GARE MA/Eteteh Sel Gb. ic eS 209 DNODESa Diente te td Fale atte < tO * « « 210 Screntiric INTELLIGENCE FROM AMERICA 5 ogee eat CORRESPONDENCE OF NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN AU ROR. * By Dr. E. HEIs Py eee) oer hel geile ee atateh 5 cnet Vets SocigTIES AND Acaveizs/ MORO OEPMOROMOMGY OO Hyioo> G35 BOOKS: RECRIVED: /.: (5. |. SoMEEPLc ran "e) /<1 (0) Kemet Seam C ECTS + 216 Rey 2 eatin el 7. in NATURE THURSDAY, JULY 20, 1871 THE NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE COLLEGE OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE ; E have apprised our readers from time to time of the progress of the arrangements for the pro- posed College of Physical Science in Newcastle. In our report of the meeting held on the 25th of March, at which the scheme was first publicly broached, we expressed an estimate of the administrative ability of the committee appointed to carry into effect the resolutions then adopted, which events have amply justified. A second public meeting was held in Newcastle on Saturday last to receive at the hands of the executive an account of their labours, and the Report now before us shows the energy which has been brought to bear upon a complicated and laborious task. Few who read the announcement of the first meet- ing—probably few even of those who were there present— supposed that the ship, of which the lines were then but talked of, could be ready at the expiration of little more than three months to launch and make her trial voyage. We need not reprint the whole Report, as portions of it are merely the official announcement of arrangements already made public; but its contents may be briefly summarised. The Committee state that— “At their first meeting it was found that the scheme had so far interested the general body of the inhabitants of the district, that very much more support would be forthcoming than was sufficient to provide for the six years’ experiment; and as the University of Durham intimated that the pro- mised aid (1,000/. per annum) would be made permanent if a capital sum could be obtained sufficient to secure the continuance of the support from the district, it was con- sidered advisable to appeal to the public for 30,000/. This sum was mentioned not as being completely adequate to meet the expenses of a collegiate institution, but as pro- viding sufficient funds for the commencement of such an undertaking.” Towards this fund 21,4607. has been obtained, together with three subscriptions each of 100/. a year, and a hope is expressed that within the next few months between 30,0007, and 40,000/, may be raised. The election of Professors in Mathematics, Geology, Chemistry, and Experimental Physics, and the determina- tion of the Committee to open the College in October are announced. Itis recommended that the lecture fees should be such as may secure a large attendance of students and it is suggested that five guineas yearly for each course, and one guinea entrance, would be suitable to this end. It had been agreed by the committee to propose the following Constitution, The governing bodies of the Col- lege to be :—firstly, the Governors, secondly, the Council, 1. The Governors ; to be limited at first to forty-seven, of whom nine are to be e2-officte members of the body. Of the remaining thirty-eight, three are to be north-country Members of Parliament, and two Professors in the Col- lege. Nine are to be elected by subscribers to the fund, and the rest in different proportions by the Chapter of Durham, the Senate, the Convocation, the Municipal Councils of twelve northern towns, and the Scientific Societies of the district. Of the elected members one- VOL, Iv. 217 third are to vacate their seats every two years, but are to be eligible for re-election. 2. The Council, which is proposed to “ consist of fifteen members, including a Chairman, of whom five shall bemem- bers of the Chapter, Senate, or Convocation of the Uni- versity of Durham ; and of these one shall be the Warden, and of the other four at least two shall be members of the Senate ; but all members of the Council shall be elected out ofand by the Governors themselves. They shall be elected for five years, one-third of the number resigning their places every three years, but being re-eligible. They shall in all cases retain their appointment for two years.” This Council is tomeet monthly, and to transact all the ordinary business of the College, arranging tine periods of study and fees of the students, and to assume the general direction of affairs. Toa committee of this body. with which all the Pro- fessors shall be combined, is entrusted the more strictly academical administration and discipline, including the number and direction of the Professors’ Lectures, subject to the general control of the Council. In conclusion, it is proposed “that while steps are being taken to draw up the necessary documents and to pro- ceed with the election of the Council in the terms of the Constitution, the government of the College shall re- main in the hands of the Executive Committee, who sha act as the Council for the period of one year. “ At the invitation of the North of England Institute o Mining and Mechanical Engineers, the Literary and Philosophical Society, the Medical College, and the Natural History Society, occupying a group of buildings in a good situation already dedicated to scientific pur- poses, a suitable suite of rooms for the lectures, private rooms for the professors, laboratories, and offices; has been secured, which will be sufficient for the accommoda- tion of the College for some years, when it is hoped the success of the Institution will be so secured that a sum of money sufficient to build separate and suitable accom- modation will be easily procured.” It is almost needless to say that this report was well received and unanimously adopted, and that the meeting willingly accorded to the Executive Committee the pro- posed continuation of their powers for a year. In the discussion some remarks were made by gentlemen taking an active part in the labours of the Committee, which are worthy of note. Mr. Lowthian Bell alluded to the present available accommodation for the College as insufficient, except for temporary purposes, and suggested the probable necessity for building at any rate new laboratories. He also bade the meeting to regard the four professorships already established as but a commencement, there being many other departments of Physical Science which must ere long be provided for, and made special allusion to the claims of Biology to representation. It is true that another member of the committee with very pronounced political views, suggested that a chair of Political Economy should be the next subject adopted, but as he did not attempt to show the position of Political Economy in his scheme of physical science, it was scarcely thought necessary to argue the point. In far wider spirit were the remarks of a subsequent speaker, who looked hopefully forward to the time when N 218 NATURE [Fuly 20, 187% success in teaching physical science should enable them to enlarge the basis of the Institution, so as to include all the higher branches of a liberal education. We have, on more than one occasion, advocated the addition of a Biological chair to the four already agreed upon, for it has seemed to us an anomaly that a School of Physical, or, to use the correlative term, Natural Science, should be without teaching in general Natural History, especially in a locality in which excellent facili- ties exist, But there is another view which has been pro- minently in our mind. If the College were intended to be a mere mining and engineering school, established to enable engineers and coal-viewers to educate their pupils with less labour and cost, its claim upon the general public would be small. It is due to the public that Science for its own sake,—Science with less direct reference to considerations of pounds, shillings, and pence, should be recognised ; and in no way could this be so readily done, under existing circumstances, as by the establishment of a Chair in Biology. We readily admit the pre-eminent importance of the subjects selected to commence with, and as willingly record our confidence that the Executive Committee will ap- proach this as all other subjects with the single desire to do what is right. Finally, we would make one comment on the attitude of Durham University. For many years past it has been regarded as almost hopeless to expect any active assistance in educational matters from that hitherto somewhat sleepy body. But with the new Dean seems to commence a new 7égime, and facts appear to bear out the testimony of many of the speakers at Saturday’s meeting, that in all arrangements in connection with the new College, the University authorities have shown the widest liberality and unselfishness. The vast importance of schools of this sort, and the prospect of a movement witha similar object in the West Riding of Yorkshire, renders needless any apology for reviewing with some detail this last addition to our scien- tific institutions. PERCY’S METALLURGY OF LEAD The Metallurgy of Lead, including Desilverisation and Cupellation. By John Percy, M.D., F.R.S. (London : J. Murray, 1870.) HE preparation of metallic lead from its several ores, amongst which galena stands foremost, presents to | us processes and circumstances which, though generally simple, are amongst the most interesting and delicate in the whole range of productive metallurgy. It is therefore with even more expectation than attached to his former | “bird’s-eye” view of all the various forms of commer- cial metallurgy of lead (in humbler phrase of lead smelt- ing) will here find a classified survey of it as prac- tised in Great Britain, all over Europe, and in North America, with some notices of attempts made in South America. Of the very ancient lead-smelting processes of Asia, probably the earliest practised on a large scale in the world, and still believed to be in use in China and Japan, we do not find a word, Of recent methods in use in Japan there is a brief notice from Mr. Pumpelly at p. 384, and in China at p. 479. The first one hundred pages are occupied with the physical and chemical properties of lead viewed from the metallurgical stand-point, one which we cannot but think is always essentially misty and unsatisfactory. The physics and chemistry of any metal ought to be the same to everybody, and it seems to us ought to be fully and accurately known before ever the student opens a metallurgical book. If that be admissible, then metallurgy proper has its limits ad- vantageously defined and narrowed, and its treatises - ought to be then divided into two distinct classes—the one like the small octavo volume of Rammelsberg (that most elegant and classic work, now several years published, but yet as true and valuable in almost every page as when it was wet from the press), which teaches the principles of metallurgy, that is to say, the principles of those reactions which occur in the established and fully-adopted processes of commercial metallurgy, without going into any details as to apparatus, furnaces, or criticism, as to whether this or that method or construction of plant be better or worse. The other, consisting of of any attempt to aggregate in one volume the details of manufacturing apparatus, of trying to tell all about the minutize, of all the diver- sities of all the commercial metallurgies in the world —which, we are compelled to say, is impossible within even the very diffuse limits taken by Dr. Percy—will best consist, we think, of #onxographs, such as those of M. Griiner, in the Axnadles des Mines of a year or two back, on this subject of lead. Each one of these monographs, with the necessary plates of illustration, should really, and in a genuinely practical way, exhaust one single national or special system of smelting of lead, or of some one other metal. Such has been the plan almost universally adopted in Germany and France, and with results at once far more comprehensive, clear, and exact, than are practicable from the hand of any one man, however able, or in any volume | though bulky, illustrated only by woodcuts however ex- volumes on Copper, Zinc, and Iron that we opened Dr. | Percy’s present volume ; and, in finding a copious and well-arranged compilation, we have not been disappointed, although we might have anticipated something more of original research. It would, indeed, be improbable, with the great power of obtaining information directly from manufacturers necessarily belonging to the influence and position of a Professor at the Government School of Mines, that the result should be any other. Accordingly, the reader who desires to obtain a distinct and tolerably detailed though cellent, and those of Dr. Percy’s present volume are re- markably clear and good. For the practical and exhaustive description, in fact, of any single smelting process largely in commercial use, an atlas of folio copper plates, forming a volume in itself, is | indispensable. The result of the contrary view of the metal- lurgist’s descriptive task, is inevitably that want of balance, and yet incompleteness here and there, which characterise all these metallurgic volumes of Dr. Percy. Thus, for we feel bound to give an example to sustain our criticism, in his volume on Iron, Dr. Percy goes into the question of blow- ing machines, blast cylinders, and the like—a thing really as foreign to the metallurgy of iron as the theory and prac- tice of building chimney stalks would be to that of lead ; Fuly 20, 1871] and Dr. Pole, it appears, wrote for him the rather jejune algebraic investigation of the principles of such machines, which, when we come to examine it, we find is merely what we may find in any elementary book on pneumatics ; and owing to the omission of all the s¢vuctural conditions producing loss of effect in blowing machines, exists, in fact, as a mere parade of useless symbols, of no value to the constructor or the purchaser or the user of such apparatus. Now we are wholly unable to see the necessity for thus cumbering with a needlessly hooked-on subject a book on Iron Metallurgy at all; but if otherwise, then it should have been gone into thoroughly, and in a way to be of real value to the constructor. To have done this, however, would have required some fifty pages or more, so that a far better mode, in our judgment, would have been to have simply confined the point to a reference to the great mono- graphs which exist on this special subject, both theoretic and practical. Neither Dr. Percynor Dr. Pole seems to have been aware of the fact that a quite exhaustive investi- gation of the theory of blowing machines (omitting none of the conditions of practice) and of high merit, was pub- lished as long ago as 1805, by Herr J. Baader, Counsellor of Mines of the Kingdom of Bavaria, and which was specially and by the authority of Napoleon I. translated into French and published in the Azzales des Mines in 1809. There may be such a thing as apparent completeness, which yet is only the piling together of incongruity or of incompleteness. But this want of the sense of balance and of relative importance is not confined to such collateral subjects of practice. Dr. Percy, in the volume here noticed, devotes nine pages to the physical properties of lead, in com- mencing, and of these we find four (under the head of Resistance to Pressure) are occupied with details of Coriolé’s fruitless attempts in 1829 to construct weighing machines, whose indications were to be derived from the compression suffered by known volumes and forms of lead pieces—a subject as indirect and foreign to the physical properties as it is far away from the metallurgy of lead, One statement made in this part of the volume is un- doubtedly incorrect, where it is said, “by hammering lead becomes harder, but acquires its original softness by annealing.” The actual fact is, that lead cannot be made harder by hammering, for its annealing temperature is so low (that of every metal being a function of its fusing point), and it suffers so large a deformation by reason of its softness when hammered, that enough heat is evolved by internal work to cause the metal to anneal itself,—in other words, never to become harder. This has been fully ascertained, and the fact has even been taken practical advantage of by those engaged in “ drawing lead pipe” by the older methods, who are well aware that a hard pinch at first or rapid reduction in diameter in passing through the holes of the draw-plate, heating the lead, enables it to be drawn into finished pipe with a less total expenditure of power than if drawn slowly and with so gradual a reduction in diameter as that the lead should remain always nearly cold. Were the lead hardened here by a compression quite the same in effect as hammering, the very reverse must be the case. This volume comprises avery good account of the Pattinson process for sepa- ration of silver, and also of Parkes’s zinc process. What can have induced Dr. Percy (who is, we believe, fond of NATURE 2190 scholarship) to employ such barbarous compounds as “ lithargefication,” “desilverisation,” and “ decopperisa- tion,” in place of “disargentation,” ‘“ decuperation ” ? What would be thought of “ desugarification” as a sub- stitute for “ desaccharisation”?—but these are matters of taste and no more. The chapter on the ores of lead and that on the assay of lead ores are amongst the very best in the volume, which is beautifully printed with the clearest of type and paper, and with goodindices. There are nine pages near the end devoted to poisoning by lead, which, though certainly not the metallurgy of lead, may prove of some use to those employing work-people in lead smelting or manufacturing operations ; though we think here, perhaps, the wisest in- structions might have been simply, “‘send the patient to the doctor.” We have little confidence in amateur or improvised medicine on the part of “laymen,” in such cases as lead-poisoning, at any rate. On the whole, though, as we have had to: point out, this work of Dr. Percy’s is not free from faults, it is, we think, in several ways the best of all those on Metallurgy which have appeared from under his pen, and in the collection and discussion of a vast array of facts is a noble volume, the very best that yet exists in English on its subject. NEWMAN’S BRITISH BUTTERFLIES An Illustrated Natural History of British Butterflies, By Edward Newman, F.L.S., F.Z.S., &c. 8vo. (Lon- don: W. Tweedie, 1871.) HE British Butterflies form a small but striking group of insects, and hence not only are they as a general rule the first objects on which the collecting spirit of the RED ADMIRAL (Pyrameis Atalanta). Upper side. Under side. young entomologist is exerted, but they also offer one ot the best means of commencing the study of entomology. Thus they are easily collected and preserved, their appear- 220 NATURE ance is pleasing and often beautiful, their characters are generally very clear and distinct, so that the discrimina- tion of the species is by no means difficult, and their Painted Lady. Var. 1. Natural History is easily studied ; whilst the small number ot the species renders it an easy matter for the beginner to procure in a season or two by far the greater proportion of the known forms. Although there are already many books treating spe- cially of the British butterflies, some of them expensive, and others so cheap as to come within the reach of every one, we cannot blame Mr. Newman for adding one more to the number, especially as his work is distinguished by the great prominence given in it to the Natural History of the species. Upon this subject, as also upon the dis- tribution of the species in Britain, Mr. Newman has long been publishing details from his own observations and those of other naturalists, in his periodicals the “ Zoo- logist ” and “ Entomologist ;” and the whole of the infor- mation thus accumulated is here summarised and sup- plemented with observations derived from other sources. | Another useful feature in the present work is the insertion of notices, and frequently of figures of the more impor- tant varieties of each species, which will often relieve the young student from a state of puzzled suspense in the de- termination of his specimens. The classification adopted is founded, in its broad outlines, upon the preparatory states of the insects, but it leads pretty nearly to the same results as the system more generally followed. The illustrations are very numerous, including figures of all the species and of both sexes when there is any difference either in the upper or lower surface. They are all woodcuts, and are generally well executed, as may be seen from the examples which we are enabled to give. W. S. DALLAS OUR BOOK SHELF The Western Chronicle of Science. Edited by J. H. Collins, F.G.S., Secretary to the Royal Cornwall Poly- technic Society. January to June, 1871. (Falmouth. Pp. 96.) WE are glad to afford space for a short notice of this cheap scientific journal, which, although specially intended for the benefit of the mining population of Cornwall and West Devon, deserves a wide circulation in all our mining districts. Each monthly number contains one or two original articles, either on general subjects, as “ The Prac- tical Value of Scientific Knowledge,” or giving descriptions of various forms of machinery, followed by notices of books, and a monthly chronicle of science. From one of the editorial articles on “ The Practical Value of Scientific Knowledge,” we learn that a good stoker may effect an annual saving of nearly 35/. per annum over a bad one, and that it is a common Cornish habit to hang heavy jackets, great coats, &c., on the lever of the safety valve of engines devoid of a pressure guage ; while the farmers, with the view of giving their ground two good things at once, mix lime with their guano some days before spread- ing the manure. A very remarkable natural-history statement is made by Mr. Williams, of Hayle, in his paper on “ Scientific Nursing.” “I have (he says) in my possession a double chick, the produce of an egg laid by a barn-door fowl, one half being the natural species, the other half composed of the sparrow-hawk!” Until this remarkable chick appears 77 propria Persond at the office of NATURE, or, at all events sends us its photograph, we must, with much regret, decline to accept the fact. Medizinische Fahrbiicher. Werausgegeben von der K. K. Gesellschaft der Aerzte, redigirt von S. Stricker. Jahr- gang, 1871, Heft I. und II. Mit 26 Holzschnitten und 2 lithographirten Tafeln. (Vienna: Braumiiller; Lon- don: Williams and Norgate, 1871.) THE two parts before us are the continuation, in a new form, of an old and valuable periodical, and, under Prof. Stricker’s able editorship, its tendency, instead of being, as heretofore, chiefly clinical, will be so far modified as to embrace all the results obtained in the physiological labo- ratory. A glance at the table of contents is sufficient to prove the truth of this statement. Thus putting aside the first paper by Prof. Stricker, entitled “ Pathology and Clinical Observation ;” the rest, nine in number, are nearly all devoted to the results of microscopic research. Thus, Dr. Genersich contributes a paper on the Serous Canals of the Cornea ; Dr. Heiberg one on the Regenera- tion of the Corneal Epithelium ; Dr. Giiterbock one on Inflammation of Tendons; Dr. G. F. Yeo one on the Structure of Inflamed Lymphatic Glands ; Dr. Lang one on the First Stages of Inflammation in Bone; Dr, Albert and Dr. Stricker one on Surgical Fever, and the latter author another on the nature of the Poison of Pus, andsoon. The journal leads off with a good start, and if it continues as it has commenced, will probably take up a leading position. We notice one or two of the papers that appear to be of general interest. reyes LETTERS TO THE EDITOR [Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his Correspondents. communications. | Cotteau’s “‘ Echinides de la Sarthe ” A NOTICE of Cotteau et Triger’s Zchinides de la Sarthe in a recent number of NATURE (June I5, p. 120) is likely to convey a false impression of the accuracy of M. Cotteau, and throws considerable doubt on the value of his work. It is not often that French scientific men are as conscientious as he is in the examination of authentic types. There is hardly a collection of fossil Echini which M. Cotteau has not examined ; and his [Fuly 20, 1871 — No notice is taken of anonymous ~ Suly 20, 1871 | thorough acquaintance with all that has been written on his sub- ject, as well as his intimate correspondence with the principal echinologists, is a sufficient guarantee that no important memoir (such as Wright’s monograph) could have escaped him. Any- one who will take the trouble of turning to Cotteau’s work (p. III) will find, under Pseudodiadema hemisphericum, a notice of Dr. Wright's figure of the same species (so much superior, with many others, to Cotteau’s?) and a reference to his description. Nor is this an isolated case. Throughout the work M. Cotteau discusses and criticises more or less the results of this very mono- graph, said to have been overlooked by him. The mistake Cotteau is accused of making of assigning to Desor instead of Agassiz the specific name of Pseudodiadema hemisphericum is entirely unfounded. Referring again to p. III., we find, as a synonym, Diadema hemisphericum Agass. M. Cotteau, like many continental and American writers, does not interpret the notation of species as is required by the laws of the British Association, but for that reason he should not be accused of committing mistakes which his own writings show him notto have committed. M. Cotteau, in common with others, looks upon nomenclature simply as a matter of registration ; and when M. Desor transfers to Pseudodiadema the Diadema hemuspheri- cum Agass., M. Cotteau writes, therefore, Pseudodiadema hemts- phericum Desor, and not Agassiz ; he may be wrong, according to the principles of the writer in NATURE, but he has not, either in this instance or in the other cases alluded to, committed a mistake through ignorance of the subject. A, AGAssIz Mr. Howorth on Darwinism Mr. Howorth sneers at ‘‘ Survival of the Fittest” as an “identical expression ” which ‘‘ might have suggested itself even to a child,” an axiom, in short, of which the truth cannot be disputed. This is satisfactory ; but it is strange that he did not apply this axiom to his own theory, and see how they agreed to- gether. He would probably admit, as another discovery ‘‘ that might have suggested itself to a child,” that as @ 7/e the entire offspring of each animal or plant, except the one or two neces- sary to replace the parents, die before they produce offspring (this has never been denied since I put it prominently forward thirreen years ago). He would further admit, I have little doubt, that a great majority of animals and plants produce during their lifetime from ten to a thousand offspring, so that fifty will be a low average, but the exact number is of no impor- tance. Forty-nine. therefore, of every fifty individuals born, die before reaching maturity ; the fiftieth survives because it is ‘best fitted to survive,” because it has conquered in the struggle for existence. Will Mr. Howorth also admit as self-evident, that this one survivor in fifty is healthy, vigorous, and well nourished, not sickly, weak, or half-starved? If he maintains that it is the latter, I shall ask him to prove it; if the former, then what becomes of his theory as an argument against Natural Selection? For, admitting as a possibility that his theory of the greater fecundity of the weak, &c., is true, how are these weak or sickly parents to provide for and bring up to maturity their offspring, and how are the offspring themselves (undoubtedly less vigorous than the offspring of strong and healthy parents) to maintain themselves? The one in fifty who survives to leave descendants will inevitably be the strong and healthy offspring of strong and healthy parents ; the forty-nine who die will com- prise the weaker and less healihy offspring of weak and sickly parents ; so that, as Mr. Darwin and myself have long ago shown, the number of offspring produced is, 77 ost cases, the least important of the factors in determining the continuance of a species. I have thought it better to go thus into the heart of the question, rather than defend myself from the charge of dogmatism, for stating as a fact that the most vigorous plants and animals are the most fertile. I repeat the statement, however, referring to Mr. Darwin's observations, and especially to those in which he demonstrates by experiment that cross-breeding produces the most vigorous and luxuriant plants, which again produce by far the largest quantity of seed. The facts that wild animals and plants are, as a rule, healthy and vigorous, that the head of the herd is the strongest bull, and that weak and sickly carnivora are rarely found because they must inevitably starve to death, sufficiently refute Mr. Howorth’s theory as against Natural Selection. If he can point to any district upon the earth where the animals and plants are in a state of chronic debility, disease, and starvation, NATURE 221 I may admit that there his theory holds good ; but such a dis- trict has not yet come under my observation, or, as far as I am aware of, been recorded by any traveller. I still maintain (Prof. Jowett’s authority notwithstanding) that the phrase ‘‘ Persistence of the Stronger” does not truly represent “ Natural Selection” or the struggle for existence ;” and, though it mey often be true, is not the whole truth. The arguments of Mr. Howorth from the history of savages will, I think, not have much weight, if we may take as an example his putting together as cause and effect the extinction of the Hottentots and their now obtaining enough to eat. ALFRED R, WALLACE Mr. ALFRED WALLACE directs attention to the gross error of supposing that ‘‘the struggle for existence means the per- sistence of the stronger,” and correctly stigmatises this view of Mr. Howorth’s ‘fa pure misrepresentation.” It is, as Mr. Wallace remarks, very curious and even Iudi- crous, after all that has been said and written upon the matter, that anyone should fail to recognise the advantages to their pos- sessor of ‘‘obscure colours,” ‘‘cunning,” ‘‘nauseousness,” ‘‘bad odour,” and other qualities superior to strength alone. The creature having these properties, at last brought to perfection through the operation of natural selection, acting through count- less generations, will assuredly have the advantage in the battle of life over its less fortunate neighbours. It will survive in the struggle for existence. Having survived, is it not better that it should at once teach the world the law of its survival, and pro- claim itself the fittest to survive, than that it should remain silent until those whom it has destroyed may rise from the dead and admit that their doom was deserved because they were not fit to live? LIONEL S, BEALE Mr. Howor tH, it seems to me, has not chosen a very favour- able time for so strongly maintaining the truth of Mr. Double- day’s theory, seeing that the recent census has shown that the population of Engiand has increased not only with an increment absolutely greater than that shown by any previous census, but also—and this is still more important—with an increase propor- tionally greater than during the last decade. Yet never, surely, has luxury been so prevalent among us as during these last ten years. The evidence thus afforded will perhaps be deemed more conclusive than the argument of Mr. J. S. Mill, who invites those who may be inclined to accept Mr. Doubleday’s opinions ‘to look through a volume of the Peerage, and observe the enormous families almost universal in that class ; or call to mind the large families of the English clergy, and generally of the middle classes of England” (“ Principles of Political Economy,” bk. 1, ch. x., note). Mr, Howorth, however, states that ‘‘ the classes among us who teem with children are not the well-to-do and the com- fortable.” If this statement were absolutely true, it wou'd be of little service to Mr. Howorth, since it is in the classes referred to that prudential restraint acts with the greatest force, and the effects of this restraint, both direct and indirect, would have to be taken into account before his conclusion could be admitted. He further asserts that ‘‘a state of debility of the population in- duces fertility,” since ‘‘ where mortality is the greatest there is much the greatest fecundity.” That births should be most numerous where the mortality is greatest, requires for its explana- tion no hypothesis respecting the fertilising power of debility. “The fact,” says Malthus, “may be accounted for without re- sorting to so strange a supposition as that the fruitfulness of women should vary inversely as their health. When a great mortality takes place, a proportional number of births im- mediately ensues, owing both to the greater number of yearly marriages from the increased demand for labour, and the greater fecundity of each marriage from being contracted at an earlier, and naturally more prolific, age” (vol. i., pp. 472, 473, 5th edit.), Man’s reproductive power is always in civilised life more or less checked, and ready to be more or less exercised in proportion to the lessening by death of the restraining pressure. THOMAS TYLER Mr. WALLACE, in replying to Mr. Howorth’s objections to the theory of Natural Selection, points out that that gentleman first misrepresents Darwinism, and that having done so he does not employ the distorted doctrine as premisses to a further con- 222 clusion. But the second part of the criticism is not quite just. Mr. Howorth, after stating the Darwinism theory, introduces us to an order of facts which is at variance with that theory as apprehended by him ; and not only does he do so, but he places an interpretation upon these facts which is utterly irreconcilable with the Darwinian theory as understood by its most able ex- positors. It is true that Mr. Howorth does not bring his inter- pretation of the facts he adduces and the theory of natural selection into such juxtaposition as to show their mutual contra- diction ; but a little consideration will enable Mr. Wallace to supply the missing links, and to see that in any generous ccn- struction of Mr. Howorth’s letter, the real questions at issue are the correctness of the facts he adduces and the validity ef the generalisation he makes from these facts. My object in writing is to direct Mr. Howorth’s attention to Mr. Herbert Spencer’s profound discussion of this subject, as it appears to have escaped his notice. This is the more surprising, since, on p. I11, vol ii. of ‘The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,” and to which Mr. Darwin refers him, there is the following mar- ginal note :—‘‘ Since this MS. has been sent to press, a full dis- Cussion on the present subject has appeared in Mr. Herbert Spencer's ‘ Principles of Biology’ vol it., 1867, p. 457, e¢ seq.” He is a bold man who undertakes to enlighten the public on a subject which Mr, Spencer has fully discussed, without first as- certaining what view that profound and original thinker adopts ; and most certainly a fresh writer coming into the field ought to take up the discussion where an author of such eminence has left it. If Mr. Howorth will look at Mr. Herbert Spencer’s ‘Principles of Biology,” he will find in sections 78 and 79, an explanation of the process adopted by gardeners of cutting the roots, and ‘‘ringing” the bark of fruit trees. Section 355 explains the fact that fatness is often accompanied by barrenness. In a footnote at p. 483, vol. ii, he will find Mr. Doubleday’s doctrine specially noticed, and the fallacies upon which it is based exposed ; while in the chapters ‘‘ On the Laws of Multiplication,” vol. ii., p. 391, e¢ seg., he will find the whole subject treated with a fulness and exhaustiveness which leaves little to be desired. Mr. Howorth will notice that Mr. Spencer does not deny Mr. Doubleday’s facts, but that he places upon them an interpretation which brings them into harmony with the general theory of evolution, and with the special part of organic evolution which constitutes the Darwinian theory. Newchurch, July 17 JaMEs Ross I HOPE you will allow me a few lines to reply to Mr. Howorth. I had thought Mr. Doubleday’s essay was among the things of the past. There can be no question that his conclusions are not the conclusions of accomplished natuialists like Mr, Wallace, whose assertions are certainly as good, if not far better, than those of Mr. Doubleday. ; Quoting Mr. Chadwick, Mr. Howorth again puts cause for effect. There can be no doubt that the death rate increases ina crowded country fari fassw with the crowding, and that the crowding is the result of fertility. It by no means follows that the crowding produces fertility. There is one way in which poverty and overcrowding tend to ncrease the birth rate. Many of the children of the poor die during the first few months of life, and hence the mother, being lieved of her offspring, ceases to secrete milk, and soon again falls pregnant. It is the death of very young children in crowded districts which so largely increases the mortality, and this, as we have seen, may tend to increase the birth rate. The large percentage of deaths in early life amongst the ill- nourished and weakly renders these less likely to bear children than the strong. With regard to the large families of the poor so often quoted, I have grave doubts of the fact. 1 have for many years seen hundreds of poor families every year in the exercise of my profession of surgeon, and although I know many instances of ten or fifteen children having been born of one mother, in the majority not more than two or three reached adult age, and hence these produced no offspring in the second generation. The most remarkably prolific woman who has come under my notice has had twenty-two children in twenty years, and she is still continuing to present her husband with blessings. She is one of the fattest women I know. Amongst the rich and the well-to-do it is no uncommon thing for eight or ten children to grow to man’s and woman’s estate and to rear families, I know as many well-to-do persons with large NATURE families as poor people, and the living percentage is far greater in the former. Iam not aware that consumptive patients are so extremely prone to breed as Mr. Howorth thinks, certainly their children do not live to produce a second generation as a rule. Examples of fecundity and barrenness amongst wild tribes are not much to the purpose, because there are so many disturbing influences. To take, however, Mr. Howorth’s case, the Red Indian feeds ill enough and ‘is thin enough, yet he is not fertile. The backwoolsman, with his vegetable diet, would be far more likely to grow fat, and is certainly far better fed and far stronger than the Indian, yet he is more fertile than the Indian, although by no means fertile. He has many hardships to undergo. With regard to the Patagonian women and their belief that bleeding produces fertility, evidence is wanting as to the truth of their belief. We know many wide-spread beliefs are erroneous, for instance, most savages believe in rain-makers. In conclusion, Mr. Howorth thinks that wild animals in cap- tivity are sterile from over-feeding. If he will try and make them fertile by starving them, I think I may assert positively he will fail. Hence, I suspect, we must look for a deeper cause of barrenness in them. B. T. LOWNE 99, Guilford Street Recent Neologisms IN using the word Mr. Ingleby objects to as hideous, I was not aware that I was coining a new one. If so, it was quite un- consciously on my part ; but a word was wanted to express the proper'y of being prolific, and if the choice les between * prolificness” and ‘ prolificacity,” as I think it does, I am inclined to believe that the former will survive, as being the shorter, the easier to pronounce, and perhaps the less hideous, even though it may not be constructed on the best etymological principles. ‘‘Fertility” and ‘‘fecundity,” which are often used, do not quite answer the purpose, although the latter has very nearly the same meaning. Our language must and will grow; ant its growth will be determined by convenience rather than by gram- matical rules. ALFRED R. WALLACE Dr. INGLEBY is in error as to the recent introduction of ‘* survival,” ‘‘impolicy,” and ‘‘ prolificness.”” All these words will be found in Chalmers’s abridgment of ‘‘ To ld’s Johnson” (1820) ; the first with a reference to Sir George Buck, the second with one to Bishop Horsley, and the third with one to Scott (not Sir Walter). ‘‘ Indiscipline” does not «occur, but “indisciplinable” does, Hales being cited as the authority. hk. G. In his excellent custom of ‘‘ registering the first appearance of new words and new phrases,” Dr. C, M. Ingleby is surely very careless or superficial. He quotes ‘‘ survival”’ as a new word in- troduced, he thinks, by Darwin. Ihave been familiar with it as long as I remember, and my life of careful observation has exceeded a quarter of a century. ‘‘Impolicy” is equally familiar, having had currency at least twenty years before the Franco-Prussian war, to which Dr. Ingleby accredits it He will find both words, as well as “ indiscipline,” in ‘* Webster’s Dictionary,” edition 1852, and probably much earlier on careful search. ‘To telegram” is clearly a yulgarism, rarely heard I imagine, and never seen in print. Gas Weass Fertilisation of the Bee Orchis Mr. Darwin, in his ‘Fertilisation of Orchids,” states his belief that the Bee Orchis presents a physiological difference from all other British orchids, and is habitually self-fertilised. I had, yesterday, an opportunity of observing a number of these plants in one of its abundant localities in Surrey, and at a time when fertilisation must have been completed. In every plant almost all the capsules were considerably swollen, and were loaded with apparently fertilised ovules. In most of the withered flowers, the remains of the pollinia were still visible in the posi- tion described by Mr. Darwin, hanging down before the entrance to the nectary, in immediate proximity to the stigma, and rer.der- ing it almost impossible to believe that the flower had eyer been [Kuly 20, 1871 : ; i Suly 20, 1871 | NATURE 223 entered by any insect of considerable size, which must inevitably have carried away the pollinia with it. The fact that the Bee Orchis, the most “imitative” of all our native plants, is never visited by insects, is a very suggestive one. If, as might well have been assumed, the object of the ‘‘mimicry” is the attrac- tion of bees, the device appears to have signally failed. London, July 17 ALFRED W, BENNETT Saturn’s Rings As Lieut. Davies has thought it necessary to refer to your remarks about the satellite theory of Saturn’s rings—and in so doing has named my work upon Saturn (which you had ov/y re- ferred to without naming) it may be as well for me to mention, that Inowhere in that work claim the theory as mine—and that, whenever I have seen it referred to as mine, I have as publicly as possible disclaimed all title to it. Permit me to add, that, whatever opinion we form of Lieut. Davies’s views, he deserves our thanks for bringing out a treatise so full of work, from cover to cover, as his ‘* Meteoric Theories.” Such examples are a good deal needed in these days. 8, Wellington Villas, Brighton RICHARD A. PRocTOR Ocean Currents I FIND that Dr. Carpenter does not consider his experimen probative. Judging from the air of triumph with which, both in his lectures and writings, he has announced its success, I had cer- tainly imagined that he did. But if not probative, what is it ? Dr. Carpenter says it is only intended to be illustrative. What does it illustrate? It does not illustrate any currents formed in the ocean by differences of temperature ; for it does not illustrate the differences of temperature to which he attributes these cur- rents. In his letter in NATURE of July 6, he proposes an un- wieldy modification of his former well-known experiment, but which still, I would submit, in no way avoids the difficulty to which I have called attention. He describes a strong freezing mixture applied to the surface through one-tenth of the length of a trough half a mile long, and heat applied to the surface also through one-tenth of the length, measured from the other end: between the cold and the hot surface there is, then, an inter- vening space of four-tenths of a mile, or 2,112 feet ; that is to say, there is a thermometric gradient of about 50° in 2,000 feet, or I° in forty feet. This is small enough, and we may perhaps doubt whether such a gradient could give rise to any appreciable movement ; but it is 15,000 times greater than the gradient ob- served in the ocean, which is about 1° in 1oonautical miles ; and any movement shown by an experiment which, in its details, bears no reasonable proportion to the reality, cannot be accepted as an illustration of a movement in the ocean. Mr. Proctor, in the same way, speaks of his proposed experi- ment as an illustration ; and, in the same way, I would say that the distortion produced by magnifying 6,000,000 times that par- ticular detail on which he wishes to lay an emphasis, precludes our accepting it as an illustration at all. Mr. Proctor says that it is intended specially to throw light on the easterly and westerly movements ; it is surely unnecessary for me to point out to him that any easterly or westerly movements, as illustrated in a cylinder such as he describes, revolving continuously and uni- formly, are direct consequents of the outward or inward move- ment due to the differences of temperature, and are, therefore, in the strictest sense, dependent on the thermometric gradient. If, with a thermometric gradient of sy/oua Of a degree in one foot, and with an angular velocity of 360° in 24 hours, Mr. Proctor succeeds in showing any appreciable movement, I and (I think I may add) many other readers of NATURE will be glad to learn the result. But this is, after all, the point I raised in my last letter (NATURE, June 29), and which Mr. Proctor considers would require many columns for its full discussion, I do not myself see that there is any room for discussion at all ; and any difference of opinion that may exist can only be met by experi- mental demonstration, Dr. Carpenter appears to wish to support his theory on “authority,” and especially on that of the recent letter of Sir John Herschel, This is a point on which I touch with great re- luctance; but I would point out, in the first place, that ‘‘authority” in matters of science carries very little weight ; and, secondly, that Sir- John Ierschel, in the letter referred to, merely admits what he and everyone else have all along admitted, that hot water and cold, in juxtaposition, will establish a circu- lation. It was not for him, in a letter of private courtesy, to enter again on a discussion of the infinitesimal nature of the gradients—a discussion which he had already worked out very fully in his ‘* Physical Geography.” But, leaving this consideration on one side, I maintain that, at the present time, the ozs proband: rests with the supporters of the temperature theory. Its opponents have offered what is, at any rate, a rational, consistent, and tolerably complete explana- tion of all the known ocean currents ; and they say, in so many words, that the explanation offered, in accordance with the theory of temperature and specific gravity, is neither complete, nor con- sistent with itself or with geographical observation, The theo- retical objection of the infinitesimal nature of the thermometric gradients and of the differences of specific gravity, which has, indeed, formed the subject of these letters, is not one which I was inclined to put forward in any prominent degree. I preferred, and still prefer, to base my objection on the utter discrepancy between fact as observed, and fact as described by Captain Maury and Dr. Carpenter, in accordance with their theory. Ihave elsewhere dwelt on this at great length, and do not intend to go over the same ground here, even if you were willing to afford me the space to do so; but this discrepancy, which actually and very markedly exists, does call attention to the thermometric gradients in the ocean ; and when we find the same discrepancy between observation and description in the case of aérial currents, it leads to the conclusion that the infinitesimal nature of the thermometric gradients is as sound an objection to the temperature theory of atmospheric circulation, as it is to the temperature theory of oceanic circulation. I refer here to the last sentence but one of Mr. Proctor’s letter. The last sentence, I must confess, I do not understand. I do not see what effects solar light can produce, or even be supposed to produce, on the depths of ocean, to which no light penetrates; still less do I see how to integrate them. J. KK. LauGuton Formation of Flints In your report of the discussion that followed the reading of my paper on Flint, before the Geologists’ Association on June 2nd, Prof. Morris is said to have asserted that the views I sug- gested were first propounded by Dr. Brown of Edinburgh. I think the Professor must have been slightly misrepresented in this ; at all events I must most decidedly decline to be coupled with Dr. Brown, or to allow myself to be associated with his very remarkable statements. These may be found in the Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb., vol. xv. He asserts that carbon is trans- mutable into silicon; at p. 229 he says, ‘‘ Carbon and silicon are isomeric bodies, and that the former element may be converted into a substance presenting all the properties of the latter.” At p- 244, ‘* 3°04 grains of silicic acid were extracted from 5 grains of paracyanide of iron ;” at p. 245, ‘* 5°4 grains of silicic acid were procured from 30 grains of the ferrocyanide of potassium,” and ‘‘ there were obtained 9, 334 grains of silica from 3,240 grains of ferrocyanide, although some of the product was lost in two of the operations.” The view I advocated as explanatory of the formation of flints was the sadstitution of silicon for carbon, not a transmutation, and I distinctly showed the source from which the silicon was derived. Dr. Brown’s statements are so extraordinary that I could scarcely believe them serious. I find, however, in the same volume of the ‘‘ Transactions” that they were most patiently examined and confuted by Dr. George Wilson and Mr. John Crombie Brown, and they say, “ We tried the greater number of Dr. Brown’s processes, and rejected them one after another with- out pursuing their investigation further, on finding they would not yield quantitative proofs of the conversion of carbon into silicon. The limited time, which from various circumstances we could devote to the subject, obliged us to follow this course ; and the confident expectation we entertained till a recent period that each new process would supply what the rejected ones had failed to afford, led us to neglect noting many particulars of our early trials which otherwise we should have recorded. . . . In conclusion, we need scarcely say that we have been unable to sup- ply any proof of the transmutability of carbon into silicon.” I have one more objection to make to the report. I did not say that flints were merely silicified sponges. I believe that such is the case with some flints, but certainly not with all. I hope you will find space for this rectification of manifest errors. M. HAWKINS JOHNSON 379, Euston Road, July 11 224 NATURE Affinities of the Sponges Mr. PARFITT seems to think that Mr. Carter has done Prof. Greene some injustice, because he has not referred to him as an original investigator of the Sponges, and he bases his opinion on the figures in Prof. Greene’s ‘‘ Manual of Protozoa,” urging that the only difference between the forms figured by Carter in 1871, and those by Greene in 1859, is ‘‘the want of the funnel-shaped mouth, which seemed to have escaped the observation of Prof. Greene, probably owing to want of definition in the instrument used in the investigations.” Allow me to point out that there is no pretence of originality in Prof. Greene’s useful manual, that the figures alluded to are acknowledged (p. 85) to be copied from those illustrating the papers by Williamson and Dobie, and to express the opinion that much further research is necessary before the affinities of the sponges can be regarded as satisfactorily settled. When that day comes there is little doubt that a good deal of what is now guess work will require to be completely sponged out. W. Sun-Spot WHILE watching the sun set over the hills to the west of Halifax, on the evening of July 17, my attention was called to an intensely black spot upon its southern ‘hemisphere, almost vertically below the centre of the disc, which was visible to the naked eye. I may add that the evening was fine, but a thin mist was rising from the valleys, and that it was about five minutes before the sun touched the horizon that the spot was first seen. THOMAS PERKINS = — = EDOUARD RENE CLAPAREDE PAS the early age of thirty-nine, one of the most skilful, laborious, and honoured of European zoologists has been lost to Science in the person of Edouard Claparéde. For the last three years his health has been such that his friends continually feared to receive the sad news which has at length come from Italy. In spite of a complication of pulmonary and cardiac disease, his indomitable spirit had kept the man at work to the last. Having taken up his residence in Italy for the benefit of his health, he pro- duced during the last three years of his life a series of memoirs, so richly illustrated, and exhibiting such astonish- ing industry, that one would have fancied a man in full health and vigour was unequal to such abundant fertility. He once remarked to a friend, who expressed surprise that aman in his precarious state of health should work so hard, that he felt work was the only thing which kept him to life, if he left off working he should die at once. Claparéde was a native of Switzerland, and a pupil of that great master of great zoologists, Johannes Miiller. He could write French and German equally well, and con- sequently some of his researches are to be found published in the German periodicals, others in French in the Trans- actions of the Academy of Geneva. His earliest pub- lished work of large size is the ‘Recherches sur les Infusoires,” which he producedin conjunction withhis friend Lachmann, who unhappily died before it was completed. Though now to a great extent superseded by the later researches of Stein, Zenker, Cohn, and others. working with more accurate instruments, this treatise is one of classical importance, and forms the foundation of modern views on the Infusoria. Not long after the publication of this work, Clapartde came to England, where he made | the acquaintance of Dr. Carpenter, and spent a portion of the summer in his company in the Hebrides, working | with the microscope, chiefly at the lower worms and annelids. From this expedition resulted a quarto publi- cation, illustrated with plates (published by the Geneva Academy), giving accounts of new marine worms allied to the earth-worms, and many valuable observations on the Turbellarian worms. In conjunction with Dr. Car- penter, he also published some observations on the curious Tomopteris onisciformis in the Linnean Transactions. Attracted by the limicolous annelids, Claparéde continued his observations on the forms of this group inhabiting the streams around Geneva; and his “ Recherches sur les Oligochétes,” also published by the Geneva Academy, furnished zoologists with a very complete account of many of the anatomical and systematic differentize of these worms, till then almost entirely neglected and misunder- stood. In this work the homology of the segmental organ with the reproductive ducts was demonstrated. The circu- lation of spiders, which he studied in the transparent young of the genus Zycosza, and the development of the freshwater gasteropod, Werzténa fluviatilis, also about this time furnished occupation for his pen and pencil ; and an elaborate work on the development of the Nema- tods, in which the important questions of the significa- tion of the parts of the egg are discussed, was com- pleted by him. In the collections of miscellaneous observations, always finely illustrated, which he from time to time published, such as “Glanures zootomiques,” “ Beo- bachtungen iiber wirbellosen Thiere,” &c.,” he recorded observations principally on the Annelids and free-living worms, which he made from year to year on the coasts of Normandy or the shores of the Mediterranean, and many strange forms, paradoxical marine larve, and un- suspected annectant genera, are briefly figured and de- scribed, which excite the interest of the zoologist, and awaken the desire to know more of them; whilst in other cases new modes of reproduction, new anatomical details, or physiological observations are related (for Claparéde was no narrow zoologist) of rare and little known forms. The great work which he took in hand after his health had compelled him to reside in a warm climate during winter, was the study of the Annelids of the Bay of Naples. Under this title he has left two thick quarto volumes, illustrated by more than fifty coloured plates, consisting of anatomical and enlarged coloured drawings of these beautiful worms. Many new and curious forms were added by one winter’s work to the known species of the Annelida; but his work is even more valuable for the anatomical and histological observations which are there recorded, and for the great critical ability displayed in dealing with the perplexing question of synonymy. M* Claparéde appears to have found especial pleasure in doing justice to Delle Chiaje, who preceded him in the in- vestigation of the fauna of the Bay of Naples ; whilst he does equal justice to M. de Quatrefages, whose errors ina recently-published ‘* Histoire des Annelées” he does not hesitate repeatedly in the course of his book to expose ; whilst dedicating the first volume of his work to that dis- tinguished French naturalist, and naming many new species in his honour. Whilst this splendid work on the Neapolitan Annelids was in press, M. Claparéde also gave to the world some very interesting studies on Acarids (published in German), in which many new facts are de- tailed, and the Darwinian theory, in the manner of Fritz Miiller, is shown to furnish a satisfactory explanation of the modification of dissimilar parts in different genera, to form identical organs. During the same period he also published in the Zeztschrift fir wiss. Zoologie a memoir on the histology of the earth-worm, illustrated with nine coloured plates, which is certainly the most minute and careful piece of work which he ever produced. The struc- ture of the nervous system and of the three “riesige Rohren-faden,” soon to become very celebrated in zoological circles, are here for the first time fully described ; and, in- deed, the subject had been so slightly handled before that the whole work abounds with new matter. M. Claparéde’s last published paper appeared this year in the Zeetschri/7, and as if to show that he did not intend to abandon him- self to the study of one group, consisted of observations on the anatomy and reproduction of some marine polyzoa, illustrated by three coloured plates, drawn with his accus- tomed facility and grace. He has, we understand, left [Fuly 20, 1871 “ Yuly 20, 1871] behind him ready for publication a large work on the Embryology of Insects, and an immense collection of microscopic preparations, of great value, of Annelids. Perhaps the most striking discovery recorded in any of M. Claparéde’s writings (which should, however, be judged by the accumulated value of their immense number of anatomical observations) is one among those relating to the Annelids of the Bay of Naples. Claparéde found that the WMereis Dumeriliz lays eggs, sexually fertilised, which, on hatching, produce a worm which had been placed in quite a distinct genus (Hed¢evonere?s), and this worm lays similar true eggs, which produce sometimes a second kind of Heteronereis, or at other seasons the original form Nereis Dumeriict again. The difference between Hezero- nereis and /Vereis is very great, and one extending into such details as the form of the setz of the feet. At pre- sent this appears to be the only vea/ case of alternation of generations on record, if, by “ generations,” we understand “sexual generations.” Whilst working so largely as an original observer, M. Claparéde occupied himself also in reviewing the labours of others from time to time in the Archives Suisses published at Lausanne. Though holding the title of Professor in the Academy of Geneva, we believe he never (certainly not of late years) gave any public lectures on zoology ; yet that he was admirably fitted for such work, had he thought fit to devote his time to it, is evident from the admirable style of his writings, especially the reviews and criticisms published in the Archives Suzsses. His criticism of Mr. Wallace’s views on the Descent of Man is known te our readers. Having access to the French world of science as a speaker and writer of the | French language, and being thoroughly familiar with German writings and thought, both from education and continued association, M. Clapartde appears to have taken an honest delight in every now and then dealing a severe blow at some one or other of the French naturalists who might venture to exhibit superficiality or dishonesty in his field of study. Dujardin is roughly handled in the “Recherches sur les Infu- soires ;” Rouget also, who appears to have personally resented the correction. Balbiani’s researches on the development of the aphides are made the subject of special investigation by M. Claparéde, who, three years since, studied the embryology of a species of aphis at Naples solely with the view of testing some extraordinary statements then recently advanced hy the French doctor, and came to the conclusion that they were utterly un- founded, and that M. Balbiani had not done justice to the work of his predecessors, which conclusions he stated in very plain language. Theattack on M. de Quatrefages, gracefully made and richly deserved, was perhaps the most entertaining. For M. de Quatrefages, charged to present to the French Academy the work which was dedicated to him, and in which, while his good work was appreciated, his errors were exposed, thought it advisable to reply to some of M. Claparéde’s criticisms, and dis- played some temper, and even hinted that the dedication was objectionable. The sequel to this is ts be found in the dedication of the second volume of the “ Annélides du Golfe de Naples.” It is dedicated to Delle Chiaje. Per- haps, says M. Claparéde, were he alive he would object to this dedication ; he would see with regret many of his errors pointed out ; although so much of his work is here confirmed, human vanity would suggest to him to refuse the dedication of a work, to which, however, posterity considers he is justly entitled. It is, he concludes, easier sometimes to dedicate a book to a dead than to a living man, The ardent naturalist, the accurate observer, the bril- liant artist, the keen critic, the lucid exponent, has ceased his work, but has left a name which may well cheer the most faint-hearted among us—even those who feel to want the physical vigour of their fellows—for it is to be remem- NATURE 2245 bered that the works which do most honour tc the name of Edouard Claparéde were the labours of a dying man. Ee Rees ALEXANDER KEITH FOHNSTON, LL.D. MEMOIR of Mr, Johnston would be the record of a life laboriously and successfully devoted to the spread and popularisation of a single science. Mr. John- ston’s first maps, the result of a walking excursion through the north of Scotland, appeared in 1830, and were issued in a Traveller’s Guide-Book. His first large work was the “ National Atlas,” folio, on which he was assiduously en- gaged for upwards of five years, having projected and drawn the greater part of the maps (forty-five in number) and written nearly all the names they contain with his ownhand. This work went through many editions, and was considered the best of its time. Having, in the course of his residence in Germany, been much interested in the writings of Ritter, Humboldt, and Berghaus, on Physical Geography, and having learned that Humboldt had éxpressed a desire to see an English physical atlas constructed in a manner suited to the taste of the British public, and on a scale sufficient to admit of entering fully on the details of physical phenomena, Mr, Johnston visited Germany in 1842, travelling from Ham- burgh to Vienna, collecting materials for such a work, and making arrangements for an extensive correspondence. Previous to the commencement of Keith Jolinston’s Atlas, Physical Geography was an unknown term in Briiain. Hence it was predicted that the work would be a failure, and it required great faith to enable him to per- severe in his self-imposed task. He was unfortunate in his first publisher, who was not able to do much with so expensive a work ; however, the first edition was sold off, and a second was called for, and published in 1856, The two editions occupied Mr. Johnston ten years of the best period of his life. These writings procured for him, in 1850, a Fellowship in the Royal Society of Edinburgh, In 1850 appeared the first edition of his “ Dictionary of Geography, Descriptive, Physical, Statistical, and Historical,” 1 vol. 8vo., on a new plan, embracing numerous facts in the different branches of science not before noticed in similar works. In 1851 the author constructed a Physical Globe of the carth, thirty inches in diameter, showing in colours its Geology, Hydrography, Meteorology, &c, &c. For this, the first Physical Globe ever drawn, the medal o7 the Great Exhibition of 1851 was awarded. The globe was not intended to be published. Between 1851 and 1855, he constructed and published for educational purposes four Atlases, royal $vo.—namely, General, Classical, Physical, and Astronomnical, and ore Elementary Atlas, small 4to. All these have been im- proved, some of them re-engraved, and as many as from five to thirty editions of each have been published, oF 1,000 copies each. In 1852 he prepared an Atlas of Mili- tary Geography to accompany Alison’s “ History of Europe,” 1 vol. 4to. ‘‘his work was most favourably reviewed, and commended by military men. In 1855 was commenced the “ Royal Atlas of Modern Geography,” on which the author brought to bear the geo- graphical experience gained during the labours of a quarter of a century. In 1865 the University of Edinburgh conferred on him the Honorary Degree of Doctor of Laws. During the last four years Mr. Keith Johnston was engaged in the production and increase of a complete series of geographic works for schools. From the brief notice which appeared in our last number, it will be seen that Mr, Johnston may be said to have died in harness, his active labours having been car- ried on till the close of his life, A NATURE PAPERS ON IRON AND STEEL V.—THE BESSEMER PROCESS (continued ) ‘ea the previous papers I have described the phenomena presented during the different stages of the blow, and have endeavoured to explain the chemical actions upon which they depend. The next stage, that of adding the molten spiegeleisen to the iron which has been fully acted upon by the blast, also presents some interesting phe- nomena which have not hitherto been fully examined. In a paper on “Burnt Iron and Burnt Steel,” read b2fore the Chemical Society 6th April last,* I showed that the “burnt iron” of the workman is really what its name implies, viz., iron which has been more or less oxidised throughout its substance, and that “burnt steel” is quite different,—_that the presence of combined carbon in suffi- cient quantity effectually protects iron from oxidation by heat. These conclusions are strikingly illustrated in the Bes- semer process. In spite of the excessively high tem- perature and the abundant supply of oxygen during the blast producing most violent combustion of the material ithe converter, I have found no “burnt iron” during the early or middle stages of the blow. This only appears at quite the latter stages when the carbon is nearly all burnt out. At the termination of the blow, the material left in the converter is burnt iron of a very exaggerated type in all cases where the burning out of the carbon has been carried to its full extent. Mr. Bessemer failed in his attempts to produce malleable iron by his process, and all subsequent attempts have equally failed, even when the very finest qualities of he- matite pig-iron have been used. I am not aware that any explanation of this has yet been given, but have no doubt that it depends upon the principle above stated, viz., that some combined carbon is absolutely necessary to preserve the iron from oxidation, and thus, as the carbon is re- moved, the iron begins to oxidise throughout, and we have an incoherent mixture of iron and particles of oxides, which crushes under the hammer or the rolls, is neither malleable nor ductile. The degree of rottenness depends upon the extent to which the blow has been carried, and the iron thus pro- duced varies froma quality which simply cracks at the edges when hammered or rolled, toa mass that crushes into granules like a piece of coarse sandstone. If in- attention or some hitch in the machinery prevents the immediate turning over of the converter, and the blow is continued a few minutes too long, the amount of oxidation is so considerable that the mass in the converter loses its fluidity, and becomes a spongy and pasty mixture of mieited iron and infusible oxide, which is rather trouble- some to the manufacturer. By the simple method described in the paper above- r2ferrea to, I have been able at once to detect the presence of entangled particles of oxide in the midst of the iron remaining in the converter at the end of the blow. They are even visible un tne fracture of overblown iron. The presence of this free oxide explains some otherwise inexplicable phenomena which accompany the pouring of the spiegeleisen. A furious ebullition of the molten metal takes place, jets of burning carbonic oxide spurt up vio- lently from all parts of the surface ; the converter is filled with the blue flame which pours forth from its mouth, producing the weird illumination I have already described. The outpouring flame so completely occupies the whole dimensions of the mouth of the converter, that no air can possibly enter, and thus all the oxygen required for the combustion which is going on must be derived from the material inside the converter. Some of the carbon of the spiegeleisen is thus burning at the expense of the oxide of the original charge, and this oxide is thereby reduced. The sole function usually attributed to the spiegeleisen * An abstract of this paper will be found in Nature, April 20, p. 497. is that of converting the iron into steel; but if the above be correct, it performs, in addition to this, the important — service of reducing the free oxide of the rotten burnt iron, and thereby rendering it malleable. We shall now under- stand why Mr. Bessemer and others have failed to produce malleable iron by directly oxidising the silicon, carbon, &c., of the pig-iron in the converter. It may be asked how then does the puddler remove the carbon from pig iron? My answer is simply that he does it by a far less violent process of oxidation ; that towards the end of his work when the iron is “coming to nature,” 7.e, when the proportion of protecting carbon has become very small, he takes especial precautions by closing the dampers, and otherwise diminishes the rate of oxidation as much as possible, and thus he is able to work down to less than zis per cent. of carbon without burning his iron. The more violent oxidising agency of the Bessemer blast demands a greater quantity of carbon for the pro- tection of the iron, and accordingly it is found that about 0°25 per cent. is the minimum limit of carbon which is practically obtainable without sacrifice of malleability. I have determined the carbon of many hundreds of samples of Bessemer steel which has been specially made as “ mild” as possible, where it was a primary object to reach the minimum proportion of carbon, and have never found any sound metal to contain less than 0°20 per cent. The usual range of this (which issometimes called “ Bessemer metal” being scarcely steel although not true iron) is from 0°25 to 0°30 per cent. of carbon. I do not here speak of the limits of absolute possibility, but of the practical limits of the process as at present conducted. I should add that, in the course of subsequent working the proportion of carbon is reduced, but the extent of this reduction is very variable, depending on the number of re-heatings, the amount of surface exposed, and the kind of furnace in which the reheating is conducted. By using a reducing flame the oxidation of the carbon may be wholly prevented, but in the ordinary reheating or mill furnace and in the exposure of rolling, &c., a certain amount of oxidation commonly occurs. Rails and tyres usually contain two or three hundredths per cent. less than the ingots from which they were made, thin plates and sheets lose a larger proportion, even as much as one-tenth per cent. inextreme instances. I have removed the whole of the carbon from the surface of a hard steel plate by exposing it for several days to the low red heat of an annealing furnace. W. MATTIEU WILLIAMS THE CAUSE OF LOW BAROMETER IN THE POLAR REGIONS AND IN THE CENTRAL PART OF CYCLONES is none of the treatises on Meteorology or Physical -- Geography is there to be found any satisfactory ex- planation of the observed low barometer in the polar regions, or in the centre of acyclone. Observations show that in the Antarctic region there is a permanent depres- sion of more than one inch below the average height nearer the equator, and in the Arctic region a depression of about halt that amount ; and also that for several days frequently the barometric pressure of the central part of a cyclone is one or two inches less than that of the exte- rior part. Mr. Buchan, in his excellent treatise on Meteo- rology, attributes the low barometer in the polar regions to the effect of the vapour in the atmosphere. If the amount of vapour in the polar regions was greater than in the equatorial, this effect, so far as it would go, would be in the right direction; but just the reverse is the case; for it is well known that the amount of vapour in the warm equatorial region is much in excess of that in the cold polar regions. Attempts have also been made, without success, to account for the depression in cyclones by the effect of centrifugal force. [Futy 20, 1871 July 20, 1871 | NATURE 227 By whatever cause so great a difference in the baro- metric pressure in the different regions might be produced, it may be shown from the principles of dynamics that the equilibrium would be restored in a very short time, if there was not some constant force tending to drive the atmo- sphere from the polar regions towards the equator, or from the centre of the cyclone to the exterior, and to keep it in that position. Such a force may be found in the in- fluence of the earth’s rotation. Ina paper by the writer in the Mathematical Monthly in 1869, published in Cambridge, U.S., a full abstract of which was also pub- lished in the January No. of S7//iman’s Fournal for 1861, the following very important principle was demon- strated :—In whatever direction a body moves on the surface of the earth, there is a force arising from the in- fluence of the earth’s rotation, which tends to deflect the body to the right in the northern hemisphere, and to the left in the southern hemisphere. This force, which is the key to the explanation of many. phenomena in connection with the winds and currents of the ocean, does not seem to be understood by meteorologists and writers on physical geography. We see it frequently stated that the drift of rivers and currents of the ocean running north or south always tends to the rig St in our hemisphere, and that a railroad car running north. or so th presses to the right ; and this is the case. But the same is true, and to exactly the same amount, of a current or of a railroad car running east or west, orin any other direction. The amount of this deflecting force, when the velocity of the body is small in comparison with that of the earth’s ae. lied as 2 : ; rotation, is expressed by 2. =a, + — COS 6 g; in which v is 2 n the lineal velocity of the body relatively to the earth’s sur- face, 2 that of the earth’s rotation at the equator, 6 the angle of polar distance, and ¢ the force of gravity. Ifthe velocity is expressed in miles per hour, the expression in uv cos 6 round numbers becomes ———— yocoo £; that is, for each mile ~ 2 : 2 I é of velocity per hour, the force is. of gravity, mul- yp ) 150,000 g y> tiplied into the cosine of the polar distance. Hence a railroad car on the parallel of 45° north, running in any direction at the rate of forty miles per hour, presses to the right with a force equal to about ; 5a part of its weight. ? The effect of this deflecting force upon what Mr. Stevenson calls the barometric gradient is easily estimated. Since the strata of equai pressure of the atmosphere, so far as this force is concerned, must be perpendicular to the resultant of this force and gravity, the sine of inclination uv cos 6 150,000, and the change in barometric pressure for any given dis- tance is equal to the weight of a column of atmosphere of a height equal to the change of level of the stratum of equal pressure, and of a density equal to that at the earth’s surface. The barometric gradient, then, as ex- pressed by Mr. Stevenson, for any distance d expressed in ne ES miles is ————— 5 x 150,000 height of a homogeneous atmosphere, and thirty inches for the pressure at the earth’s surface. Round numbers are used throughout, since it is only the order of the effects we wish to determine, and not their exact amount. According to all observations, there isa steady and very strong wind blowing all around the earth in the middle and higher latitudes of the southern hemisphere, with a velocity of at least twenty-five or thirty miles per hour at the surface of the ocean, and this is perhaps much greater inthe upper strata of the atmosphere. If at the parallel of 50° we suppose the velocity of the wind v to be thirty miles per hour, the preceding expression of the barometric gradient for a distance @ of 5° or 350 miles, using the of any such stratum to the earth’s surface must be xX 30 inches ; putting five miles for the cosine of 40°, is 0°33 inches of mercury. By reference to § 113 of Mr. Buchan’s Meteorology, it will be seen that the barometric gradient for that parallel is only 028 inches for 5° of latitude, and that this is about the maxi- mum gradient in the southern hemisphere. Hence a velocity less than 30 miles per hour at the surface of the sea, especially if we suppose that it increases in the higher regions, is sufficient to account for this maximum barometric gradient ; and, according to observations, 20 or 30 miles per hour for the wind in that region is no un- reasonable assumption. The eastward velocity of the wind in the different latitudes being known, and, conse- quently, the corresponding barometric gradients, the difference of barometric pressure between any parallel near the pole and one toward the equator, is readily obtained by integration. As the wind near the equator is toward the west the deflecting force there is /oward instead of from the pole, and hence the greatest barometric pres- sure is about the parallel of 30°, and there is a slight depression at the equator. The deflecting force and the consequent depression are small, then, on account of the small value of @ near the equator. Since there is more land and mountain ranges in the northern than in the southern hemisphere to obstruct the eastward motion of the atmosphere, its velocity is not so great, and consequently the polar depression is much less there than in the southern hemisphere. According to Mr. Buchan the barometric depression in the Arctic regions is much greater in the northern part of both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, than it is in the same latitudes on the continents. The explanation of this is, that the eastward velocity of the atmosphere over the oceans being much greater than it is on the continents, where it is obstructed more by friction and mountain ranges, the force driving the atmosphere from the poles toward the equator is less, and consequently the barometric pressure is less in the northern part of both oceans than it is on the continents in the same latitudes. Upon the relative strength of the forces tending to drive the atmosphere from the poles towards the equator, depend the positions of the equatorial and the tropical calm belts. This force being strongest in the southern hemisphere on account of less resistance from friction and mountain ranges, the mean position of the equatorial calm belt is a little north of the equator, and the positions of the others a little farther north than they would otherwise be. The prime motive power also in both hemispheres being the difference of density of the atmosphere between the polar and the equatorial regions, arising from a dif- ference of temperature and of the amount of aqueous vapour, during our summer when this difference is less than the average in the northern nemisphere, and greater in the southern, these calm belts are forced a little north of their mean positions. Of course, just the reverse of this happens during our winter ; hence we have an ex- planation of the annual variations of the positions of these belts. In the case of cyclones, the atmosphere at the earth’s surface being forced in from all sides towards the centre, by the force arising from a difference of density of the atmosphere in the central and exterior parts, it cannot, on account of the detlecting force which has been explained, move toward the centre, without, at the same time, receiving a gyratory motion around that centre. Neither can it have a gyratory motion without also having a motion towards that centre, since in that case there would be no force to overcome the frictions of gyration. Hence, neither the radial theory of Espy, nor the strictly gyrating theory of Reid and others, can be true, though either of them may be approximately so in special cases. But the gyra- tory part of the motion is not caused by the motion of the atmosphere from the north and south only toward the centre of the cyclone, as stated by Mr. Buchan and others, but equally by the different parts moving in from all sides, 228 since in whatever direction they move toward the centre there is the same deflecting force, either to the right or the left according to the hemisphere. The motion of the atmosphere being in a spiral toward and around the centre of the cyclone, the deflecting force depending upon the earth’s rotation, at right angles to the direction of motion, being resolved in the directions of the radius of gyration and tangent, the latter overcomes | the friction of gyration, and the former causes a pressure from the centre, decreasing the height of the strata of equal pressure in the cyclone, and consequently diminishing the barometric pressure. The barometric gradient of a cyclone is estimated in precisely the same way as in the case of the hemispheres, using for wv the lineal velocity of gyration obtained by resolving the real motion into the directions of the tangent of gyration and of the radius. It has been seen that a velocity of 30 miles per hour gives a barometric gradient of } of an inchin 350 miles on the parallel of 50. A gyratory velocity therefore of 100 miles per hour would give a baro- metric gradient of one inch of mercury in about 300 miles. | The velocities of gyration being known at all distances from the centre of motion, and consequently the baro- metric gradients, the difference of barometric pressure between the centre and the exterior, so far as it depends upon the gyratory motion, may be obtained by integra- tion. The effect of the centrifugal force of the gyrations is generally only a very small quantity of a second order, in comparison with the other, and the effect of it is entirely insensible, except in the case of small tornadoes, when the gyrations are very rapid close around the centre. In all the preceding estimates of the barometric gradient, it should be understood that the results belong merely to the force depending upon the earth’s rotation, and to this must be added the part belonging toa difference of density of the atmosphere, which in the case of cyclones increases the gradient, but diminishes it in the case of the hemisphere. For the general motions of each hemisphere form a cyclone, with the pole as a centre ; but having the denser instead of the rarer portion of the atmosphere at that centre. Hence the motions in any vertical plane through the centre are reversed, and it becomes what has been called an anti-cyclone, Cambridge, Mass. WM. FERREL RECENT MOA REMAINS IN NEW ZEALAND Il. HE Moa’s neck with the integuments attached, the discovery of which was announced in my com- munication dated April 3, has since then been forwarded to this Museum for examination by Dr. Thompson, and the following particulars may not be without interest to your readers. The total length ef the specimen is 16°5 inches, and includes the first dorsal and last six cervical vertebrz with the integuments and shriveiled tissues enveloping them on the left side. The surfaces of the bones on the right side, where not covered by the integuments, are free from all membranes and other tissues, but are quite perfect and in good preservation, without being in the least degree mineralised. The margin ot’ the fragment of skin is sharply defined along the dorsal edge, but elsewhere it is soft, easily pulverised, and passes into adipocere. The circumference cf the neck of the bird at the upper part of the specimen appears to have been about 18 inches, and the thickness of the skin about ;%; of an inch. The only indication of the kind of matrix in which it had been imbedded was a fine micaceous sand, which covered every part of the specimen like dust, there being no clay or other adherent matrix. On removing this sand with a soft brush from the skin, it was discovered to be NATURE Rot 5 ee Ete pee Bey folds, especially towards the upper part. some of which springs a slender transparent feather barrel, never longer than half an inch. On the dorsal surface a few of these quills still carry fragments of the webs, some being 2 inches in length. From these it appears that the colour of the feather barbs was chesnut- red, as in Apterix Australis, but that each barrel had two equal plumules to each quill, as in the Emu and Cassowary, andin this respect differed from the Apterix, the feathers of which have not even an accessary plumule. On the other hand the barbs of the webs of the feathers do not seem to be soft and downy towards the base as in the Emu. From the direction of the stumps of the feathers, it is evident that the portion of the neck which has been pre- served is that contained within the trunk of the body, and which, in the natural position, has a downward slope, the conical end of the specimen being where the upward sweep of the neck of the bird commenced, which accounts for the absence of the trachea with its hard bony rings, none of which are found among the soft parts which have been preserved. The integument was easily removed by dividing the few threads of dried, tissue by which it was attached. The shrivelled-up soft parts thus displayed could not be clearly distinguished, but may be grouped as follows :—-1. Astrong band of ligamentous tissue connecting the spinous pro- cesses. 2. Inter-vertebral muscles and ligaments. 3. A sheath diverging from the lower part as if to enclose the thorax. The only bone besides the vertebra was attached to this sheath by its tip, the other extremity being articu- lated to the first dorsal. Respecting the nature of the circumstances to which this remarkable specimen owes its preservation, I can only conjecture that the body of the bird must for a consider- able period have lain on its side in water or a swamp, and that the portion immersed was thoroughly macerated, while the exposed parts were desiccated and shrivelled up ; and that subsequently the whole remains were embedded in dry sand. As a fact of some interest connected with the history of the Moa, I should mention that in December last, Arch- deacon Williams informed me of the discovery of a series of enormous bird-foot marks on the surface of a layer of sand beneath a bed of alluvium at Poverty Bay. The | specimens he collected for me have unfortunately gone astray, but others have been placed in the Museums in Auckland and Napier, and I have just seen a pencil rubbing from the latter, taken by Mr. Cockburn Hood, which leaves no doubt that they are the footprints of a bird like the smaller-sized species of Dinornis, the largest | of these footprints being about eight inches in length. Janes HECTOR Colonial Museum, Wellington, New Zealand, May 15 [We exceedingly regret that we are unable to repro | duce woodents of the beautiful illustrations by which Dr. Hector’s article is accompanicd.—-- EN. ] NOTES WE are glad to learn that our anticipations last week with reference to the Australian observations of the Total Solar Eclipse | of December next are being realised. The Royal Society of New of a dirty red-brown colour, and to form deep tranverse | South Wales is organising an expedition to Cape Sidmouth, a little south of Cape York. The President of the Royal Society of London has arranged that a few instruments of the newest construction shall be sent out from this country. Ir perhaps is not so generally known as it ought to be that the Emperor of Brazil, now in this country, is an enthusiastic astronomer, and has an appreciation of the value of science which places him in the highest rank among reigning sovereigns. During the last week he has visited the Royal and Mr. Huggins’s Observatory, and in a long interview with Mr. Lockyer has dis- cussed the bearings of the recent solar discoveries. [Fuly 20, 184 r The surface is roughened by elevated conical papillz, from the apex of — i —Fuly 20, 1871] THE Pall Mail Gazette states that the Emperor Napoleon is about to visit Mr. R. S. Newall, whose magnificent refractor has already been described in these pages. Tue Royal Commission on Scientific Instruction and the _ Advancement of Science adjourned on Tuesday last till November. We are informed that the publication of some of _the evidence already taken may shortly be expected. THE first General Meeting of the approaching session of the British Association at Edinburgh will be held on Wednesday, August 2, at 8 p.M., when Prof. Huxley will resign the chair, and Prof. Sir William Thomson will assume the presidency, and deliver an address. On Thursday evening, August 3, at 8.30 P.M., there will be a Discourse by Prof. Abel on some recent Investigations and Applications of Explosive Agents ; on Friday evening, August 4, at 8 p.M., a Soirée; on Monday evening, August 7, at 8.30 P,.M., a Discourse by Mr. E. B. Tylor on the Relation of Primitive to Modern Civilisation; on Tuesday evening, August 8, at 8 p.M., a Soirée; on Wednesday, August 9, the concluding general meeting will be held at 2.30 p.m. WE are glad to notice the step recently taken by the Com- mittee of St. Mary’s Medical School, in establishing Scholarships in Natural Science, open to public competition. Through the very proper action of the Governors of the Hospital, the share of school fees formerly paid to the charity has been appropriated to the improvement of the school. By this means the Committee has been enabled not only to provide a tutor to assist the stu- dents in the practical portion of their work, but also to establish three Scholarships in Natural Science, each of the annual value of 40/., and tenable for three years. The first of these, and an annual exhibition of 20/., will be awarded by open competitive examination in September next. The tendency of these Scholar- ships will be to favour what we have so often advocated, the ac- quisition of a proper amount of scientific knowledge pre vious to entering upon a regular course of medical study, THE Lancet states that the Council of the College of Surgeons of England have withdrawn their opposition to that portion of the scheme of the College of Physicians which provides for the selection of examiners by a central Board composed of the repre- sentatives of the various licensing bodies and universities, and have agreed to give up the power of specially nominating examiners in special subjects. ‘Thus the main difficulty in coming to an agreement upon the question of a conjoint examination has _ been removed. The Apothecaries’ Hall will probably be left out _ in the cold. _ THE number of successful candidates at the recent Matricula- tion Examination at the University of London was 242, of whom only 30 passed in honours. This shows a larger proportion of failures than on any previous occasion, notwithstanding that the _ novel practice was introduced of optional questions, only a cer- tain proportion being expected to be answered in some of the papers. THE Anniversary meeting of the Quekett Microscopical Club will be held on Friday the 28th inst., at $8 p,M., at University - College, Gower Street. Tue first number is issued of the ‘‘ Journal of the Anthro- pological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland,” being the - first substantial result of the union of the two old societies, the Ethnological and the Anthropological Societies. We are glad to see this evidence of the concentration of power thus effected. THE Annual Meeting of the British Horological Institute was held on July 11, Mr. John Jones, vice-president, in the chair. The report of the Council for the past year was read by Mr. Henry Moore, resident secretary. One of the most interesting features of the report was the fact that the Baroness Burdett ye. ~~ NATURE 229 Coutts has, agreeably to that line of action for which she has been distinguished, volunteered a prize for the best essay on “The Balance Spring and its isochronal Adjustments.” The Astronomer Royal, Sir C. Wheatstone, and Mr. James F. Cole will be the judges, The attention of the Lord Mayor, the head of the guilds of the City of London, bodies entrusted with power specially to promote purposes similar to those aimed at by the Institute, has been attracted by the efforts of the Institute, and he has promised to distribute the prizes to the successful students in horological drawing. Lectures were delivered in the past half year by Mr. Perrell, Mr. Herrmann, Mr. Charles Frodsham, and Mr. John Jas. Hall. The following are the chief officers elected for the ensuing year ;—President: Mr, Edmund Beckett Denison, LL.D., QC. Vice-presidents : Mr, C.1. Klaftenberger, E. D. Johnson, and John Jones, Treasurer: S. Jackson. THE Government of Bavaria has been long engaged in the publication of a History of Science in Germany. The follow- ing volumes have already appeared :—Bluntschli’s History of Political Law ; Kobell’s of Mineralogy ; Fraas’s of Agriculture ; Peschel’s of Geography ; Lotze’s of A%sthetics; Benfey’s of Philology ; Raumer’s of German Philology ; Kopp’s of Chemistry ; and the following are in preparation :—Zeller’s of Philosophy ; Bursian’s of Classic Philology ; Bernhardi’s of Military Science ; Wegele’s of History ; Stintzing’s of Jurisprudence ; Karmarsch’s of Technology ; Gerhard’s of Mathematics ; Jolly’s of Physics ; Wolf's of Astronomy ; Ewald’s of Geology ; Hirsch’s of Medi- cine and Physiology ; Carus’s of Zoology. When may we look for anything of the kind from our enlightened Government ? WiTH the July number of the Journal of the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia, Dr. W. H. Wahl becomes sole editor. WE have received the Catalogue of the Iowa State University for 1870-71. The students are divided into law, medical, normal, and academical departments, the students in all the departments, except that of law, being of both sexes, and some of the instructors being also ladies. The full course of instruction in the academical department occupies five years; during the first three years nearly the same course of study is followed by all the students ; during the last two years the course is elective, either literary or scientific. The University is wholly sustained by endowments and state appropriations, the fees even for the medical classes being merely nominal. Good opportunity appears to be afforded for the practical study of natural and physical science, and the ‘‘ School Laboratory of {Physical Science,” edited by Dr. G, Hinrichs, the Professor of Physical Science, is published at the Univer- sity. Les Mondes prints a list of the new taxes imposed by the French Government on articles of consumption and commerce, AN additional excursion of the Geologists’ Association took place on the roth and rth inst. to Warwick and neighbour- hood. ‘The sections of the Lower Lias were examined, and the extensive quarries worked for material for hydraulic cement were visited. A special object of interest was the insect-beds occurring in the Lias at Wilmcote, near Stratford-on-Avon, WE learn from the Yournal de Mé/. de [ Ouest, and Bull. Génér. de Thér. that Dr. Weir Mitchell, from observations on the bite of the rattlesnake, and MM. Gicquain and Viaud Grand- Marais, from observations on that of the viper, have arrived at the conclusion that the application of carbolic acid immediately on the receipt of the injury prevents both local and general poisoning. The pure acid however, if applied in too great quantity, is liable to produce sloughing, and even dangerous symptoms ; hence it is best used in the proportion of two parts ere 2 pa +2 Sn ee 230 of acid and one of alcohol. Given internally, or applied to the wound at a late period, it produces no effect. It is believed to act, not by neutralising the poison, but by causing contraction of the small vessels, and thus preventing its absorption. THE following interesting account was published in Moles and Queries of August last year without eliciting any reply. Mr. Alexander Williams writes :—‘‘ As the Commissioner for Western Australia of the International Exhibition of 1862,I received from the Colonial Committee at Perth several specimens of native shields. The long narrow form of these implements of defence is common to all the Australian colonies I believe, but I cannot say whether the ornamentation is uniformly the same. But among the Swan River nation it consists of an oblong pattern (following the shape of the shield) composed of border within border, traced in different coloured paint. The late Mr. Christy called my attention to the exact similarity of these shields to those used by the natives of Central Africa—a similarity not only in shape and pattern but actually in the succession of colours in the pattern. How is this to be accounted for? It is possible (and no other theory seems admissible) that it is purely an accidental coincidence, It is perhaps not difficult of belief that the native mind in two races in all respects so utterly distinct should have hit upon the same shape and form of weapon to meet and throw off the common spear. It is even not very sur- prising that savages unacquainted with ‘lines of beauty’ should adopt the same crude form of ornamentation, but it is some- what startling I think that they should have used apparently the same pigments, and very extraordinary as it appears to me that they should have adopted precisely the same succession of colours,” WHILST? we have been literally overwhelmed with rain in this country for the last three months, it is interesting to hear that in Tientsin in China there was so little snow in the winter, and hardly any rain has fallen since, that the peasantry are com- plaining of the want of water, and consequent injury to the crops, A SEVERE earthquake shock is reported from Brooklyn and Staten Island, New York, on the 19th of last month at about 1or.M. No great amount of damage was done, and the motion appears vertical rather than horizontal in character. THE American Fournal of Science gives a long report of the severe earthquake at Oaha, Hawaian Islands, on February 18 of this year. It commenced at about 11 minutes past 10 P.M., and lasted about a minute. The direction of motion was vertical, with a rocking movement N.E. and S.W. The usual roaring sound preceded the earthquake and was heard far out at sea. No earthquake wave is reported from any quarter, although the earthquake itself seems to have been felt on all the islands more or less severely. No unusual volcanic action is reported. Slight shocks were also felt on the 22nd and 24th of the same month, It should be noticed that a severe earthquake is re- ported from Chile on the 25th, and shocks were noticed in Peru on the 22nd and 23rd of February. THE existence of certain plants only in limited districts is one of the most remarkable points of interest in connection with the problem of the distribution of species. Mr. Mogegridge, in his valuable ‘* Contributions to the Flora of Mentone,” figures a very elegant species of Lescojum, of which no drawing had hitherto been published. ‘* It is believed to have but one habitat on the face of the earth, claiming only a small strip of rocky shore reaching from Nice to about two miles east of Mentone. Leucojum hyemale grows ina stony soil, and out of the cracks of the hardest limestone rocks at Port St. Louis, Cape Veglio, on the way to Monaco, and at some height on the Aggel mountain, besides other less abundant localities.” We are not | NATURE - ate S bee ‘ J PPS [Fuly 20, aware whether this species has been introduced to English gardens, bnt it would be a very desirable acquisition. At Men- tone it flowers in April. : te : 10; THe Ant-eating Woodpecker (Melanerpes formicivorus) a com- mon Californian species, has a curious and peculiar method of laying up provision against the inclement season. Small holes are dug in the bark of the pine and oak, into each one of which is inserted an acorn, and so tightly is it fitted or driven that it is with difficulty extracted. The bark of the pine when thus filled, presents at a short distance the appearance 0 being studded with brass-headed nails. Stowed away in quantities in this manner, the acorns not only supply the wants o the woodpecker, but the squirrels, mice, and jays avail them selves likewise of the fruits of its provident labour. if ound Dr. GEORGE STUCKLEY gives an interesting account of the Western Mole (Sca/ops Townsendii), which occurs in the Oregon and Washington Territories. He kept a specimen for some time in a box, at the bottom of which was a quantity of rich black loam. When disturbed it instinctively endeavoured to escape b burrowing in the earth of the box, using its long-pointed nos a wedge to pioneer the way. The excavation was performed by it broad stout hands, which, surmounted with their long sharp claws, seemed admirably adapted for the purpose. The fore paws were worked alternately as in swimming, the hind feet acting as pro- pellers. Although the earth in the box was soft and friable, it was nevertheless a matter of astonishment to see how rapidly the little creature could travel through it. When he slept it was in a sitting posture, with the body curled forward and the n strongly bent, so that the nose rested between the hind legs. Hi thus assumed the shape of a ball, evidently his ordinary position when asleep. ; , THE cultivation of the poppy in China, which has been more than once prohibited by Imperial edicts, appears to be increases everywhere, and becoming a profitable trade. In Szechuen, — where the climate is warm and the season early, two crops at least are produced on the same ground annually. The seed of the poppy is sown in February, the plants flower in April, anit the fruits are so far matured by the middle of May, that the juice is collected, and the stalks removed and burnt directly after, but previous to this the second crop, which may be either _ Indian corn, cotton, or tobacco, is sown, so that almost by the time the poppy is cleared from the field the new crop makes its” appearance. The profit derived from the cultivation of the poppy is not only the result of a fair market value and a ready sale, but also from the fact that much of the work in the planta- tion, especially the gathering of the juice, can be done by the children of the family. The scratchings or incisions being made in the capsules in the morning, the juice which has oozed out in the course of the day is collected in the evening, and after simply exposing it to the sun for a few days it is ready for packing. The seed not required for sowing is used for food. RECENT SOLAR ECLIPSE* I. M Y duty to-night, a pleasant one, although it is tinged witha - certain sense of disappointment, is to bring before you the observations which were made of the recent eclipse in Spain — and Sicily, to connect them with our former knowledge, and to show in what points our knowledge has been extended, In these observations, as you know, we had nothing to do with the sun as ordinarily visible, but with the most delicate phenomenon which becomes visible to us during eclipses. I refer to the Corona. ON THE General Notions of the Corona Let me, in the first place, show you what is meant by this * A Lecture delivered at the Royal Institution, Friday, March 17, 1871 } / f Ld > e here some admirable drawings, which I wiil show by means the Jamp, of the eclipse that was observed in 1851 by several ‘onomers who left England in that year to make observations n Sweden. where the eciipse was visible. You must bear in ‘mind that the drawings I shall bring to your notice were made in the same regior, at places not more than a few miles apart.* The first drawing was made by an observer whose name is a suffi- cient guarantee for its accuracy—I refer to Mr. Carrington—and when the sky was absolutely free from clouds. nthe next diagram you will see the coronais changed. The bright region round the _ sun is no loner limited to the narrow border of light round the _ dark moon, as seen by Mr. Carrington, but it is considerably expanded. The third gives still a greater extension, although that picture was drawn within a quarter of a mile of the place _ where Mr. Carrington’s was taken. And lastly, we havea draw- - ing made by the present Astronomer Royal, of that sameeclipse, | through a cirrostratus cloud as unlike Mr. Carrington’s as any- _ thing can possibly be. So that you see we began with a thin band of light about the moon, which would make the corona a few thousand miles high, and we end with a figure which Mr. _ Airy graphically likens to the ornament round a compass-card, _and which gives the corona a height equal to about once and a half the sun’s diameter. I will next bring before you some drawings made during the NATURE , and state the nature of the problems we had before us. I | see. This, then, we may look upon as the known ; now let us but in South America by two first-rate observers—one, M. Liais, | a French astronomer, who was stationed at Olmos, in Brazil ; eclipse of 1858, which was not observed in European regions, miles away in Peru. I will throw on the screen the appearances observed by these _ gentlemen, and I think you will acknowledge the same varia- tions between their results, as to degree, while in one case we _ get a perfectly new idea of the phenomena—a difference in _ Kind. I would especiaily call attention in the Olmos drawing _ to those extraordinary bundles of rays of wonderiul shapes, which you see are so much brighter than the other portions of the corona. Such forms have been seen in other eclipses, but thev are somewhat rare. The drasing made by Lieutenant Gilliss bears the same relation to that made by M. Liais as Mr. Carrington’s did to the Astronomer Royal’s ; so that we may say thar we not only get variations in the dimensions of the q _a strange structure mtroduced now and then in our drawing in regions where absolutely no corona at all exists in the other. So much by way of defining the phenomena and giving an idea of the eye observations generally. Let me now attempt to show you how the phenomena observed vations, and by means of the polariscope and spectroscope. I.—TELESCOPIC AND NAKED-EYE OBSERVATIONS a.—A Partof the Coronais undoubtedly Solar The first use I propose to make of the telescopic and naked- eye observations of last year is to show you a photographic copy f an admirable drawing made by Mr. Brett, who, though unfor- tunate enough to see the sun only for a very short time, was yet sufficiently skilled to make good use of that brief period. This drawing will bring before you the fact that even when a large portion of the sun remained unobscured by the moon, Mr. Bzett was enabled to see a dim ring of light round the unobscured por- tion, which since the year 1722 has been acknowledged, beyond all question, I think I may say. to represent something at the sun. It was observed in 1722 round the uneclipsed sun, and in more recent times by Mrs. Airy in 1842, and by Rumker 13 minute before totality in 1860, not to mention other instances. There- fore we have one observation made during this eclipse, confirm- ing the old one, that in the corona there is a region of some small breadth at all events which is absolutely solar, and which it only requires a diminution of the solar light to enable us to * Mr. Carrington observed at Lilla Edet, on the Grota River. The _ Astronomer Royal observed at (.étrenbu:'g Tresecond drawing referred to was made by Pettersen. at Gdtteuburg; the third by a friend o! the Rev. T. Chevalli-r, at the same place and I might have added znotber by Fearnley, taken at Rixho:t, in which the corona is larger than in any of the others, The series is most instructive. See Mem. R. A. S. vol. xxi corona as seen at different stations, but that we furthermore get | the other, Lieutenant Gilliss, who was also there as a repre-enta- | tive of the American Government, and observed some thousand | in the last eclipse bear upon the results which had been pre- | viously accumulated by means of telescopic and naked-eye obser- | | the side at which the contact took place. feel our way gradually outwards. b.—Rays, or Streamers, are added at Totality The drawings made in all the eclipses which have been care- fully recorded bring before us quite outside this narrow, un- doubtedly su/ar region, observed before totality, as I have shown, and also by Mr. Carrington, and by Lieutenant Gilliss during totality in 1851 and 1858, extraordinary appearances of a different order. While in fact we have a solar ring from 2’ to 6’ high, we have rays of all shapes and sizes visible outside, in some cases extending as far as 4°, and in all cases brichter than the outer corona on which they are seen. the rays being different in different eclipses, and appearing differently to different observers of the same eclipse, and even at the same station. Here isa copy of a drawing made by M. Rumker of the eclipse of 1860, and I show it for the purpose of calling your attention to the fact that the two curious rays represented in it belong to a different order of things from those which we see in the rest of the corona From the beginning to the middle of the eclipse the east rays were the most intense. In the next drawing, which was made by the same observer, you ste something absolutely new; and now the western side of the corona is the most developed ; we have a new series of bright rays, and altogether it is difficult to believe that it is a drawing made by the same observer of the same eclipse. The third drawing is a representation of the same eclipse by M. Marquez, who observed with a perfection of minute care which has scarcely ever been equalled : I bring it before you to show that the rays he saw were altogether differently situated. We may conclude then that the rays, a though extremely definite and bright—as bright or brighter than the other portions of the corona which are visible before totality, they being zzwiszb/e before totality—appear different to different observers of the same eclipse, and to the same observer during different phases. c.—They Change from Side to Side I have already said that M. Rumker observed that from the beginning to the middle of totality the rays on the cast side of the sun were longest and brightest, and that from the middle to the end of totality the rays on that side of the sun where the totality ended were longest and brightest. We will now carry this observation a step further, by referring to three drawings made by M. Plantamour in the same eclipse, that of 1860. In the first drawing we have the beginning of the total eclipse as seen in the telescope; with the naked eye naturally we should get the sun disappearing at the east or left-hand side, the moon moving from west to east; in the telescope things are reversed, and we have it right instead of left: and here we have the same thing that M. Rumker observed, namely, that when the eastern limbs were in contact, bright rays (M. Plantamour saw three) were visible on When the moon was half way over the sun, “wo rays of reduced brilliancy were observed on that side, not necessarily in the same position as those first observed, but one of these has been abolished al- together; and on the other side of the sun, where totality was about to end, we have three rays gradually suggesting themselves : at the end of totality the rays visible at the commencement are abolished, and now instead of them and of those seen at the midéle of the eclipse, we have a bran new set of rays on the side of the moon from whence the sun is about to emerge. This observation I need hardly say is of considerable im- portance in connection with the f-ct that from the year 1722 almost every observer of a total eclipse has stated that there is a large increase of brilliancy, and an increase of the size of the corona on the side where the sun has just been :overed, or is just about to emerge. Now, what was there bearing on this point in the recent observations? I have here three drawings, which, though roughly done, you will see are of great importance side by side with those of M. Plantamour. These are drawings which have | been sent in to the Organising Committee by Mr. Gilman, who lives in Spain, and who took considerable interest in the eclipse, and sent the results of his observations to England with the eclipse party when they came home; and it is of importance that you should see everything that Mr. Gilman has done, If you agree with this explanation of the square form of the corona, which was observed in Spain this year, it will explainl the quadrangular form observed in the corona in a good 232 NATURE | Fuly 20, 1871 many previous eclipses. Mr. Gilman says that at the com- mencement of totality—let me remind you, the commencement was determined by the disappearance of the sun at the east limb of the moon, which is east in Mr. Gilman’s drawing, as he was observing with the naked eye—the commencement, he says, was determined by the corona flashing out very much like a capital D. Yousee on the black board exactly the outline, and you will at once mentally associate one half of the diagram with the rays observed by M. Plantamour, and the other half, in which there is a nearly perfect ring of light round the moon, with the corona observed by Mr. Carrington all round it ina cloudless sky. At mid-eclipse Mr. Gilman also observed the corona, sketched out its outline carefully, and found rays coming out on the opposite side, adding themselves on to the perfect ring first seen there. Opposite the two salient angles he observed at the commencement of totality—represented by the top and bottom of the upright stroke of the capital I)N—there were two others; the corona now appeared square, and then, just before the end of totality came on, the two corners first seen were observed to dis- appear altogether, leaving nothing but a perfect ring, and where, at the beginning of the eclipse, nothing was seen buta perfectly round ring, the two exactly similar forms on the opposite side shot forth, and you got a [— reversed (CQ). Mr. Warrington Smyth, who drew a square corona, saw the light flash out into the corona before the end of totality, and believes that all the angles of the square were not visible at one and the same time. Here, then, you have observations of exactly the same charac- ter as those of M. Plantamour, to which I have referred. In the drawings of both are shown the inner part of the corona, which you saw growing in the observations of 1851, to which were added the strange forms observed in1858. You have these strange variations positively growing at the same place and the same time, in the same and in different eyes. Obviously there must be very much that is non-solar, call it personality, atmo- spheric effect, or what you will, connected with it. We have added to the stable the unstable. The question is, to what is this unstable portion due ? d.— They are very variously represented I will now refer to other drawings of the late eclipse, which were made in Sicily. For some reason or other, which I do not profess to understand, the corona, which appeared in Spain to be square, and to Mr. Gilman like a [PD at the beginning, and like a [ED reversed (C)) at the end,—to all those with whom I have conversed who saw it in Sicily, it appeared as round as you see it here, in this drawing made by Mr. Griffiths ; and, instead of being square, we had sent to us all sorts of pictures, a large number of them representing a stellate figure. Here is a drawing made by a Fellow of the Royal Society, on board one of Her Majesty’s ships (the Zord Warden) which were trying to save the poor Psyche at Catania. In this we have perfectly regular rays drawn from every region of the sun, some long, some short, but similar rays are a‘most invariably opposite each other ; but in the interior, inside these rays, the corona is just as it was observed by Mr. Griffiths at Syracuse. I now show you a drawing made by an American gentleman at sea, between Catania and Syracuse, with one ridiculously long ray, a ray as long as was seen by Otto Struve in 1860. Other drawings were made, even on board the same ship, so unlike each other, and so bizarre, that I need only refer to them as showing that there at all events must be sume personality. We have then to account for the variations between the observations made in Spain and those made in Sicily. I regret that we have not a third order of difficulties to contend with, as doubtless we should have had if observations had been made by Mr. Huggins’ party in North Africa. e.—The Rays are accompanied by a Mass of Light. These changes of the rays from side to side are accompanied by, and are perhaps to a certain extent due to, the bursting forth of brilliant light in their neighbourhood, where the limbs are nearest in contact. This was first observed by Miraldi in the eclipse of 1724, and has frequently been recorded since. Mr. Warrington Smyth, to whom I have before alluded, states that he noticed this in the last eclipse, and the photographs, I think, have recorded it ; but as there is some uncertainty on this point, I need only suggest it. j.—Long Rays are seen extending from the Cusps before and after Totality So far I have referred only to the rays visible during totality, but long rays were seen when a crescent of the sun was visible in 1860 and 1868 by Mr. Galton and Mr. Hennessy. Mr. Brett 4 x caught the same phenomenon last year; but as the sky was — cloudy the commencements of the rays only were seen, — appearing like delicate brushes in prolongation of the cusps. These observations are of great value, as mo one for one moment — imagines that these rays are solar, and yet they are very like those seen during totality. g.—Sometimes Dark Rays, called Rifts, are seen instead of Bright ones Those rays to which I have referred are, however, not the only kind of rays that are observed. At times are seen, as it were, — openings in the corona; the openings being of the same shape as the rays, that is, expanding as they leave the dark moon, and | opening more or less exactly as the rays do. Like the rays also — they are sometimes very numerous ; in other eclipses they are — few in number, Let us take the eclipse observed in India in — 1868. Several drawings made there showed the corona as square — as it was drawn in Spain last year; others as round as it was — seen in Sicily ; but the eclipse was not observed only in India, it was observed at Mantawalok-Kelee by Captain Bullock, and at — Whae-Whan, on the east coast of the Malayan Peninsula, by Sir Harry St. George Ord, Governor of the Straits Settlements. In the former place we had rifts expanding rapidly as they left the sun—one forms an angle of 90°, the sides of another being — paraliel—separating patches of corona, which in some places extends 24 diameters of the moon from the sun. At Whae-Whan we are told that at one,particular moment of the eclipse ‘‘it was noticed that from several points in the moon’s circumference darker rays emanated, extending to a considerable distance into space, and appearing like shadows cast forth into space by something not very well defined ;” these dark rays afterwards ‘‘ diminishing.” Now let us pass on to the eclipse of 1869. In two drawings made by Dr. Gould, in which the changes in the bright bundles of rays come out ina mest unmistakable way, we get similar rifts, which changed as violently as did the rays; while in another drawing made by Mr. Gilman, the whole corona is furrowed by narrow rifts in all regions lying between violet, mauve-coloured, white, and yellowish white rays ! Now, what have we bearing on this point in the recent observations? No rift was seez in Sicily ; one rift was recorded by the sketchers in Spain, but more than one rift was photo- graphed in both places. We must remember, however, in thus bringing eye-sketches and photographs into comparison, first that the eye too often in such observations retains a general impression of the whole phenomenon, while the plate records the phenomenon as it existed at the time at which it was exposed ; and secondly, that we know that the plates record chemically, while the eye records visually. We are dealing with two different kinds of light. I will show you two photographs on the screen. Although the lucid intervals were very rare, we were fortunate enough to get one photograph of the coronal regions in Syracuse, and one in Spain. I now show you the photograph made by the American party in Spain. You see here that, probably owing to a cloud, we get a certain amount of light driven on to the dark moon, and you also see the indications of the rifts. This photograph was taken with an instrument with a small field of view, so that the most important parts of the corona were rendered invisible by the instrument itself. Lord Lindsay, who also photographed in Spain, recorded no rifts. In the other photograph, taken at Syracuse, the result is better. We have the equivalent of the rift in the photograph I showed you before. The instrument was extremely unsteady, and the definition not so good as it would have been if Mr. Brothers had had a good opportunity of displaying his skill. We get other fainter indications of other rifts here and there, and the question whether these rifts agree in the photograph taken in Spain with those in that taken in Syracuse is one of great importance ; and it is to be hoped that before long it will be set at rest. Some observers think they agree ; others think they do not. But there is an important consideration based on that photo- graph, to which I must draw your particular attention. I have shown you the photograph as it may be thrown on the screen ; but in the photograph itself there are delicate details which it is impossible to reproduce. The dark portions in the corona indi- cated in the copy I have shown you are merely the bases of so many dark wedges driving out into space, like their prototypes S bP ae Suly 20, 1871] NATURE 2335 in the Indian eclipse. It is Mr. Brothers’s opinion, I believe, that all you see on the screen round the dark moon, all that enormous mass of light, nearly uniform in texture, and these beautiful broad rays between the rifts are really and absolutely parts of the solar corona. I confess I do not wish to commit myself to such an opinion. We want more facts, and the onus proband: lies with those who insist upon that view, and I have yet to hear an explanation of them on that basis. h.—The Corona sometimes seems to be Flickering or Rotating. We now come to the next point. Time out of mind, that is, for the last two centuries, the corona has been observed to be flickering, waving, or rotating, moving in every conceivable way and direction. In 1652 it was described as ‘‘a pleasant spectacle of rotatory motion.” Don Antonio Ulloa remarked of the corona observed in the eclipse of 1788, ‘‘ It seemed to be endued with a rapid rotatory motion, which caused it to resemble a fire- work turning round its centre.” The terms whirling and flickering were applied in the eclipse of 1860. This ex- traordinary condition of things was also thoroughly endorsed by the late observations. It certainly exists, and is among the observations we have to take into account. When I saw an officer of one of the ships at Catania, I asked him if he had taken a drawing of thecorona. ‘‘ No,” he said. I asked him, ‘‘ Did you see any rays?” “Yes.” ‘Then why did you not make any drawing of them?” His answer was, ‘‘ How on earth could you draw a thing that was going round and round like a fire- work?” This was not the only observation of the kind, and the tendency of such observations I need hardly say is to strengthen a belief in the unstable, and therefore uncosmical, nature of their rays. Is this variation of light due to the brilliancy of the corona, and the rapid change of the rays, which is one of the results which comes out clearest? In 1842 the brilliancy of the corona was stated to be insupportable to the naked eye. A similar remark was made to me by several of those officers who saw the last eclipse in Sicily. J. NormMAN LOCKYER (Zo be continued.) SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE FROM AMERICA* PROF. LEIDY has lately announced to the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences the existence of some new fossil mammals from the Tertiary formations of Wyoming Territory. One was a lower jaw, discovered by Dr. J. Van A. Carter in the vicinity of Fort Bridger. The animal to which it belonged was as large as a hog, but was more nearly allied to the rhinoceros or tapirs. It was especially remarkable for the possession of a large pair of front teeth, resembling, both in form and construction, the incisors of the beaver. The name proposed for it was TZrogurus castoroideus, or the beaver-toothed gnawing-hog. Another of the fossils in- dicates a carnivorous animal, a contemporary of the former, and about the size of the gray fox. Tne animal was re- lated to the weasel and canine families, and was called S7xofa vapax, the former name being that applied by the Blackfeet Indians to a small fox. Prof. Leidy also exhibited photographs of the lower jaw of the American mastodon, recently received from Prof. W. C. Kerr, State Geologist of North Carolina. The jaw was found in Lenoir County of that State. It belonged to a mature male, and was of special interest from its retaining both tusks, as well as the molar teeth.—Among objects of great ethnological import are the aboriginal inscriptions or carvings upon rocks, which are met with in North America and elsewhere, and are sometimes of a very remarkable character. Ordinary copies of such inscriptions, unless they be photographs, are rarely of sufficient accuracy to be of much value; and those of our readers who are likely to come across such inscriptions may like to know a method by which an absolutely perfect fac-simile can be made. This process has been applied with much success in copying carvings in Egypt and other places, and it will be equally serviceable in our own country. For this purpose the inscription is to be first well cleaned from dust or mud by means of a hard, stiff brush ; stout, unsized paper is then to be wetted rapidly, but uniformly, ina tub of water, and applied to the inscription, and forced into the irregularities by repeated and forcible strokes with a hard brush, an ordinary clothes-brush being as good as any for the purpose. If the stone be clear of * Communicated by the Scientific Editor of Harfer’s Weekly, dust, the paper adheres, and, when dry, falls off, forming a perfect mould of the inscription. If the carving be deep or broad, it is sometimes advisable to apply several sheets of paper, one after the other, brushing over the surface of one with glue or gum before applying the next, so as to obtain, when dry, a firm body. By making a plaster cast of the paper relief thus prepared a fac- simile of the inscription will be obtained.—The present year seems to be marked with a great deal of activity and enterprise in researches connected with the natural history and physics of the deep seas, especially on the coast of America. We have already referred to the enterprise proposed by the Coast Survey, of sending a steamer, especially adapted to this purpose, around Cape Horn to the California coast, on a ten-months’ journey, to be accompanied by Professor Agassiz and Count Pourtales, and a corps of assistants, all prepared to make observations and col- lections on the most perfect scale. The expense of the scientific work will, it is understood, to the amount of 15,000 dollars, be defrayed by Mr. Thayer (the same gentleman who supplied the funds for Professor Agassiz’s expedition to Brazil), a sum which will probably enable Professor Agassiz to accomplish his object in the most perfect manner.—Professor Verrill and party, from Yale College, will also, it is expected, prosecute an exhaustive research into the deep sea and littoral fauna of the Vineyard Sound and the adjacent waters, in connec- tion with the inquiries of the United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries relative to the decrease of the food fishes of our coast. Corresponding researches will also be carried on in the deeper waters of Lake Michigan, where, it may be remem- bered, the interesting discovery was made last year of crustaceans and fish of marine types at a depth of 300ft. and over. The in- quiries this year will be under the immediate direction of Dr. Stmpson and Mr. Milner in a still deeper part of the lake, and it is not at all improbable that discoveries of the highest interest will be made.—The Arctic expedition of Captain Hall will also undoubtedly do its part in the general work, as the naturalist of the party, Dr. Emil Bessels, has had large experience in such labours, and is practically conversant with the fauna of the arctic seas from his connection with the Spitzbergen expedition of 1869. —At the June meeting of the California Academy of Sciences the subject of inviting the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science to meet in San Francisco in 1872 was dis- cussed, and the treasurer was instructed to call upon the trustees, and to solicit the co-operation of the Chamber of Commerce in taking measures toward this object. The meeting for the present year will be held in August next in Indianapolis, and a large attendance is expected, especially of Western members, to whom the places of meeting in the East have generally proved too remote to suit their convenience. SCIENTIFIC SERIALS THE American Natura/ist for June contains no article of very striking value, though several of interest in special subjects. Dr. Elliott Coues contributes an account of the yellow-headed blackbird, Yanthocephalus icterocephalus, first described by Prince Buonaparte in his continuation of Wilson’s Omithology.—An article on Cuban Seaweeds, by Dr. W. G. Farlow, includes out- line drawings of a number of distinct types.—Dr. Lebaron de- scribes a new species of moth, the larva of which is extremely de- structive to young apple trees, which he calls Zortrix malizorana, or the Lesser Apple Leaf-folder.—Mr, E. L. Greene contributes June Rambles inthe Rocky Mountains, with special reference to their flora.— From Dr. Henry Shimer we have “Additional Notes on the Striped Squash Beetle,” and from Prof. W. H. Brewer, “Animal Life in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado.”—A larger space than usual is occupied by Reviews, among which is one of Mivart’s ‘‘Genesis of Species,” comparing the views of the author with those of the American writers, Cope and Hyatt. THE first article in the Howrmal of Botany for June is an im- portant one, by Prof. A. H. Church, on Sugar in Beet-root, with a record of investigations on the effect of the amount of rainfall in the development of the sugar.—Dr. Henry Trimen dis- cusses the question, ‘‘Is the Sweet Flag, Acorus calamus, a Native ?” showing thatit was unknown inthis country before 1596, and that it was not till about 1660 that it was reported as a wild plant from Norfolk. The plant appears to be originally a native of south-east Europe.—Prof. Dickson has an article on the Phyllotaxis of Lepidodendron, and the allied, if not identical, 234 NATURE | Fuly 20, 1871 genus Ayorria.—Mr. A. G. More continues his Supplement to the “Flora Vectensis ;” and the Rev. Jas. M. Crombie his addi- tions to the British Lichen-Flora. The number for July contains Mr. Ernst’s ‘Jottings from a Botanical No:e-book,” and concludes Mr. A. G. More’s ‘* Sup- plement to the Flora Vectensis.” Dr. Trimen contributes some notes on plants observed in Jersey and Guernsey in April. There are several other short papers and notes of special interest to British botanists. Or the Bidliothégue Universelle et Revue Suisse, one of the most valuable of continental periodicals, whether we consider the quality of its original articles, or the admirable extracts of scien- tific memoirs which it contains, we have just received the part published on May 15, which forms the commencement of anew volume. The first and most important of the three papers con- tained in it is on the action of magnetism on gases traversed by electrical discharges, by MM. A. de la Rive and E. Sarasin, in which the authors describe a long series of experiments made by them, leading to the following conclusions :—1. The action of magnetism exerted only upon a portion of an electric jet travers- ing a rarefied gas, causes an augmentation of density in this por- tion. 2. This action exerted upon an electric jet placed equatorially between the poles of an electro-magnet, produces in the rarefied gas an augmentation of resistance proportional to the conductivity of the gas itself. 3. On the contrary, it causes a corresponding diminution of resistance, when the jet is directed axially between the two magnetic poles. 4. When the action of the magnetism is to impress a continuous movement of rotation | upon the electric jet, it has no influence upon the conductivity if the rotation be in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the iron cylinder detaining the rotation, and diminishes it considerably if the rotation takes place so that the jet describes a cylinder round the axis. 5. These effects do not seem to be due to variations of density, but to perturbations in the arrangement of the particles of the rarefied gas —A second paper is an excellent abstract and discussion by M. Emile Gautier, of the observations of solar pro- tuberances, made at Rome by Prof. Respishi; and the third consists of an account of geological, meteorological, and archzeo- logical explorations made in the province of Constantine (Al- geria), by M. Tissot. THE first part of the twenty-third volume of the Zeitschrift der deutschen geologischen Gesellschaft, containing the proceedings of that society for the months of November and December 1870, and January $71, includes one paper which will be of especial interest to British geologists, namely, ‘‘ Some Geological Sketches from the East Coast of Scotland,” by Prof. F. Zirkel, extending over 124 pages of text, illustrated with four plates. the complicated geology of the islands of Arran, Mull, Iona, Staffa, and Skye is discussed in considerable detail, and the author winds up with a description of the east and west section of the north of Scotland. Another long paper is the first part of a geological description of the annular mountain of Santorin, by M. K. von Fritsch. —M. C. Struckmann describes the Pveroceras | beds of the Kimmeridge formation at Ahlem, near Hanover, which he divides into three series (upper, middle, and lower), indicating the characteristic fossils of each deposit. M. R, Richter pub- lishes a fourth notice on the Thuringian slates, for which he claims an Upper Silurian age, an opinion here supported chiefly on the evidence of Graptoliies. The author discusses the affini- ties of the Graptolitidae, and adopts an opinion expressed by Leuckart (MS.) that this group is to be regarded as nearly allied to the Bryozoa. The author describes a new genus, 777plograp- tus, the chief character of which is that the canal has three ver- tical rows of alternating cells, of which the type is Z: werestarum (Richt.), and also as new species Diflograptus pennatulus and Monagraptus crenatus. These and some other species are figured in the plate accompanying the memoir. A new species of Vauti- In this paper | Jus (N. veles) is also described and figured in this paper (p. 243). | From M. Emanuel Kayser we find a notice of the occurrence of Rhynchonella pugnus with traces of colour in the limestone of the Eifel (Devonian), to which is appended a tabular list of those fossil shells on which traces of colouration have been observed. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES LonboNn Geological Society, June 21.—Joseph Prestwich, F.R.S., inthe chair.—R. J. Watson, W. T. Scarth, Gen. A. C. Bentinck, and John Brooke were elected Fellows of the Society.—‘‘ On some supposed Vegetable Fossils,” by William Carruthers, F.R.S. In this paper the author desired to record certain examples of objects which had been regarded, erroneously, as vegetable fossils. The specimens to which he specially alluded were as follows :—Supposed fruits on which Geinitz founded the genus Guilielmites, namely, Carpol:tes umbonatus Sternb., and — Guiliclmites permianus Gein., which the author regarded as the — result of the presence of fluid or gaseous matter in the rock when in a plastic state ; some roundish bodies, which, when occurring in the Stonesfield slate, have been regarded as fossil fruits, but which the author considered to be the ova of reptiles, and of which he described two new forms ; and the flat, horny pen of a Cuttlefish from the Purbeck of Dorsetshire, described by the author as Zvudopsis Brodie, sp.n. Mr. Seeley remarked on the compressed spheroids found in so many rocks, that there was a difficulty in acceptirg the view of their originating in fluid vesicles, though he was unable to suggest any other theory by which to account for them. He observed that the eggs from the Stone-field slate closely resemble those of birds, and that it was of the highest interest to find such eggs in strata containing so many remains of ornithosaurian forms, such as Aamphorhynchus and Pterodacty/us, of which genus probably these were the eggs. Prof. Rupert Jones fully recognised the ingenious explanation of the bubble-formed limited slickensides, that looked so much like possible fossil fruits, and Mr. Carruthers’s masterly treatment of the other specimens. But he wished that the author would take up the subject exhaustively, and define the nature of other supposed vegetable fossils, such as the so-called fucoids, Paleochorda, Paleophyton, Oldhamia, &c, many, if not all, of which Prof. Jones thought to be due to galleries and other tracks made by Crustaceans. Prof. Ramsay had known many instances of such blunders as those poinred out, made, not by experienced geologists, but by those unacquamted with the science. Though he had never regarded the flattened spheroids as fossils, he was unable to account for their presence in the clay-beds of different ages. Mr. Hulke inquired whether Mr. Carruthers considered the limited slickensides common in the Kimmeridge shales as due to gaseous origin. He remarked on the rarity of Ptero- dactylian remains as compared with those of other Saurians in the Wealden beds, in which the presumed eggs of Pterodactyls were found. Mr. Seeley did not regard the Wealden egg as being that of a Pterodactyle. Mr. Carruthers, in reply, re- marked that the local slickensides mentioned by Mr. Hulke differed in character from those to which he had referred.— | ** Notes on the Geology of part of the County of Donegal,” by | A. H. Green, F.G.S. | geological structure of che country in the neighbourhood of the In this paper the author described the Errigal Mountain, with the view of demonstrating the occurrence in this district of an inter-stratification with mica-schist of beds of rock, which can hardly be distinguished from granite, the very gradual passage from alternations of granitic gneiss and mica-schist into granite alone, and the marked traces of bedding and other signs of stratification that appear in the granite, to which the author ascribed a metamorphic origin. He also noticed the marks of ice-action observed by him in this region, and referred especially to some remarkable fluted bosses of quartzite, and to the formation of some small lakes by the scoop- ing action of ice. Mr, Forbes stated that none of the facts of this communication were new, but he dissented altogether from the conclusions arrived at by the author in regarding these rocks as originally of sedimentary origin, and for the following reasons ; (1) That this district has been studied in detail by Mr. Scott and Prof. Haughton, who declare the rock to be undoubtedly intru- sive, as it not only sends out veins into the neighbouring strata, but also encloses fragments of the rocks through which it has broken. (2) Because the author starts from the idea that if such rocks are found to lie conformably on beds of undoubted sedi- mentary origin, it is a proof of their being themselves sedimentary or stratified,—a conclusion which is totally unwarranted, since there are innumerable in-tances, not only of beds of lava or other igneous rocks being conformable to fossiliferous strata, but of their also being found intercalared with such beds even for con- siderable distances. (3) The strata, so far from being proved by him to be of truly sedimentary origin, are of a most questionable origin, since they are neither in themselves fossiliferous, nor can they be correlated with any containing fossils as proofs of true’ sedimentary deposition ; and the description of his section is sufficient to show this ; for although it looks well on paper on a scale of three feet to the mile, the author has so little conhidence in it that he is not ever certain as to which is the tep or bottom of the section on which so much generalisation is based. (4) ; “4 j s ’ 4 . Fuly 20, 1871] NATURE 235 _ That a parallel structure equally, if not better developed than _ any occurring in the gneiss of Donegal, is common to many volcanic rocks, as in a specimen laid before the meeting, in which this parallel foliated structure due to crystallisation-layers is so __ well developed as to make it appear exactly like a stratified rock, _ and even split along these lines, and this, although the product of volcanoes still active is found for great distances both over- lying conformably and intercalated between beds of the Cretaceous and Oolite formations. Mr. Scott was unwilling to accept the section given by the author as satisfactory. He agreed, however, as to the bedded appearance of the granite, and to the masses lying in general conformably with the lines of stratification of the country. The nearest spot at which fossiliferous rocks occurred was separated from the beds described by the whole width of the county of Tyrone, though some presumed Eozoonal forms had been found at a less distance. He was not prepared to believe in the original absolutely fused condition of granite, nor in there being two distinct forms under which it occurred.—* Memoranda on the most recent Geological Changes of the Rivers and Plains of Northern India, founded on accurate surveys and the Artesian well-boring at Umballa, to show the practical application of Mr. Login’s theory of the abrading and transporting power of water to effect such changes,” by T. Login, The author commenced by re- ferring to the general conditions of the surface of the country under consideration, and to the evidence afforded by it of a great decrease in the amount of rainfall, and a great change in the nature of the rivers. His object was to show that the superficial deposits of the plains of India were formed by the action of mountain streams, the deposits being irregular transversely, but exhibiting a uniform section longitudinally, in a curve which the author believed to be a true parabola, as indicated by Mr. ‘Tylor. The connection of this with the author's theory as to the transporting power of water was indicated. The author also showed that the beds of the large Indian rivers are rising rather than being lowered, and pointed out that this was in accordance with his theory. HAirax, Nova Scoria Institute of Natural Science, May 8.—Mr. J. Matthew Jones, F.L.S., president, in the chair. Mr, Frederick Allison read a paper entitled ‘‘ Results of Meteorological Observations at Halifax, Nova Scotia, for1870.” The temperature of January had not been approached since 1863. Mean pressure was great. Cloud was scanty, and winds strong, N.W. prevailing. Very large total precipitation, due to heavy rain, the snow-fall being deficient. No fog, and but five days’ sleighing during the whole of January. Strong east gales at the close of the month. Feb- ruary was nearer to normal temperature. Mean pressure very light. Cloud far exceeded that of January and its own average. Prevalent wind, N.W., strong. Great precipitation, nearly doubling the average amount, and especially large in rain, One fog, and sleighing from the Ist to 25th. On the 9th strong east gale in moming, and blowing at night from the west. March bore much the same relation to normal temperature as did Feb- ruary ; but the minimum of the year, 6°, occurred on the 12th of that month. Pressure still extremely light. Cloud in decided defect. Prevalent wind N.N.W., with mean force great. Pre- cipitation, both of rain and snow, small. Only one fog. Eleven days of sleighing. Three gales, all more or less eastwardly. Wild geese (Amser Canadensis) passed over on their northerly migration on the 19th. Peach, trained against a south wall, blossomed on the 24th. The American robin ( 7irdus migrato- yius) appeared on the 3oth. April was warm. Pressure 29743, but ‘oor below an eight years’ average. Cloud still deficient. A peculiar direction of wind was prevalent—E.S. E. Mean force small. Precipitation close to average ; rain being abundant, but snow only one inch. Five fogs recorded. First thunder and lightning this year on the 12th, One short gale from E.S.E. Frogs (Hylodes Pickeringit) first heard on the 8th; and May flowers (Zfigwa repens) in full bloom on the 12th. The mean temperature of May was a little less than average. On the 3oth 80°°2 was reached. Mean pressure a little light. A very bright month, with only 3°19 inches of rain, the average being 4°33. Snow inappreciable, the latest falling on the 24th, and melting as it fell, Four fogs. Thunder and lightning on the 9th and rath. The garden cherry blossomed on the 23rd, and the humming-bird (7Zvochilus colubis) was first seen on the 18th. June was slightly cool, somewhat low in pressure and decidedly bright. Only 1°69 inches of rain fell. Mean velocity of wind but 8°8 miles per hour ; direction W.S.W Three fogs noted. No frost after the 24th of the preceding month, either at five fect high or on the surface of the earth. Thunder and lightning twice. The apple blossomed on the 6th, and red clover same date ; horse-chesnut on the 2nd ; wild straw- berries ripe on the 20th. Grass mowing began about Halifax on the 3oth. July temperature was 1°°85 above the average. On the 24th 915 was marked. The mean of six equidistant observations on 25th, 75° 27, being the warmest day recorded at this station for at least twelve years. Mean pressure low. Great want of cloud. Light winds; direction S. 59° W. ; velocity 81 miles per hour. Rain, 3°21 inches, being much above average. Four fogs. Thunder and lightning twice. August was warm also. Mean pressure almost identical with July, being 29°659. Very little cloud. Wind, resultant direction, N. 77° W. Mean velocity 10°5 miles perhour. Rain scanty, giving but 2'20 inches. Fogs three. Thunder and lightning thrice. September mean temperature 57°'20, having fallen 7°*60 below August. On the 30th exactly 32° was registered by grass minimum ; but atmosphere never descended to freezing point. Mean pressure still low, and cloud also deficient. Wind, resultant direction N. 15° W., and mean velocity only 10°6 per hour. Rain, half an inch less than average. Three fogs. Hoar frost on the 3oth. Thunder once. Lightning twice. Three gales. October had a mean temperature of 48°14. Mean pressure 29°825. Still a quantity of cloud, though October is frequently a bright month in Nova Scotia. Resultant direction of wind N. 42° W., and mean velocity 12°45 miles per hour, Heavy rainfall, and eight inches of snow. One fog. Three gales from N.W., S.S.W., and S. First frost, five feet above ground on the 26th ; tem- perature having been above 32° 155 days. Measurable snow on 3ist. The mean temperature of November remained above the average. The whole pressure again small. The month was rather less cloudy than usual. Resultant direction of wind N. 87° W., and mean velocity only 10°75 miles per hour. Rain- fall large, 5°67 inches, and snow depth great, 7°7 inches. Three fogs. Three gales, N.W., S.S.E., and S.E. Meteors on the night of the 14th. December was very mild. Mean tem- perature 30°. Pressure very low. Much cloud. Resultant direction of wind N. 76° W., and mean velocity 11°6 miles per hour. Rain was heavy, and snow small, though con- taining larger amount of water than average. One fog, Four days’ sleighing. On Christmas Eve thermometer reached 4°°6, minimum of month. After noting the cyclone of the 3rd and 4th uf September, Mr. Allison proceeded to connect it with the gale of the 7th moving in the Bay of Biscay, in which the Captain foundered. Giving the following figures from a mass of observations, to show the storm path :—S.S. Rolert Lowe at sea, lat. 43°2' N., long. 65°3’ W., September 4, 4 A.M., bar. 28 7co ; wind 25|b. per square foot. Halifax N.S., lat. 44°39! N., long. 63°36’ W., September 4, 9.30 A.M., bar. 28952, 6 to 7 A.M. ; wind velocity 65°7 per hour, and reaching 70 miles in gusts, fully 24°5lb. per square foot. Glace Bay N.S., about 250 miles from Robert Lowe, E.N.E., bar. 3 P.M. 29°333 3 wind 3 P.M. 86 miles per hour. This storm was travelling at direct rate of about 23 miles per hour in this longitude, its speed being accelerated as it progressed eastward. It would be due, with its south-eastern edge, in diminished force probably, in Bay of Biscay on evening of 6th of September. From these and other data a world-wide system of telegraphic storm warnings was urged.—Another interesting paper, “On the Meteorology of Glace Bay, Cape Breton, N,S.,” by Mr. Henry Poole, was also read, Paris Academie des Sciences Morales et Politiques, June24.— M. Jules Simon in the chair. Notice was given of the death of M. Ramon de Ja Sagra, a Spanish gentleman who had been a great traveller in America, and was well known as a botanist.— M. Egger read some pages of his great work “On the Pro- gressive Development of Infants.” July 8.—M. Paul Janot in the chair. Notice was given of two letters received from M. Henry Martin, a member of the National Assembly, and M. Filon, an inspector of the Academy of Paris, both contending for the seat left vacant by the late M. Pierre Clement, who wrote, many years ago, a history of the Revo~ cation del Edit de Nantes, vindicating Protestantism, and pub- lished many articles in the Fournal des LEconomustes, in support of free trade policy. The contest will be severe, as M, Henry Martin is very popular, being the author of a History of France. M. Filon is a gentleman of a wider intellect, and has written a Comparative History of France and England. The election will take place on the 22nd, 236: Académie des Sciences, July 10.—M. Claude Bernard in the chair. Notification was received of the death of M. Haidinger, the keeper of the great aerolitic collection at Vienna and a corre- spondent in the section of mineralogy. —The public sitting, which, according to the rules, was held before the secret one, was rather long and interesting. M. Puiseux was unanimously elected a member of the section of geometry (this honour is very seldom paid to any member). M. Puiseux belongs to the scientific staff of the National Observatory. He was much praised many years ago by Cauchy for his calculations on variations of weight and of its effects. He was a contributor to Lionville’s Fournal de Mathematigues.—M. Boussingault described some experiments showing that water is not liable to freeze irrespective of the de- gree of cold to which it is submitted, as long as it is not allowed to expand in order to change into ice. It is the complement of the celebrated Flo-entine experiment. M. Bous- singault exposed water to —13° Cent. enclosed in strong steel tubes as used for rifled guns, without any congelation taking place. On unscrewing the steel end of the barrel, the congelation was instantaneous. The fluidity of the water was made manifest by small steel spheres, which moved freely inside the guns during the whole process, and would have been stopped by congelation. A very long conversation took place between M. Boussingaultand several members who proposed many objections, to which he found ready answers.—M. Saint- Venant read a long report on a memoir presented by M. Maurice Levy on several Equations showing the internal movements of molecules when a ductile body is submitted to external pressure.—M. Faurneyron was a French engineer of great reputation, known by the invention of ‘‘turbines” or hydraulic wheels. He bequeathed to the Academy a certain sum in the funds to give a 40/. prize to the best memoir on Practical Mechanics every two years. The Academy appointed a committee of five of its members to draw up a programme for the next competitisn. The competiticn is to be open to all, irrespective of nationality and qualification, except to the members of the different French academies.—M. Brown, the astronomer at the celebrated Trevandum Observatory, read a most important note on the ‘* Diurnal Lunar Variation,” which he proved has sometimes to exceed the solar variation. The law is illustrated by calculating the maximum_ Every day there are two maxima of lunar action. In June, when the moon is on the 6th and 18th horal meridian, in December on the oth and 12th, and in the intermediate months on the intermediate meridians, according to progressive changes. The excursions are greater when the moon is nearer to us (peri- gee), and when the passage of the moon to the maximum meridian is by daylight. This difference is very great, the zocturna/ max. reaching only + of diurnal max. The law is worth the most serious consideration, as connections between variations of mag- netism and temperature are becoming every day more and more frequent. It may lead to the discovery of the lunar influence on meteorology, which discovery will be zctiwm sapientic.—M. W. de Fonvielle sent a note discussing certain singular phenomena which were observed in Scotland during the stormy periods of June 18 and July 18. The facts were quoted from the Scotsman, an Edinburgh paper. The note was printed in the Comptes Rendus. The author is anxious to see if ‘* mirages,” as observed on the Isle of Man, can be considered as having beena presage of the stormy weather. He wrote also upon certain accidents, showing that it is dangerous to move metallic objects during thunderstorms. M. Chapelas presented the results of observa- tions made during twenty years (1848-1868) on 39,771 meteors, out of these 23,481 were observel in summer when the nights are short, only 2,145 in winter when the nights are long. The mean direction is S.S.E. The numbers of meteors vary in inverse ratio with their magnitude :—Ist magnitude 2,497, 2nd magnitude 3,918, 3rd magnitude 7,137, 4th magnitude 8,847, 5th magnitude (an exception to the rule) 8,050, 6th magnitude 9,322 (very slight augmentation). He says, moreover, it shows that falling stars are more frequent in high altitudes. It is true, assuming falling stars to be essentially of the same magnitude, and differing only apparently from distance. RIGA Society of Naturalists, February 1.—Prof. Schell dis- coursed upon the importance of water-levels on the coasts of the Baltic provinces, and described some anemometers. — M. Schroeder communicated a notice relating to the avifauna of the Baltic provinces, in which he mentioned several species to be struck out of or added to the previously published lists. He NATURE | bone cave by Chas. M. Wheatley, stating the number of species | Fuly 20, 1871 made the total number of species, 272.—Baron F. Hoyningen- Huene communicated a continuation of hisphznological observa- rf tions, during the year 1870, containing a report on natural phe- — + PHILADELPHIA : American Philosophical Society, April 1.—Prof. Cope H made remarks on the Vertebrata obtained in the Port Kennedy — nomena observed from March to October. \ to be forty-two. The Mammalia were referred to orders, as — follows :—Edentata, 6 species; Rodentia, 14; Insectivora, I ; ; Chiroptera, 1; Ungulata, $8; Carnivora, 4; total, 34, of which about half are new to science. Birds and Reptiles, 8 species. He made remarks on the nature and origin of the post-pliocene fauna, the origin of the caves, and possible topographical history of the country in that connection.—Pliny E. Chase read a paper on ‘‘ Resemblances between Atmospheric, Magnetic, and Ocean Currents.”—Lieut. Dutton presented some views on regional subsidence and elevation, and mentioned the physical changes produced by the metamorphism of rocks as an agent in changing 4 the contour of the earth’s surface. The obliteration in specific — gravity produced by change of chemical constitution of interior — rock strata was an important cause of the elevations and subsi- — dences of the earth’s crust, generally overlooked. * P 4 - . BOOKS RECEIVED EncuisH.—Our Sister Republic; a Gala Trip through Mexico in 1869-70 (Triibner and Co.). ForeiGN.—(Through Williams and Norgate)—Medizinische Jahrbiichen : S. Stricker, &c., vols. 1 and 2.—Naturwissenschaftliche Vortrage: J. R. Mayer. PAMPHLETS RECEIVED EnG.itsH.—National Health: H. W. Acland, M.D.—How to Live on 6d. a Day: Dr. Nichols.—A Sanitary Inquiry: R. Weaver.—Art and Religion: J. Gilbert.—The Universal (hange in Natural Elements: R. Mansill.— Fauna Perthensis, part 1: Lepidoptera: F. Buchanan White, M.D.—Pro- ceedings of the Liverpool Field Club for 1870-71.—Transactions of the Chemi- cal Society of Newcastle-on-Tyne, vol. 1, for 1368-71.— Mechanical Building : G Ryland.—Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association for 1870.—A Key to the Natural Orders of British Flowering Plants: T. Baxter.—Natural His- tory Transactions of Northumberland and Durham, vol. iv., part 1.—The Manufacture of Russian Sheet-Iron: J. Percy, M.D.—The Quarterly Weather Report of the Meteorological Office.—Transactions of the Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society, 1870-71.—Papers on the Cause of Rain, &c.: G. A. Rowell. AmERICAN.—Report of the Committee on Building Stores to the Board of Capitol Commissioners of the State of Iowa: Prof. Hinrichs.—The School Laboratory of Physical Science: Prof. G. Hinrichs.—The Principles of Pure Crystallography: Prof. G. Hinrichs.—Third Annual Report on the Noxious, Beneficial, and other Insects of the State of Missouri: C. V. Riley.—Bulletin of che Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College, vol. iii , No. r. —Preliminary Report on the Vertebrata discovered in the Port Kennedy Bone-Cave: Prof. E. D. Cope. ForEIGN.—L’Académie des Sciences pendant le siége de Paris: G. G. de Caux, Paris.—Bulletin de l’'Académie Imp. des Sciences de St Petersburg, vol. xv., No. 17-3, vol. xvi., No. 1-4,—Ricerche sulla propagazione dell’ electricita nei liquidi: Dr. D. Macaluso, Palermo. CONTENTS Pace Tue NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE COLLEGE OF Puysicat SCIENCE . .- 237 Percy's. METALLURGY OF LEAD! 55 igo pins, eo =) ose lal tote a Newman's British ButTerrvies. By W. S. Dattas, F.Z.S. (With Wilustratzpus.) ie acute) =0ne) eles Sos ee: Si! ee ae 219 QOuR/BookSHEURY. 5.) ayta iS Res meee 1 ie een eee etn 220 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR :— Cotteau’s *‘ Echnides de la Sarthe.”"—A. Acassiz 22:2 an Mr. Howorth on Darwinism.—A. R, WALLAcE, F.Z S,; Dr. L. S. Beate, F R.S. ; T. Tver; Dr. J. Ross; B. 7. Lowne, F.R.C.S. 221 Recent Neologisms.—A. R. Wattace, FZ.S. . . .. .. . 222 Fertilisation of the Bee Orchis.—A. W. Bennett, F.L.S. . . . 222 Saturn’s Rings.—R. A. Procror, F.R.AS.. . . +... 223 Qcean'Currents.—J. K- LAUGHTON <<) =) <= a) = 1s) 2) See Formation of Flints.—M.H. Jounson, F.G.S. . . . . . . . 223 Affinities of the Sponges eee empty Go 23 7 influencing another, or whether a man-or body of men may not be capable of influencing themselves. To come now to the class of events which Mr. Crookes has witnessed. It is greatly to his credit that he has come forward so frankly and honestly ; and since he has begun to investigate the peculiar class of facts, we are sure that he will consider it his duty to continue the investigation in such a way as to convince those men of science who may not themselves be able to take up the question— outsiders in fact. Mr. Crookes will, we are sure, not object to a few critical remarks honestly made with the scle view of finding out the truth, and we would there- fore express a wish that, in order to facilitate operations the experiments should in future be conducted by only by such men as Mr. Crookes himself, and that it should always be absolutely superfluous to investigate whether machinery, apparatus, or contrivance of any sort, be secreted about the persons present. We should thus start from a higher platform, and the investigation would gain in simplicity, although perhaps something might be lost in the marked nature of the results obtained. Allowing, however (as we are disposed to allow), that things of an extraordinary nature are frequently witnessed on such occasions, yet we are by no means sure that these constitute external realities. The very fact that the results are uncertain, and that, as far as we know, they have never yet been obtained in broad daylight before a large unbiassed audience, would lead us to suspect that they may be subjective rather than objective, occurring in the imaginations of those present rather than in the out- ward physical world. Nor can this doubt be removed by any precision of apparatus ; for what avails the most per- fect instrument as long as we suspect the operator to be under a mental influence of the nature, it may be, of that which is witnessed in electro-biological experiments ? The problem is, in fact, one of extreme difficulty, and we do not see how it admits of proof, provided the influence cannot be exerted in broad daylight and before a large audience. There is, however, a cognate phenomenon which admits of easy proof. We allude to clairvoyance, and have in our mind at the present moment a man of science who if not himself a clairvoyant has yet the power to command the services of one who is. Now, were he at once to communicate to a journal such as NATURE, in cipher if necessary, the knowledge derived through the influence, giving the proof afterwards when obtained in an ordinary manner, the public would soon be ina position to judge whether there is any truth in the influence or not. It is, in fact, somewhat hard upon the writer of these remarks and some others who are disposed to allow the possibility of something of this nature, but have not the opportunity of investigating it, that those who have will not satisfy the public with a convincing proof. B, SVEWART TYNDALL S FRAGMENTS OF SCIENCE ’ Fragments of Science for Unscientific People. By Prof. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S. (London; Longmans: 1871.) HIS volume is a reprint of a number of detached essays, lectures, and reviews, by Prof. Tyndall, pub- lished at various times and in various places during the last ten years. Besides a few shorter pieces collected at ) NATURE [Fuly 24, 1871 238 the end, there are in all thirteen articles. These con- sist of two classes of a totally distinct nature. Thelarger number constitute considerably the greater bulk of the volume, deal entirely with scientific subjects, and are of a special scientific nature. The remainder deal either di- rectly or indirectly with the question of the opposition or concordance of science and religion, To this question, Prof. Tyndall brings that same remarkable clearness and definiteness of statement which characterises his writings on purely scientific subjects. It is a highly desirable thing for all parties that it should be distinctly stated what are the issues, in their ultimate form, to which our various hypotheses may lead. Prof. Tyndall, from the scientific side, makes this statement clearly and distinctly. He views an hypothesis, so to speak, in its widest generalisa- tion, and does not shrink from it or its consequences. If, he would say, you hold these or those views, then this is what they szs¢ imply, and what, if these views be true, you 7zust come to; and so you need not be afraid, and if you hide it from yourself you only cloak the truth in the one case, or hinder the exposure of error in the other. As an example, let us take the-statement of the Natural Evolution hypothesis in the lecture on “ The Scientific Use of the Imagination” (page 163 of the present volume). Speaking of the evolution of the present world from a nebulous mass he says :— “ For what are the core and essence of this hypothesis ? Stripit naked, and you stand face to face with thenotionthat not alone the more ignoble forms of animalcular or animal life, not alone the nobler forms of the horse and lion, not alone the exquisite and wonderful mechanism of the human body, but the human mind itself—emotion, intellect, will, and all their phenomena— were once latent in a hery cloud. But the hypothesis will probably go even further than this. Many who held it would probably assent to the position that at the present moment ali our philosophy, all our poetry, all our science, all our art—Plato, Shakspeare, Newion, Raphael—are potential in the fires of the sun. We long to learn something of our origin. If the Evolution hypothesis be correct, even this unsatisfied yearning must have come to us across the ages which separate the un- conscious primeval mist from the consciousness of to-day. I do not think that any holder of the Evolution hypothesis would say that I overstate it or overstrain it in any way. I merely strip it of all vagueness, and bring before you, unclothed and unvarnished, the notions by which it must stand or fall.” “Fear not the Evolution hypothesis,” he says further on, “steady yourselves in its presence in the ulti- mate triumph of that truth which was expressed by old Gamaliel when he said, ‘If it be of God ye cannot overthrow it; if it be of man it will come to nought.’” This is the true scientific spirit; and the beautiful daring with which Prof. Tyndall launches upon an un- known sea trusting to this guiding principle, is an instance of that noble faith which has lived through all phases of the human mind alike in scientific and unscientific ages. To have a faith in something seems to be the ultimate necessity of all humanity. Let all of us beware how we call that faith, as it exists variously in each of us, false. Prof, Tyndall always writes in a beautiful, clear, and pointed style. Not the least excellent part of it, and that which probably as much as anything else constitutes him the great scientific teacher he is, is his unbounded power of apt illustration. He carries this into every subject with which he deals, Asan example, take the following from page 58 of the article on “ Miracles and Special Providences :”— “ The mind is, as it were, a photographic plate, which is gradually cleansed by the effort to think rightly, and which when so cleansed, and not before, receives impres- sions from the light of truth.” Again, at page 101 we find the following : “We live upon a ball of matter 8,cco miles in diameter, swathed by an atmosphere of unknown height. This ball has been molten by heat, chilled to a solid, and sculptured by water.” There is the touch of a master’s hand in the way in which these few words “ fling us the picture of the fight,” and enable us vividly to realise that which they would have us realise. Prof. Tyndall, however, has evidently given less atten- tion to spiritual than to natural questions. Indeed, it is not to be wondered at that a man now-a-days should not have time to pay attention to everything. It is some- times, however, to be lamented, though perhaps hardly to be wondered at, that a man should write about too much. The articles of a purely scientific character consist of two on ‘‘ Radiative and Radiant Heat,” one on “ The Light of the Sky,” and one on “ Dust and Disease.” The articles on the “ Life and Letters of Faraday ” will well repay the perusal of those who have not already read them in the Academy, and will even well merit a re-perusal, as everything does which gives us any insight into the character of that great and child-like man. The last of the series is a lecture on Magnetism, ad- dressed to the teachers of primary schools, at the South Kensington Museum. Prof, Tyndall tells us, in a short introduction to it, that he had at first some doubts as to the propriety of its insertion. “ But, on reading it,” he says, “it seemed so likely to be helpful that my scruples disappeared.” Weare exceedingly glad that it has been so. The lecture is a beautiful example of true teaching, and of that excellent union of logic and experiment which is the true education which ,physical science is so well calculated to supply. JAMES STUART DALL’S BRACHIOPODA OF THE UNITED STATES COAST SURVEY Report on the Brachiopoda obtained by the United States Coast Survey £xpedition, in charge of L. F. de Pour- tales, with a Revision of the Craniude and Discinide, By W. H. Dall. (Bulletin of the Museum of Compara- tive Zoology, at Harvard College, Cambridge, Mass.) With two plates. (Cambridge, U.S., 1871, 8vo.) i Pose is another important instalment of the published results of the deep-water dredgings made by our Transatlantic cousins and friends in the Gulf of Mexico. The first was issued in 1869, and consisted of a Pre- liminary Report on the Echini and Starfishes, by Prof. Alexander Agassiz. A report by Dr. Stimpson on the Crustacea procured in the same expedition is announced as nearly ready ; and that distinguished zoologist has also undertaken the still greater charge of a report on the Mollusca. It is impossible to over-rate the impulse which will be every where given by such explorations to the study of marine Natural History, Fuly 27, 1871 | NATURE 239 We are now entering on quite a new phase of research, and commencing a survey of the hitherto unknown world beneath the waters. Regarded not merely in a biological, geological, or physical aspect, but also as a basis of sound education, these investigations ought not to be neglected by any civilised nation, especially by Great Britain, which, it is hoped, will never cede her well- earned maritime prestige, and her laudable ambition of discovery. This has been forcibly urged as a duty on the Government in an admirable article which appeared in the Sfectafor of the 22nd of July. In the pages of NATURE (meaning, of course, the present periodical, and not the mythical book to which fanciful writers are wont to allude), some of the results obtained in our deep-sea explorations of the North Atlantic and Mediterranean have been already noticed ; and next year will in all pro- bability inaugurate an expedition on a more extensive scale, and worthy of this rich and intellectual country. Sweden has performed her part most nobly, by sending out, in 1869, the Fosephine frigate for the exploration of the sea-bed lying between the coast of Portugal and the Azores, and this year a corvette and tender to Baffin’s Bay and Davis’s Straits. Russia despatched, last year, a frigate to New Guinea for a similar purpose, under the scientific charge of an experienced naturalist, Mr. N. M. v. Maclay. We are now informed on good authority that Drs. Noll and Grenacher, two German naturalists, are projecting a dredging expedition along the coasts of Portugal and Morocco to the Canaries. Even France, in the midst of her troubles, devoted some of her energy and vast resources to the peaceful ob- ject of dredging in the lower part of the Bay of Biscay, under the personal superintendence of the Mar- quis de Folin, the Commandant at Bayonne. In Canada a Government schooner has been lately placed at the disposal of the Natural History Society of Montreal for dredging the deeper part of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. But the United States, not content with the laurels she had gained in the Gulf of Mexico, has this year promoted two separate expeditions ; one, under the charge of the veteran and celebrated Professor Louis Agassiz, and Count Pourtales, to proceed along the south-eastern coasts of the Atlantic from Bermuda, through the Straits of Magellan to the Galapagos and San Francisco, dredging all the way ; and the other, under the charge of Mr. Dall, the author of the Report above cited, has already gone from California to the Aleutian Islands. The Brachiopoda, which form the subject of the present Report, are usually considered an abnormal class of the Mollusca; although some systematists place them in another group or sub-kingdom, the Molluscoidea, along with the Tunicata and Polyzoa. Mr. Morse, an Ameri- can naturalist, has recently endeavoured to show that the Brachiopoda are Annelids. This is a very debateable matter of classification. I am, for one, disposed to let the Brachiopoda remain among the Mollusca, to which they appear to be allied through the Azomiéa family. Their mode of reproduction, bivalve shells, and general habits, evince a much closer affinity to the Conchifera than to the Tunicata, Polyzoa, or Anne- lida. Other points of resemblance between the Brachio- poda and the three last-named groups may savour of analogy, not of homology. The author has exe- cuted in a most scientific and conscientious spirit the somewhat difficult task allotted to him ; and he has con- tributed much valuable information to our scanty know- ledge of the life-history of these remarkable animals. I regret that I cannot accept his conclusions as to the difference of certain so-called species (7erebratula vitrea and cubensis, T.septata and flovidana), nor asto the generic value of 7erebratu/ina and Waldheimia. But this is not the place for discussing such questions, That part of the Report which treats of the Craniide and Discinide is equally well done, and the plates are capital. J. GWYN JEFFREYS OUR BOOK SHELF The Year-Rook of Facts in Science and Art, By John Timbs. Pp. 288. (London: Lockwood and Co. 1871.) Annual of Scientific Discovery, or Year-Book of Facts in Sctence and Art for 1871. Edited by John Trow- bridge, S.B., aided by W. R. Nichols and C. R. Cross. Pp. 349. (Boston : Gouldand Lincoln, London: Triib- ner and Co. 1871.) THE opinion that we expressed on a former occasion re- garding the relative value of these Year-Books, remains unaltered. Mr. Timbs, as of old, still wields the scissors and the paste-brush with unabated zeal, and his Year- Book for 1870 presents all the faults of its predecessors, Considering that “Science and Art” are not the only subjects to which Mr. Timbs devotes his attention, but that a new book on (we may almost say o/) “‘ Popular Errors,” or on “ Curiosities,” seems to be always springing from his fertile pen, his ‘‘ Year-Book” does him no discredit, although non-critical readers may wonder at some of the “Facts,” as well as at some of the omissions, which they encounter. Why he should place “The Entozoa Egg,” (on which we suspect his ideas are somewhat obscure,) “Protoplasm,” the ‘“Germ-Theory of Disease,” and “Sleep,” under the head of “ Natural Philosophy ;” or “Snuff-Taking: a Preventive for Bronchitis or [and ?] Consumption,” under that of “ Chemical Science,” we cannot pretend to say ; but, possibly, the following para- graph, taken from the heading “ Astronomy and Meteoro- logy” may afford a clue to his mysterious system of clas- sification :—* Dr. F. G. Bergmann has projected from his own consciousness the beings from which the human race developed itself. Their name is ‘Anthropiskes, and they lived in Central Africa. They developed out of apes,” p. 265. The appalling idea cannot be repressed that the intellect 0. our venerable instructor in “ Science and Art” must be fai:ing from over-work, so as to lead him to con- found Anthropology with Astronomy ! The American Annual has the great advantage over its British. rival of being compiled by men who understand the subjects on which they are engaged. The editor, John Trowbridge, S.B., is Assistant Professor of Physics in Harvard College, and one of his assistants, W. R. Nichols, is Assistant Professor of Chemistry in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The subjects embraced in this volume are nearlythe same as thoseincluded in Mr. Timbs’s Year-Bock : Mechanical and Useful Arts, Natural Philo- sophy, Chemistry, Natural History or Biology, Geology, and Astronomy and Meteorology, being common to both, while the present work has additionally Geography and Antiquities,and the English annual makes Electricity a separate subject. Unless the editor enters more fully in future volumes into the subject of “ Geography and Antiquities,” we should recommend the suppression of this department. On the present occasion it is simply compiled from the proceed- ings of the Geographical Section of the British Association, 240 and does not contain a reference to Petermann’s Fournal, to the French or German Geographical Societies, nor even to the American Geographical Society. Withthis exception the “Annual of Scientific Discovery” is entitled to our earnest commendation. The editor and his assistants have done their work well, and the only editorial slip that we have noticed is the insertion of the same paragraph in two separate departments (see pp. 122 and 208). The “Notes of the Editor” at the commence- ment of the volume are, as in preceding years, especially deserving of praise, and indicate in a comparatively short space the progress of science for the year. Mycological Illustrations, being Figures and Descriptions of New and Rare Hymenomycetous Fungt. Edited by W..Wilson Saunders, F.R.S., F.L.S.,and Worthington G, Smith, F.L.S., assisted by A. W. Bennett, M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S. Londen large 8vo., tab. lith. pict.24. (London : John Van Voorst, 1871.) THOSE who have made the longest and most intimate study of Fungi are most sensibly alive to the fact that itis almost impossible to name species, especially those be- longing to the genus Agaricus, without figures derived from the authors themselves to whom they are attributable, or at least made under their immediate inspection. It was therefore a great boon to mycologists wnen Prof. Fries, a student of some sixty years’ standing, determined to deposit in the museum at Stockholm figures of a large portion of those species, described by himself, which have a softer texture, and are with difficulty preserved for the herbarium ; copies of many of which, and frequently the original sketches, have from time to time been kindly transmitted to this country, while the illustrations them- selves are in the course of publication. Five fasciculi have already appeared under the title “Icones selectz Hymenomycetorum nondum delineatorum,” containing fifty plates, several of which comprise two or more distinct kinds ; and it is much to be hoped that increasing years _will not prevent the venerable mycologist from continuing his indispensable work, supplementing, as it does so nobly, the “sveriges atliga och giftiga svampar,” which furnishes a hundred plates, of which several are critical species, though, from the nature of the publication, the greater number are well-known forms. We have now before us a work of much importance in the same direction, which, though not sanctioned by so long a study or such numerous treatises, must ever be of considerable weight from the unusual artistic talent of Mr. Worthington Smith, to whom, in conjunction with Mr. Wilson Saunders, the illustrat ons are due. He has not, however, rested entirely on his own knowledge of the subject as regards the determination of species, but has very wisely obtained help where it was possible to do so. In general the species are very correctly determined, but we venture to make one or two observations where some doubt exists, a matter of no surprise in so very complicated a subject. Fries has just published a figure of h's 4. polius which is very different from that in the work before us, and which agrees with what we have ourselves always con- sidered that species. Boletus fachypus is certainly not the plant of Fries as figured in his work on esculent and poisonous fungi. We have noright to criticise A. jumonius, as it has the sanction of Fries himself, but we cannot help remarking that it does not at all resemble the figure in the “Svensk Botanik.” As regards Cortinarii it is most desirable that the young state should always be figured. Cortinarius caninus, for example, is much brighter in colour at first. The figure clearly represents an older condition. The least satisfactory figure is that of A. hydrophilus, which differs from the usual form in not having a fistulose stem. There are some errors, whether clerical or otherwise, which call for a stricter revision in future numbers of the Latin phrases. NATURE Thirty species are illustrated in the twenty-four plates, the figures for the most part leaving nothing to be desired. Far the greater part of them have either not been figured before, or the published figures are not satisfactory. We may mention as peculiarly good Canthare!/lus 1adicosus, Agaricus atro-ceruleus, which reminds us of Gould’s drawings of infant coots and waterhens ; A. /ignatilis, and Gomphidius glutinosus. We trust that this very useful and acceptable work will command such asale as to ensure its continuance. The materials in the hands of the editors are almost inexhaustible, and are daily increasing. Since the above was written, a letter has been received from Prof. Fries containing some kindly worded criticisms, the most important of which are subjoined. The least observation from a person of such wide experience must be welcome to every genuine mycologist, and to none, we are assured, more so than to the authors of the work before us. Cortinarius callisteus= A. ferrugineus Scop., agreeing exactly in habit with the plant of Fries but differing in colour. A. folius = A. fumosus. Boletus pachypus = B. amarus Fr. C. ca@rulescens = C. cumatilis Fr., species valde variabilis. He adds, “the price is so moderate that it excites my admiration. Your admirable work has been received with singular pleasure. It contains three inte- resting species quite new to me: Cantharellus radicosus, Agaricus adnatus, and Agaricus polystictus.” M. J. BERKELEY LETTERS TO THE EDITOR [Zhe Editer dozs not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his Correspondents. No notice ts taken of anonymous communications. | Mr. Howorth on Darwinism WILL you allow me to reply to the various letters which ap- peared in your last number in answer to one from me? I grate- fully welcome their general courteousness. Postponing the con- sideration of Mr. Wallace’s letter, I come to Dr. Lionel Beale, the relevancy of whose arguments, and especially of the lugubrious moral attached to them, I fail to understand. ,It seems to me to be so incoherent and rhetorical that it is far beyond the reach of reply. ne Tylor refers to the last census as disproving my position. He says the population has increased enormously, and yet our age is characterised by its luxury. These statements are correct. But the argument deduced from them has a missing link. The luxury of the upper strata of society has increased with its wealth, but the numbers of the pauper class have been increased in the same rate. In considering the published returns of the Peor Law Board, I am compelled to admit that the increased luxury has been limited to the surface of society, and that its lowest ranks have been correspondingly recruited, and to admit the force of Mr. Doubleday’s argument, that the population of England under the Tudors was stationary because of the generally diffused wealth, while that of Ireland in the last century was increasing at an enormous rate, because it was steepedin poverty and want. I am not arguing about individual cases, but about general laws. Now, in Lancashire, where the increase has been so marked, I have it on the authority of owners of mills that the indigenous stock of the county, which is thrifty and well off, is not an in- creasing element, but is being replaced by the children of the Irish, or semi-Irish blood, from the poorer quarters of the large towns, among whom prudential restraint (which is surely a very visionaly cazsa causans in any event) cannot be said to have much influence. At Rome, Venice, Basle, and in France, where the aristocratic class was not limited by primogeniture, it was always dying out, and was only recruited by fresh creations (see the details in Doubleday, chapter iv. fassimz). In all these cases we can appeal to figures, and not to asuperficial survey of a Peerage, or the limited area of our own acquaintance, The particular passage quoted by Mr. Tyler from Malthus has been conclusively answered by Doubleday (chapter vi.), and it is useless to repeat his arguments, which on this point I con- sider to be unanswerable. Mr. Lownes repeats the odd charge of Mr. Tait against me, that I put the cart before the horse. The latter gentleman, whom ee eee ee Fuly 27, 1871] NATURE 241 T have not yet answered, cited against me the elementary case of capons and other creatures of that ilk. They are entirely beside the question. It is as reasonable to quote them in this discussion as to conclude that all chaste people must be cowardly and effeminate because mutilated animals are so. He also said that I mistook the whole rationale of the question, and that it is in- fertile creatures that grow fat, and not fatness that causes sterility. The only test of the question is the one I have not shrunk from applying in this argument (which, by the way, has not to do so much with the fat as the hearty and strong). ‘This test is that in a great number of cases we can make strong and vigorous but sterile plants and animals fertile by starving or bleeding them, which proves that it is not the organs that are defective, but that the creatures are too hearty. The experience of Mr. Lownes on the fecundity of consumptive patients, and of the poorest classes as compared with the richest, is at issue with that of the doctors and midwives whom I have access to, and of all the authorities I know whose opinions are based upon statistics. Tam not sure that I understand the second and third para- graphs of his letter. Whichever way the problem is put, I am satisfied if it be admitted that in the more crowded and squalid portions of our towns, the population as a rule is more fertile than in the less crowded neighbourhoods. ‘The case he cites of poor women losing their children early and ceasing to give milk, and, in consequence, soon becoming pregnant again, is counterbalanced by the fact that among the richest the proportion of those who suckle their children is small, and this not because of fastidious- ness, but because they secrete little milk. Mr. Lownes once more drags out the Indian and the backwoodsman, but he has overlooked the answer I gave to Mr, Wallace in my former letter, which needs no alteration to meet the case as he has put it. It is the case of the meat-eaters against the vegetable-feeders, the strong and hearty and active against the comparatively stolid and low-conditioned, and as in such cases all the world over the former are not so fertile as the latter. Mr. Lownes objects to savages being cited, because of qualifying circumstances; he mav as well say that it is not fair to test natural selection by wild animals, but only by domesticated ones. His treatment of the case of the Patagonian women is convenient but flippant. Mr, Lownes’ experience in breeding both cattle and sheep and fowls and in rearing plants must be extremely limited, or he would hardly have made so rash an assertion as that contained in his last sentence. The starving of plants and animals to induce them to breed is one of the elementary axioms of both gardeners and stockkeepers. I now come to Dr. Ross’s letter, which, although somewhat patronising in parts, is altogether more to my taste than some others, He has properly referred me to Mr. Herbert Spencer, but I am afraid of venturing into his book, for fear that I should open upon myself the floodgates of Evolution. It is not the general problem of Evolution about which we are now at issue, but that limited form of it called Natural Selection. It is satisfac- tory, however, to find that, according to Dr. Ross, Mr. Herbert Spencer admits the main facts upon which my argument is founded. His doing so is quite a relief after the jaunty manner in which some of your correspondents have spoken about the matter. To speak of its being late in the day to be now defend- ing Mr. Doubeday, to tell one that ‘‘ what one says is ludicrous,” “a monstrous error,” &c., &c., is surely a sign that the crowing of the Gallic cock has been mistaken for more substantial argu- ments, Iam very sorry that Mr. Spencer’s book is not in my library, and that I cannot meet with it at the Manchester Free Library or Mudie’s, so that until Iam aware of Mr. Spencer’s arguments I cannot say how far they affect the position I main- tain. If the facts are admitted, as Dr. Ross says they are, I confess that I cannot see any other interpretation of them than the one given by Mr. Doubleday. Will Mr. Ross do me the favour of pointing out what other explanation they are capable of ? Mr. Wallace has misunderstood me if he thinks me capable of sneering at the good and sound work that has been done by himself for many years, the value of which I am as conscious of as I am of the worthlessness of mere Olympian dogmatism. Sneers are only justifiable in answer to contempt, and if he feels aggrieved with any of my words I withdraw them. Mr. Wallace says my criticism of the phrase Survival of the Fittest is satisfactory. In regard to the phrase I used, and for which I was severely flouted by Mr. Wallace, he says it is un- known to Darwinians ; that may be, but it can hardly be said to be unknown to Mr, Darwin himself. Speaking of the problem of the conversion of varieties into species, the latter says: ‘‘ The inevitable result is an ever recurrent struggle for existence. It has been truly said that all nature is at war, the strongest ulti- mately prevail, the weakest fail, and we well know that myriad s of forms have disappeared from the face of the earth” (* Varia- tion of Animals and Plants under Domestication,” i. 5). Let me especially commend this extract to Dr. Lionel Beale, for whom I entertain the profoundest respect, notwithstanding his vituperation of myself. I find a difficulty in meeting Mr. Wallace’s latest arguments, because they are entirely a friori, and Mr. Wallace asks me to admit as premisses the very thing I dispute, namely, the relative sterility of strong and hearty animals and plants. I cannot see the relevancy of his quotation of the effects of cross-breeding to the present argument, unless he means to infer that crosses are more vigorous and stronger than pure bred animals, on which position I should like to be furnished with a little evidence. Again, I cannot test the supposititious problem put by Mr. Wallace as to the strongest individual of an animal’s progeny eventually being the stem-father of therace. He takes for granted that it is, and in doing so begs the question. I can only say the only experiments I know do not favour Mr. Wallace’s a priori view, and that in the cases we can experiment upon, not the least satisfactory of which is the case of man himself, the condition most favourable to fertility, as 1 have quoted many examples to show, is that of comparative depletion. Mr. Wallace, as before, is spare of instances. I can only extract two dod fide ones from his letter. He tells us the strongest bull leads the herd ; this proves nothing, unless we are to inler from it that his progeny is the most numerous, and that the biggest and strongest therefore survive. I prefer to quote Mr. Darwin himself where I can. If Mr. Wallace’s instance be worth anything, how does he account for the following : ‘* The decrease in size of the Chillingham and Hamilton cattle must have been prodigious, for Prof. Rutimeyer has shown that they are almost certainly the descendants of the gigantic Bos prini- genius. No doubt this decrease in size may be largely attributed to less favourable circumstances. Yetanimals roaming over large parks and fed during severe winters can hardly be considered as placed under very unfavourable conditions” (‘Variation of Ani- mals and Plants under, Domestication ” ii. 1 19). What Mr. Darwin says of the wild cattle is equally true of the reindeer kept by the Laplanders compared with the wild ones on the Samoyede tun- dras, of the red deer of our larger forests compared with the skeletons of red deer from the turbaries, and is, perhaps, gene- rally true of semi-wild races where man has not intervened with the special object of increasing the size by breeding from the largest individuals only. In regard to the carnivora, I know of no reliable facts. I am not proposing the monstrous paradox that those animals which are so weak, diseased, or decrepid that they cannot sustain life at all, are the only ones that keep up the succession of the animal world. The toothless tigress, who cannot kill her food and is starving, will most certainly not be the mother of a long race. She can do nothing but die, But I say that, judging from analogy, it is probable that the lean and comparatively ill-fed tigress will breed more freely than the man-eater supplied with regular and abundant food. The banks of the Chinese rivers and the rough country in the south and south-west of Ireland are both inhabited by teeming populations, remarkable for their poverty and fertility, and re- markable further for sending out immense colonies, which sup- plant wherever they go, in Mantchuria, in Songaria, in Glas- gow, in Manchester, in New York, the strong hearty, indigenous races. This being so (and I only quote these two as examples of a whole class), when Mr. Wallace asks the question, ‘ Tlow can weak and sickly parents provide for and bring up to maturity their offspring, and how are the offspring themselves (undoubtedly less vigorous than the offspring of strong and healthy parents) to maintain themselves ?” I can only reply that they actually do so : Veni, vidi, et cred. I must correct a wrong impression that Mr. Wallace has got hold of. In this controversy I have no theory ; my only theory is that Natural Selection is an ingenious but fallacious explanation of the varieties of life. I cannot understand Mr. Wallace’s last sentence if it be meant for an argument; while if itis only a jew @’espré¢ and witticism, it requires a commentary to tell us where the point is. Lastly, I will consider Mr. Wallace’s reiterated complaint that I have only treated of what is in most cases the least important factor in determining the continuance of species. Let me turn 242 NATURE very briefly to another of these factors put prominently forward by both Mr. Wallace and Dr. Beale, namely, Se Obscure Colour.” We are not arguing about exceptional and individual cases, we are dealing with a general law, applicable or supposed to be applicable to the great majority of cases. Canit be said gravely that obscure colour has tended to the preservation of particular forms of life to the exclusion of others, not in a few exceptions, but as a general biological law ? ' Daylight, it will be admitted, is more likely to disclose an object than darkness. If we compare diurnal forms of life with nocturnal ones, we ought to find, if I read the tendency of the Darwinian argument rightly, that in the daylight when a sombre, obscure, or indifferent colour, would be of great service to hide an object, that there are a much smaller proportion of conspicuous forms of life abroad than at night when there would be no such need for obscurity, and a bright colour might be worn with im- punity. Is such the fact ? een Again, if we compare the animals and plants that live in tropical climates, where the light is intense, with those found in temperate and severe ones where the light is not so great and objects are not so prominent, do we find that the former has a comparative monupoly of conspicuous objects, or do we find rather that the reverse is the case, and that all the brightest objects we know in nature—the parrots, macaws, humming birds, butterflies, orchids, &c.—are found in the greatest profusion inthe tropics, while we proverbially console ourselves for the absence of colour in our birds by boasting of their singing, and hang the beetles of Brazil in necklaces round our sisters’ and wives’ necks, while we crush our sombre representatives of the same class under our heels? Is it not equally true of the sea? In the Mediterranean, for instance, do not the brightly decked out gurna-ds and mullets far outnumber the dingier fish, while on the banks of foggy Newfoundland the sober tinted cod and ling are the prevailing types? In the former we have the clear blue water that washes round Sorrento pierced through and through by the blazing sun, while in the latter we have everything gloomy except the nsherman. If we separate the animal world into flesh eaters and vegetable eaters, we ought to find, if this theory be true, that the former (which as a rule are not themselves the prey of other animals) are more conspicuous than the latter, since they have less reason for adopting a secret costume. But is itso? Are the hawks and owls and carnivorous beetles as classes more conspicuous than their victims? Is it a not fact that the most beautifully coloured creatures are as arule the most helpless, weak, and accessible ; that those animals which are supplied by naure with weapons of defence or are strong and can defend themselves, are as classes more obscure in colouring than those not so protected, and that the same rule applies to plants which are poisonous, nauseous, or protected by thorns? If these facts be true in the great majority of cases, we have another factor in Mr. Darwin’s theory which is not satisfactory, and the cases quoted to support it become mere exceptions, which, by being exceptions, disprove the particular law he is maintaining. This letter has already exceeded reasonable limits, and I must postpone a further con- sideration of this and other objections to another occasion. Derby House, Eccles Henry H. Howorru Mr. Howortn’s objections to the theory of Natural Selec- tion have been fully answered. I therefore wish to direct attention to another objection which has been recently advanced, and which has not, so far as I know, been specially refuted. The objection is stated by its author in the following terms :— “And it has been affirmed that to ‘the primitive properties of molecules’ and ‘ Natural Selection’ may be referred all the vary- ing forms and structures known to us, as well as all the phe- nomena of the living world. But such terms explain nothing. By their use further mquiry is discouraged, and the mind bent upon inyestigating the secrets of Nature is misled at the very outset. Can any one of these very pretentious phrases be re- solved into anything more than the statement of a fact or facts in the form and language of an explanation? Natural Selection is the formation of species, and species are produced by Natural Selection. Crystallisation is the formation of crystals, and crystals are produced by the operation of crystallisation.” This passage is extracted trom p 58. of “ The Mystery of Life ”—a little work by Dr. Beale, which was published a few months ago, Dr. Beale has a keen appreciation of the ‘ ludi- crous.” He thinks Mr. Howorth’s misrepresentation of the Darwinian theory ‘‘ very curious and even ludicrous,” and in the closing sentence of his letter in NaTURE, he appears to havea bit of fun to himself which ordinary mortals cannot understand ; and if he can prove that Natural Selection is a mere abstract statement of the fact that species are in some way or other formed, the Darwinian theory is the most “ludicrous ” ever pre- sented to mankind. Probably Mr. Wallace may take a different view of the subject, and he may even think that the objection is more ludicrous than the theory ; at any rate, no harm can result from bringing Dr. Beale and the champions of Natural Selection face to face, so that stricter tests than the ‘‘ ludicrous ” may be applied to ascertain whether the truth lies in the theory or in the objection. JAMEs Ross Newchurch, July 24 THE last paragraph of Mr. Howorth’s letter in NATURE of July 13 reminds me of a fact which I have often noticed, and which is, I suppose, well-known to botanists, viz. that certain creeping plants which root at the joints, flower sparingly unless the sprays are so disposed that they cannot take root. I refer especially to the Lysimachia nummularia (larger moneywort or ‘Creeping Jenny”). This plant blossoms comparatively little when allowed to trail in the moist soil which is its natural Aadita?, and in which alone the leaves look healthy and thriving. A spray trained off the flower bed on to a flag-stone, or a plant grown in a pot so as to hang over the edge and not be able to take root, will look sickly, but will be covered with flowers. I think I have noticed the same thing in connection with the periwinkle. Gardeners cut off the runners of strawberries and the suckers of fruit trees to increase the crop, because, as they say, runners ex- haust the plant. But is not the case, rather, that the possibility of continuing its own life by taking root at the runners makes the plant’s con- stitution, as it were, lazy about propagating its kind ? It is, perhaps, worth noticing that the cutting off the runners or suckers does not in any way weaken the plant, or cause ic to become sickly, but it dues prevent the indefinite prolongation of the individual life. THE OWNER OF A ‘‘ WEED GARDEN” Recent Neologisms WriTING, as I did, froma little Midland village, where access to an English dictionary was impossible, I am not surprised to find that three words, which I treated as recent coinages, were only re-introductions. Szrzvival, zmpolicy, and indiscipline, ave all so naturally formed, that, whether old or new, they are ‘welcome to stay.” My end was answered by putting a brand on Mr. Wallace's pro/ificness, by way of contrast. If he isbent on using that monster, he will help to naturalise it by spelling it with cé (instead of c) like ¢#ickness. But surely he is not driven between the Scyllaand Charybdis of prolzfickness and prolijicacity, when frolicity is starmg him in the face. For my part, I pray that the whole family will (to quote Sylvester again) “shake swift wing,” and be no moreseen, By-the-bye, I find the verb to handwrite in the Quarterly Review, April 1871, p. 332. That is a good, if not a new word, and well deserves re-introduction, C, M. INGLEBY The British Association and Local Scientific Societies Ir is to be regretted that the British Association does not exert its influence in stimulating local scientific s cieties towards greater efforts for the formation in their museums of collections repre- senting the Geology and Natural History of their respective neighbourhoods, so that they might constitute local monographs, Such a system, combined with a central museum in London, representing an epitome of the collections throughout the country, would tend to the advancement of science with greater rapidity and accuracy than at present, when the provincial museums are little better than overstocked curiosity-shops, and with no recognised plan of arrangement which is greatly wanted. In general there is little space tor additions of importance, from the fact that the museums already contain large miscellaneous collections, unconnected with the neighbourhood, and of little use to anybody. Many valu:ble private collections exist through- out the country, representing the geology, &c., of various localities, which are eventually too often dispersed and lost to [Fuly ou, 1871 ee Seen ere ee Fuly 27, 1871] NATURE 243 the district where they would be most useful and instructive. Private collectors would probably show more public spirit, if greater zeal and better judgment were shown by local societies. F.G.S. Science Teaching in Schools In the number of NaTuRE for April 20, there is an article containing an account of a “ Plan for Teaching Science in Ordi- nary Schools, submitted to the London School Board by Mr, J. C. Merris.” I will ask you to give me a little space for some details respect- ing an educational experiment I made in 1867, 1868, and 1869. My object was to test the value of a plan much resembling that referred to. By means of circulars, addressed to more than a hundred of the London clergy, I obtained permission to have the children in seven large schools instructed in science. Four com- petent teachers put their services at my disposal. One of these gentleman is now chemist in iron works, two are art masters, and the fourth, having obtained one of the Whitworth Scholarships, is a student at Owen’s College. I mention these facts to show the sufficiency of their knowledge. Three of them had had con- siderable experience in teaching. Twenty-two classes were formed, the total number of pupils exceeding 800. The principal subjects taught were chemistry, geology, physical geography, practical geometry, and mechanical drawing. The lessons were from one to two hours in duration on two days in the week at each school. But my plan differed from Mr. Morris’s, inasmuch as thirty-five to fifty-five lessons were generally given in a subject before proceeding to a new one. He suggests that ‘‘a single teacher could get through three or four subjects annually, so that in two or three years he would have completed the full course in each school.” This plan would give from twenty-two to thirty lessons per subject if I rightly understand his meaning. We fixed a small fee, but seldom obtained it, as we found that any attempt to press for payments would have reduced very materially the numbers in the colleges. The pupils were frequently examined, and those who appeared likely to satisfy the minimum requirements of the science department were sent in to the May examinations, The followiug are some of the observations I made at the time :— : 1. Few of the children appeared to obtain anything like sound and comprehensive knowledge of the facts the teachers put before them. 2. The great majority failed to express clearly on paper any ideas which an oral examination showed they had gained. 3. Most of them appeared to forget a subject within a few weeks after the discontinuance of instruction, or the substitutioa of another branch of science. The utter forgetfulness shown by whole classes was sometimes almost startling. 4. The papers worked by the girls at the examinations were superior to those produced by the boys, showing a more intelligent knowledge of the subjects they had been taught. This fact may, however, have resulted from accident, as comparatively few girls received instruction. T. JONES The College, Stony Stratford Ocean Currents Mr. LAUGHTON does not seem to observe that the subject of Ocean Currents involves several distinct issues, which may be discussed apart from each other. It is, of course, obvious that if the temperature explanation of the vertical circulation fails, then no illustration of the horizontal circulation, if founded on the temperature theory, can be really effective. But it is admis- sible to inquire separately whether the horizontal circulation would result from a vertical circulatioa such as the tempera- ture theory suggests. Jor an objection has been urged against the theory on account of the nature of the horizontal circulation (see Herschel’s ‘‘ Physical Geography.”) The express object of the experiment I have suggested is to show that this particular objection is unsound, or rather to illustrate the theoretical con- siderations argued in my essay on the Gulf Stream in the Student for July 1868. But even in so far as my suggested experiment, like the similar one carried out by Dr. Carpenter, illustrates the production of a vertical circulation, I deny that Mr, Laughton’s objection is valid. It is quite unnecessary to havea thermometric gradient resembling that in the terrestrial oceans. Whether Dr. Carpen- ter’s view be correct, according to which the Arctic regions are the place where the Ocean Currents have their birth, or whether the view I have advocated be preferable, that the chief source of the oceanic circulation is to be recognised in the effects of tropical and subtropical heat, it is clear that we are rather con- cerned with the integrated effects of one or other cause (or of both causes combined) than with the amount by which tempera- ture increases per mile of distance towards the equator. As I have already remarked, I conceive that any reasoning by which the contrary could be maintained would subvert the accepted and surely sufficient explanation of the trade and counter-trade winds. (lhe experiment described in illustration of this expla- nation in Daniell’s Meteorology is open to much graver objec- tions than Mr. Laughton has urged against Dr. Carpenter’s ex- periment ) And I note that here Mr. Laughton agrees with me, except that on the strength of his thermometric gradient he is as ready to give up one theory as the other, whereas I see no objection to retaining both. The very word ‘‘ gradient” should suggest the true answer to Mr. Laughton’s reasoning. A gradient of one in ten (say) will produce little velocity in a rolling body traversing such an incline for a distance of only a few feet, but if the incline be a few miles long the body rolling down it would acquire a velocity exceeding that of our swiftest express trains. Or again, suppose Dr. Car- penter, desiring to illustrate the subject of springs of water, em- ployed a conduit-pipe inclined 45 degrees to the vertical, would it be any valid objection to the illustration to urge that in most natural springs the water gradients are very much less? He could surely answer that the principle of his illustration was in no way affected by this circumstance, for if the water-gradients in nature are small, they act over a much longer range than could be emploved in his experimental illustration. So with Mr. Laughton’s temperature-gradients ; they are very small indeed, but their action extends over a very great distance ; and as in the two former cases the total fall measured vertically is to be looked upon as the true cause of the resulting motions, so I conceive that the total difference of temperature between Polar and Equa- torial waters is to be considered in discussing the temperature theory of oceanic circulation. I note, by the way, that ‘‘solar light” (by misprint or through a Japsus calami) was substituted for ‘‘solar heat” in my former letter. I did not think it necessary to correct this earlier, as I imagined the error would mislead no one. Like Mr. Laughton I “‘do not see what effects solar light can ever be supposed to produce,” on the ocean, at least, in producing circulation. I venture to remind Mr. Laughton that Dr. Carpenter’s posi- tion in this matter is very different from his or mine. /Ve have theorised on this subject, whether with more or less soundness time will show. But Dr. Carpenter has brought striking and im- portant facts to our knowledge ; and #/there has been ‘‘an air of triumph both in Dr. Carpenter’s lectures and writings” about ocean currents, he has had better cause for triumph than the mere success of a lecture-room experiment could have afforded him. RICHARD A, PROCTOR Brighton, July 21 Western Chronicle of Science I woutp beg to be allowed one or two remarks with reference to the very favourable review of the ‘‘ Western Chronicle of Science” which appeared in last week’s NATURE. Tt is not a ‘common Cornish habit to hang heavy jackets, great- coats, &c., on the lever of the safety-valve,” and the farmers do not, as a rule, “mix guano with limea few days before applying the manure.” The editor has seen both these absurdities per- formed, and has used them as beacons to wara young men what to avoid. I may also remark that Mr. Williams’s Paper is on Scientific AZizzng and not Scientific Nursing. Falmouth, July 22 J. H. CoLiins Formation of Flints NOTHING can be more annoying to a reporter than to find he has not satisfied those whose statements it has been his duty to condense. I have therefore carefully examined the report to which Mr. Johnson takes exception in his letter to you of the 11th inst., and I regret that I am unable to acknowledge any error. If Mr. Johnson will be good enough to consult some of those who were present at the meeting to which he refers, he will, I think, be more inclined to admit the accuracy of the report. THE WRITER OF THE REPORT 244 NOTES ' * Tur arrangements are now completed for the session of the British Association, to commence on Wednesday next ; and we may fairly expect a successful meeting. The large number of foreign savants who have announced their intention of being present will add greatly to the interest of the meeting, and the inhabitants of the pleasant Scottish capital seem determined to display to the utmost their well-known hospitality, both in a public and private capacity. The President’s Address, as we have already announced, will be delivered on Wednesday evening at 8 o’clock ; and at the first meeting of the General Committee, at 2 P.M. on the same day, the Presidents, Vice-presidents, and Secretaries of each Section will be appointed. On Thursday morning at eleven, the different sections will assemble in the rooms appointed for them, for the reading and discussion of re- ports and other communications ; and the siltings will be resumed at the same hour each day till Tuesday, August $. All further information may be obtained by those wishing to be present from the local secretaries, 14, Young Street, Edinburgh. THE Emperor of Brazil has signified his intention of being present at the approaching meeting of the British Association. Tue Indian Civil Engineering College at Cooper’s Hill will be opened by the Secretary of State and members cf the Council of India on Saturday, August 5th. WE have great pleasure in recording the inauguration of an effort to raise a memorial to the memory of the late Prof. William Allen Miller, and desire to call thereto the attention of all our readers who appreciate the valuable contributions to science for which weare indebted to that eminent chemist. The committee consists of Dr. Miller’s fellow-professors at King’s College and fellow-labourers in science, with the Rev. Principal Barry as chairman, Profs, Bentley and Bloxam, and Messrs. Cunningham and Tomlinson as secretaries, and Prof. Guy as treasurer. The intention is to raise a fund to be devoted, first, to the preparation of a bust or portrait of the late Dr. Miller, and, secondly, to the institution of a prize or scholarship in con- nection with King’s College, and bearing his name. The ordi- nary amount of subscription is to be one guinea, and the list of subscribers will be published without any statement of the amounts subscribed. & Tue International Congress of Prehistoric Anthropology and Archzology, which was last year postponed on account of the war, will be held this year at Bologna under the presidency of Count Gozzadini, and with Prof. Capellini as organising secre- tary. The sittings will commence on the Ist of October, and will continue during the following week. Mr. John Evans, F.R.S., of 65, Old Bailey, has consented to receive the subscrip- tions of English members, the amount of which has been fixed at ten shillings, and the payment of which entitles the member to the volume of proceedings. THE President and Council of the Royal Geographical Society have addressed a letter to the Vice-Chancellors of the Univer- sities of Oxford and Cambridge on the subject of the teaching of Physical and Political Geography. They observe that in the scheme now under the consideration of the Universities for the examination of boys between the ages of sixteen and eighteen from all the first-grade schools of England, neither branch of geography is included in the list of subjects out of which the boys are at liberty to choose any five for examination. They point out that geography has always been regarded as an essential, though subordinate, element of liberal education, and that it has been more and more frequently selected as their subject by can- didates who pass the examination of the Science and Art De- partment cf South Kensington. They hope that the Universities may see reason to repair the omission in the scheme above rescue geography from being badly taught in our schools, but will raise it to an even higher standard than it has yet attained. THE examiners in the Schcol of Law and Modern History at Oxford have given notice that at the next examination in December, Geography will form an important branch, and that papers will be set in the Honours Examination on this subject alone. By the appointment of Mr. Alexander Herschel to the Pro- fessorship of Experimental Philosophy at the Newcastle College of Physical Science, a vacancy occurs in the chair of Natural Philosophy at Anderson’s University, Glasgow. Applications must be sent to the secretary by the 26th of August. IN a letter to the Athencum, the widow of the late Prof. De Morgan invites those who possess letters or other mementoes of the illustrious mathematician to lerd them for the purpose of preparing a biography. Pror. Marsu, of Yale College, has just started out on a second expedition for scientific exploration and discovery in the far West, which we trust will be still more fruitful in interesting results than the first one which brought to light so many extra- ordinary forms of fossil animals, that have been briefly described by him in the American Yournal of Science, and referred to from time to time in our pages. His party for the present season will consist of thirteen besides himself, embracing quite a number of his companions of last year, and it is his intention to spend five or six months in searching the cretaceous and tertiary strata of the Rocky Monntain region and the Pacific coast for vertebrate fossil remains. With the experience of the past year and ample facilities, he expects to make very extensive collections. Tue New York Commissioners of Fish and Fisheries seem unwearied in their efforts to stock the waters of the State with the best varieties of fish. Among other results obtained by them, has been the hatching out during the past season of 3,000,000 shad eggs, or three times the total catch of the Hudson River. They have also bred several millions of white-fish, a million of salmon-trout, while of such fish as the black bass, pike, perch, and other varieties, they have supplied large numbers to those who would take and protect them. The period of their appointment will expire in the course of a year; but by that time, even if the commission should not be renewed, they will have made a most important impression upon the subject of the production of the fresh-water food supply. CoLLEcTORs of scarce works in Natural History, curiosities, stone implements, rare specimens, &c., should not neglect the opportunity of inspecting the collection of a well-known collec- tor, which will be sold at Thurgood and Giles’s Auction Room, 7, Argyll Street, Regent Street, on July 31st and three follow- ing days ; and will be on view two days before the first day’s sale. THE old adage about civilisation, or at least science, softening manners, is certainly being exemplified just now in France. M. Paul de Saint-Victor having given utterance to a violent tirade of undying hatred against Prussia, M. de Quesneville thus replies in the Aoniteur Scientifique :—‘* L’humanité veut qu’on oublie ; Vinterét des peuples, qui sont tous fréres, la raison, le bon sens, tout nous dit que dans cette guerre qui vient de finir, la France, quia succombé, doit chercher sa revanche, non dans la puissance de la force brutale, mais dans sa régénération sociale, et qu'elle doit demander 4 son génie de prouver sa superiorité dans les sciences, dans les lettres, et dans les arts, et que ce doit etre 1a sa seule vengeance. C’est par ]4 que la France est vraiment in- vincible, c’est par la qu’elle doit rester la grande nation, la natin aimée et préférée, et non dans une lutte d’obus et de chassepots.”” Neble words these, and full of the most rare form of genercsily, cheney BS ie Fuly 27, 1871] NATURE 245 that of the vanquished towards the victors ; a fitting response to the note of reconciliation given forth by the venerable Baron Liebig, to which we referred some weeks since. NorFo.k has always been noted for its devotion to ornitho- logy. The “ Transactions of the Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ | Society for 1870-71” contains several interesting and useful papers, among which we may especially mention ‘‘On the Ornithological Archzeology of Norfolk,” by T. Southwell, ‘‘On a Method of Registering Natural History Observations,” by Prof. Newton, “A Natural History Tour in Spain and Algeria,” by J. H. Gurney, and ‘‘ On Certain Coast Insects found exist- ing inland at Brandon, Suffolk.” The author of this last paper believes that these species must have survived for several thousand years, since the great valley of the fens was submerged. The insects found are peculiar to coast sand-hills, the nearest of which are at a distance of forty miles; and yet, ‘‘in spite of their isolation and alteration of condition, the species are as true and as clearly defined as those of our present coast.” Mr. W. G. M‘Ivor, Superintendent of the Cinchona Planta- tions of the Bengal Government in British Sikkim, has published a lengthy report, of which the following is an abstract :—‘‘ The plantations are situated in the Valley of Rungbee in the Himalayas, about thirteen miles frem Darjeeling, which seems admirably adapted for the growth of cinchona, The climate is very moist, being rarely free from rain. Nevertheless the state of the plantations is reported as very unsatisfactory ; the plants have nothing like the luxuriant foliage which characterises those grown in Southern India on the Nilgheries. They seem to thrive for three or four years at the most, and then become diseased.” Mr. M‘Ivor says that trees of equal height do not produce so much bark as in the South of India, being of more slender growth, and the bark being thinner. A GREAT demand for the English sparrow in various parts of the United States has induced their importation from England and Germany in large numbers; but in many instances where this has been done in large cages, most of the birds have died on the passage. In one instance, where four hundred were placed in two cages, only seven were safely landed in New York. Per- sons who haye given this subject their attention, advise that the importations be made in long low cages, known as store cages, which are two or three feet long, about nine inches high, and twelve from back to front, with perches within two inches of the bottom. In a cage of this kind three or four dozen can, it is said, be readily transported, provided they be supplied with proper food, as well as with sand and fine gravel and plenty of water. M. Wurtz has announced to the French Academy of Sciences that a young chemist in his laboratory has succeeded in trans- forming lactose, or the uncrystallisable sugar of milk, into dul- cose or dulcine, the sugar of mannite, which may easily be obtained in very beautiful crystals, by the successive reaction of hydrochloric acid and sodium-amalgam. M. Fre.ix PLATEAv has recently undertaken a number of ex- periments to determine the question whether the cause of the death of fresh-water animals when removed to sea water, and of marine animals when removed to fresh water, is the dif- ference in the density or in the chemical constitution of the water. His observations were made mostly on various species of Articulata; he found that those fresh-water species which possess an aérial respiration can survive the change to salt water, while those which possess only a branchial and cutaneous respi- ration die quickly. By experimenting on water made denser by the solution of sugar, M. Plateau came to the conclusion that the density of the water is not the destructive agent, but a portion | of the salts held in solution. The chlorides of sodium, potassium, | and magnesium, he found to be very quickly fatal to fresh-water species, while the sulphates of magnesium and calcium had no prejudicial effect. In the same manner the death of marine animals in fresh water appeared due to the giving off of sea- salt from their bodies to the surrounding fluid. All these facts he believes explicable from the laws of endosmose and diffusion. “A Key to the Natural Orders of British Wild Flowering Plants,” by Thomas Baxter, is designed to provide an “easier, although perhaps less scientific, method of identifying the orders of British Wild Flowering Plants than is generally found in analytical keys.” There is no royal road to botany, and we doubt whether it is any real advantage to the student to sacrifice scientific in favour of superficial characters. A CORRESPONDING member of the Glasgow Natural History Society, having been lately in Panama, has contributed to a local journal in the latter city an interesting account of the ants of the country. He describes a curious covered way or tubular bridge. In tracing one of these covered ways he found it led over a pretty wide fracture in the rocks, and was carried across in the air in the form of a tubular bridge of half an inch in diameter. It was the scene of busy traffic. There was nearly a foot of unsupported tube from one edge of the cliff to the other. Mr. TuwairEs, in his ‘‘ Enumeration of Ceylon Plants,” says that from the large extent of forest land which has been and is now being appropriated to coffee cultivation, there is little doubt that some of the indigenous plants will in time become exceed- ingly rare, if not altogether extirpated, or exist only in the Botanic Garden, into which as {many as possible are being intro- duced. The obtrusive character, too, of a plant brought to the island less than fifty years since is helping to alter the character of the vegetation up to an elevation of 3,000 feet. This is the Lantana mixta, averbenaceous species introduced from the West Indies, which appears to have found in Ceylon asoil and climate exactly suited to its growth. It now covers thousands of acres with its dense masses of foliage, taking complete possession of land where cultivation has been neglected or abandoned, pre- venting the growth of any other plants, and even destroying small trees, the tops of which its subscandent stems are able to reach, The fruit of this plant is so acceptable to frugivorous birds of all kinds that, through their instrumentality, it is spreading rapidly, to the complete exclusion of the indigenous vegetation from spots where it becomes established. METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORIES ys the part of the Quarterly Weather Report of the Meteorological Office just issued, for January—March, 1870, the following information is given with regard to the observatories from which the observations are recorded, accompanied by the illustrations which the courtesy of the committee enables us to reproduce. As correct an idea as possible is thus given of the value of the thermo- metrical and anemometrical observations published by them, and the local influences which may exert an effect in each case. VALENCIA.—The observatory is situated close to the shore on the south side of the island, about three miles from the open sea. The anemograph is on the roof of the house, which is two stories high. Its exposure is fairly good, for although it is situated in a valley, with hills of the height of about 1,000 feet to the seuth and south-east of it at a distance of three miles, and with a slight hill about 700 feet high distant three-quarters of a mile on the north-west of it, the country towards the other points of the compass is quite open, and the situation for wind is as favourable as can be obtained on that very rugged coast. The only point from which the wind is materially deflected or checked by local influence is the north-west. The house is an ordinary dwelling house of small size. 246 The thermograph is on its north side, facing due N.W. 1-N., and on the first story. The buibs of the instru- ments are at a height of twelve feet above the ground, and about twenty feet above the sea level. The exposure is very good, as there are no buildings or trees in the vicinity to affect the readings. ARMAGH.—The observatory is on a rising ground close to the town; it is situated in the centre of an ordinary garden and pleasureground, containing trees and shrubs ef moderate size. The anemograph is erected on the roof of the house, and raised seventeen feet above it, and is thoroughly well exposed to all points, excepting that the country about is undulating and fairly well wooded, which has the effect of retarding the motion of the air. The thermograph screen is erected on the north side of the meteorological observatory; the bulbs are at the distance of four feet from the ground, and about 206 feet above the sea level. The exposure of the screen is good, though there are trees and shrubs about it. However, NATURE ABERDEEN.—The observatory is at King’s College in Old Aberdeen, and lies on a plane gradually rising from VALENCIA Dr. Robinson has satisfied himself by an independent series of observations that the record taken in the screen gives the true temperature of the place. GLasGow.—The instruments are at the astronomical observatory, which is placed on a slight rising ground at the west side of the town, and commands a clear view of the horizon in all directions. It cccupies a central posi- tion in the valley of the Clyde, which is about 16 miles in breadth at that place. The bounding hills to the north are about 800 feet in height, those towards the south are about 4oo ft. high. The prevailing south-westerly winds sweep along the estuary of the Clyde and reach the observatory without much interruption, The exposure both of the anemograph and of the thermograph screen is very satisfactory. The former is on the roof of the building, the latter is attached to the north wall of the tower in which the equatoreal is placed. The bulbs are 7ft. above the ground, and about rgoft. above sea level, aes i i it GLASGOW the sea, from which it is distant about a mile. There are no irregularities of surface in the vicinity, excepting the two river valleys of the Dee and Don, which are not of [Huly 27,1871 Df Fuly 27, 1871] NATURE 247 great importance. The ground immediately about the Great difficulties were encountered in obtaining a site buildings is 46 ft. above the mean sea level. for the thermograph screen. The north side of the college | AUCTION oy | I |) ET TIEN) oT ae AONE nA T SE = ==—= S| == 1S MMT TTS _— TMI HUET aN AC ASCOT LIRA el Il T AKI IMM Hn if Y Wl i IAN Mi TT AT TT == ——S —— SSS ee : mwy t — re ATE il iil ia KEW FALMOUTH is almost entirely occupied by the chapel. One wall of the building in which the physical cabinet and lecture- room are situated also affords a north aspect, but un- The anemograph is erected on the roof of the build- ing, at a height of 72:ft§from the ground. It is well exposed on all sides. 248 fortunately there are trees growing ata short distance from it, which would entirely check the free circulation of air about the instruments were the screen set up at the usual elevation of about 6 feet above the ground. Accordingly the window on the second story of the building was selected. It affords a free exposure to the north, but is at a level of 41 ft. above the ground, and about 87 feet above the sea level. This elevation will of course exert a considerable influ- ence on the thermometrical observations recorded. FALMOUTH.—The establishment of an observatory at this station was beset with considerable difficulties ; the building in which the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society holds its meetings was unsuited to the purposes of a meteorological station. Accordingly a tower was erected at the south-east corner of the bowling green, on the top of one of the hills on which the town is built. The anemograph is on the summit of the tower, well exposed on all sides; but from the fact that the ground in the neighbourhood is uneven, the hill sloping rapidly down to the harbour, it seems probable that the force of the wind is not quite true, especially when it is easterly. The position of the thermograph screen is far from being quite satisfactory ; however, a better exposure could not be obtained. The screen is attached to the north wall of the tower, at an elevation of 11 feet above the ground, and about 200 feet above sea level. It will be seen that there is the wall of a dwelling house at no great distance to the westward, which may possibly affect the instrument by radiation, and also interfere with the free circulation of the air, STONYHURST.—The observatory stands in the centre of the college garden, which is on a gentle slope facing S.S.E., 381 feet above sea level. The anemograph stands on a cylindrical roof 12 feet in diameter and 4 feet 5 inches in height. The total height of the cups above the ground is 30 feet. The country around, including the college grounds, is wooded, but not very thickly so, and the trees are in general smail, The nearest trees whose height could materially influence the anemograph are at a distance of about 200 yards, bearing from N. by W. to N. by E. The main building of the college is placed at the N.W. of the observatory, at a distance of 193 yards, its angular height above the roof of the observatory being 1° 37’,and bearings from N. by W. to W.N.W. The nearest hill is the Longridge Fell, whose nearest point is about two miles from the college. It extends from N. by W. to W. by N., and its highest point is 4° 1’. Pendle Hill is at five and a half miles distance E.N.E.; height 2° 5’. Between these hills the country is very open. To the eastward there are hills at about four miles distance, height about 1°. To the S. and S.W, the land is low. It will be seen from this that the anemograph is fairly well exposed to the different points of the compass. The thermograph screen is attached to the north wall of the observatory, the bulbs are at an elevation of 7 ft. above the ground. The exposure is good. Kew.—The observatory is situated in the old Deer Park at Richmond. It is a small building, which is well exposed to the wind, excepting on the west side, where there is a row of trees distant about 150 yards, which must materially affect the velocity of the wind. The country about is also well wooded. The anemograph is placed on the dome. . The thermograph screen is attached to the north wall of the observatory within ten feet of the west end of that wall, at a height of ten feet above the ground, and about fifty above sea level. Its exposure is good. We hope to take another opportunity of reviewing the volume itself. NATURE a” ON THE RECENT SOLAR ECLIPSE* (Continued from page 233) II.—PoLaRIscoPpic OBSERVATIONS V ITH regard to the polarisation experiments, by the kindness of Mr. Spottiswoode I am enabled to show you, in a very clear way, the raison a’étre of the polariscopic observations made during this and former eclipses; but the polariscopic ground is a wide one, and it is not my intention to cover it to-night. I have had this arrangement of lamp, reflector and prisms made so that you may see how the polariscope can determine the per- centage of reflected light at different angles, and the direction ot reflection. Assume this lamp to represent the sun, let this re- flector clese to the lamp represent a particle near the sun, reflect- ing light to us, we shall naturally have the light reflected at a much larger angle than if the reflector were close to the screen representing a particle in our own air. Having this idea of the angle of reflection in your minds, and the fact that the larger the angle under these conditions the more the polarisation, if you take this lamp, as I have said, to represent the sun, and this mirror to represent any particle, of whatever kind you choose toimagine, it is clear that in order to get the maximum polariscopic effect from that particle, you must have it so situated that it will reflect light at a considerable angle to the beam coming from this lamp. Now it is clear that in order to polarise the beam most strongly, I must place the reflector close to our imaginary sun. If I so place it as to represent a particle in our own atmosphere, the angle will be so small that the polarisation of the light will hardly be perceptible. Here is our sunlight, which we will polarise at as great an angle as we can, by placing the reflector close to the imaginary sun, and send it through this magnificent prism which Mr, Spottiswoode has been good enough to place at our disposal ; and in the path of the beam I will place an object so that you determine whether there is polarised light. [Experiment.] You see there is considerable brilliancy in those colours; their brilliancy depending upon the amount of polarisation. Now if, instead of having our reflector close to our imaginary sun to represent a particle in the sun’s atmosphere, we place it near the screen to represent a particle in our own, in which case the angle is extremely small, the brilliancy of the colours will entirely disappear. You see it has disappeared. The colours, as colours, are distinguishable, but their brilliancy has gone. That is the rationale of the polariscopic observations, which have been made on the occasion of the last eclipse with more elaboration than they ever were before. If we found the corona to be strongly polarised, this was held to be a great argument in favour of the corona being a real solar appendage, an argument strengthened if the polarisation was also found to be radial. At present, however, a great many of the observations that have been made have not been received, and those that have been re- ceived are as discordant as those obtained in former eclipses, and therefore my account is an imperfect one, because I have not had an opportunity of discussing all these observations, Indeed, if I had, I should hesitate to give an opinion: on the sub- ject. When Mr. Carrington saw that small corona in 1851, and Mr. Gillis saw that small corona in 1855, neither of them traced any polarisation whatever ; but when M. Liais saw that large corona in 1868, which was invisible to Mr. Gillis, he in his turn saw an immense amount of polarisation, which led him to believe that the corona was solar, the whole of it, rays and everything included, and that we had an indication of a solar atmosphere two or three times higher than the diameter of the sun ; that is, an atmosphere two or three millions of miles in height. This observation is not in accordance with the general conclusions from the drawings I have shown you ; and let me add that the assumption of reflection at the sun is not without its difficulties, and that we have not yet traced reflected sunlight, even when the strongest polariscopic effects have been observed. TII.—Atry’s AND MADLER’S CONCLUSIONS AS THE RESULTS OF THE PRE-SPECTROSCOPIC OBSERVATIONS Before passing to the spectroscopic observations, I will state the conclusions at which the Astronomer Royal and M. Madler arrived after the observations of 1860 had been gathered together. The Astronomer Royal, in a lecture delivered before the British Association at Manchester in 1861, stated that the assump- tion of an atmosphere extending to the moon explained the ob- servation of Plantamour, which could, he thought, be explained * Lecture delivered at the Royal Institution, Friday, March 17, 1871. LYauly 27, 1870 Fuly 27, 1871) in no other way, and he held also that the polarisation experi- ments seemed to show the same thing. The Astronomer Royal was content to find the reflection, which so many now insist must be at the sun, taking place somewhere between the earth and moon. M. Madler’s verdict is in the same direction, and though he does not perhaps express so decided an opinion, he maintains that the atmosphere plays a principal part in the phenomenon ; and after detailing experiments to show this, he remarks of the solar and atmospheric portions, ‘‘ Both cover each other and unite in one phenomenon, so that the corona is a mixed phe- nomenon.” I shall shortly show you that the spectroscope, leaving the telescope out of consideration, has taught us that this is true ; tliough I shall not be able to show you that it is the whole truth ; we are not yet ina position to do that. Madler concludes his observations by remarking :—‘‘ We cannot share the doubts of those who are afraid to surround the sun with too many envelopes ; neither do we find anything unnatural in the statement that the sun has as many atmospheres as Saturn has rings ; but we gladly admit that we cannot yet say anything positive. We have here a large field of probabilities, and the decision may yet be distant.” We can speak with more certainty now ! IV.—SPECTROSCOPIC OBSERVATIONS a.— Spectrum of the Corena first observed by Tennant, Pogson, and Rayet We now come to the consideration of those observations in which we are aided bya most powerful and our most recent ally, the spectroscope, first used on the eclipsed sun, as you know, in the eclipse of 1868. You all know that in that year the question of the nature of red flames was for ever settled by M. Janssen, Major Tennant, Captain Herschel, and others, who observed that eclipse in the most admirable manner ; but we have nothing to do with the red flames now, we have to do with something outside them. Now, most of you are under the impression, and it was mine until the day before yesterday, that the only thing we learnt about the corona in the eclipse of 1868, was that its spectrum was a con- tinuous one ; and I need not tell anyone in this theatre that the as- sertion that it was continuous was one that was extremely embarrass- ing, and implied that we had something non-gaseous outside the red flames, which seemed very improbable to those who know anything about the subject. Butsome of you will no doubt remember that, besides Major Tennant, who made this observation, we had a French observer, M. Rayet, who gave us a diagram of the spectrum of one of the prominences, and Mr. Pogson, who has now been for some time in India, and is a well-known observer, who gaye us, nominaily as the spectrum of a prominence, a spectrum with some curious variaticns from M. Rayet’s diagram. T exhibit a copy of M. Rayet’s diagram of the spectrum of a prominence, as he called it. Atthe bottom is what he con- sidered as the spectrum of the lower portion of the prominence ; while in the higher portion, where we get fewer lines, as he con- sidered, is the spectrum of the higher portion of the prominence. The spectrum of the lower portion contains the lines B, D, E, and F, and some other lines, in all nine, while the spectrum of the upper part of the prominence, as he thought it, only con- tains three lines. It was at first difficult to account for these observations. In the first place, one could not understand the line B being given, because I soon found that the line B was not seen as a bright line in the chromosphere spectrum ; it was clearly the line C that was intended. Hence doubt was thrown on the other lines ; it seemed as if M. Rayet was wrong about his elongated lines D, I%, and F, and probably meant C near D and F, And so it was explained—I am ashamed to say by myself—that there was no particular meaning in these elon- gated lines, except that the spectrum of the prominence some distance away from the sun was simpler than it was nearer the sun, as happens in all prominences, as we may now determine any day we choose to look at the sun by means of the spectro- scope. j Now let us hear Mr. Pogson. He gave a diagram showing five lines in the spectrum of what he thought a prominence, and he writes :—‘‘ A faint light was seen (in the spectroscope), scarcely coloured, and certainly free from either dark or bright lines. While wondering at the dreary blank before me, and feeling intensely disappointed, some bright lines came gradually into view, reached a pretty considerable maximum brilliancy, and NATURE 249 again faded away. Five of these lines were visible, but two decidedly superior to the rest... . . The readings of the two brightest were secured. It struck me as strange that these brightest lines should appear at a part of the spectrum not cor- responding to any very conspicuous dark lines in the solar Spectrumsn ersten [These lines are a little less refrangible than E.] The third line seen in order of brilliancy must have been either coincident with, or very near the place of the sodium line D, but it was much fainter than the two measured, while the fourth and fifth lines were extremely faint.” {They were very faint and DOUBLED, and near F. I have seen F give way to a double line ia our hydrogen experiments, though I am not prepared to say this is an explanation of Mr. Pogson’s ob- servations. | The fact that we have here the first observations of the spect- rum of the sun’s corona is one beyond all doubt ; and why M. Rayet and Mr. Pogson thought they were observing prominences when they were observing above them, is explained by a remark made by Captain Tupman, of the Royal Marine Artillery, who acted as jackal to Prof. Harkness, and picked out the brighter spots of the corona for his observation. Prof. Harkness observ- ing the prominence bright lines, said to Captain Tupman, ‘‘ You have turned the telescope on to a prominence; I want the corona.” ‘*No,” said Captain Tupman, ‘‘I am giving you the corona as well as I can.” It was certainly the corona in both cases. Here you see, dimly and darkly, the first outcome of the spectroscope on the nature of the corona; a record as fairly written as anything at the sun can write it; and I am more anxious to lay stress on these observations, since they have lain fallow for two years, and show the importance of observa- tions, not only in extending our knowledge, but in explaining prior observations ; and it is an additional reason for never re- jecting an observation. What was, however, dim and dark in 1868, shone out brightly in 1869, thanks to the skill of the American observers of the eclipse of that year. 6.—Laboratory Experiments bearing on these Observations But before I proceed to refer to the admirable observations made in America during this eclipse, I wish to introduce you to some work which was commenced in 1868, and has been done quite independently of eclipses. In a lecture which I delivered here about two years ago, I described to you some of the facts observed by the spectroscope in the bright-line region which had been spectroscopically determined to exist all round the sun, and which, as in it all the various coloured effects are seen in total eclipses, I had named the Chromosphere. It was clear that by the new method of observing this without any eclipse, by partially killing, so to speak, the atmospheric light, we got a percentage only of the phenomenon, as the atmospheric light could only be killed by an amount of dispersion which enfeebled and shortened the chromospheric lines ; so that although we could say that an envelope of some 5,000 or 6,000 miles in height existed round the sun, we could not fix this asa maximum limit. Further, when we examined the spectrum of this envelope we got long lines and short lines; and I told how the short lines indicated a low stratum, and how a long line indicated a higher one. To explain this, I will show you an observation made long before the new method was thought of. Even before that time we had abun- dant evidence of such strata, if we could not determine their nature: we had distinct evidence either of one thing shinning out, and then another, or that various substances were situated at different levels, under different conditions; on the first hypo- thesis, at the extreme outside of the chromosphere the last thing would thin out, and then there would be an end of all things as respects the sun. I will show you a drawing made by Prof. Schmidt of the eclipse of 1851. I do not wish to call your attention to the strange shape of the large prominence, but to the fact, that as the moon passed over this region we get a thin red band, first along the edge of the dark moon, and after the moon had passed over still further, we see this red layer, sespended as it were in the chromosphere, with a white layer below it. This is the explana- tion of the long and short lines visible in the spectrum of the chromosphere ; in the red layer we have hydrogen almost alone ; below, its red light was conquered by other light with bright lines in all parts of the spectrum, and we get white light. Lord Lindsay tells me he has a distinct indication, written Ly the sun himself, that in one particular part of the chromosphere, as recorded photographically in Spain, there were three such layers. And over and over again we find recorded white light close to the sun, then red alone, or red mixed with ye!low, then violet, 250 NATURE and lastly green. And M. Midler remarks on this very admir- ably, ‘ The violet band is the link between the prominences and the corona.” Before going further, I will show you the difference in the appearance of what we may term hot hydrogen and cold hydro- gen, that is, hydrogen which we drive into different degrees of incandesceace by means of the spark. After Dr. Frankland and myself were able to determine that the pressure in these solar regions was small, we came to the conclusion that outside the hot hydrogen there must be some cooler hydrogen, in order that the phenomena we observed, both in the laboratory and in the observatory, should agree. I have in this tube hydrogen ata certain pressure, and here we have a coil which will enable us to send a spark through it ; you see we get a certain amount of redness in that tube, and if you look on one side or above you will see a sort of bluish-greenish light. Now that redness represents the condition of the hydro- gen in the region of the sun where Dr. Schmidt gave us that ex- tremely thin red ring, and the combination of the blue and red would give you something very like violet. But here [ have hydrogen under adifferent condition. In the tube its rareness is not excessive ; but in this globe, of which I am about to speak, you have the nearest approach to a vacuum ever obtained through which a spark will pass ; and I beg to call your attention to what will now happen. This globe contains the same chemical element prepared at the same time as the chemical element you have in the tube, but you see that, so far as colour goes, we have something perfectly different in this case. Now we send the spark through it. I would beg Prof. Tyndall, if he will be good enough, to observe the spectrum of this hydrogen in this globe. [Prof. Tyndall did so.] You will see that there is one line? [Prof Tyndall: Yes.| Anda continuous spectrum? [Prof Tyndall: And a continuous spectrum, ] Cool hydrogen gives us only the bright line I’, plus A continuous spectrum, and many of you will know the extreme importance of that observation. It accounts for the F line being observed without the C line in 1868 and last year, and also for he continuous spectrum observed in the Indian eclipse. ¢.—The American Lclipse When we come from the Indian to the American eclipse with the considerations to which I have drawn your attention, namely, the existence of these different layers due to the different ele- ments and conditions of the same element thinning out, we shall see the extreme importance of the American observations, for they establish the fact that outside the hydrogen layer there was a layer giving only a line in the green, the line which Rayet and Pogson had observed associated with the hydrogen spectrum and the spectrum of the yellow substance. Here obviously we have, I think, merely an indication of another substance thinning out, in spite of the extraordinary suggestion which was put forward that the corona was nothing but a Aermanent solar aurora. I need hardly tell you that the idea of a permanent aurora any- where was startling, and that of a permanent solar aurora more startling still ; but what I claim is, that during last year’s obser- vations we made this very startling idea into a most beautiful fact, namely, that this outer layer of the chromosphere is in all eed nothing more nor less than an indication of an element ighter than hydrogen, although this is not yet absolutely estab- lished, for the line is coincident with one of the lines in the spec rum of iron, U—The layers increase very rapidly in Density. Reproduction of the Coloured Phenomena Dr. Frankland and myself were early drawn to consider the solar nature of the large coronas, to which I have called your attention, as extremely questionable, even on the supposition of cool hydrogen, because we did not see how, with its temperature and pressure, it could extend very far: and an experiment which I have to make here will probably make that clearer. We have in these glass vessels hydrogen a little more brilliant now the spark passes through it than that you saw in the globe, because I have been compelled to mix with it a certain amount of mercury vapour. Below, we have at the present moment sodium vapour being generated from metallic sodium in one tube, and mereury vapour in the other. I hope, if the experiment suc- ceeds, you will see that a good many of the coloured phenomena seen in the chromosphere during eclipses may be easily repro- duced by such experiments as this; and not only the coloured phenomena but ‘he increase of brilliancy accompanied by changes of colour recorded. You can now all see the yellow tinge at the bottom of one tube, and the green tinge at the bottom of the other; and if there were time to continue this experiment by increasin: the densily of the vapours now associated with the hydrogen, L could make the bottom portion of each tube where the vapours are densest shine outalmost like the sun, while the cool hydrogen at the top would remain not more brilliant than it is at present, We should have as it were a section of the chromosphere. V.—CONCLUSION I will proceed now, if you will allow me, to some of the general results obtained during the last eclipse. I think that, although the work has been very unfortunately interrupted, still the result has been most satisfactory. By putting together observations here and observations there, I consider our knowledge of the sun is enormously greater than it was a few months ago, Tor instance, we are enabled to understand the long-neglected observation of Rayet, and the equally long- neglected observation of Pogson ; and we know that outside the — hydrogen there is, in all probability, a new element existing in a state of almost infinite tenuity. And we are sure of the existence of cool hydrogen above the hot hydrogen, a fact which seemed — to be negatived by the eclipse of 1869. I think if we had merely determined that there was this cool - hydrogen, all our labour would not have been in vain, as it shows: the rapid reduction of temperature. But there is more behind. I told you that M. Midler, in summing up the observations made up to 1860, came to the conclusion that part of the corona was certainly solar, and that whether the outer portions were or were not solar, was a matter of doubt. I do not say that we have settled that absolutely, but we have firm evidence that some of the light of the corona is due to reflexion between the earth and the moon, The outer corona was observed to have a rosy tinge over the prominences, and the spectrum of the prominences was detected many minutes above them, as well as on the dark moon. It could not have got this colour at éie sur, for its intrinsic colour is green, and the red light of the hydrogen supplied at the sun is abolished altogether, is absorbed, and can only reach the corona af ¢/e sur, so to speak, as dark light. It isa great fact that we are sure, as far as observation can make us sure, that there isa glare round the hydrogen which gives us the spectrum of hot hydrogen on the corona, where we know that hot hydrogen does not exist, Assume the hot hydrogen which gives us the red light to be only two minutes high, the spectroscope has picked it up eight minutes from the sun! The region of cool hydrogen is exaggerated in the same way. We get it where there is no indication of the cool hydrogen existing. And then with regard to the element which gives us the line of the green, we get that twenty minutes or twenty-five minutes away from the sun, Well, no man who knows anything about the matter will affirm that it is certain that the element exists at that distance from the sun. Therefore I think we have absolutely established the fact that as the sun—the uneclipsed sun—gives us a glare round it, so each layer of the chromosphere gives us a glare round it. That is exactly what was to be expected, and that it is true is proved by the observation—a most important observation made in Spain— that the air, the cloud, ever between us and the dark moon, gives us the same spectrum that we get from the prominences themselves. Given, however, the layers and elements in the chromosphere extended as far as you will, and apparently increased or not by reflection ot at the sun, we have still to account for rays, rifts, and the like. If anyone will explain either Mr. Brothers’s photo- graph or Mr. Gilman’s picture of the eclipse of 1869, containing those dark bands starting from the moon and fading away into space, and the bright variously-coloured rays between them, on any solar theory, he will render great service to science. But in the meantime I must fall back upon M. Miadler’s opinion of 1860, with the addition to it that I have stated that we have found, at all events, that some of the doubtful light is non-solar ; we have turned the opinion into a fact. Bear in mind that close to the sun you have a white layer com- posed of vapours of many substances, including all the outer ones ; outside this isa yellow region; above that a region of hydrogen, incandescent and red at the base, cooler, and therefore blue, higher up, the red and blue commingling and giving us violet ; and then another element thinning out and giving us green. Take these colours in connection with those which are thrown on our landscapes or on the sea during eclipses, each region being lit up in turns with varying, more or less mono- - Yaly 27, 1871] chromatic light, and that light of the very colour composing the | various layers, each layer being, as [ have shown, so much e brighter than the outer ones that its light predominates over them, Ts it too much to suggest to those who may be anxious to attempt to elucidate this subject, that probably if they would consider all the conditions of the problem presented by that great screen, the moon, allowing each of these layers by turn to throw its light earthwards, the inequalities of the edge of the globular moon allowing here light to pass from a richer region, here stopping light from even the dimmer ones, they would be able to explain the rays, their colours, variations, apparent twistings, aud change of side? Ido not hesitate to ask this question, because it is a difficult one to answer, since the whole question is one of enor- mous difficulty. But difficult though it be, I trust I have shown you that we are on the right track, and that in spite of our bad | weather, the observations made by the English and American Government Eclipse Expedition of 1870 have largely increased our knowledge. With increase of knowledge generally comes a necessity for changing the nomenclature belonging to a time when it was im- perfect. form no exception to this rule. A few years ago our science was satisfied with the terms prominences, sierra, aud corona, to re- present the phenomena I have brought before you, the nature of both being absolutely unknown, as is indicated by the fact that | the term svrva was employed, and aptly so, when it was imagined the prominences might be solar mountains! We now know many of the consti uent materials of the-e strange things; we know that we are dealing with the exterior portion of the solar atmosphere, and a large knowledge of solar meteorology is al- ready acquired, which shows us the whole mechanism of these prominences. But we also know that part of the corona is not at the sun at all. Hence the terms /eicosphere and halo have been suggested 10 designate in the one case the regions where the general radiation, owing to a reduced pressure and temperature, is no longer subordinate to the selective radiation, and in the other, that part of the corona which is non-solar. Neither of these terms is apt, nor is either necessary. All purposes will be served if the term corona be retained as a name for the exterior region, including the rays, rifts, and the like, about which doubt still exists, though it is now proved that some part is oz-solar, while tor the undoubted solar portion the term Chromosphere— the biight-line region—as it was defined in this theatre now two years ago, exactly expresses its characteristic features, and differenuates it fr. m the photosphere and the associated portion of the solar atmosphere. Here my discourse would end, if it were not incumbent on me to state how graceful 1 feel to Her Majesty's Government for giving us the opportunity of going to the eclipse; to place on record the pleasure we all felt in being so closely associated in our work with the distinguished American astronomers who from fir-tto last aided us greatly ; and to express our great gratiiude to all sorts of new fnends whom we found wherever we went, and who welcomed us as if they had known us from our child- hood, J. Norman Lockyer ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATUKE IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC AT the request of the Council of the Scottish Meteorological Society, I beg to bring before you a sketch of the more recent results of investigations into the causes of the abnormal climate of the surface of a great portion of the North Ailantic Ocean, and of the lands which form its north-eastern borders ; and especially the results of the deep-sea explonny expeditions of the last three years, in which | have takena part, so sar as they bear upon this point. In arecent valuable report on the Gulf Stream in the ‘‘ Geo- graphische Mittheilungen,” of last year, Dr. Petermann severely and, | think, too justly, reflected upon us students of ocean tempe- ratures for giving ourselves up to wild and gratuitous speculation. I wish, if possible, on the present occasion, to avoid all risk of such impeachment, by limiting our inquiry rigidly for the few minu’es I have at my disposal to the present condition of our knowledge of facts, and to such deductiuns from these as may be fairly considered proved. * Acdress deiivered to the Meteorological Society of Scotland at the _ General Meeting of the Society, July 5. The researches to which I have drawn your attention | NATURE 251 Let us then first inquire for a moment what the phenomena are which we are called upon to correlate and to explain. There is no dispute about these facts, and a glance at the chart will at once recall them to your recollection. In the first place, the lines of equal mean annual temperature, instead of showing any tendency to coincide with the parallels of latitude, run up into the North Atlantic and into the North Sea, in the form ofa series of long loops, ‘This diversionof the isothermal lines from their normal direction is admittedly caused by surface ocean- currents conveying the warm tropical water towards the polar regions, whence there is a constant counter-flow of cold water beneath to supply its place. This phenomenon is not confined to the North Atlantic. A corresponding series of loops, though not so well defined, passes southwards along the east coast of South America, and a very marked series occupies the north- eastern angle of the Pacific, offthe Aleutian Islands and the coast of California, ‘The temperature of the land is not affected di- rectly by the temperature of the sea in its immediate neighbour- hood, but by the temperature of the prevailing wind, which is determined by that of the sea. Setting aside the still more im- portant point of the equalisation of summer and winter tempera- ture, the mean annual temperature of Bergen, lat. 60° 24’ N., sub- ject to the ameliorating influence of the south-west wind blowing over the temperate water of the North Atlantic, is 6°7° C, while that of Tobolsk, lat. 58° 13’, is —2°4° C. But the temperature of the North Atlantic is not only raised greatly above that of places on the same parallel of latitude having a continental climate by this in'erchange of tropical and polar water, but it is greatly higher than that of places appa- rently similarly circumstanced as to a general interchange of water in the Southern Hemisphere. Tnus, the mean annual temperature of the Faroe Islands, lat. 62° 2'N.is71° C. nearly equal to that o! the Falkland Islauds, lat. 52°S., whichis 8 2°C., and the temperature of Dublin, lat. 53° 21’ N., is 9°6° C., while that of Port Famine, lat. 53° 8S, is 5°3°C. Again the high temperature of the North Atlantic is no: equally distributed, but is very marked in its special determination to the nortl.-east coasts. Thus, the mean annual temperature of Halifax, lat. 44° 39’, is 62" C., while that of Dublin, lat. 53° 21’ isg6C., and the temperature of Boston (Mass.) lat. 42° 21’ is exacily the same as that of Dublin. We thus arrive at the well-known general result, that the tem- perature of the sea bathing the north-east shores of the North Avantic is greatly raised above i's normal point by currents in- volving an interchange of tropical and polar water ; and that the lands bordering onthe Neurth Atlantic participate in this ameliora- tion of climate by the heat imparted by the water to their prevail- ing winds. We shall now examine this distribution of ocean temperature a little more minutely. During the last many years a prodigious amount of data have been accumulating with re erence to the detailed distribution of heat on the surface o! the No th Atlantic besin, and last year M. Petermann, of Gotha. published in his “ Geographische Mittheilungen ” a series of invaluable temperature charts embodying the resuits of the reduction of upwards of 100,000 observations derived mainly from the following sources :— I-t. Fromthe wind and currentcharts of Lieut. Maury, em- b: dying about 30,000 distinct temperature observations. 2nd. From 50,000 observations made by Dutch sea captains and published by the Government of the Netherlands. 3rd. From the journal of the Cunard steamers between Liver- pool and New York, and of the steamers of the Montreal Company between Glasgow and Felleisle. 4h. From the data collected by our excellent secretary, Mr. Buchan, with regard to the temperature of the coast of Scoiland. sth. From the publications of the Norwegian Institute on sea temperatures between Norway, Scotland, and Iceland. 6th. From the data furnished by the Dani-h Rear-admiral Irminger on sea temperatures between Denmark and the Danish settlements in Greenland. 7th. Froni the observations made by Lord Dufferin on board his yacht /oam between Scotland, Iceland, Spitzbergen, and Norway. And finally from the recent observations collected by the Eng- Jish. German, Swedish, ani Russian expeditions to the Arctic Regions and towards the North Pole. Dr. Petermonn has devo ed the special attention of a great part of his life to this question, and the accuracy ot his results in every deiail is beyond the shadow of adoubt. Every curve of equal temperature, whether for the summer, for the winter, or for the 252 NATURE whole year, instantly declares itself as one of a system of curves which are referred to the Strait of Florida as the source of heat, and the warm water may be traced (and this is not begging the question, for the temperature is got by dipping the thermometer in the water), in a continuous stream, indicated where its move- ment can no longer be observed by its form, fanning out from the neighbourhnod of the Strait across the Atlantic, skirting the coasts of France, Britain, and Scandinavia, rounding the North Cape, and passing the White Sea and the Sea of Kari, bathing the western shores of Novaja Semlaand Spitzbergen, and finally coursing round the coast of Siberia, a trace of it still remaining to try to find its way through the narrow and shallow Behring’s Strait into the North Pacific. Now it seems to me that if we had these observations alone, which are merely de- tailed and careful corroborations of many previous ones, and could depend upon them, without even having any clue to their rationale, we should be forced to admit that whatever might be the amount and distribution of heat derived from a general eceanic circulation, whether produced by the prevailing winds of the region, by convection, by unequal barometric pressure, by tropical heat, or by arctic cold, there is besides this some other source of heat at the point referred to by these curves sufficiently powerful to mask all the rest, and, broadly speaking, to produce of itself all the perceptible deviations of the isotherms from their normal course. But we have no difficulty in accounting for this source of heat. As is well-known, about the equator, the north-east and south-east trade winds reduced to meridional directions by the eastward frictional impulse of the earth’s rotation, drive before them a magnificent surface current of hot water, the cquatorial current, 4,000 miles long and 450 miles broad, at an average rate of thirty miles a-day. This current splits upon Cape St. Roque, and one portion trends southwards to deflect the isotherms of 21° 15°5, 10, and 4°5° C. into loops, thus carrying a scrap of comfort towards the Falklands and Cape Hoorn. While the remainder, “ having made the circuit of the Gulf of Mexico, issues through the Straits of Florida, clinzing in shore round Cape Florida, whence it issues as the Gulf Stream, in a majestic current upwards of 30 miles broad, 2,200 feet deep, with an average velocity of 4 miles an hour, and a tempera- ture of 86° Fahr.” (Herschel.) I need scarcely follow the course of the Gulf Stream in detail, it is generally so well known, After leaving the Strait of Florida, it strikes ina north-easterly direction conformable generally to the easterly impulse given by its excess of diurnal rotation, to- wards the coast of Northern Europe. About 42° N. a large portion of it, still maintaining the high surface temperature of 24° C., turns eastward and southward, and, eddying round the Sargasso Sea, fuses with the northern edge of the equatorial current, and rejoins the main circulation. The main body, how- ever, moves northwards. Mr, Croll, in a very suggestive paper in the LArlosophical Magazine on Ocean Currents, estimates the Gulf Stream as equal to a stream of water fifty miles broad and 1,c00 feet deep, flowing at a rate of four miles an hour, with a mean temperature of 18°C. I see no reason whatever to believe this calculation to be excessive, and it gives a graphic idea of the forces at work. The North Atlantic and the Arctic Seas form together a basin closed to the northward, for there is practically no passage for a body of water through Behring’s Strait. Into the corner of this basin, as if it were a bath, with a north-easterly direction given to it, as if the supply pipe of the bath were turned so as to give tle hot water a definite impulse, this enormous flood is poured day and night, winter and summer; almost appalling in its volume and the continuity of its warmth, and its blueness, and brilliant transparency 77 s@cula seculorum | The hot water pours, not entirely from the Strait of Florida, but partly from the Strait and partly ina more diffused current outside the islands, with a decided, though slight, north-easterly impulse on account of its great initial velocity. The North Atlantic is with the Arctic Sea a cu/-de-sac. | When this basin is full—and not till then—overcoming its northern impulse, the water tends southwards in the southern eddy, so that there is a certain tendency for the hot water to accumulate in the northern basin. It is to this tendency, produced by the absence of a free outlet to the Arctic Sea, that 1 would be inclined to attribute the special excess of the warmth of the north-eastern shores of the North Atlantic. When ascertaining with the utmost care and with the most trustworthy instruments, by serial soundings, the temperature of the area surveyed by the Porcupine in 1869, we found at a depth of 2,435 fathoms in the Bay of Biscay, that down to 50 fathoms the temperature of the sea was greatly affected by direct solar — radiation ; from 100 to 900 fathoms the temperature gradually fell from 10° C. to 4° C., and from goo fathoms to 2,435 the fall of temperature was almost imperceptibly gradual from 4° to Boni, The comparatively high temperature from 100 fathoms to 900 fathoms I am certainly inclined to attribute to the northern accu- mulation of the water of the Gulf Stream. The radiant heat de- rived directly from the sun must of course be regarded as a con- stant quantity superadded to the original temperature of the water derived from other sources. Taking this into account, the surface temperatures in what we were in the habit of calling the “ warm area’ coincided precisely with Petermann’s curves indicating the northward path of the Gulf Stream. It is scarcely necessary to say that for every unit of water which enters the basin of the North Atlantic, an equivalent must return. From its low velocity, the Arctic return current or indraught will doubtless tend slightly to a westerly direction, and the higher specific gravity of the cold water may probably even more power- fully lead it into the deepest channels ; or possibly the two causes may combine, and in the course of ages the currents may tend to hollow out deep south-westerly grooves. At all events, the main Arctic return currents are very visible on the chart taking that direction, indicated by marked deflections of the isothermal lines. The most marked is the Labrador current, which passes down inside the Gulf Stream along the coasts of Carolina and New Jersey, meeting it in the strange, abrupt “cold wall,” dipping under it as it issues from the Gulf, coming to the surface again*on the other s'de, and a portion of it actually passing under the Gult Stream as a cold counter-current into the deeper part of the Gulf of Mexico. Fifty or sixty miles out from the west coast of Scotland, I believe the Gulf Stream forms another through a very mitigated ““cold wall.” In 1868 Dr. Carpenter and I investigated a very remarkable cold indraught into the channel between Shetland and Faroe. Ina lecture on deep-sea climates, which was published in NaTuRE, in July last, I stated my belief that the current was entirely banked up in the Faroe channel by the Gulf Stream passing its gorge. Since that time I have been led to suspect that a part of the Arctic water oozes down the Scottish coast much mixed, and sufficiently shallow to be affected throughout by solar radiation. About sixty or seventy miles from shore the isothermal lines have a slight but uniform deflection, Within that line types charac- teristic of the Scandinavian fauna are numerous, and in the course of many years’ use of the towing net, I have never met with any of the Gulf Stream pteropods, or of the lovely Polycystinze and Acanthometrinz, which absolutely swarm beyond that limit. The differences in mean temperature between the east and w st coasts of Scotland, amounting to between 1° and 2° Fahr., ‘s also somewhat less than might have been expected. There is another point which is worthy of consideration. It is often said that about the latitude 45° N. the Gulf Stream thins out and disappears. The course of a warm current is traced far- ther on the maps, even to the coast of Norway and the North Cape, but this north-easterly extension is called the Gulf Stream drift, and is supposed to be a surface flow caused by the pre- vailing S.W. anti-trades. There seem to me to be several arguments against this view. The surface of the sea, at all events between 40° and 55° N., has a mean temperature higher than that of the air, and that could scarcely be the case unless there were a constant supply, independent of the wind, of water from a warmer source ; and any question is, to my mind, entirely set at rest by our establishment of the mass of warm water moving to the north-eastward, whose curves of excess of temperature, so far as they have as yet been ascertained, correspond entirely with those of the Gulf Stream. I cannot at present enter at any length into the very funda- mental question which has lately given rise to so much discussion, whether the Gulf Stream is actually the agent in conveying heat to the North Atlantic and ameliorating the climate of its north-eastern shores, or whether these results are not rather produced by a *‘ general oceanic circulation.” As, however, I am frequently quoted by my friend and col- league in much scientific work, Dr. Carpenter, as holding an opinion different from his, and as my present remarks place my views beyond doubt, it may be well to give a reason for my want of faith, Dr. Carpenter’s view, if I understand him rightly, is that there isa great general convective circulation in the ocean, on the principle of a hot-water heating apparatus, and that the Gulf ; - Fuly 27, 1871] NATURE 253 Stream is only a modified and partial cause of this general circula- tion. Now in the first place, as I have already said, it seems to me that the distribution of warm water in the North Atlantic has been traced to its source, and all the general phenomena of the Gulf Stream, its origin, its course, its extension, and its depth at certain points, have been froved by the careful {observations of many years, which I see no reason whatever to doubt. The constant impulse of the trade wind drives a broad current of equatorial water against the American coast. A great part of this current is observed to turn northwards through the Strait and round the islands, and to pour an eternal flood of hot water in a certain direction, under known laws, into the closed basin of the North Atlantic, and as a natural consequence the temperature is very considerably raised. We are undoubtedly most deeply indebted to Dr. Car- penter for the forcible way in which he has brought for- ward the arguments on the other side; and, after carefully | considering everything, I am thoroughly willing, with Sir John Herschel, to cede that ‘‘there is no refusing to admit that an oceanic circulation of some sort must arise from mere heat, cold, and evaporation as vere causa ;” and that ‘‘hence- forward the question of ocean currents will have to be studied under a twofold point of view ;” but my strong conviction is that if the sagacious philosopher whose loss we now deplore, had been spared so to study it, he would have only been strengthened in his verdict of 1861 as to the Gulf Stream, that there can be no ‘possible ground for doubting that it owes its origin entirely to the trade-winds.” Dr. Carpenter attributes the general oceanic circulation, of which he regards the Gulf Stream as only a modi- fied case, to tropical heat and evaporation, and arctic cold, possibly aided by differences of barometric pressures ; or to con- yection pnre and simple, as illustrated in his experiments before the Royal Institution and the Geographical Society. Now what we expect of Dr. Carpenter before we are called upon to accept to the full his magnificent generalisation, is a calcula- tion and demonstration of the amount of the effect of the causes upon which he depends acting under the special circumstances. We must remember that heat is received by the ocean at the sur- face only, and that owing to cold indraughts all over the globe, so far as we know the temperature falls the deeper we go; that all our observations tend to show that the temperature of the sea is only influenced by direct solar radiation to any amount to the depth of fifty fathoms, so that all currents depending upon dif- ference between equatorial and polar temperatures must be pro- duced and propagated in a film of water about the depth of the height of St. Paul’s and 6,000 miles long. The black line bounding that chart represents pretty nearly the depth of the ocean, and even where the whole of the water supposed to be involved in the movement, it would be difficult to imagine a per- ceptible current to be produced in so thin and wide a sheet by such feeble cause. It would be impossible to indicate by the finest hair line the tenuity of the film which is actually affected by the direct rays of the sun. How differences in barometric pressure can produce constant currents I do not see. Rapid fluctuations in pressure in places within a short distance of one another will doubtless produce readjustment by a wave motion ; but constant differences of pressure will simply produce constant differences of level and no currents. Varying pressures at very distant points cannot possibly produce a constant current. I freely admit that I am quite incapable of undertaking the investi- gations which might lead to the estimation of the relative or actual importance of these causes of currents. I have several times put the question to specialists in such physical inquiries, but they have always said that it was a matter of the greatest difficulty, but that their impression was that the effects would be infinitesimal. I fear then that, in opposition to the views of my distinguished colleague, I must repeat that I have seen as yet no reason to modify the opinion which I have consistently held, that the re- markable conditions of climate on the coasts of Northern Europe are due in a broad sense solely to the Gulf Stream; that is to say, that while it would be madness to deny that in a great body of water at different temperatures, under varying barometric pressures, and subject to the surface drift of variable winds, currents of all kinds variable and more or less permanent must be set up, yet the influence of the great current which we call the Gulf Stream, the reflux in fact of the great equatorial cur- rent, is so paramount as to reduce all other causes to utter insignificance, WYVILLE THoMsON PHYSIOLOGY The Mouse’s Ear as an Organ of Sensation* Dr. Scuost, of Prague, who lately published a remarkable paper on the wing of the bat, has made similar researches on the ear of the white mouse, with very interesting and sur- prising results (in ‘‘Schultze’s Archiv,” vol. vii. p. 260.) The first thing which struck Dr. Schobl was the immense and “fabulous” richness of the ear innerves. Even the bat’s wing is but poorly supplied in comparison. The outer ear was care- fully divided horizontally through the middle of the cartilage into two laminz, each of which was found to be equally supplied with nerves, and was then examined by removing the epidermis and the Malpighian layer of the skin. In each of these laminz were discovered three distinct strata of nerves, which are thus described : The first or lowest stratum lies immediately upon the cartilage ; it consists of the largest trunks which enter the ear, 5 to7 in number, and their next branches, varying from ‘074 mm. to ‘028 mm. in diameter. The mode of division of these trunks is mainly dichotomous, but they are connected by several different kinds of anastomoses ; as, for instance, by decussation of two adjacent trunks, by transverse or oblique connecting branches, by plexuses, by loops, &c. ; while branches also perforate the cartilage, and bring the nerves of the two halves of the ear into connection. The general distribution agrees with that of the larger blood-vessels. The second stratum lies immediately over the first, and is connected with it by a multitude of small branches, and by a fine marginal plexus at the outer border of the ear, which may be regarded as common to both. The diameter of its nerves is from ‘0185 mm. to ‘0098 mm. ; it lies immediately under the capillary vascular network of the skin, and has a generally reticulated arrangement, forming plexuses of very various shapes. The third stratum of nerves, developed out of the very finest twigs of the second, lies at the level of the capillary network ; it is composed of branches ‘oog8 mm. to 0037 mm. in thickness, which (like those of the other strata) con- tain medullated nerve-fibres. It forms an extremely delicate network, like the second layer, but its finest branches may ter- minate in two ways, Some of them, each containing two to four medullated fibres, run directly to the hair follicles, and form a nervous ring round the shaft of the hair, terminating below the follicle in a nervous knot. Others, again, consisting of not more than two medullated fibres, bend towards the surface where the fibres lose their double outline, and form, immediately under the Malpighian layer of the skin, a fine terminal network of pale fibres, which is the fourth and ultimate stratum of nervous struc- tures. The terminal ‘‘knots” or corpuscles, and the nervous rings, are inseparably connected with hairs and their sebaceous glands, so that through the whole of the external ear no hair can be found without this nervous apparatus, and vice versd. The connection of the hair follicle with the nerve termination is as follows:—Under the bulk of the hair in each follicle is a more or less conical prolongation, com- posed of distinct nucleated cells, which run vertically down- wards, and is enclosed within the limiting membrane of the follicle. The nervoustwig which, as has been said, runs to each hair follicle from the third stratum of nerves, makes several turns round the shaft of the hair, and from the ring thus formed two to four nerve-fibres run vertically downwards to the prolongation of the follicle, immediately beneath which they form a knot. These knots are almost always spherical, sometimes oval, and about ‘015 mm. in diameter. Jn each square millimetre of the marginal part of the ear there are about 90 such bodies, and near the base perhaps 20, so that the average number may be 30. Calculating from the average size of the ear of a common mouse, it is then found that there are on the average 3,000 nerve termi- nations on each of its surfaces, making 6,000 on each ear, or 12,000 altogether. The function of this elaborate arrangement would seem to be, like that in the wing of the bat, to supply by means of a very refined sense of touch, the want of vision to these subterranean animals. SCIENTIFIC SERIALS Part ii. of the Zetschrift fiir Ethnologie contains No. 6 ot Dr. Hartmann’s “ Studies of the History of Domestic Animals,” on the yak or grunting ox (Bos grunniens) living wild at immense altitudes in the mountains of Central Asia north of the Himalaya, and largely used in a domesticated state in Mongolia and * From the “ Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science” for July. 254 NATURE Siberia. The cross between the yak and common ox has the advantage of thriving in a milder climate than that of the moun- tainous region of the yak. Dr. Hartmann also continues (No. 2) his summary of the available information as to ‘“* Lake Dwellings,” here discussing their cultivation and preparation of grain and other vegetables. He reaffirms the usual conclusion that the cultivated plants of the lake dwellers of Central Europe indicate connection with the Mediterranean and even Africa. Perhaps the most remarkable point in the paper is the compari- son of their large earthen jars for store corn, and their stone grain rubbers for meating it, with similar jars and grain rubbers in modern Africa.—Prof. Meinicke’s *‘ Remarks on Wallace’s | Views as to the Population of the Indian Islands” are written | in strong opposition to the English naturalist’s theory as to the | ethnologi-al relations of Malays, Polynesians, and Papuons. With regard to Mr. Wallace’s argument from contrast of the Malay character with the Papuan as proving difference of race, Prof. Meinicke argues that the Malay’s couriesy and reserve may not be a race-character at all, but an effeet of conversion to Mohammedanism ; while revenge and bioodthirstiness belong to some Pasuans as much as to Malays. In opposition to Mr. Wallace’s view of Malays and Papuans being two distinct races, and of the Moluccas being largely populated by their inter- mixture, Prof. Meinicke claims the natives of the Moluccas as intermediare varieties forming a link of connection between the extreme Malay and Papuan types. As to the relation between Malays and Polynesians, Prof. Meinicke maintains the old and generally received view of an ethnological connection between them. —It is good evidence of the activity with which the science of man is now being pursued that Dr. W. Koner’s useful biblio- graphy of Anthropoiogy, Ethnology, and Prehistoric Archeology for 1869-70 extends to twenty pages of the journal.—Dr. Bastian’s review of Darwin’s “Descent of Man,” expressing high admiration for irs hypothetically-arranged evidence as a contribution to science, protests against the exaggeration of Darwinism, or rather, the return to Lamarckism prevalent among too impetuous followers of the development theory. In the July number of the Geological Magazine (No. 85) the editor, Mr. Woodward, publishes a most interesting suaimary of the evidence extant as to the existence of limbs in the Trilobites, with a discussion of the significance of a remarkable specimen of Asuphus, lately described by Mr. Billings in the Quarterly Fournal of the Geological Society. From a personal examination of the specimen, Prof. Dana was led to declare that the objects described by Mr. Billings as legs were merely calcified portions of the ventral integument destined to support branchial appendages. Mr. Woodward shows, and we think satisfactorily, that Prof. Dana is in error here. This valuable paper is illustrated with a plate contrasting the lower surface of Mr. Billings’s Trilobite with that of the Norway lobster.—Mr. Hall contributes some observations on the general relations of the drift deposits of Ireland to those of Great Britain, in which the author confirms and extends the vicws adopted by Prof. Harkness as to the correlation of the Irish drift deposits with those of Britain, and the accordance of the whole with the prin- ciples laid down by Mr. Searles V- Wood, jun. A tabular statement of the phenomena of the three stages of the drift period in Britain concludes this paper.—From Mr. G. A. Lebour we have a note on the submergence of Is in western Brittany, in which, after referring toa breton tradition that a town named Is was submerged in the Bay of Douarneney some fifteen hundred years ago, he adduces certain evidence to show that a gradual depression is taking place along this coast. He notices a submerwed forest in the small Bay de la Forét.—Mr. Mackintosh continues his paper on the drifts of the west and south borders of the Lake district; Mr. A. G. Cameron describes the recently-discovered caverns at Stainton in Furness ; and Mr. J. E. Taylor discusses the relation of the Red to the Norwich Crags. Tue first part of the fourteenth volume of the Adé della Societd Italiana di Scienze Naturali, published in April of the present year, contains only three papers, moie than one-third of its pages being occupied by the annual report, list of members, &c. The papers are a description of a new species of Dalmatian shell, by MM. A. and G, B, Villa, to which the authors give the name of Clausilza dz Cattanie ; a long memoir on rennet and caseification, by M. C. Besana, and a short notice by Dr. C. Marinoni, of some new prehistoric remains collected in Lom- bardy, SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES LoNDON Geologists’ Association, July 7.—Prof. Morris, vice- president, in the chair. the Upper Limits of the Devonian System.” The author did not wish to reopen the controversy which had taken place be- tween the late Prof. Jukes and the supporters of the classification of the older gelogists. but simply to lay before the Association a few facts as a prelude to a more complete paper which he hoped to bring forward during the next session. Mr, Pattison referred at some length to the fauna of the continental Devonian rocks, and strongly opposed the view recently put forward, that the Petherwin se‘ies is Lower Devonian and not Upper as generally supposed. He quite agreed with the older geologists in their classification, and concluied by recommending the sec- tions exposed in North Devon to the attention of young geolo- — gists.— After some remarks by Prof. Tennant, Mr. Henry Woodward, and Mr Lobley, Prof. Morris described the distri- bution of the Devonian rocks throughout Europe, and remarked on the absence of vertebrare remains in the Devonian rocks of the South of England, in which corals and brachiopods abound, and the abundance of vertebrate remains in the Devonians or Old Red sandstunes of Scouland, in which neither corals nor brachiopods have been detected. In the province of Oranburg, in Russia, however, the Devonian rocks contain both a vertebrate and a molluscan fauna.—A note “On a New Section of the Upper Bed of the London Clay,” by Mr. Caleb Evans, drew” the attention of the Assocja‘ion to an interesting exposure of a very fossiliferous bed of the London clay at Child’s Hill, Hamp- stead. From an inconsiderable excavation at this place, Mr. Evans had collected in a short time twenty-three species, chiefly gasteropoda, in a fine state of preservation. This bed Mr. Evans considers to be the uppermost bed of the London clay, and immediately underlying the Bagshot sands, which form the summit of Hampstead Heath. MaAuRITIus Metecrological Society, April 28.— The Honorable Colville Barclay, vice-president, in the chair.—The follow- ing leite s and publications were Jaid upon the table:—1. A letter from Mr. James Duncan, Government Surveyor, for- warding a copy of observations taken at the Survey Camp, Vacoas, during the month of March Jast, at about 1,850 feet above the sea-level. 2. A letter from Mr. G. Jenner, Rodrigues, for- warding observations taken there in December, January, Feb- ruary, and March last. 3. From Mr. F. Timperley, Pample- mousses, giving a description of a meteor seen by him on the 22nd March. 4. Queensland Observations for October, November, and December 1870, by Mr. Edmund MacDonnell. 5. Singapore Observa ions for January 1871, by Dr. H. L. Randell —‘‘On the Converging of the Wind in Cyclones.” The Secretary read the following letter addressed to him on the above subject by Captain Douglas Wales, Harbour Master :— **Some remarks of yours respecting the uncertainty of the real position of the centre of a cyclone set me thnking, and I send you a few ideas on the subject, which, as a sailor, I think worthy the serious attention of seamen, and the correctness of which they may put to the test of experience, whenever they have opportu- nities of doing so. Allow me to premise that I have no intention of dogmatising. I believe our knowledge of the cause of these feartul tempests, of their origin, their progress in this or that direction, their rate of progression, their recurving, the reasons of those recurvings, and their ultimate dispersion, to be still in its infancy. No doubt, the knowledge already acquired has saved many a good ship from becoming entangled in these storms, especially ships approaching them on their equatorial sides ; but at the same time it must be admitted that more than one intelli- gent seaman, who thought himself well up in the subject, has actually run into the very centre of a cyclone, when, by all known rules, he ought to have been certain of avoiding it. There must be some reason for such an error, and it is that reason that I have been seeking for, and which, I trust, I have to some extent discovered. I send you a diagram on a large scale, whicn will explain my views more cleariy than any written description. I assume that within a diameter of 40, 50, 60, 70, or 80 miles, a true circular storm of terrific violence must be found in every so called hurricane, and that to a considerable distance outside and around this central and circular storm winds are to be found gradually decreasing in force from 11, near the outer edge of the Mr. J. R. Pattison read a paper ‘On ~ 3 Say Oa | Suly 27, 1877] NATURE 255 central storm, to 7 and 6, at the outer edge of the bad weather, but which, instead of blowing in ever enlarging circles farther and farther out from one common centre, are always converging to that centre, and on all sides gradually increasing, until, at a certain distance from the central calm, they acquire the force of a hurricane (12), and thence inwards blow with great violence in what, in all probability, is as nearly as may be a circle. It is these converging lines of wind that are, I think, likely to lead men into error as to the position of the centre of the storm. In the remarks I make I shall, to prevent confusion, confine myself to cyclones south of the equator, every one acquainted with the cyclonic theory knowing that the inverse of rules for the guidance of seamen in the southern hemisphere will be the rules for their guidance in the northern hemisphere. Let us suppose that a ship bound to Europe arrives at the point marked * in the outer converging curve traced on my diagram, the wind being N.E. with force 7, that is, double reefs and jib—barometer falling, sky overcast, confused swell, and, in short, every appear- ance of bad weather—lat. 12° S., long. 70° E.—What ought her commander to do? ‘ Teave to on the port tack,’ says one, ‘and wait for the weather to clear.’ ‘ Run to the S.W.,’ says another, ‘and make use of the storm.’ Being a pushing fellow, he makes up his mind to run, and, truth to say, there are as many reasons for approving that proceeding as for finding fault with it. If he succeeds in making use of the hurricane, he is considered a smart fellow ; if he runs into it, and is dismasted or worse, ‘rash,’ ‘headstrong,’ ‘ignorant,’ &c., are the best terms he can look for; and yet he might as easily have been wrong in heaving to as inrunning, The wind being N.E., he infers that the centre bears N.W. He considers that the baro- meter and weather indicate that he is on the S.E. edge of a cyclone—the N.E. wind upon which he is running forming part of a circular storm, and that necessarily the centre is N.W. of him. Considering, further, that in that lat. and long. the storm is probably travelling W.S.W., he thinks that if he runs S.W. he will be diverging from it, and, that by making use of the storm he will get fine runs per- haps for days tou come. But if the N.E. wind be only converg- ing towards the fearful storm raging near the centre, that centre, in the first place, bears W. by N. 4N., instead of N.W., so that the vessel, by steering S. W. is not diverging from the centre, as was supposed, but is really drawing nearer to it. In due time the weather gets worse from this very cause ; the wind veers more to the eastward, the barometer continues to fall, and the captain begins to doubt whether the storm may not after all be progressing more to the southward than he supposed ; whether, indeed, it may not, although so far to the eastward, be actually recurving, and he naturally becomes anxious and uncertain what todo. If he decides on running at all risks, he finds the wind still drawing at first more and more easterly, and then more and more southerly, always increasing in fury, and the sea becoming more and more heavy and tumultuous. But run he must now, and he must run dead before it, and being on what I have sup- posed a line of wind converging to a centre, he finishes by getting into the real hurricane, and loss and disaster are imminent. He may, however, if his ship be tight and staunch and runs well, get round to the N.W. side of the storm, and so get clear, probably with loss of spars and sail ; but he has clearly run into what he was running to avoid, because he was under the im- pression that winds within the influence of a cyclone, although far from its centre, blew in circles round that centre, the wind everywhere clearly indicating the exact, ornearly exact, position of that centre. dence for the consideration of seamen and cyclonists, I am not These opinions I submit with very great diffi-- going to attempt the setting up of any dogmatic theory of my | own, but I am inclined to think this theory of converging winds will probably account for the manner in which many vessels have become entangled in hurricanes when seeking toavoid them according to cyclonic rules. Like all other theories on this very important subject, it requires very careful consideration ; but there can be no possible risk in deducing from it the rule that vessels on approaching what the barometer, the state of the | weather, and the force of the wind, clearly indicate as the dangerous side of a cyclone, should, in seeking to avoid it, keep the wind quite four points on the port quarter. With the wind thus free, a fast ship would run with great rapidity through the water, and, unless the storm were advancing on her in a direct line, would be always increasing her distance from its centre, and getting into finer weather, and, in any case, would have a very good chance of running across its track and thus avoiding it. Ships running into cyclones on their equatorial sides are to a very great extent without excuse. There are, however, some ex- ceptional instances ;_ but they are very rare.” The chairman, in thanking Captain Wales for his interesting and valuable com- munication, expressed the hope that the important suggestions it contained would be taken advantage of by seamen, and prove to be serviceable to them in their attempts to avoid the dangerous parts of cyclones. The diagram prepared by Captain Wales fully explained how it might happen that a vessel, by seeking to keep away from the centre of what was considered a circular storm, would be actually running into it. The secretary was glad that the subject had been taken up by a sailor of long experience and of great practical knowledge and skill, and he had no doubt that Captain Wales’s remarks would receive the serious attention they merited. In various papers published during the last fifteen years, he (the secretary) had often called attention to the incury- ing of the wind in cyclones, and to the losses occasioned by acting upon the supposition that the bearing of the centre was at right angles to the direction of the wind; and he believed that it was now beginning to be admitted that the movement of the air in a cyclone was not at all represented by concentric circles, but by a figure similar to that sketched by Captain Wales, The description given by Captain Wales of the way in which vessels might get involved in a cyclone, whilst acting according to accepted rules, applied to many cases which actually occurred. Captain Wales had framed a practical rule based upon observed facts, and it was for seamen to test its value, PaRIs Academie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, July 14. Two seats of associés libres, vacant by the death of MM. Prosper Merimée and Deheque, have been filled at the recent sittings. M. Merimée’s seat was given to M. de Robert, and M. Deheque’s to M. Thomas Henry Martin, director of the Academy at Rennes. This gentleman has written many valuable volumes on interesting points of history ; among others, ‘‘On the Physical Opinions of the Greeks and Romans.” He was one of the few French savants opposed to M. Chasles’ famous letters of Newton, and has written a pamphlet on the subject. Academie des Scientes, July 17.—M. Faye in the chair. A committee was appointed to discuss the respective merits of several candidates for a free associate membership. The com- mittee was composed of MM. Combes and Bertrand for the sec- tion of mathematical sciences, MM. Chevreul and Boussingault for the section of physical sciences, MM. Raulin and Bussy for the free members, ‘The chairman of the committee is de jure M. Faye. When a report is to be drawnjon the respective merits of ordinary members, the committee is composed from the sec- tion to which the late member belonged in his lifetime. In the secret committee held after the public sitting, a discussion was raised as to several candidatures, and it was impossible to come to any definite conclusion.—M. Lacaze Duthiers, a professor at the museum, who claims a seat in the section of zoology, read a paper on a new organ of nervous power which he has discovered in certain gasteropods living in water. This organ is placed behind the cesophagus, and at all events its dimensions are very small indeed. The Academy has appointed a committee to report on the prize Bordin, which is to be awarded this year for the best paper on the function of the stomata in the leaves of plants. —On the 3rd of October, 1870, M. Egger proposed the transla- tion of the four books on Optics by Ptolemy, which were trans- lated from Arabic into Latin, and of which two copies exist amongst the MSS. in the National Library. This suggestion was not lost, as the Royal Academy of Turin passed a resolution to raise the funds required for its publication. Other copies of the same Latin translation are also to be found in the Ambrose Library at Milan, and will be usel for the pur- pose. The translation is very difficult, having been un- successfully attempted once in Italian, and once in French.—M. Leverrier presented a report on the observation of falling stars, for August 1869. The phenomenon was observed in twenty-seven different stations, viz. Agde, Barcelona, Bor- deaux, Chartres, Chebli (Algiers), Genoa, Grenoble, Le Guerche (Cher), Larenore (Basses Pyrenées), Le Mans, Lyons, Mar- seilles, Mer (Loire et Cher), Metz, Moncalieri, Montpelier, Nice, Orange, Perpignan, Rochefort, Sainte Honorine (Calvados), Toulon, Toulouse, Tremont, Turin, Valencia, Observations were made by competent observers with correct chronometers, and special maps prepared by the Association Scientifique de -« ta bee 256 France, of which M. Leverrier is now the chairman. The dis- cussion en the observations is a long work which is not yet finished in consequ-nce of the late war. he observations could not be completed in 1870, but the Association Scientifique de France is resuming its labours, and will be ready to mike obser- vations by August 1871 on the former principles.—M. Leverrier sent the description of a bolide observed at Ioh. 6m. in the afternoon, 1° 30' higher thane Andromedi, and exploding in Pegasus. _ He asks for some observations from the astronomical public.—The sam2 question is put as to a magnificent falling star seven times larger than Jupiter observed by M. Chapelas 1th. 12m, in the afternoon, on the 18th July, from @ Pegasus to the horizon in the north-west. It must have been seen in England.—At the last sitting we omitted to mention the presentation of some grains of wheat, &c., burned by elec- tricity in a storm, a few years ago and preserved as a great curiosity.—M. Bert, Professor of Physiology at the Museum, formerly a prefect of Lille during the latter part of the war, sent a most interesting paper on the influence that the diminution of pressure exerts on animal life. Living frogs were placed under the air-pump, and proved to be killed very soon if pressure is diminished quickly to seven or eight inches, but if diminished gradually, they can live ina more perfect vacuum if proper pre- cautions are taken to renew the residual air offered to them for respiration, Certainly the same thing can be said of aéronauts, who cannot reach a high level without inconvenience, except by very gradual ascent—M. Dumas presented a smill pamphlet fron M. Janssen, narrating his ascent on December 2 with Volta. Dr. Janssen was himself the aéronaut, and his ascent was the occasion of some interesting observations. He was ap- pointed a commissioner for visiting the meteorological establish- ments in England, and reporting upon them, and is now on his way to London.—M. Beaugrand, an engineer in the Parisian hydraulic service, presented a report on Roman aqueducts. He has written a very long essay on the matter, which would have been burned by the Communists with his office at the Hotel de Ville, if he had not brought it home on purpose to write out of it a paper for the Academy. VIENNA Imperial Academy of Sciences, April 13.—Prof. von Reuss reported on the fossil remains of a crab found in the Leithakalk of the Rauchstallbrunn pit near Baden. The fossil most nearly approaches the living genera Acton and Daira.—Prof. A. von Waltershofen reported on a new thermopile of great efficacy. —Prof. V. Graber communicated a memoir on the physio- logy and minute anatomy of insects, especially the Pediculina, in which he treated chiefly of the Malpighian vessels and trachez. Yhe former in many cases consist merely of prolongations of the peritoneal membrane.-—Prof. V. von Lang presented a memoir containing researches upon the influx of gases, under- taken for the purpose of testing the laws which have been established for the dependency of inflowing gases upon the pressure.—Prof. C. von Ettingshausen presented a first memoir upon the flora of Sagor in Carniolia, in which he described nu- merous species of fossil plants from the brown coal of that locality. This memoir included the Thallophytes, vascular Cryptogams, Gymnosperms, Monocotyledons, and Apetale. The Thallophytes include a Sf/eria nearly allied to the Greenland species, and a Laurencia, which is the only marine plant found in the deposit. Of the Coniferze Glyprtostrobus europeus and Seguoia Couttsie are the most abundant, and of the latter genus three other species occur. A Cunninghamia, very like C. sinensis, is remarkable as adding a new genus to the Tertiary flora. Grasses are rare, but Naiadz are abundant and remarkable. A Pandanus and a species of palm occur. two species of Casuarina, one of which is new and allied to C. qguadrivalvis. The other orders represented are Myricacez 3 species, Betulaceze 6, Cupuliferzee 15, Ulmacez 4, Celtidez 2, Artocarpez 2, Salicineze 2, Nyctagineze 1, Monimiacez 1, San- talacez 4, Daphnoidez 2, Proteacez, 21, Moree 19, and Laurinez 18.—Prof. Carl Koritska exhibited and explained a hypsometrical map of the Alban Mountains, with profiles and views. He regarded the district as particularly instructive, from the intimate collocation of the three forms of volcanic craters and their apparent transition one into the other which prevails there.—Dr. E. Klein communicated a contribution to the knowledge of the Malpighian corpuscles in the human kidney, by Dr. Victor Seng; andacontribution to the knowledge of the finer nerves of the buccal mucous membrane, by Dr. E. Elin.—Prof. Ludwig Boltzmann presented a memoir containing several pro- NATURE Among the Apetalz the author noticed | positions on the equilibrium of heat, and another on the main proposition of the mechanical theory of heat.—Prof. E. Weiss — furnished the elements and ephemeris of the comet discovered by — Winnecke at Carlsruhe on the 7th April. April 20.—Prof. C. von Ettingshasuen presented a memoir onthe © leaf-skeleton of the Loranthacez. —Prof. Simony noticed some peculiarities of the glaciers of the Dachsteingebirge. The Gosau glacier descends to an elevation of 6030 feet, the Hallstatt — glacier to 6115 feet, and the Schladminger Fern:r to 6935 feet. — The most instructive moraine phenomena are presented by the lower part of the Hallstatt glacier.—Prof. Seeger presented a — memoir on the methods at present employed for detecting small quantities of sugar in the urine, which he regards as unsatisfac- tory.—A paper on the perforationsin the vessels of plants, by Dr. Tangl, was communicated by Prof. Ad. Weiss. ; April 27.—Prof. Lang communicated some remarks on the abnormal dispersion observed by Christiansen and Kundt in solu- tions of fuchsine, cyanine, &c. is due to the defective achromatism of the human eye.—M. F. Schwackhifer reported on the occurrence and mode of forma- — tion of phosphorite balls in Russian Podolia. He stated that these balls were originally carbonate of lime formed by concretion, and converted into phosphate of lime formed by the lixiviation ; of the Silurian clay slate in which they occur, which contains The analysis of these balls led to the formula — phosphoric acid. 3 (Ca? P? O') + Ca FI’, agreeing with that ‘of apatite in the proportion of fluorine, PHILADELPHIA of iron, from specimens from Bengal. He reported find- ing specimens of Hersinite in N. Carolina Corunduns, and believes the emery of Massachusetts is to be referred to the same mineral, In Chester County, Penna., ‘‘ Corundun pseu- domorphs” occur which are quite soft like talc or scaly tale, which prove to be Margarite. A third pseudomorph very much foliated has not yet been determined.—Prof. Cope presented a paper entitled, ‘‘ A preliminary report on the Vertebra discovered in the Port Kennedy Cave.”—Prof. Cresson stated that the young and tender shoots of the Symplocarpus fortidus (skunk cabbage) had forced themselves through a solid asphaltum composition pavement two inches in thickness in many places in ‘* Belmont Glen,” Park. The road was used for heavy hauling at the time. —Prof. J. P. Lesley described a discovery which he had made in East Tennessee of a sharp anticlinal axis crossing the coal measures of the Cumberland Mountains at right angles to the dominant system of disturbances, and showed its important bearing on the question of the conversion of the northern anti- clinals of the Alleghanies, into the southern system of down- throws. Also its relationship to the latter and to the cross undu- lations worked out by Joseph Lesley in his instrumental survey of E. Kentucky thirteen years ago; and to the N.W.-S.E. system of faults described by Owen, Hall, and other geologists in the Valley of the Mississippi. CONTENTS Pace ae Crookes ON THE “Psycuic” Force. By Prot. B. Stewart, SRS. es mi gist cout Be Pein (Riga cya «ih iemen eee 5 aw eae TyNDALL’s FRAGMENTS OF ScieNcE. By J. STUART . Baty Scuc oe Datu's BracHiopopa oF THE UniTep States Coast Survey. By J.,\Gwy¥s JERFREYS, FUR.S. ©. so) (ajc) Jls Sei uae eee Our Book SHELF. . . 2 gfe! Jel eal cel oy fom eingiel Mrerieen ema te mR LETTERS TO THE EDITOR :— Mr. Howorth on Darwinism.—Henry H. Howortu; Dr. J. Ross 240 Recent Neologisms.—Dr. C. M. INGLEBY . . . . . i The British Association and Local Scientific Societies . 242 Science Teaching in Schools. —T. Jones . . . . .. 243 Ocean Currents.—R. A. Proctor, F.R.AS. . ars 243 Western Chronicle of Science.—J. H. Coturns . . . . . 243 Formation of i lints:s, 05 Bosca ae Meco chica ane + 243 Nh eee ao) Oo Oana womtebea Ss sf a 6g Tu METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORIES. (With Idlustrations.) . . . . 245 On THE ReEcENT SoLar Eciipse. (Concluded) By J. Norman Lockyer, FURS. 0 sero eia Us ost) en tn n e neRES On THE DisTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE IN THE NorTH ATLANTIC. By Prof. WYVILLE THOMSON RRS ar re aay omen (nn PuystoLocy.—The Mouse's Ear asan Organ of Sensation . . . . 253 SCIENTIFIC/SEREALS) (jel Gaeewtc mel (eae cise meee + 253 MOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES cic) ve: ic; bel cer aieiue! (ome agile naman naan 254 He showed that the appearance 3 4 : 7 4 ’ | American Philosophical Society, April 21.—Dr. Geuth . described the results of recent investigations by himself into Corundun pseudomorphs of Hersinite, an aluminate of oxide - NATURE THURSDAY, AUGUST 3, 1871 THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE IN SCHOOLS HILE the leaders of Science are in session, and every topic of scientific interest can be brought before them with unusual force and most favourable pub- licity, we desire to urge the claims of one particular subject as lying at the foundation of all real scientific progress in this country. It is impossible that Science can take root amongst us, that it can inform the national mind or raise the national reputation, while it is excluded from the vast majority of our schools, and while the few schools which have ventured to introduce it are left to struggle unassisted against almost overwhelming difficul- ties. There are those who congratulate us on the advances made within the last two years, who point with pride to the Eton telescope and the Rugby laboratory, to the Botanical Garden of Clifton and the Scientific Society of Harrow. No doubt the evidence thus cited is most grati- fying ; no doubt the thanks of the community are due to the men whose individual wisdom and energy have made so admirable a beginning ; but if their success is to pro- duce in us only self-complacency, and to hide the enormous deficiencies which it ought to make more glaring and conspicuous, their efforts have been worse than vain. Let us ask the following questions. Of our countless Secondary Schools how many teach or profess to teach Natural Science in any shape whatever? Are there twenty schools in England which teach it systematically on a scale at all extensive, with special master and neces- sary apparatus? Is there one which accords to it such a place in comparison with other subjects of school teaching as is due to its inherent educational value, its practical use in after life, and the extent to which it is attracting and unfolding the chief intellects of the day? Lastly, are the schools which teach it honestly working on a well-considered plan, agreed amongst themselves as to the economies of methods, subjects, tests; or are their systems contradictory and chaotic, are they ignorant of each others’ experience, are their efforts tentative and independent, their results often nugatory, their progress necessarily slow? There is but one answer to these questions. Science teaching in our schools is as yet potential merely. It rests with those whom we are addressing to make it actual. Observers most conversant with the difficulties which have hitherto kept Science out of schools or paralysed it when nominally admitted, feel most strongly that combined and intelligent action on its behalf, undertaken by men of commanding influence and reputation, is the one thing needful to ensure for it existence, vitality, and permanence. So long as the necessity of teaching it to boys was denied, the action of authority would have been premature. It was necessary that public opinion should be formed, and that experience and argument should work the slow pro- cess of conversion. But its claims are now, in theory, established. The most bigoted no longer venture to question its utility ; the champions of the old exclusive -and one-sided culture are silenced, if not convinced ; the VOL, IV. 257 | general public has pronounced warmly in its favour ; the masters and managers of schools are prepared in almost all cases, freely or grudgingly, to admit it. And if this be so; if the principles of opposition are surrendered, and objection rests only upon details ; if, further, the deterrent details thus interposing are notorious, and are of a kind which authority, or enlightenment, or guidance, placed in sufficient hands and wielded with sufficient energy, can obviate, surely we may call upon the men whom the suf- frage of the scientific world has saluted as its leaders to originate such a plan and to carry out such measures as may supplement the victory of reason over prejudice by assisting willing votaries and kindling half-roused enthu- siasm. There are cases in which the support of external authority is needful for the introduction of Science into schools, Probably few of the readers of NATURE are aware how bitter an opposition is offered to Science teaching by the clergy in many parts of England. The schoolmaster, who, being himself a clergyman, ventures to insist on Science as a necessity in his school curriculum, finds him- self the object of a conspiracy as adroit as it is unscrupu- lous. No matter how able and energetic he may be; no matter how unmistakeably he may care for the moral and religious training of his boys ; there is an accursed thing in the midst of him ; the word goes forth to ostracise him ; the dextrous calumny is dropped in fitting places, his neighbours send their sons elsewhere, and his schemes are broken up. This, which has happened more than once, must happen many times, unless such hapless pioneers of Science can be made to feel that they are backed by men of character, by men whose names are known, to whom they can appeal, who will interfere on their behalf with weight to convince or to overawe their persecutors. In quite another way again authority is needed. Public competitive examinations, for the universities or elsewhere, must always exercise a paramount influence upon the schools, and must stamp in great measure the value of the subjects taught. It may well be doubted whether in the exa- minations for India and for Woolwich scientific excellence is appraised sufficiently high. It is quite certain that the influence of the universities both on the higher and lower schools is what it ought not to be in this respect. The local examinations, excellent in many points, vicious in some few, are most vicious in their operation upon Science, The unwise limitation of the subjects taken up, with the certainty that classical and mathematical papers gain many more marks than chemistry or mechanics, prevent the boys in a widely taught school from taking Science in at all, and help to deter masters from a subject which will not count in the examination. And unless they are closely watched, the “‘ matriculation ” or “leaving” exami- nations now contemplated both by Oxford and by Cam- bridge will be more disastrous still. Between the univer- sities clinging to old subjects as desperately as they dis- trust the new, and the schoolmasters defeating by nearly ten to one the proposal to give boys the choice between a “linguistic” and a “ scientific ” matriculation, an obstacle more serious than any which now exists will be built up in the path of Science teaching, if its natural supporters stand aloof from the progress of a mischief which it now lies within their power to avert. 258 NATURE [Aug. 3, 1871 But if School Science lacks authority to help it, it lacks | guidance and enlightenment still more. For it may be | taken as an established fact that the head masters are, as | a body, absolutely helpless. No one can doubt this who | will peruse their published utterances on the subject at the Sherborne Meeting in December last. Nor need they be | ashamed of the imputation. They owe their position in | almost every case to their high classical or mathematical reputation. They are so large minded as to appreciate | and to wish to foster in their school studies of whose | details they know nothing, and should be allowed to feel that in opening their doors to Science they may fall back with confidence upon supreme and accredited advisers. Think of the difficult points which, without previous ex- perience of any kind, they are called upon to settle. The main subjects of teaching, their relative value, and the order in which they should be taught, the age at which scientific study should commence, the extent to which it may be optiona] or must be compulsory, the merits and demerits of bifurcation, the text-books to be used, the time to be allowed, the methods of teaching, the frequency of examinations, the mode of obtaining teachers, the necessary apparatus, the arrangement of museums, labora- tories, botanic gardens,—on all these points and on more blank and total ignorance holds the minds of many masters, while others are puzzling them out with cruel BANGALORE, . TRACK OF SHADOW IN TOTAL ECLIPSE {PONDICHERRY ° Oo NecaPpaTam December 12T™ 1871, Cape Go MAP OF THE PATH OF THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE IN DECEMBER NEXT waste of force, destitute of traditions, ignorant of each | others’ experience, lacking central guidance. For such guidance where are they to look, if not to the British Association? It includes men fitted for sucha task beyond any others in the country, men individually of commanding reputation, representing severally the great towns, the Universities, the commercial centres. Is | it too much to hope that a board of such men as these | might assume, at the request and by the appointment of their brethren, the task of counsellers and supporters to the | schools in the difficult task which lies before them? | They might deliberate on the points which we have hoticed, and draw up rules fora scientific course which | all schools would adopt, They might send missionaries | wow™ to schools newly entering upon their task, who should © advise upon the many points no published rules could cover, They might suggest and accredit text-books, might bespeak and cheapen apparatus, might secure from Government facilities for obtaining specimens, for stocking gardens, for borrowing or renting instruments. Estab- lished more and more securely as the representatives and controllers of scientific education, they would see their power spread from the schools to the Universities, from the Universities throughout the country. But we forbear. We have stated the difficulties which beset scientific education in our schools, we have hinted at means which may remove them, Our description is only too real, our project may be too chimerical. Be it Aug. 3, 1871] so. The chimera of one age is often the truism of the next. Let us only call upon our friends at Edinburgh, before they separate for another year, to take this great subject into consideration, and to weigh its claims on their activity. Many a solitary teacher will be cheered, many a half-abandoned scheme will be preserved and furthered, if not by the certainty of their support, yet at any rate by the knowledge of their sympathy. THE APPROACHING TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE E regret that we have, as yet, nothing very definite to announce in addition to what has been already stated with reference to the observations of the Total Solar Eclipse of the 12th of December next. We believe that an appeal is about to be made to Government, and if this be so, we may trust that anything that may be asked in the interests of Science will readily be granted by the Government. It is unfortunate that the Astronomer Royal’s official position prevents his joining in the request, for his experience in connection with the large expenditure (10,0007, has already been voted) incurred by him for the approaching observation of the Transit of Venus, would be valuable in showing the necessity for the sum now re- quired. This amounts only to a few hundreds in excess of the sum saved by the rigid economy practised by the Committee appointed to organis2 the arrangements con- nected with the late expedition. Wetrust that the proposed arrangements will be brought before the British Association, in order that the influence of that important body may be made to bear upon this matter. We have recently shown the important results obtained by the late observations. Itseems clear that the weather prospects for the approaching event are good, while recent calculations made by Mr. Hind show that the totality in Ceylon is much longer than had been at first imagined, amounting to as much as 2™ 11° for Trincoma- lee, and therefore longer in the central line a few miles tothe north. The accompanying map shows approxi- mately the shadow path over India, and gives us good ground for congratulating ourselves that there are already in that country such observers as Tennant, Pogson, Her- schel, Hennessy, and others, ready to occupy the best stations. The appeal made to Government includes funds for an expedition to Ceylon, under the charge of Mr. Lockyer, who has been requested by the Royal Astro- nomical Society to undertake spectroscopic observations there, while M. Janssen will probably take up his station in Java. We have already stated that a strong party from Melbourne and Sydney will observe in the north of Australia. All then is in order, provided our scientific leaders will put their shoulders to the wheel. NOTES Tuer American Association for the Advancement of Science, which meets a fortnight later than our own at Indianapolis, is modelled in most respects after the pattern of the parent insti- tution, but presents some features which the managers of our own Association may do well to take into consideration. The arrangements with regard to the opening address, sectional pro- ceedings, &c., are very similar, the following being the officers for the Indianopolis meeting :—President, Prof. Asa Gray, of NATURE 259 Cambridge ; Vice-president, Prof. George F. Barker, of New Haven ; Permanent Secretary, Prof. Joseph Lovering, of Cam- bridge; General Secretary, Mr. F. W. Putman, of Salem ; Treasurer, Mr. Wm. S. Vaux, of Philadelphia. Special con- venience will be provided for microscopists in relation to the exhibition and care of any instruments or apparatus, a suite of rooms having been secured in the State House for their special use. It will be remembered that the same thing was attempted at the Liverpool meeting, but in rather a private and unac- knowledged manner. Excursions are arranged to Terre Haute, a distance of seventy-three miles, including a visit to the cele- brated block coal field and blast furnaces of Clay county, and to New Albany on the Ohio river, where there are a number of interesting manufactories, among them the only finishing plate- glass works in the United States. Special arrangements have been made as to terms for the accommodation of the members of the Association at hotels and boarding-houses, and it is expected that all the railroads will carry the visitors at half fares. ALTHOUGH the Report of the Science and Art Department in the year 1870 is not yet published, we believe that the following chief results, taken from the Z/7zes, may be relied upon as accurate. The numbers who during 1870 have attended the schools, mu- seums, and other institutions receiving Parliamentary aid, con- siderably exceed those of 1869. There is a very large increase in the number of persons receiving instruct‘on in science applicable to industry, which has risen from 24,865 in 1869 to 34,283 in 1870, or upwards of 37 per cent. At the Royal School of Mines there were 17 regular and 124 occasional students, at the Royal College of Chemistry 121 students, at the Royal School of Naval Architecture there were 40, and at the Metallurgical Laboratory 24. ‘The evening lectures at the Royal School of Mines were attended by 2,574 artisans, school teachers, and others ; and 243 science teachers attended the special courses of lectures provided for their instruction. At the Royal College of Science, Ireland, there were 17 associate or regular students and 21 occasional students. The various courses of lectures delivered in connection with the department in Dublin were attended by 1,152 persons, and at the Evening Popular Lectures, which were given in the Edinburgh Museum of Science and Art during the session 1869-70, there was an attendance of 1,195. The total number of persons who received direct instruction as studen’s or by means of lectures in connection with the Science and Art Department in 1870 was upwards of 254,000, showing an actual increase as compared with the number in the previous year of 67,000, or nearly 36 per cent., and an increase in the rate of progress of 8 per cent.; the numbers in 1869 having been nearly 28 per cent. higher than in 1868. The museums and collections under the superintendence of the department in London, Dublin, and Edinburgh, have been visited during the past year by 1,847,929 persons, showing an increase of 49,087 on the number in 1869. As we have said before, it is impossible to over-estimate the importance of the work which is being done. THE correspondence between the Royal Commission on Scientific Instruction and the Adyancement of Science and the Science and Art Department on the subject of the transfer of the School of Mines to South Kensington, has been presented to Parliament. THE assertion made by a contemporary relative to the en- dowment at University College of a De Morgan professorship of mathematics, has given rise to the statement by Prof. T. Hewitt Key, to the effect that he now withdraws the proposal, not merely because it is said by the family to be at variance with the expressed wishes of the deceased, but more because it has been hinted that he has been unworthily ‘‘ using Prof. de Mor- gan’s name against such expressed wishes for the emolument of the college.” The endowment of a mathematical chair still remains as an object to which his best energies will be applied. 260 NATURE Prof. Key points out that the doctrine is now practically admitted that for all chairs in a college of any pretensions a fixed salary is essential, and that the principle has been recognised in Owens College, Manchester, the Queen’s College in Ireland, the Government School of Mines, and the new Indian College for Engineering. Av an extraordinary General Meeting of the members of Uni- versity College held on Saturday last, the Right Hon. Lord Belper, LL.D., F.R.S., was unanimously elected President of the Col- lege in the place of the late Mr. George Grote. At a session of the council, on the same day, the following appointments were made :—Mr. W. K. Ciifford, Fellow of Trinity College, Cam- bridge, to be Professor of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics ; Prof. H. C, Bastian, M.D., F.R.S., to be Physician to Univer- sity College Hospital; Mr. Berkeley Hill, M.B., Mr. Chris- topker Heath, and Mr. Marcus Beck, M.S, M.B., to be teachers of Practical Surgery. The Sharpey Scholarship, re- cently established for the promotion of the study of Biological Science in the college, was conferred upon Mr. E. A. Schafer. UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, London, has recently been enriched by several valuable donations and legacies. Mr. Grote left 6,000/. for the endowment of a chair of Mental Philosophy, and Mr. James Yates legacies to be similarly applied for the teaching of Geology and Archzology. The treasurer of the College has given an endowment of 200/. for five years for the chair of Applied Mathematics, and the late Prof. Graves left a legacy to the College, without a rival of its kind, in the shape of a Mathe- matical Library, consisting of more than 10,000 volumes, besides some 500 pamphlets. THE Senate of University College has appointed as its Pro- fessor of Hindustani, Kazi Shahabudeen Ibrahim. This gentle- man is an accomplished scholar, and held a high position in | , gh | our service in India, He was afterwards Dewar of the Rajah of Kutch, and is now resident for him in London. He also acts as hon. secretary of the East India Association. Kazi Sha- habudeen being a thorough master of our own language, has a great advantage, and we may indeed observe that the progress of English studies in India ought greatly to promote those of the Indian languages in England. We can now get men having literary proficiency in their own languages, and that acquaintance which few but a native can attain, while they have the full power of communicating their knowledge to students in our colleges. IN an article which will be found elsewhere, we allude to the approaching Total Eclipse of the Sun. On this subject we may refer to a very interesting letter which Mr. Hind has recently addressed to the Zimes on the next Total Solar Eclipse which wil be visible in England. Our readers will gather that we shall have some time to wait. Mr. Hind tells us that in the year 1954, June 30, the zone of totality just touches the British Isles, and adds ‘‘to discover an eclipse that will be total in England, I have found it necessary to continue the calculations to nearly the close of the same century. Such an eclipse (according to my investigation) will not occur until the 11th of August, 1999, when the circumstances will be nearly as follows :—The central and total eclipse will enter upon the earth’s surface in the southern part of the Gulf of Mexico ; thence traversing the Atlantic, it meets the English coast at Padstow, in Cornwall, and crossing the south of Devon enters the Channel at Torquay (which will be the most favourable place for observation in this country), and passing over the Eddystune, reaches France about fifteen miles east of Dieppe. It will be central and total, with the sun on the meridian some twenty-five miles south-west of Pesth, and traversing Asia Minor, Persia(at Ispahan), &c., will finally leave the earth’s surface in the Bay of Bengal. At Torquay the first contact of limbs, or commencement of the eclipse, occurs at | | | | 8.23 A.M. local mean time, and the last contact at 11.20 A.M. Totality begins at 1oh. om. 43s,, with the sun at an altitude of — 48°, and continues 2m. 4s. At Plymouth the duration of total — eclipse is tm. 58s., at Weymouth Im. 55s. The southern part of the Isle of Wight falls within the northern limit of totality according to my calculation.” Further, onthe subject of the last Total Solar Eclipse visible in London, which occurred on the 3rd of May, 1715, and was successfully observed in the metropolis and at many other English stations, Mr. Hind states, it is ‘‘neces- sary to look further back than the year 1140 for the total solar — eclipse in London next preceding that of 1715. I greatly doubt if, excepting the eclipse of August 11, 1999, described above, there can be any total solar eclipse visible in England for two hundred and fifty years from the present time.” THE grounds of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, are now being rapidly occupied with the temporary observatories and instruments which are to be used for the observations of the Transit of Venusin 1874. We could wish that equal energy were shown in arrangements for other observations which are quite as important as those in question. THE following are the names of the successful candidates in the competition for the Whitworth Scholarships, 1871, in the Science and Art Department :—Edmund F. Mondy, Rother- hithe ; Samuel Anglin, Manchester ; George Smith, Birming- ham ; John Yeo, Portsmouth ; Henry H. Greenhill, Portsea ; John Armitage, Oldham; William Lee, London; Samuel A. Kirkby, Cambridge; Benjamin A. Raworth, Manchester ; George C. V. Holmes, Sydenham. Tue French weekly scientific journal, Zes A/ondes, entered, with its last number, on its 25th volume. Tuar excellent body, the Smithsonian Institution, Wash- ington, has recently issued its report for the year 1869, in addition to which we have, under the same cover, Bertrand’s paper on the Life and Works of Kepler, Arago’s Eulogy on Thomas Young, Memoirs of Auguste Bravais and von Mar- tlus, a paper on the Chemistry of the Earth by Sterry Hunt, another on the Electrical Currents of the Earth by Matteucci, another on the Phenomena of Flight by Marey, and so on,—we really have not space to nameali the titles, —and we have already said enough to indicate the extreme value of the volume. Among recent memoirs and papers published by the same Institution, we may mention a paper onthe magnetic survey of Pennsylvania by Dr. Bache, on the Gleddon mummy case by Dr. Pickering, and on the phenomena and laws of aurora borealis by Loomis. WE are glad to see that in the list of Civil Service Pensions just issued, the claims of Science have been recognised by the grant of 100/. to Mr. Charles Tilston Beke, in consideration of his geographical researches, and especially of the value of his explorations in Abyssinia; and 150/. to Mrs. Emily Coles, widow of Captain Cowper Phipps Coles, in consideration of her husband’s services as inventor of the turret ship system. THE Revue Scientifique publishes an account of the chemical investigations and works of the late Prof. Payen, the most im- portant of which are as follows:—In 1824 he made his first investigations on the value of manures; in 1830 he presented to the Society of Agriculture a paper on the means of utilising all the parts of dead animals in the country ; in 1836 he read a memoir on the elementary composition of starch in different plants ; in 1837 he established the composition of dextrine from its definite combinations with oxide of lead and baryta; and in the same year he read a paper on the distribution of nitrogenous matters in the organs of vegetables ; in 1838 he presented a very important memoir on the composilicn of woody tissue, and point- ing out the distinction between cellulose and starch ; in 1841 he Aug. 3, 1871] prepared a memoir, in conjunction with M. Boussingault, on the relative value of different manures ; in 1847 a paper onsugar in beet- root ; in 1852 two very complete memoirs on caoutchouc and gutta- percha, their chemical composition and different characters ; in 1859 another paper on starch and ceilulose; in 1861 one on dextrine and glucose; in 1867 a paper on the constitution and structure of woody tissue ; besides a large number of others on economical and vegetable chemistry. As separate works, Prof. Payen published a compendium of theoretical and practical agri- culture, a compendium of industrial chemistry, a work on the diseases of the potato, beet, corn, and wine, a treatise on the dis- tillation of beet, a work on alimentary substances, and a report on the vegetable and animal substances made to the French Committee of the Jury of the International Exhibition in London, He was appointed Professor of Industrial Chemistry at the Central School in 1830, and at the Conservatoire des Arts et Meétiers in 1839, and was elected member of the Institute in 1842. WE are informed by Dr. Edward L. Moss, R.N., that within the last few days he has obtained several specimens of Apfendi- cularia furcata and acrocerca in the incoming tide off the east coast of Portland. They have in every instance been captured in their ‘‘ Haus,” or have formed it shortly after capture, and have remained in it as long they were left undisturbed, These rare and interesting visitors to our tidal waters were accompanied by oceanic diatoms which Dr. Moss had never before seen near the English coast. THE sixth annual meeting of the Quekett Microscopical Club was held on Friday evening last at University College. By the annual report of the committee read, it appeared that the number of the members now amounts to 550. ‘The president, Dr. L. S. Beale, F.R.S., gave the usual presidential address. At the election of officers which followed, Dr. L. S. Beale was elected president for the year 1871-72 ; for vice-presidents, Dr. Robert Braithwaite, F.L.S., Mr. Arthur E. Durham, F.R.C.S., Mr. Charles J. Leaf, F.R.M.S., Mr. Henry Lee, F.L.S. ; for four members of committee, Messrs. W. H. Gold- ing, Thomas Greenish, E, Marks, and F. Oxley ; for treasurer, Mr. Robert Hardwicke, F.L.S. ; hon. secretary for foreign cor- respondence, Mr. M. C, Cooke, M.A. ; hon, secretary, Mr. T. Charters White. THE Royal Archzological Institute has just held its annual meeting at Cardiff, under the presidency of the Marquis of Bute, who, in his inaugural address, dwelt on the many objects of archeological interest in which South Wales abounds, especially as the locality of some of the best known incidents of the Arthurian romances. The historical section was presided over by Mr. G. A. Freeman, who delivered a very interesting address on the early ethnology of South Wales. A long excursion was undertaken by the members into Monmouthshire, the principal bjects of interest being Caldicot Castle, Caerwent (the Roman Venta Silwium) and Chepstow. THE annual meeting of the Institution of Mechanical En- gineers was held last week at Middlesborough, Mr. John Rams- bottom, of Crewe, being president of the meeting. Papers were read by Mr. William Crossley, of the Askham Ironworks, Lan- cashire, on the manufacture of hzematite iron; by Mr. J. Low- thian Beil, upon the preliminary treatment of materials used in the blast furnace ; by Mr. Hill, on an improved compound cylinier blowing engines recently erected at the Lackenby Iron Works, Middlesbrough ; a description of the geological features of Cleveland by Mr. John Jones, secretary to the iron trade of the district ; by Mr. John A. Haswell, of Gateshead, desc) ibing the break drums and the mode of working at the Ingleby incline _on the Rosedale branch of the North Eastern Railway ; by Mr. NATURE 261 Jeremiah Head, of Middlesborough, on a simple construction of steam-engine governor, having a close approximation to perfect action ; and by Mr. Charles Cochrane, of Middlesborough, on steam boilers wth small water-space and Roots’ tube boiler, The many objects of interest in the neighbourhood were also visited by the members. THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION MEETING AT EDINBURGH EDINBURGH, Wednesday Morning A VERY important point in the peregrination of the British Association lies in the fact that the men of science are now assembled in one of the foci of com- mercial enterprise, now in an old centre of learning, and now in a locality which, although coming under neither of these heads, yet gives large scope for benefiting the surrounding region. That the Association should meet at Edinburgh at this present juncture is extremely fortunate. In the first place Science was largely taught at Edinburgh by the aid of State-endowed professors before either of our old English Universities thought it worth while to investigate wita any earnestness those branches of natural knowledge which are now recognised as not only the necessary accompaniment of a liberal education, but as the foundation of the nation’s greatness. In the second place, we learn from the Edinburgh news- papers that the scientific mind of the metropolis of the North has been recently stirred on the subject of the importance of scientific research, and has addressed a memorial to the Royal Commission now sitting, urging that the point shall be strongly taken up. It may be interesting to mention that this is the third time that the British Association has met at Edinburgh, The first time was in 1834, under the presidency of Sir Thomas Brisbane ; the second in 1850, when Sir David Brewster occupied the chair. Already more than 1,300 members have entered their names, a larger number than were fresent at the last Edinburgh meeting. The ample accommodation turnished by the Scotch capital is being admirably utilised by the local organisers. The Reception Room is in Parliament House ; the sec- tions meet in the University Buildings. In addition to the assemblage of our own savans, the following dis- tinguished scientific foreigners are either in Edinburgh or are expected in the course of the meeting :—The Emperor of Brazil; Dr. Janssen, of Paris; Dr. Buys Ballot, of Utrecht; Prof. v. Baumhauer, of Haarlem; Prof. Van Benedcen, of Louvain; Dr, D. Bierens de Haan, of Leyden; Dr. Boogaard; Dr. Colding, of Copenhagen ; Prof. Deltfs, of Heidelberg ; Baron Desi- derius; Baron Roland Eé:o6s, of Pesth; Don Asturo de Marcoastin, of Madrid; Prof. Margo, of Pesth; LAbbé Moigno, of Paris ; Prof. Morren, of Liége ; Prof. Szabé, of Pesth ; Prof. Zenger, of Prague; Dr. Youmans, of New York. Of these Dr. Janssen, Prof. Van Beneden, Dr. Buys Ballot, Profs. Szabo and Zenger, and Dr. Colding, have already arrived. The University of Edinburgh has taken the opportunity of conferring the honorary degree of LL.D. on the following distinguished men of science :- Dr. Gassiot, Prof. Sylvester, Prof. Stokes, Prof. Challis, Dr. Huggins, Dr. Alien 1homson, Dr. Janssen, Prof. Van Beneden, Dr. Colding, Mr. Spottiswoode, Dr. Carpenter, Prof. Andrews of Belfast, and Dr, Paget ot Cambridge. We are enabled, through the courtesy of the officers of the Association, to give in our present number ful rc pors of the president’s inaugural address, and of the opening addresses in Sections A, B, and C. In Prof. Geikie’s address we have a suitable and altogether to be com- mended innovation in the shape of an account of the local geology of the neighbourhocd, which has been printed separately, and issued with an admirably clear map, 262 Col. Yule has been appointed president of Section E in the place of the late Dr. Johnston. Geological excursions are projected to East Lothian and the coast of Berwickshire, the latter under the guidance of Prof. Geikie ; a botanical excursion to the fertile collecting ground of Ben Ledi, in which Prof. Balfour will take part ; a dredging ex- pedition in the Frith of Forth ; and visits for antiquarians and the lovers of the picturesque to Melrose, Dryburgh, Abbotsford, and Rosslyn. With this tempting bill of fare, if the weather only proves moderately propi- tious, the meeting of the British Association in Edin- burgh must be an occasion to look bick upon with pleasure by all who are fortunate enough to be able to take pit in its proceedings. : INAUGURAL ADDREsS OF SIR WILLIAM THomson, LL.D., F.R.S., PRESIDENT For the third time of its forty years’ history the British Asso- ciation is assembled in the metropolis of Scotland. The origin of the Association is connected with Edinburgh in und:ing memory through the honoured names of Robison, Brewster, Forbes, and Johnston. In this place, from this chair, twenty-one vears ago, Sir David Brewster said :—‘‘ On the return of the British Association to the metropolis of Scotland, I am naturally reminded of the small band of pilgrims who carried the s2eds of this Institution into the more genial soil of our sister land.” . . . . «Sir John Robison, Prof, Johnston, and Prof. J. D. Forbes were the earliest friends and promoters of the British Association. They went to York to assist in it: establishment, and they found there the very men who were qualified to foster and organise it. The Rev. Mr. Vernon Harcourt, whose name cannot be men- tioned here without gratitude. had provided laws for its govern- ment, and, along with Mr. Phillips, the oldest and most valuable | of our office bearers, had mode all those arrangements by which its success was ensured. Headed by Sir Roderick Murchison, one of the very earliest and most active advocates of the Asso- ciation, there assembled at York about 200 of the friends of science.” The statement I have read contains no allusion to the real origin of the British Association. This blank in my predecessor's historical sketch I am able to fill in from words written by him- self twenty years earlier. Through the kindness of Prof. Phillips Iam enabled té read to you part of a letter to him at York, written by David Brewster from Allerly by Melrose, on the 23rd of February, 1831 :— **Dear Sir,—I have taken the liberty of writing you on a subject of considerable importance. It is proposed to establish a British Association of men of science similar to that which has existed for eight vears in Germany, and is now patronised by the most powerful Sovereigns of that part of Europe. The arrangements for the first meeting are in progress ; and it is con- templated that it shall be held in York, as the most central city for the three kingdoms. My object in writing you at present is to beg that you would ascertain if York will furnish the accom- modation necessary for so large a meeting (which may perhaps consist of above roo individuals). if the Philosophical Society would enter zealously into the plan, and if the Mayor and in- fluential persons in the town and in the vicinity would be likelv to promote its objects. The principal object of the Society would be to make the cultivators of science acquainted with each other, to stimulate one another to new exertions, and to bring the objects of science more before the public eye, and to take measures for advancing its interests and accelerating its progress.” Of the little band of four pilgrims from Scotland to York, not one now survives. Of the seven first associates one more has gone over to the majority since the Association last met. Vernon Harcourt is no longer with us; but his influence remains, a beneficent and surely therefore never dying influence. He was a geologist and chemist, a large-hearted lover of science, and an unwearied worker for its advancement. Brewster was the founder of the British Association ; Vernon Harcourt was its lawgiver. His code remains to this day the law of the Asso- ciation. On the 11th of May last Sir John Herschel died in the eigutieth year of his age. The name of Herschel is a household word throughout Great Britain and Ireland—yes, and through the whole civilised world. We of this generation have, from NATURE our lessons of childhood upwards, learned to see in Herschel, father and son, a presidium et dulce decus of the precious treasure of British scientific fame. When geography, astronomy, and the use of the globes were still taught, even to poor children, asa pleasant and profitable sequel to “reading, writing, and arith- metic,” which of us did not revere the great telescope of Sir William Herschel (one of the hundred wonders of the world), and learn with delight, directly or indirectly from the charming pages of Sir John Herschel’s book, about the sun and his spots, and the fiery tornadoes sweeping over his surface, and about the planets, and Jupiter’s belts, and Saturn’s rings, and the fixed stars with their proper motions, and the double stars, and coloured stars, and the nebulze discovered by the great telescope? Of Sir John Herschel it may indeed be said, w#/ tetigit quod non ornauit. A monument to Faraday and a monument to Herschel, Britain must have. The nation will not be satisfied with any thing, however splendid, done by private subscription. A national monument, the more humble in point of expense the better, is required to satisfy that honourable pride with which | a high-spirited nation cherishes the memory of its great men. But for the glory of Faraday or the glory of Herschel, is a monument wanted? No! What needs my Shakespeare for his honoured bones The labour of an age in piled stones? Or th « his hallowed relics should be hid Under a st «t-ypointing pyramid? Dear son of memory, great heir of fame, What need’st thou such weak witness of thy name? Thou, in our wonder and astonishment, Hast built thyself a live-long monument. And, so sepulchred, in such pomp dost lie, That kings for such a tomb would wish to die. With regard to Sir John Herschel’s scientific work, on the present occasion I can but refer briefly to a few points which seem to me salient in his physical and mathematical writings. First, I remark that he has put forward, most instructively and pro- fitably to his readers, the general theory of periodicity in dy- namics, and has urged the practical utilising of it, especially in meteorology, by the harmonic analysis. It is purely by an appli- cation of this principle and practical method, that the British Association’s Committee on Tides has for the last four years been, and stillis, working towards the solution of the grand problem proposed forty-eight years ago by Thomas Young in the following words :— ‘* There is, indeed, little doubt that if we were provided with a sufficiently correct series of minutely accurate observations on the Tides, made not merely with a view to the times of low and high water only, but rather to the heights at the intermediate times, we might form by degrees, with the assistance of the theory contained in this article* only, almost as perfect a set of tables for the motions of the ocean as we have already obtained for those of the celestial bodies, which are the more immediate objects of the a tention of the pra. tical astronomer.” Sir John Herschel’s discovery of a right or left-handed asym- metry in the outward form of crystals, such as quartz, which in their inner molecular structure possess the helicoidal rotational property in reference to the plane of polarisation of lizht, is one of the notable points of meeting between Natural History and Natural Philosophy. His observations on ‘‘ epipolic dispersion ” gave Stokes the clue by which he was led to his great discovery of the change of periodic time experienced by light in alling on certain substances and being dispersively reflected from them. In respect to pure mathematics Sir John Herschel did more, I believe, than any other man to introduce into Britain the powerful methods and the valuable notation of modern analysis. A re- markable mode of symbolism had freshly appeared, I believe, in the works of Laplace, and possibly of other French mathemati- cians ; it certainly appeared in Fourier, but whether before or after Herschel’s work [ cannot say. With the French writers, however, this was rather ashort method of writing formulz than the analytical engine which it became in the hands of Herschel and British flowers, especially Sylvester and Gregory (com- petitors with Green in the Cambridge Mathematical Tripos struggle of 1837) and Boole and Cayley. This method was greatly advanced by Gregory, who first yave to its working-power a secure and philosophical foundation, and so prepared the way for the marvellous extension it has received from Boo le, Sylvester, * Young's; written in 1823 for the Supplement to the ‘Encyclopedia Britannica.” Aug. 3, 1871] NATURE 263 and Cayley, according to which symbols of operation become the subjects not merely of algebraic combination, but of ditferentia- tions and integrations, as if they were symbols expres-ing values of varying quantities. An even more marvellous develojment of this same idea of the separation of symbels (according to which Gregory separated the algebraic signs + and — from other sym- bo's or quantities to be characterised by them, and dealt with them according to the laws of algebiaic combinations) received from Hamilton a most astonishing generalisation, by the invention actually of new laws of combination, and led him to his famous ** Quaternions,” of which he gave his earliest exposition to the Mathematical and Physical Section of this Association, at its meeting in Cambridge in the year 1845. Tait has taken up the subject of quaternions ably and zealously, and has curri d it into physical science with a faith, shared by some of the most thought- ful mathematical naturalists of the day, that itis destined to hecome an engine of perhaps hitherto unimagined power for investigating and expres-ing results in Natural Philosophy. Of Herschel’s gigantic work in astronomical observation I need say nothing. Doubtless a careful account of it will be given in the ‘* Proceedings of the Royal Society of London” for the next anniversary meeting. ae , In the past year another representative man of British science is gone. Mathematics has had no steadier supporter for half a century than De Morgan. His great book on the differential calculus was, for the mathematical student of thirty years ago, a highly-prized repository of all the best things that could be brought together under that title. I do not believe it is less valu- able now ; and if it is less valued, may this not be because it is too good for examination purposes, and because the modern student, labouring to win marks in the struggle for existence, must not suffer himself to be beguiled from the stern path of duty by any attractive beauties in the subject of his s:udy ? One of the most valuable services to science which the British Association has performed has been the establishment, and the twenly-nine years’ maintenance, of its Observatory. The Royal Merecrological Observatory of Kew was built originally for a Sovereign of England who was a zealous amateur of astronomy. George the Third used continua ly to repair 1o it when any celestial! phenomenon of peculiar interest was to be seen ; anda manu-cript book still exists filled with observations written into it by his own hand. After the building had been many years unused, it was granted, in the year 1842, by the Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Woods and Forests, on application of Sir Ed- ward Sabine, for the purpose of continuing observations (from which he had already deduced important results) regardimg the vibration of a pendulum in various gases, and for the purpose of promoting pendulum observations in all parts of the world. The Government granted only the buildmg—no funds for carrying on the work to be done init. The Royal Socicty was unable to undertake the maintenance of such an observatory ; but, happily for science, the zeal of individual Fellows of the Royal Society and members of the British Association gave tve initial impulse, supplied the necessary initial funds, and recommended their new institution successfully to the fostering care of the British Asso- ciation. The work of the Kew Observatory has, from the com- mencement, been conducted under the direction of a Committee of the Briti-h Association ; and annual grants trom the funds of the Association have been made towards defraying its expenses up to the present time. To the initial object of pendulum re- seuch wis added continuous observation cf the phenomena of meteorology and terrestrial magnetism, and the construction and verification of thermometers, barometers, and magnetometers designed for accurate measurement. The magnificent services which it has rendered to science are so well known that any statement of them which I could attempt on the present occasion would be superfluous. Their value is due in a great measure to the indefatigable zeal and the great ability of two Scotchmen, both from Edinburgh, who successively held the office of Super- intendent of the Observatory of the British Association—Mr, Welsh for nine years, until his death in 1859, and Dr. Balfour Stewart from then until the present time. Fruits of their labours are to be found all through our volumes of Reports for these twenty-one years. The institution now enters on a new stage of its existence. The noble liberality of a private benefactor, one who has laboured for its wellare with self-sacrificing devotion unintermittingly from within a few years of its creation, has given it a permanent inde- pendence, under the general management of a Committee of the Royal Society. Mr. Gassiot’s gift of 10,000/, secures the con- tinuance at Kew of the regular operation of the self-recording instruments for observing the phenomena of terrestrial magneti-m and meteorology, without the necessity for further support from the British Association. The success of the Kew Magnetic and Meteorological Obser- vatory affords an example of the great gain to be earned for science by the foundation of physical observatories and labora- tories for experimental research, to be conducted by qualified persons, whose duties should be, not teaching, but experimenting. Whether we look to the honour of England, as a nation which ought always to be the foremost in promot ng physical science, or to those vast economical advantages which must accrue from such establishments, we cannot but feel that experimental re- search ought to be made with us an object of national concern, and not left, as hitherto, exclusively to the private enterprise of selt-sacrificing amateurs, and the necessarily inconsecutive action of our present Governmental Departments and of casual Com- mittees The Council of the Royal Society of Edinburgh has moved tor this object in a memorial presented by them to the Royal Commission on Scientific Education and the Advancement of Science. The Continent of Europe is refe red to for an ex mple to be followed with advantage in this country, in the following wores :— “*On the Continent there exist certain institutions, fitted with instruments, apparatus, chemicals, and other appliances, which are meant to be, and which are made, availab!e to men of science, to enable them, at a moderate cost, to pursue original researches,” T is statement is fully corroborated by information, on good authority, which I received from Germany, to the effect that in Prus-ia “* every university, every polytechnical academy, every industrial school (Realschule and Gewerbeschule), most of the grammar-schools, in a word, nearly ail the schools superior in rank to the elementary schools of the common people, are sup- plied with chemical labora ories and a collection of philosophical instruments and apparatus, access to which is most liberally granted by the direc ors of those schools, or the teachers of the respective disciplines, to any per-on qualified, for scientific ex- periments. In consequence, though there exist no particular Institutions like those mentioned in the memorial, there wll scarcely be found a town exceeding in number 5,000 inhabitants bat offers the possibility of scientific explorations at no other cost than reimbursement of the the expense for the materials wasted in the experiments.” Further, with reference to a remark in the Memorial to the effect that, in respect to the pr motion of science, the British Government confines its actin almost exclusively to scientific in- struction, and fatally neglects the advancement of science, my informant tells me that, in Germany, ‘‘ professors, preceptors, and teachers of secondary schools are engaged on account of their skilfulness in teaching ; but professors of universities are never engaged unless they have already proved, by their own investigations, that they are to be relied upon for the advance- ment of science. Therefore every shilling spent for instruction in wniversi ies is at the same time profitable to the advancement of science.” The physical laboratories which have grown up in the Uni- versities of Glasgow and Edinburgh, and in Owens College, Manchester, show the want felt of Colleges of Research ; but they go but infinitesima!ly towards supplying it, being absolutely destitute of means, material or personal, for advancing science except at the expense of volunteers, or securing that volunteers shall be found to continue even such little work as at present is carried on. The whole of Andrews’s splendid work in Queen’s College, Belfast, has been done under great difficulties and disadvantages, and at great personal sacrifices ; and up to the present time there is not a student’s physical laboratory in any one of the Queen’s Colleges in Ireland—a want which surely ought not to remain unsupplied. Each of these institutions (the four Scotch Univer- sities, the three Queen’s Colleges, and Owens College, Man- ches er) requires two professors of Natural philosophy—one who shall be responsible for the teaching, the other for the advance- ment of science by experiment. ‘The University of Oxford has already es ablished a physical laboratory. The munificence of its Chancellor is about to supply the University of Cambridge with a splendid laboratory, to be constructed under the eye of Prof. Clerk Maxwell. On this subject I shall say no more at present, but simply read a sentence which was spoken by Lord Milton in the first Presidential Address to the British Associa- 264 tion, when it met at York in the year 1831 :—“In addition to other more direct benefits, these meetings [of the British Asso- ciation]. I hope, will be the means of impressing on the Government the conviction, that the love of scientific pursuits, and the means of pursuing them, are not confined to the metropolis; and I hope that when the Government is fully impressed with the knowledge of the great desire entertained to promote science in every part of the empire, they wilt see the necessity of affording it due encouragement, and of giving every proper stimulus to its advancement.” Besides abstracts of papers read, and discussions held, before the Sections, the annual Reports of the British Association contain a large mass of valuable matter of another class. It was an early practice of the Association, a practice that might well be further developed, to call occasionaliy for a special report on some particular branch of science from a man eminently qualified for the task. The reports received in compliance with these invitations have all done good ser- vice in their time, and they 1emain permanently useful as landmarks in the history of science. Some of them have led to vast practical results ; others of a more abstract character are valuable to ths day as powerful and instructive condensations and exposi ions of th: branches of science to which they relate. T cannot better illustrate the two kinds of efficiency realised in this department of the Association’s work than by referring to Cayley’s Report on Abstract Dynamics,* and Sabine’s Report on Ferrestrial Magnetism + (1838). To the great value of the former, personal experience of benefit received enables me, and gratitude impels me, to testify. Ina few pages full of precious matter, the generalised dynamical equations of Lagrange, the gr-at principle evolved from Mau- pertuis’ ‘least action” by Hamilton, and the later develop- ments and applications of the Hamiltonian p.inciple by other authors are described by Cayley so suggestively that the reading of thousands of quarto pages of papers sc ttered through the Transactions of the various learned societies of Europe is rendered superfluous for any one who des res only the essence of these investiga ions, with no more of detail than is necessary for a thorough and practical under-tanding of the subje.t. Sabine’s Report of 1838 concludes with the following sen- tence: ‘‘ Viewed in itself and its various relations, the mag- netism of the earth cannot be counted less than one of the most important branches of the physical history of the planet we inhabit ; and we may fee! quite assured that the completion of our knowledge of iis distribution on the surface of the earth would be regarded by our contemporaries and by posterity as a fitting enterprise of a maritime people, and a worthy achievement of a nation which has ever sought to rank foremost in every ar- duous and honourable undertaking.” An immediate result of this Report was that the enterprise which it proposed was recommended to the Government by a joint Committee of the British Association and the Royal Society with such success, that Capt. James Ross was sent in command of the Z7edus and Terror to‘make a magne ic survey of the Antarctic regions, and to plant on his way thiee Magnetical and Meteorological Ob-er- vatories, at St. Helena, the Cape, and Van Diemen’s Land. A vast mass of precious observations, made chiefly on board ship, were brought home from this expedition, To deduce the de- sired results from them, it was necessary to eliminate the disturbance produced by the ship’s magnetism ; and Subine asked his friend Archibald Smith to work out from Poisson’s mathematical theory, then the only available guide, the formulz required for the purpose. This voluntary task Smith executed skilfully and successfully. It was the beginning of a series of labours carried on with most remarkable practical tact, with thorough analytical skill, and with a rare extreme of disinterestedness, in the intervals of an arduous profes-ion, for the purpose of perfecting and simplifying the correction of the mariner’s compass—a problem which had become one of vital importance for navigation, on account of the introduction of iron ships. Edition after edition of the ‘‘ Admiralty Compass Manual” has been produced by the able superintendent of the | Compass Department, Captain Evans, containing chapters of mathematical investigation and formule by Smith, on which de- pend wholly the practical analysis of compass-observations, and rules fur the safe use of the compass in navigation, I firmly be- * Report on the , Virginia, every man is tau the telegraph, and to become a skiltul cperator. has a piotcssion at all times lucrative to himself wherever he may be afterwards thrown. of peace will be of the greatest value to the g a thorough g,at the same © serving one of the S 1 officer, is in time of peace undergoin training in the art of telegraphy and signallin signa most important ends ever devised for the benefit of time that it 1s passing through a most thorough discipline, commerce, ~~ is being educated to science, and al 412 NATURE Ae aie Ne [ Sep¢. 21, 1871 of war. The telegraph is capable of indefinite utilisation. General Von Moltke, it is well known, conducted the late operations of the German army on the battle-fields of France sitting in the rear with his map before him, and his telegraphic operator at his side, keeping him in com- munication with all parts of the field. It has been fre- quently said by distinguished military men that the telegraph will be one of the most effective weapons in any war that may now occur. How necessary for the Govern- ment to keep up the efficiency of such a corps as that of which we have spoken ! As the organisation under General Myer now exists, the President and Secretary of War have a responsible mili- tary man at every important post in the country. Ifa warlike expedition appears on any part of our coast, causing a panic or stampede, there may be a thousand wild rumours of frightened message-senders. The Govern- ment, however, is in the receipt every eight hours (and can be in the receipt every hour if it wishes) of a reliable ee ae | Lz} ol) i Jf [ : ee FIG. 6.—SECTION OF GREEN’S STANDARD BAROMETER message from its own agent, who reports on his responsi- bility what he saw and knows to be true; and this observer will not leave his post until ordered to do so. As a mere Government police, therefore, the Signal Corps would be worth to the nation far more than it can ever cost, even if its operations should be more widely extended, as will speedily be done. Each sergeant is sent to the Signal Service school for instruction at Fort Whipple, Virginia, where he is imme- diately supplied with Loomis’s “ Text-book of Meteoro- logy,” Buchan’s “ Hand-book of Meteorology,” Pope’s “ Practical Telegraphy,” and the “ Manual of Signals for the United States Army,” together with all the instruments necessary for practical instruction. The books he must thoroughly master. He is required to cite once daily didactically, and to practise a certain time with the instru- ments. He is required to remain under tuition until con- sidered by the instructor competent to take charge of a station and perform the necessary duties, when he is ordered before a board, consisting of three army officers, for examination, when, if considered incompetent, he is returned to Fort Whipple for further instruction and practice. If, after a rigid examination, he is found capable, he is assigned to a station, and the necessary stationery and instruments furnished him (the latter consisting of the barometer, thermometer, hygrometer, anemoscope, ane- mometer, and rain-gauge), and instructions to make three observations daily, viz., at the time corresponding with 735 AM., 4.35 P.M., and 11.35 P.M. Washington time, so that every observer at each station should be reading his instruments at the same moment, and in the following order, viz, Ist, barometer ; 2nd, thermometer; 3rd, hy- grometer ; 4th, anemoscope; 5th, anemometer; and 6th, rain- gauge. In addition to the duties discharged by the officers of the Examining Board, Colonel Mallery, A.S.O., has the general charge of the very large correspondence of the office ; Captain Howgate has charge of the statistics and all observations of the service; and Lieutenant Capron has the difficult post of instructor of sergeants at Fort Whipple. Where a single person has been required to do the work of a station, receiving full reports from all stations, the labour occupied twenty hours out of the twenty-four. But the rule now adopted is to provide each station with two men—one a sergeant in charge and the other a private soldier as assistant. The observer stationed on Mount Washington has been alone on the mountain most of the time, and always responsible for the work. In addition to a number of officers who form the Board of Examination, General Myer is also ably assisted by Major L. B. Norton, the property and disbursing officer of the Signal Service. Prof, Cleveland Abbé, long known as an officer of the Cincinnati Observatory, and as an eminent meteorologist, is employed chiefly in the work of making out the daily synopsis of the weather, and deducing therefrom the weather “ probabilities,” which are given to the public by telegram through all newspapers desirous of furnishing them to their readers, To the conspicuous ability of all of these officers is attributable the success of the enterprise. The ordinary barometer in use by Signal Office ob- servers is that of Mr. James Green (the well-known scien- tific instrument maker of New York)—an instrument adopted by the Smithsonian Institution, and also by the American navy, as the most perfect to be obtained. This barometer has its cistern furnished with a small glass index, which shows when the mercury is at the right height in the cistern. This is adjustable by a screw which works through the bottom of the instrument against the flexible bottom of the cistern. The instrument is ready for use when the mercury touches the little V-shaped index in the cistern. So simple and complete is this barometer that any one can use it, and it ought to be in the hands of all business gentlemen, and all who are inte- rested in watching the mutations of the weather. Latitude and longitude on the earth’s surface mark very conspicuous differences in the mean barometrie pressure, as will be seen by a study of the Isobarometric Chart for the United States, which we gave last week. The barometer has a slight fluctuation also under several influences. It rises when the moon is on the meridian in some places. It has a diurnal oscillation, amounting on the equator to more than one-tenth of an inch, but in the latitude of New York to only o’05 inch, the greatest height being about ten a.M., and the least about four P.M. The nocturnal variations are much less. In the latitude of Philadelphia and New York the north- east wind causes another variation of one-fourth of an inch, due to the meeting of two atmospheric waves giving a still higher wave, and hencea higher barometer. There Sept. 21, 1871] NATURE 413 is also the variation due to the height of the observer’s station above the sea. This is, of course, of the first importance. The other fluctuations are comparatively unimportant, and do not blind an observer to those omi- nous fluctuations which precede the storm, the tornado, and the hurricane, The oscillations which indicate a storm are very marked. The tornado which recently ravaged St. Louis was preceded by a gradual fall of the mercury in the barometer, for thirty hours previous, of an entire inch. A: Boston, within thirty-seven years, the barometer has ranged from 31°125 inches to 28°47 inches, the diffe- rence being 2°655 inches. At London it has ranged through more than 3°5 inches ; but in the tropics not so much. During the passage of a cyclone the mercury oscillates rapidly. The most noticeable fall occurs from four to six hours before the passage of the storm centre. is often over an inch, and sometimes two inches. Great changes are usually shown by falls of barometer exceeding halt aninch, and by differences of temperature exceeding fifteen degrees. If the fall equals one-tenth of an inch an hour we may look out for aheavy storm. The more sudden the change the greater the danger. But it is too often forgotten that the fall of the mercury is a fore- warning of what will occur in a day or two, rather than in a few hours, A variation of an inch is certain to be followed by a tornado or violent cyclone. In the tropics “the glass” has been known to show a fall of more than an inch and a half in one hour! The following guides in predicting weather changes are selected from the “ Barometer Manual” of the London Board of Trade, and are suggestive : I. If the mercury standing at thirty inches rise grad- ually while the thermometer falls, and dampness becomes less, N.W., N., or N.E. wind ; less wind or less snow and rain may be expected. Il. If a fall take place with a rising thermometer and increasing dampness, wind and rain may be expected from S.E., S., or S.W.; a fall in winter with a low thermometer foretells snow. III. An impending N. wind before which the baro- meter often rises may be accompanied with rain, hail, or snow, and so forms an apparent exception to the above rules, for the barometer always rises with a north wind. JV. The barometer being at 29} inches, a rise foretell!s less wind or a change of it northward, or less wet. But if at 29 inches a fast first rise precedes strong winds or squalls from N.W., N., or N.E., after which a gradual rise with falling thermometer, a S. or S.W. wind will follow, especially if the rise of the thermometer has been sudden. V. A rapid barometric rise indicates unsettled, and a rapid fall stormy weather with rain or snow ; whileasteady barometer, with dryness, indicates continued fine weather, VI. The greatest barometric depressions indicate gales from S.E., S., or S.W.; the greatest elevations foretell wind from N.W., N., or N.E., or calm weather. VII. A sudden fall of the barometer, with a westerly wind, is sometimes followed with a violent storm from the N.W., N., or N.E. VIII. If the wind veer to the S. during a gale from. the E. to S.E., the barometer will continue to fall until the wind is near a marked change, when a lull may occur. The gale may afterward be renewed, perhaps suddenly and violently ; and if the wind then veer to the N.W., N., or N.E., the barometer will rise and the thermometer fall. IX. The maximum height of the barometer occurs during a north-east wind, and the minimum during one from the south-west; hence these points may be consi- dered the poles of the wind. The range between these two heights depends on the direction of the wind, which causes, On an average, a change of half an inch; on the moisture of the ‘air, which produces in extreme cases a change of half an inch ; and on the strength of the wind, This fall- which may influence the barometer to the extent of two inches. These causes, separately or conjointly with the temperature, produce either steady or rapid barometric variations, according to their force. PRESENT OPERATION OF THE SERVICE Although the Signal Service is yet in its infancy, and must be patiently nursed and cherished by the people for some years before it can expect to do and discharge its full mission, under General Myer’s iadefatigable care and skilful management it has already achieved much good, and more than compensated the public for the ex- pense of its establishment. Since it was instituted last summer, “the chief signal officer has,” to quote the words of the New York World, “thoroughly organised and equipped a system which now embraces in its scientific grasp every part of the land from Sandy Hook to the Golden Gate of California, and from Key West to the Dominion of Canada.” Three times every day synchronous observations are taken and reports made from the stations—one at eight A.M., one at four P.M., and the third at midnight. These observations are made by instruments, all of which are perfectly adjusted to a standard at Washington. They are also all taken at the same moment exactly, these observations and reports being also timed by the standard of Washington time. The reports from the stations are transmitted in full by telegraph. By a combination of telegraphic circuits, the reports of observations made at different points synchronously are rapidly transmitted to the different cities at which they are to be published. They are, however, all sent of course to the central office in Washington. These reports are limited to a fixed number of words, and the time of their transmission is also a fixed number of seconds. These reports are not telegraphed in figures, but in words fully spelled out. There are now about forty-five stations for which provision has been made, and which are in running order. These have been chosen or located at points from which reports of observations will be most useful as indicating the general barometric pressure, or the approach and force of storms, and from which storm warnings, as theatmospheric indications arise, may be forwarded with greatest despatch to imperilled ports. These stations are occupied by expert observers fur- nished with the best attainable instruments, which are every day becoming more perfect, and to which other instruments are being added. The reports of observers are as yet limited to a simple statement of the readings of all their instruments, and of any meteorological facts existing at the station when their tri-daily report is telegraphed to the central office in Washington. Each observer at the station writes his report on mani- fold paper.* One copy he preserves, another he gives to the telegraph operator, who telegraphs the contents to Washington. The preserved copy is a voucher for the report actually sent by the observer ; and if the operator is careless and makes a mistake, he cannot lay the blame on the observer, who has a copy of his report, which must be a fac-simile of the one he has handed to the operator. The preserved copy is afterwards forwarded by the observer-sergeant to the office in Washington, where it is filed, and finally bound up in a volume for future reference. When all the reports from the various stations have been received they are tabulated and handed to the officer (Prof. Abbé) whose duty it is to write out the synopses and deduce the “ probabilities,” which in a few minutes are to be telegraphed to the press all over the country. * Thin paper with black carbon paper between the sheets. The pen isa dry s¢y/us, and being pressed on the upper sheet, it makes a similar mark on the sheets beneath it. 414 This is a work of thirty minutes. The bulletin of “probabilities,” which at present is all that is undertaken, is made out thrice daily, in the forenoon, afternoon, and after the midnight reports have been received, inspected, and studied out by the accomplished gentleman and able meteorologist who is at the head of this work. The “probabilities” of the weather for the ensuing day,so soon as written out by the professor, are imme- diately telegraphed to all newspapers in the country which are willing to publish them for the benefit of their readers. Copies of the telegrams of “probabilities” are also instantly sent to all boards of trade, chambers of commerce, merchants’ exchanges, scientific societies, &c., and to conspicuous places, especially sea-ports, all over the country. While the professor is preparing his bulletins from the reports just furnished him by telegraph, the sergeants are preparing maps which shall show by arrows and numbers exactly what was the meteorologic condition of the whole country when the last reports were sent in. These maps are printed in quantities, and give all the signal stations. A dozen copies are laid on the table with sheets of carbon paper between them, and arrow stamps strike in them (by the manifold process) the direction of the wind at each station. The other observations as to temperature, barometric pressure, &c., &c., are also in the same way | put on them. These maps are displayed at various conspicuous points in Washington—e.g., at the War Department, Capitol, Observatory, Smithsonian Institution, and office of the chief signal officer. They serve also as perfect records of the weather for the day and hour indicated on them, and are bound up in a book for future use. Every report and paper that reaches the Signal Office | is carefully preserved on file, so that at the end of each year the office possesses a complete history of the meteo- rology of every day in the year, or nearly 50,000 observa- tions, besides the countless and continuous records from all of its self-registering instruments. When important storms are moving, observers send extra telegrams, which are despatched, received, acted upon, filed, &c., precisely as are the tri-daily reports. One invaluable feature of the system as now organised by General Myer is that the phenomena of any particular storm are not studied some days or weeks after the occur- rence, but while the subject is fresh in mind. To the study of every such storm, and of all the “ probabilities” issued from the office, the chief signal officer gives his personal and unremitting attention. As the observations are made at so many stations, and forwarded every eight hours, or oftener, by special telegram from all quarters of the country, the movements and behaviour of every de- cided storm can be precisely noted; and the terrible meteor can be tracked and “raced down” in a very few hours or minutes. A beautiful instance of this occurred on the 22nd of February last, just after the great storm which had fallen upon San Francisco. While it was still revolving around that city, its probable arrival at Corinne, Utah, was telegraphed there, and also at Cheyenne. Thousands of miles from its roar, the officers at the Signal Office in Washington indicated its track, velocity, and force. In twenty-four hours, as they had forewarned Cheyenne and Omaha, it reached those cities. Chicago was warned twenty hours or more before it came. Its arrival there was with great violence, unroofing houses and causing much destruction. Its course was telegraphed to Cleveland and Buffalo, which, a day afterwards, it duly visited. The president of the Pacific Railroad has not more perfectly under his eye and control the train that left San Francisco to-day than General Myer had the storm just described. While the observers now in the field are perfecting themselves in their work, the chief signal officer is train- ing other sergeants at the camp of instruction (Fort NATURE [Sepz. 21, 1871 Whipple, Virginia), who will go forth hereafter as valued auxiliaries. It has been fully demonstrated by the signal officer that the army of the United States is the best medium through which to conduct most efficiently and economically the operations of the Storm Signal Service. Through the army organisation the vast system of tele- graphy for meteorological purposes can be, and is now being, most successfully handled. ‘‘ Whatever else General Myer has not done,” says the Vew York World, “he has demonstrated that there can be, and now is, a perfect net- work of telegraphic communication extending over the whole country, working in perfect order, by the signal- men, and capable of furnishing almost instantaneous mes- sages from every point tothe central office at Washington. Think of a single jump by wire from San Francisco 2,700 miles eastward three times a day! When General Myer undertook to put this system in working order, the tele- graph companies said it was impossible—no such thing had ever been heard of in telegraphing. It isnowa grand fait accompli, as much as the passing of the Suez Canal by ships or the escaping from Paris by balloons,” * At present the signal officer aims only to give a synopsis of each day’s weather, and a statement of what weather may be expected or will probably occur. The “ proba- bilities” so far have been most beautifully verified and confirmed, It is not thought wise to undertake more than can be securely accomplished. The synopses and “ probabi- lities” are all that intelligent shippers and careful seamen require. Shippers will not send their vessels to sea if the weather synopsis indicates threatening or alarming weather. Travellers can consult the “ probabilities” before leav- ing home; and any severe storm that menaces any city or port is now specially telegraphed thither, and the announcement is made by bulletins posted in the most public places. By the modest estimate of the signal officers, the fol- lowing is a table showing percentage of “ probabilities ” that have been verified : Fully verified . Verified in part 5 5 5 Failed . : 0 5 - 25 It must, however, be borne in mind that the failures have often been due to lack of information from points where as yet no observer-sergeant is stationed. FUTURE AIMS The Signal Service has, up to this time, acted upon the wise maxim of “ making haste slowly,” and undertaking to do nothing which was not in its power to do safely and securely without risk of failure. It has acted upon the confidence it has in the people that they will patiently await the development of solid science, meantime leaving no stone unturned to hasten forward the observations which may lead to a more exact acquaintance with the habits, movements, and tracks of our American storms. Great progress has in a very short time been made in this knowledge, and every day new light is dawning upon the science of storms. The instruments of the service have been bought on trial. They are undergoing the most varied experiments. In a short time, it is hoped, they will be greatly improved and perfected, and then the chief signal officer’s results will be more satisfactory to himself, and his labours will be greatly facilitated. The celerity with which important results have already been attained by this officer has sur- prised and startled both himself and the friends of the great movement. As soon as possible, therefore, the Signal Office will have its signal posts along the lakes and on our Atlantic sea-board, where cautionary signals will be displayed, warning vessels of approaching gales and storms, and * New York World, March 5, 1871. 50 per cent, 2S ” ” Sept. 21, 1871] NATURE 415 also a signal for clear weather. These will be displayed by day and by night by a very simple and suitable con- trivance now being perfected by General Myer. In New York already arrangements have been made for displaying the signals to shipping in the harbour from a lofty struc- ture on the roof of the Equitable Life Insurance Company’s office, the best station that could be chosen. The display of these storm signals proper will place the American Signal Bureau at once in a position to render inestimable service to shipping and all commercial interests. These signals will at first be neglected by ruder and more unskilful seamen and shippers ; but, as in the case of the famous Fitzroy signals on the English coast, every week will add new demonstrations of the value and wiility of this system—one of the most splendid gifts bequeathed by modern science to the human race. The signalling of storms and desolating cyclones to the unsuspecting seainan will, itis believed, mark a new era in our lake and coast navigation, and be the means of annually saving many lives and millions of dollars’ worth of our floating property. The comparison of these signals with the weather fol- lowing the signals will be then a matter of special atten- tion. Every discrepancy can then be carefully noted and probed, and every day the meteorologists in charge of the “probabilities” will find the means of rectifying any errors they may have fallen into, and daily increasing the accuracy and perfecting the plan of their forecasts. The storm signals will be displayed at any hour of the day or night when the instrumental indications give notice of bad weather ; and experience has already shown that generally at least twenty-four hours’ forewarning can be given from the central office in Washington of all im- portant weather phenomena. With the telegraph to pre- monish, forecasts for two or three days in advance are hazardous and unnecessary. For almost all practical purposes of life a day’s notice of atmospheric disturbances is quite sufficient, and more reliable than longer premo- nitions. It will be a grand triumph for American science when the electric telegraph is so utilised that it will bring all citizens of the United States into electric com- munication with each other, and the most fearful storm, as well as the sunshine and shower, shall be every day a subject of forewarning or congratulation throughout the land, and even on the lakes and oceans that wash the American coasts. OPENING OF THE MONT CENIS TUNNEL app te project of constructing a tunnel under the Alps —one of the favourite designs of that ardent pa- triot and eminent statesman, the late Count Cavour—has now been accomplished, thanks to the skill of the Italian engineers. The scientific requirements and methods - adopted are well stated in a recent article in the Daz/y WVews, to which we are indebted for the following inter- esting particulars :— The tunnel was commenced on the 15th of August, 1857. The two points at which it was determined to begin the boring were two wretched little Alpine villages, Bar- donnecchia and Fourneaux, the former on the Italian, the latter on the French side of Mont Fréjus, the tunnel being nearly pierced under the above-named mountain, and not, as common report would have it, beneath Mont Cenis. These two villages were of the smallest size and most miserable character, and offered no accommodation what- ever to the many hundred workmen employed on either side the mountain. Bardonnecchia, on the Piedmontese side, is a village which, in 1857, when the works com- menced, contained about 1,000 souls. The houses in it were really little better than huts, being mostly occupied by shepherds, who were absent with their flocks on the mountains during the summer months. At Fourneaux things were even worse, there being an ordinary population of only 400 inhabitants, The first problem to be solved, says Mr. Fras. Kossuth, one of the Royal Commissioners of Italian Railways, in his able report on the Mont Cenis Tunnel, was threefold. (1) To fix across the mountain several points which would all be contained in the vertical plane drawn through the axis of the tunnel. (2) To obtain the exact length between the openings. (3) To know the precise difference of level between the two extremities of the tunnel, so as to obtain the proper gradients. In order to execute this programme, a series of observations was established on all the fa- vourable points, and an elaborate trigonometrical survey of the district was commenced. By the end of the season little could be done in the way of surveying ; in the winter of the year 1858 all the surveys relating to the alignment and to the length of the tunnel were completed, and all was ready to compile the longitudinal se-tion along the axis of the tunnel. The whole system consisted of twenty- eight triangles, and eighty-six was the number of mea- sured angles. All of these were repeated never less than ten times, the greater part twenty, and the most important as many as sixty times. To give the reader an idea of the extraordinary care and accuracy with which the sur- veying operations were carried out, it may be mentioned that Signor Mondino repeated his experiments for obtain- ing the level of the tunnel, or rather of the signals over the mountain in 1857 and 1858, and the difference in the two surveys (over more than 13,000 yards), was only 3°93 inches. Even this was reduced afterwards by Signor Termine to 1°57inch. The preliminary measurements gave a distance of 13,861°5 yards between the two tempo- rary openings We say temporary openings, because, although the tunnel is itself constructed in a perfectly straight line from Fourneaux to Bardonnecchia, passen- gers will not pass through the original straight tunnel, but will be conveyed through a branch one which joins the main line a short distance from Fourneaux. The nature of the ground was such as to necessitate the definite and permanent tunnel being taken through the moun- tain In a curve; but even the unprofessional reader will see that a_ straight line was _ indispensable, in order to secure not only accuracy of direction, but also a through draught of air through the whole length of the tunnel. A most important considera- tion this latter, as one of the main objections brought against the scheme was the supposed difficulty there would be in keeping the tunnel thoroughly well ventilated. It was also much easier to transmit the necessary motive power along a straight line than onacurve. The tunnel, although its axis was straight, was not constructed on a dead level. The gradients were: From the Bardon- necchia (Italian) end, 4,408°50 feet above the level of the sea, I in 2,000 (0002 per metre) for a distance of 20,997°33 feet. From the Fourneaux entrance (French side), 3 945 feet above the sea, the rising gradient was I in 43 4782 (023 per metre) for 20,587 feet. ~ The absolute figures are as follows : Total length of thetunnel, 13, 364°86 yards, Elevation above the sea-level of the Bardonnecchia entrance 3 B ; ‘ . 4,381 '25 Rise of gradient of I in 2,000 for 20,048 feet . 10°024 Summit level from Bardonnecchia 4,391°274 Elevation above sea-level at Fourneaux entrance 3,946'50 Rise of gradient of 1 in 45,045 for 200,045 10 feet. 44500 Summit level from Fourneaux 4,391 50 This shows a very slight difference from the calculations of the summit level as reckoned at Bardonnecchia, and gives a mean level for the highest point of 4,391°386 feet. The greatest height of the mass of the Alps over the tunnel is 5,307 feet. 416 NARURE [ Sept. 21, 1871 After giving these figures, it may be of interest to pre- sent the reader with the account given by an eye-witness, M. Génési, of the meeting of the workmen last winter in the depths of the earth, more than 5,000 feet beneath the summit of Mont Fiéjus. ‘On the 9th of November, 1871,’ says M. Génési, “I was on my regular round of inspection as usual, when I fancied | heard through the rocks the nose of the exp'osion of the minrs on the Bar- donnechia side. I sent a dispatch to discover if the hours agreed. They did, and then there could be no longer any doubt we were nearing the goal. Each follow- ing day the explosions were to be heard more and more distinctly. At the beginning of December we heard quite clearly the blows of the perforators against the rocks. Then we vaguely heard the sound of voices. But were we going to meet at the same level and in the same axis ? For three days and three nights engineers, foremen, and heads of gangs never left the tunnel. ‘he engineers Borelly and Boni directed the works on the Bardonnechia side, M. Copello on that of Fourneaux. We could not eat or sleep ; every one was ina stateof fever. At length, on the morning of the 26th De-ember, the rock fell in near the roof, The breach was made, and we could see each other and shake hards, The same evening the hoie was clear—the last obstacle—and the mountain was pierced, our work was done. What a rejoicing we had! In spite of the war, the cheers of all scientiic Europe came to find us in the entrails of our mounta‘n when the happy termination of our enterprise became known, The two axes met almost exactly ; there was barely half a yard error, The level on our side was only 60 centimetres (less than three-quarters of a yard) too high. But after thirteen years of continual work, who could even hope for so perfect a result ? We placed at the point of junction an inscription on a marble tablet, commemorative of the happy event.” How was the happy event brought about? For the variation of less than a yard in more than 13,000 is surely one of the triumphs of modern engineering skill. We cannot do better than borrow the description of the method pursued given by Mr. Kossuth :—“ The observa- tories placed at the two entrances to the tunnel were used for the necessary observations, and each observatory con- tained an instrument constructed for the purpose. [his instrument was placed on a pedestal of masonry, the top of which was covered with a horizontal slab of marble, having engraved upon its surface two intersecting lines marking a point, which was exactly in the vertical plane containing the axis of the tunnel. The instrument was formed of two supports fixed on a tripod, having a delicate screw adjustment. The telescope was similar to that ofa theodolite, provided with cross webs and strongly illumi- nated by the light from a lantern, concentrated by a lens, and projected upon the cross webs. In using this in- strument in che king the axis of the gallery at the northern entrance, for example, after having proved precisely that the vertical flame, corresponding with the point of inter- section of the lines upon the slab, also passed through the centre of the instrument, a visual line was then conveyed to the station at Lachalle (on the mountain), and on the instrument being lowered the required number of points could be fixed in the axis of the tunnel. In executing such an operation it was necessary that the tunnel should be free from smoke or vapour. The point of collimation was aplummet suspended from the roof of the tunnel by means of an iron rectangular frame, in one side of which a number of notches were cut, and the plummet was shifted from notch to notch, in accordance with the signals of the operator at the observatory, These signals were given to the man whose bus ness it was to adjust the plummet by means of a telegraph or a horn The former was found invaluable throughout ail these operations. At the Bardonnecchia entrance the instru- ment employed in setting out the axis of the tunnel was similar to the one already described, with the exception that it was mounted on alittle carriage, resting on vertical columns that were erected at distances 500 metres apart in the axis of the tunnel. By the help of the carriage the theodolite was first placed on the centre line approxi- mately. It was then brought exactly into line by a fine adjustment screw, which moved the eye-piece without shifting the carriage. In order to understand more clearly the method of operating the instrument, the mode of pro- ceeding may be described. In setting out a prolongation of the centre line of the tunnel, the instrument was placed upon the last column but one ; alight was stationed upon the Jast column, and exacily in its centre, and 500 metres ahead a trestle frame was placed across the tunnel. Upon the horizontal bar of this trestle several notches were cut, again-t which a light was placed and fixed with proper adjusting screws. The observer standing at the instru- ment caused the light to move upon the trestle frame until it was brought into an exactline with the instrument and the first light, and then the centre of the light was projected with a plummet. In this way the exact centre was found. By a repetition of similar operations the vertical plane containing the axis of the tunnel was laid out by aseries of plummet lines. During the intervals that elapsed between consecutive operations with the in- struments, the plummets were found to be sufficient for maintaining the direction in making the excavation. To maintain the proper gradients in the tunnel it was neces- sary at intervals to esiablish fixed levels, deducing them by direct levelling from standard bench marks placed at short distances from the entrances. The fixed level marks in the inside of the tunne] are made upon stone pillars placed at intervals of 25 metres, and to these were re- ferred the various points in setting out the gradients.” There will be two lines of rail in the tunnel. The vault itself will be six metres high and eight metres wide. The tunnel will be walled in along its whole length, and the lime rock will be nowhere exposed. The thickness of the internal masonry forming the tube is trom half a yard to a yard and more, according to circumstances. On the French side the masonry cost on the average 1,300 francs the square meire. On the Italian side only 1,000 francs. The tunnel is wonderfully dry in comparison with many smaller works, There is only one subterranean spring of any importance in it. A water course, or rather aqueduct, has been constructed beneath the permanent way, in order to carry off any water which might drain into the tunnel, Much has been said about the heat in the tunnel. All accounts agree that it is not excessive, and a recent French visitor to the tunnel gives the following figures :— At the entrance, 54° Fahrenheit ; at the telegraph station inside, 76° Fahrenheit; the average temperature being about 65° Fahrenheit. NOTES THe first session of the Newcastle-on-Tyne College of Phy- sical Science will be opened by inaugural addresses from Pro- fessors Herschel, Aldis, Page, and Marreco, from the 9th to the 12th of October. The examination for the four exhibitions will be held on the 13th and 14th. On the roth the Inaugural Ceremony will take place, when the Dean of Durham will de- liver an address ; after which the successful candidates for the exhibitions will be named, Furvher particulars are given in our advertising columns. WE announced some time ago that the Council of the Working Men's College, in Great Ormond Street, was prop sing a larger infusion of Science in the programme of the College course ; and we are now very glad to be able to state that during the next term, which will commence on October 2, courses of lectures < ~ Sept. 21, 1871] NATURE 417 will be given on Geology, by Mr. J. Logan Lobley; on the Use of the Microscope, by Mr. J. Slade; and on Phy- siolozy, by Mr. J. Beswick Perrin. Students entering for the course on Geology will have the privilege of attending the ordi- nary and field meetings of the Geologists’ Association. Among the Saturday General Lectures one will be delivered by Prof. W. H. Flower, of the Royal College of Surgeons. No more useful work could be performed than that so generously offered by these gentlemen, who give up their time to the scientific instruc- tion of the working classes in London. We venture at least to predict that they will be rewarded by intelligent and appreciative audiences. Dr. ALLEYNE NICHOLSON, late Lecturer on Natural History in the Medical School of Edinburgh, has been appointed to the Chair of Natural History in the University of Toronto. A SPECIAL prize was established a few years ago by the French Academy, for the best translation delivered to that body. This prize was awarded in the sitting of the 17th of August to the author of a translation of Mr. Grote’s ‘History of Greece,” published by Lacroix. Mr. Grote was an associate member of the Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques. Letvrers from Switzerland state that M. Gerlach, a distin- guished Swiss engineer and geologist, was fatally injured on the 7th in a fall from the mountains of the Upper Valais, and died next day in the village of Oberwald- The deceased gentleman was the author of several remarkable works relative to surveys and explorations in the Swiss Alps. THE 7imes of India, of August 22, asserts that news has been received from Zanzibar that Dr. Livingstone had again been heard of to the west of Lake Tanganyika, whence he had sent to Ujjiji, requesting his supplies to be forwarded. A young Ameri- carrying relief to the traveller. ever, to want confirmation. The intelligence appears, how- Tue Council of the Institution of Civil Engineers publish a list of forty-three special subjects, on which they invite communica- tions for the approaching session, as well as upon others ; such as : ‘‘a Authentic details of the progress of any work in Civil Engineering, as far as absolutely executed (Smeaton’s Account of the Eddystone Lighthouse may be taken as an example). 0. Descriptions of engines and machines of various kinds. c. Practical essays on subjects connected with Engineering, as, for instance, Meta'lurgy. d. Details and results of experiments or observations connected with Engineeriny Science and Practice. For approved original communications, the Council will be pre- pared to award the premiums arising out of special funds devoted for the purpose. THE Maidstone Journal mentions that an educational effort of considerable promise is about to be made in that town, Several gentlemen have arranged to conduct junior classes during the evenings of the winter months, the subject being Physical Geography, Three hundred pupils from the senior classes of schools in Maidstone have already entered. The course will consist of thirty lectures, and the pupils will be educated up to the standard of the Educational Department at South Ken- sington. The lectures will be free. Pror. Hux ry has been lately engaged in rspecting and arranging the valuable reptilian and other remains from the Upper Elgin sandstones now placed in the Dundee Museum He has also been superintending some excavations at Lossie- mouth, ia order, if possible, to obtain materials for completing the structure of the huge Saurian, Stagonolapis Robertsoni, a full account of which is expected to appear before the Royal Society shortly, A FEW years ago the existence of anew Tapir on the Isthmus of Panama was first made known by American naturalists. | some very interesting discoveries. This animal departs so widely from the ordinary American Tapir in certain anatomical characters (particularly in the pos- session of a completely ossified septum between the nostrils, as in the Tichorhine Rhinoceros) that Prof. Gill (its describer) thought it necessary to make it the type of a new genus, call- ing it Llasmognathus Bairdi, after the distinguished assistant secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. The Zoological Society of London have just added to their living collection a fine young male specimen of that animal, which has been placed in the elephant house along with an example of the Zapzrus americanus. Tue German surveying ship, the Pomerania, returned from her cruise in the Baltic on the 24th of. August, after making She crossed the Baltic in different directions several times, and during these journeys soundings were carefully taken, the bottom was dredged, and the surface and deep-water currents observed, and the tempera- ture of the water at the surface and at some depth was also carefully noted. These results will shortly be published in full, but a few details have already appeared. The greatest depth between Gothland and Windau was found to be 720 feet, and not 1,110 feet as formerly supposed. At the depth of from 600 to 720 feet, at the latter end of July, the temperature was only from 0°5° to 2° R. No marine plants were met with in this cold area, and only afew annelids were dredged up. Life was very abundant to a depth of about 300 feet, whilst plants were seldom found at a depth of more than 30 feet. Both animal and vege- table life were found to be most abundant on the coasts of Meck- lenburg-Schleswig and Holstein and in the bay of Liibeck. As an addition to the list of exploring expeditions tending either directly or indirectly to develop a knowledge of the natural and physical features of the North American continent, Harper's Weekly states that a party of civil engineers has lately been organised at Victoria to survey a route for a proposed rail- road through British Columbia and the Red River country to Canada. This is stated to be provided with ample means forthe purpose of making a minute geographical reconnoissance of the country, and is expected to add much to our knowledge of the gencral geo!ogy of the continent. GreaT geological changes are reported from the districts adjoining the Caspian Sea and the nver Ural. Dumng the last ten years the surf.ce of the water in the river has sunk more han a foot, and many bogs on the North Eastern ccas: of the Caspian have en irely disappeared The delta of the Ural has diminished from nineteen to five bran-hes, and whereas it for- merly occupied one hundred versts, it now occupies only seyen. Many islands have become joined to the mainland, and large sandbanks have been formed at the mouth of the river. The town of Guryer, formerly on the sea coast, is now six versts in- land, WE have now full details of the severe cyclone which visited Antigua, St. Kitts, St Bartholomew, St. Martins, Tortola, St. Thomas, and Porto Rico, on the 21-t of August. The heaviest gusts of wind were felt at St Thomas between 4.30 and 5 P.m., ind about § o’clock there was a sudden calm; the centre of the cyclone then passing over the island, and by 7 the violence of the wind had ceased. The damage done in all these islands is excessive ; in St. Thomas the losses are returned at forty-two persons killed, seven-nine seriously injured, and 420 houses com- pletely destroyed. At Antigua the cyclone was very severe, cighty persons are reported ki led, and several hundred wounded. Scarcely a house or plantation in the island has escaped damage. Every place is ‘*bleak, bare, and desolate.” No confirmitory uecounts are gven of the earthquake shocks said in the first telegram to have accompanied the cyclone ; they are probably due only to exaggeration. NATURE [Sepé. 21, 1871 Mr. THOMAS GRAY, the Marine Secretary of the Board of Trade, has collected a sum of 200/. as a prize for the most effi- cient and most simple green light for the starboard side of ships that shall fulfil the Board of Trade conditions, which require that it shall be of sufficient power to be seen ona dark night, with a clear atmosphere, for a distance of two miles uniformly over an arc of ten points of the compass, from right ahead to two points abaft the beam. Lamps intended to compete for the prize should be sent in by the 31st December next. THE preparations made by the Governments of the present age to have every phase of a total eclipse studied and recorded, contrast favourably with the superstition that prevailed a few centuries ago. For instance, the Scientific American quotes the following from a German paper :—‘‘ The Elector of Darmstadt was informed of the approach of a total eclipse in 1699, and published the following edict in consequence :—‘ His Highness, haVing been informed that on Wednesday morning next at ten o’dlock a very dangerous eclipse will take place, orders that on the day previous, and a few days afterwards, all cattle be kept housed, and to this end ample fodder be provided ; the doors and windows of the stalls to be carefully secured, the drinking wells to be covered up, the cellars and garrets guarded so that the bad atmosphere may not obtain lodgment, and thus produce infection, because such eclipses frequently occasion whooping cough, epilepsy, paralysis, fever, and other diseases, against which every precaution should be observed.’” A NATAL correspondent writes that the diamond fields on the Vaal River cover so large an extent of ground that to effect a thorough search would occupy 20,000 men 100 years. From this assertion it might be supposed that the diamonds lie very deep ; but the contrary seems to be the case, for we are told that they all lie comparatively near the surface, the diggers seldom going down deeper than seven feet. The copper in Namaqualand is likewise found near the surface, and stone implements are also found in a similar position. This is accounted for by the fact that the country is fast wearing down. These implements and other indications of former habitations appear to be abundant in Basutoland. Upon digging several feet below the surface near any of the occupied villages of the Basuto people, stone imple- ments are found, and at a less depth the remains of fire places, broken pots (clay), and ash and cinder heaps are discovered. These remains are very abundant throughout the whole of Basutoland. AMERICAN naturalists are anticipating with pleasure the promised visit from Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys. He is expected in the course of the summer ; and though his stay will be a short one, it is hoped that he will be enabled to secure personal conference with the leading American naturalists, and to make such an examination of the sea-coast fauna as he desires. He wi.l pro- bably arrive in time to meet Prof. Agassiz before he starts on the expedition, which contemplates the expenditure of at least a year in an exploration of the physics and natural history of the deep seas of both the Atlantic and Pacific, under the auspices of the United States Coast Survey. ScIENCE forms an important element in the educational course at the Friends’ School, Sidcot. From the report and Transac- tions of the Boys’ Literary Society for the past year, we find that sixty-six monthly reports and thirteen original papers on subjects connected with their several departments, have been read by the curators. Careful and systematic observations by a large section of the members have been made in ornithology, and several rare species have been observed. Considerable attention has also been paid to the collection of plants and in- sects, Tue Ludlow Natural History Society has little to report in the way of active proceedings during the past year, owing to the jllness and subsequent death of the secretary, Colonel Colvin, Many details of work, especially in the completion of arrange- ments, were however attended to. The balance sheet is satisfac- tory, and the museum attracts a certain number of visitors ; but the donations acknowledged suggest the idea that a collection of curiosities rather than a Natural History Museum is the object of the society. Mr. Alfred Salwey has been elected secretary. THE Quekett Microscopical Club has just issued its sixth Annual Report, from which it appears that the club continues to maintain its usefulness ; not only has the number of members considerably increased during the year, and the selection of microscopical slides kept for the use of members and the number of volumes in the library been augmented, but the papers read at the fortnightly meetings show that important additions to microscopical knowledge have been made by members of the club, The fortnightly field excursions during the summer months have been wellattended. The number of members now amounts to 550. WE have received an abstract of the reports of the surveys and of other geographical operations in India for 1869-70. It includes notices of Indian marine surveys, the great trigono- metrical survey, and the topographical, geological, and archzeo- logical surveys during these years, with a chapter on geographical exploration. THE Royal Society of Victoria is just recommencing the publication of its Transactions, discontinued since 1868 in conse- quence of the withdrawal since that year of the customary annual grant of 100/. from the Colonial Government. Notwithstanding this official discouragement, the society was never in a more prosperous and active condition ; the premises have been rebuilt, and con- sidera ble additions have been made to the library. AN event of rare occurrence has happened in the southern part of the great rainless desert of Atacama, a heavy fall of rain having taken place in Northern Chile on the 31st May from the coast to the Cordillera, and from Tres Puntas to Chonarcillo, including Copiapo. This was, perhaps, an extension of the rains in Southern Chile. THERE were several earthquakes in Chili and Peru in June. On the 20th there was a strong shock at Tacua about 7 p.m., but no damage was done. Dr. HENRY CASSERE, a German, has been sent by the Peru- vian Government to make a collection of plants and animals in its Amazon territory, which are to form part of the Great Inter- national Exhibition at Lima. THE great subject of excitement in the South Pacific is the continued discoveries in the new Caracoles district of Bolivia. Silver is now being produced at the rate of 4,000 Ibs. per day, or 400,000/. a year. Coal has been discovered, and new gems are found. The amethyst is tie most abundant, and the opal of the finest quality. Marine fossils have been recognised in the formations. THE artesian well at Umballa had in July reached a depth of 527 feet. A MINE of silver lead of good quality has been found in the Marwar State in India, THE sea has made considerable encroachments at Aleppey in India. We lately recorded the high tide which swept over the Laccadive islands. Tue Agri-Horticultural Society of India have reported that ihe nettle of the Neilgherries furnishes a valuable fibre, at least equal to Rhea grass, but attended with the same difficulties in working. Ir may be of interest to collectors to known that there is. now an ornithologist or bird stuffer at Constantinople, Mr, William Pearse, and a dealer at Smyrne, Mr, A, Lawson, V cP eweae «= ee Sept. 21, 1871 | NATURE 419 { WE must add to our maps the ports of the growing region of Bolivia on its narrow strip of coast. Besides Cobija there are now as trading ports Mejillones, Tocopilla, and Caleta de la Chimba. GOLD operations are being undertaken at Penang by English enterprise, with great hopes of success. The object is to work the quartz reefs. GOLD mining is reviving in Colombia or New Granada, a country once famous for its riches, THE LATE CAPTAIN BASEVI, R.E. Fas LETTER in the Zimes of the 19th inst., from Col. J. D. Walker, R.E., announces the death of Captain James Palladio Basevi, of the Royal (late Bengal) Engineers, Deputy- Superintendent of the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India, an officer of great worth and ability, whose loss will be long felt in the department of the public service to which he belonged. He was the son of the celebrated architect, George Basevi, and was distinguished as a lad for more than ordinary talent, and particularly for his mathematical abilities. First at Rugby, then at Cheltenham College, and afterwards at Addiscombe, he won for himself a high position among his fellow students, and in December, 1551, he left Addiscombe as the first cadet of his term, obtaining the first prize in mathematics, the sword for good conduct, the Pollock medal, and a commission in the Honourable East India Company’s Corps of Engineers. The first few years of his services in India were spent in the Department of Public Works in the Bengal Presidency ; but in 1856 he was appointed to the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India, in which he continued to serve up to the time of his death, performing many services of great value. His bent of mind and habits of study led him, however, to feel a preference for the more purely scientific branches of the operations of the Trigonometrical Survey. Thus, in 1864, he was selected to undertake certain operations which had been proposed by the President and Council of the Royal Society for the determination of the force of gravity at the stations of the great meridional arc of triangles measured by Lambton and Everest, which extends from Cape Comorin to the Himalayan Mountains. The investigations were to be effected by measuring the number of vibrations which would be made in a given time by certain invariable pendulums when swung at the several stations, Captain Basevi entered on the pendulum observations with his characteristic ardour and devotion. He carried his observations of pendulum and clock coincidences over at least twelve days at each station; for ten hours daily—from 6 A.M. to 4 P.M.—he never left his pendulums for more than a few minutes at a time, taking rounds of observations at intervals of an hour anda half apart ; then at night he would devote a couple of hours to star observations for determining time. His observations of the pendulums on the Indian are showed that the local variations of gravity which are superposed on the great law of increase from the equator to the poles, though _ apparently irregular when examined singly, are subject to laws which are highly interesting and curious, and are well worthy of investi- gation. At the northern extremity of the arc the results indicate a deficiency of density as the stations approach the Himalayan Mountains, while at the southern extremity they indicate an increase of density as the stations approach the ocean ; thus both groups of results point to a law of diminution of density under mountains and continents, and an increase under the bed of the ocean, Thus far, however, observations had not been taken at any very great altitudes, the highest station in the Himalayas being under 7,000 feet ; arrangements were therefore made to swing the pendulums on some of the elevated table lands in the interior of the Himalayas, which rise to altitudes of 14,000 feet to 17,000 feet. It was expected that this would be sufficient to complete the work in India, and then the pendulums would be taken back to England to be swung at the base stations of Greenwich and Kew, and ex route at Aden and at Ismailha on the Suez Canal, places which are in the same latitudes as some of Captain Basevi’s stations. Thus gravity at Aden would be directly com- pared with gravity at certain points of the coast and continental stations of the Indian Peninsula, and similarly the plains of Egypt would be compared with the Himalayan Mountains, In the spring of the present year Captain Basevi proceeded to Kashmir on his way to the high table lands in the interior. Early in June he reached Leh, the capital of Ladak. He then proceeded to the Khiangchu table land in Rukshu, about eighty miles to the south of Leh. There, at a spot called Moré, in lat. 33° 16’ and long. 77° 54’, and at an altitude of 15,500ft., he com- pleted a satisfactory series of observations, which show a very gross deficiency of density. After applying the usual reductions to sea level, &c., it was found that the force of gravity at Moré did not exceed the normal amount for the parallel of latitude 6° to the south, as determined by the previous observations with the same pendulums. Wishing to have one more independent determination at al high altitude, Captain Basevi proceeded to the Changchenmo Valley, which lies due east of Leh, across the newly-proposed trade route between the British province of Lahoul and the States of Eastern Turkestan. Near the eastern extremity of that valley, on the confines of the Chinese territories, he found a suitable position in lat. 34°10 by long. 79°25, at an altitude which is not exactly known, but must probably have exceeded 16,000ft. He hoped to complete his observations in ten days, and then commence the journey back to India. But he did not live to carry out his intentions ; already the hand of death was upon him, and, all unconsciously to himself, the over-exertion to which he was sub- jected in a highly rarefied atmosphere and under great vicissitudes of climate was rapidly undermining a constitution which, though vigorous, had already been sorely tried. With the devotion of a soldier on the battle-field, he has fallen a martyr to his love of science and his earnest efforts to complete the work he had to do, and in him we have lost a public servant of whom it may be truly said that it would not be easy to find his equal in habitual forgetfulness of self and devotion to duty. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES ParRIs Academie des Sciences, Sept. 11.—M. Faye in the chair, —M. Dumas read an abstract of a pamphlet published by MM. Lomer and Ellershausen, advocating the establishment at Belle- garde, in the department of Ain, of hydraulic machines worked by the Rhone, and giving a force of 10,000 horse-power. The site is called ‘‘ Le perte du Rhone” at Bellegarde, and this im- mense hydraulic pressure is to be obtained by boring a tunnel, through which only one-third of the water of the Rhone will go. The height of the fall will be sixty feet, and the result is to be obtained very easily, as the tunnel is only to havea length of 550 yards, The engineers hope to create at Bellegarde a city as important as Lowell in the United States. It is intended to in- duce Alsatian manufacturers to move from Mulhaus, and to settle in that locality.-- M. Decaisne sent some observations relating to ani- mals fed with bread infested with the odzam aurantiacum, and it is considered as demonstrated that, at least under special circum- stances, such food must be considered as being really poisonous. —M. Berthelot sent a very long paper on the union of alcohol with bases, which was inserted 772 extenso in the Comptes Rendus. —M. Lecog de Boisbaudron sent also a paper which was published by him some time ago, on the constitution of luminous spectra. —M. Fayre sent a paper to elucidate certain points of a special theory worked out to explain how a certain weight of copper rotating between the poles of an electro-magnet is heated by the influence at a distance. The fact was discovered by Foucault. SAN FRANCISCO California Academy of Sciences, August 22,—Mr. Dall called the attention of the members to some shells of oysters that had been transplanted from the Eastern States, and which during the last twelve months had been growing in the waters of the bay. The recent growth of these oysters had been modified in a manner so that they corresponded very closely to that of our native oyster. In the eastern oyster the shell is white and smooth, whilst our bay oyster has the shell much corrugated, of a brown colour, and frequently with purple stripes between the ridges. Now the recent growths of the shell of these trans- planted eastern oysters exhibit the same corrugations as our na- tive, the colour is decidedly more brown than in the east, and purplish stripes are frequently found between the corrugations. —Dr. Blake gave a description of some prismatic dolerite found in the neighbourhood of Black Rock, Nevada. The prisms were six-sided, measuring from o'l in, to 0°3 in. across, and some were from 3in. to 4in, long, but they all had evidently been 420 NATURE [ Sept. 21,1871 broken. The separation of the crystals was caused by weather- ing, as in some specimens they were still aggregated. A thin section under the microscope showed that the rock was composed of augite, nephaline, and titanite, imbedded in a green vitreous matrix. Dr. Blake also read a paper on the diatoms found in the Puebla hot spring, Humboldt county, Nevada. The tem- perature of the water where they were collected was 163° F. They were con‘ained in the decomposing layers of an abundant growth of red algze, which formed a membranous covering at the bottom of the channel, through which the waters of the spring were discharged. This growtk consisted of oscillarize and a minute hair-like alga, which presented nothing but a mere outline even when magnified 700 diameters. This alga seems identical with the ygrocrosis Bischof found by Cohn in carnallite. By the interlacement of its fibres it formed a tough membranous layer covering the bottom of the channel, but this layer was coloured red, apparently by the oscillarize. In the upper layer of these algze but few diatoms were found, but those layers which had been covered in by new growths, and which were in a semi- gelatinous state, afforded a nidus in which the diatoms seemed to flourish with the greatest luxuriance both as regards species and individuals, In one slide, without any previous preparation of the deposit, as many as forty-six species were observed. But the most interesting point in connection with them is their almost per- fect identity with the diatoms found in the infusorial strata in Utah, and which have been so fully described by Ehrenberg in his recent memoiron the Bacillarize of California. Amongst the more marked species which were peculiarto the Utah strata, Cocconema unciale- Hyalodiscus Whitneyi, Stephanolithis hispida, and Cosmiolithis Henryi were readily recognised ; in fact, had it not been for the presence of a small quantity of these hair-like algze in the recent specimen, it might have been regarded as having been taken from the Utah beds. The resemblance of form between these hot spring and Utah diatoms, and the fact of their growing so luxuriantly in water so hot as to render it unfit to support any other form of living being, makes it more than probable that the Utah infusorial layers were formed in an inland fresh-water sea, the temperature of which was probably about the same as that of the Puebla hot spring. The great difficulties in explaining the formation of these extensive infusorial deposits have been the time required for their formation, and also the entire absence of all other fossil remains in strata that were evidently quietly deposited in fresh water. Both these difficulties are removed by admitting that the inland sea in which they were formed was of a temperature which is seen to be most conducive to their rapid growth, and which, at the same time, was incompatible with the existence of other forms of living beings. It is probable that the temperature of the air was not much below that of the inland sea, so that no land plants or animals could exist at the time when the Utah beds were being deposited. The admission of the existence of such an extreme climate even in the temperate zone at so recent a period as the post-pliocene (the position these beds are supposed to occupy) would certainly lead to important modifications in our views as regards the condition of the surface of the earthat that period. The author thinks it probable that these Utah infusorial beds are miocene, as at the close of that period we know that the temperature of the Arctic region was some fifty or sixty degrees warmer than at present. He proposes in a future communication to enter more fully into this question, and also to consider the bearing of the discovery of the production of these low forms of living beings in such apparently abnormal conditions on the origin of living matter. — Prof. Whitney gave an account of the investigations carried on during the progress of the Geological Survey of California, having for their object the determination of the value of the baro- meter as a hypsometrical instrument, the expectation being, that after a sufficient stock cf observations shall have been accu- mulated and reduced, it will be possible to designate the hours of the day for each month when the result will approach nearest to the truth ; and in general to give practical rules in regard to the times of observing and the methods of reduction, the follow- ing of which will secure a close approximation to accuracy than can now be attained. An elaborate series of observations with this end in view was begun on this coast some ten years after by Colonel R. S. Williamson, of the U, S. Engineers ; but the work was suspended by the Engineer Buseau just before being completed. Colonel Williamsons results, however, were pub- lished in the form of a superb quarto volume, as an ** Engineer Paper,” and this contains a large amount of valuable material, | so that the work of the Geological Survey is only to be looked | upon as supplementary to that so ably commenced by him. The stations at which observations are bzing carried on at present, under the direct'on of the Geological Survey, are along the line of the Central Pacific Railroad, and their elevations are presumed to be accurately known from the levellings of the rail- way surveyors. The points selected are San Francisco, Sacra- mento, Colfax, and Summit, approximately 0, 30, 2,400, and 7,000 feet above the sea-level. The observations have already been continued at these points nearly a year, and are made at the Smithsonian hours (7 A.M.,2 P.M, andgPp.M.). The greatest care has been taken \hat the instruments should be kept in per- fect order, well placed for accurate results, and carefully and punctually observed. The observations of the first ten months have already been partially worked over by Prof. Pittee, of the Geolozical Survey, and the results attained indicate very clearly that valuable assistance will be derived from the completed series in the reduction of the copious barometric determinations of altitude made during the progress of the survey. BOOKS RECEIVED EnGuisu.—Hardy Flowers: W. Robinsor (Wame and Co.). AMeERICAN.—Mammals and Winter Birds of East Florida: J. A. Allen. ForeiGn.—Verhandlungen des naturhistorischen Vereines der preus- sischen Rheinlande ; Parts 1 and 2.,—Sitzungsberichte der Niederrheinischen Geselischaft zu Bonn, 1871.—Schriften der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Danzig. PAMPHLETS RECEIVED EncuisH.—On the Spirit Circle: Emma Hardinge.—Transactions of the Literary Society of Sidcot School for 1870-71.—The Climate of Brighton: S. Barker.—The D< pendence of Lifeon Decomposition: H. Freke —A Com- plete Course of Problems in Plane Geometry: J. W. Pallisser —Sixth Report of the Quckett Microscopical Club.—On the Relative Powers of Various Sub- stances in Preventing the Generation of Animalculez: J. Dougall, M.D — Testimonials in favour of J. W. Davidson, candidate forthe Chair of Anatomy in the Edinburgh Veterinary College —The Traveller; Vo!. I., No. 5 — Water not Convex, the Earth not a Globe : W. Carpenter —On the Economical Production of Peat and Charcoal.—The Contagious Diseases Act and the Royal Commission.—Some Simp'e Sanitary Precautions against Cholera and Diarrhoza: M. A. B.—The proposed India and England Railway: W. Low and G. ‘Thomas.—Contributions to the Knowledge of the Meteo ology of Cape Horn and the West Coast of South America.—Transactions of the Geological Society of Glasgow; No 3, Supplement. AMERICAN AND CoLontaAL.—Fourth Annual Report of the Trustees of the Peabody Museum.— Transactions of the Entomological Soeiety of New South Wales ; Vol II., Part 2.—Notes on the Birds of New Zealand: T. H. Potts. —Arrangement of the Families of Molluscs: T. Gill, M D.—On the Early Stages of Terebratulina |septentrionalis: E. S. Morse.—What are they doing at Vassar? Rey. H. H Mactfarland. Foreicn.—Le Chiffre Unique des Nombres —Sulle Distribuzione delle protuberanze intorno al disco solaro: P. A. Secchi. CONTENTS Pace Tue SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION . . . . « « © © « « «© « « 40% PuysIoLoGicAL RESEARCHES AT GRATZ . . . «. 6 « « «© « « 402 Our Book SHEER gee) 5) eye ee) fe) oon ols le) Hinde tod OY LETTERS TO THE EDITOR :— The/Science’andwArt Depaktimient: <).) +) ll aunt) Naun(onne fe ucn eno! Elementary Geometry.—A FATHER; R. A. Proctor, F.R.A.S. . 404 Captain Sladen’s Expedition.— Dr. P. L. ScLaTer, F R.S. . . . 405 Deschanel’s Physics —Prof J.D. EVERETT . . . . .- . « 405 Newspaper Science. —Davip Forses, F_R.S. 406 Tue New Ganoip FisH (CERATODUS) RECENTLY DISCOVERED IN QuzENsLAnD. By Dr. A GunTHeR,F.RS. .... . « . » « 407 Tue ExoGENous STRUCTURES AMONGST THE STEMS OF THE COAL Measures. By Prof. W. C. Wittiamson, F.R.S. Seo eb set METEOROLOGY IN AMERICA: The United States Signal Service. (VERA Mustrarionss) si... soy oe Nol cathy cs oe asta en OPENING OF THE Mont Cenis TUNNEL, . «©. « » « «1 « « «© 415 Nores oe Src sah ebro ha? o> We tot Mies alt fea eaotat nia came eee THE LATE \CAPTAIN: BASEVIZ RAB e eel scm eane! Sees oe oo) SociETIES AND ACADEMIES a ceo efor tis) LAX: Books AND PAMPHLETS RECEIVED ©. 2) 3s 6 3) 0) ss ss 420 ErratumM.—Page 383, second column, lines 4, 11, for ‘“‘ Geneva” read ““Genoa.” NOTICE We beg leave to state that we decline to return rejected communica- tions, and to this rule we can make no exception, NATURE 421 THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 28, 1871 EXPERIMENTAL SCIENCE IN SCHOOLS The Elements of Physical Science. By Gustavus Hinrichs, A.M., Professor of Physical Scieace in the State University of Iowa, &c. In 3 vols. Vol. 1. Physics. (Griggs, Watson, and Day, Davenport, Iowa, U.S.) The School Laboratory of Physical Science. Edited by Gustavus Hinrichs. Nos. 1 and 2. se (Bos resolution of the Board of Regents in 1870, the Iowa State University has finally cut loose from the old college course. Only by this resolution, placing the elements of Physical Science at the very begin- ning of the course, can instruction in science become thorough. For the first time the students in physical science have been offered facilities not too inferior to those they have for ten years enjoyed in other branches of learning.” And with what result? ‘A marvel of studious industry there” (in the laboratory). “Young men and young women, boys and girls, measuring, weighing, test- ing, demonstrating, and recording fact upon fact in physics, that, at least in our school days, were pored over in a maze of bewilderment, in dryest of text-books, to be bolted in sections without question.” We trust that these important reforms in science teaching will prove conta- gious, and spread rapidly from the plateau of Iowa City to a region of even greater extent than the American con- tinent. Let us examine how Prof. Hinrichs is doing his part to attain this desirable result. Bearing in mind the important fact that science teaching in schools must be of a practical nature from beginning to end, the American Professor has sketched out in his “School Laboratory ” a plan which in the main will recom- mend itself to every competent teacher both in his own country and in ours. He proposes that the course shall be divided into three parts :—Rudiments, Elements, and General Principles. The Rudiments, which ought to be studied in the first year or so of a boy’s school life, embrace only prominent general facts and determinations, easily observed and measured with a sufficient (but limited) degree of accuracy ; together with the collective study of these facts, so as to bring to light several of the so-called laws. The Elements comprise the same subjects, treated however, more fully, and they should be completed “in the first year of the high school course.” The General Principles embrace mathematical deductions of a concise and simple nature, together with some of the most im- portant hypotheses of Physical Science; this portion should be completed in the last year of the high school course. Prof. Hinrichs is careful to point out that technical instruction in schools will not result in the advancement of science; but that a thorough general training in the phenomena of Nature, together with that already given in languages and mathematics, will lead to hitherto unimagined progress. Such is Prof. Hinrichs’ idea of a sound scientific train- ing, and a very admirable one it is. To carry it out we must strive after good teachers, capacious laboratories, VOL, IV. and trustworthy text-books. For our own part, we think that good teachers would not be found so scarce as is imagined, if there were only a genuine demand for them ; from a variety of causes, however, such as parental ignorance, false economy on the part of schools, and the ridiculous demands of public examiners, science has been kept, up to the present time, at the lowest possible ebb, except in the wealthiest of our public schools. It is de- plorable to think how few school laboratories there are in England which could in any way vie with that in the Iowa State University, where “ more than two hundred students have experimented within six months ;” and we fear that this state of things will continue for the most part unal- tered until the public examiners require a practical know- ledge of the sciences taught in schools. We are perhaps as deficient in good text-books as we are in laboratories ; and the reason for this is not far to seek. If a candidate is asked to explain a phenomenon or a class of phenomena, but is never required to exhibit it to the examiner, it is natural that he should content himself with learning the explanation without performing the experiment. Hence we find that the great majority of our text-books are merely explanatory, and not at all ex- perimental ; the phenomena are fully described and most ably explained, but the work which should be done in the laboratory to bring about these phenomena is forgotten by the teacher and the taught, because—¢t¢ zs not required at public examinations. It was therefore a bold under- taking for Prof. Hinrichs to bring out his “ Elements of Physics,” which is an excellent and almost unique speci- men of a practical treatise ; and we trust that it will meet with a reception worthy of it. In the first volume of this work, the student is taken, in about 150 pages, through a course of simple and easy ex- periments relating to Magnitude, Weight, Machines, Pro- perties of Matter, Light, Electricity, and Magnetism. Each operation is so clearly described that the book might almost be employed by a solitary student, and many of the experiments, we are convinced, not only could but ought to be performed by children at the very commence- ment of their school career. There is great difference of opinion as to whether quali- tative and quantitative observations of natural phenomena should be performed simultaneously or consecutively—we are disposed to hold the latter view rather tenaciously, believing that science should be one of the first subjects taughtin all schools. However, no one need be dismayed by the simple measurements of length, area, weight, and so oa, which form the main portion of Professor Hinrichs’ first chapter. The metrical system is taught by him in the only practicable manner, by means of actual measure- ments performed by the pupils themselves, without any reference, beyond a passing contemptuous notice, to the English system. The student is also familiarised with various forms of surfaces and solids, learns the manage- ment and the use of very simple apparatus, such as could well be provided in any village school, constructs his own measures of weight and length, makes numerous deter- minations, and enters his results in a journal. The ex- ercises in mensuration and co-ordinates are especially useful, both from a scientific and a mathematical point of view ; and the Journal of Experiments—blank pages at the end of the volume to be filled up by the pupil—is Zz 422 NATURE [ Sept. 28, 1871 perhaps the most suggestive portion of this original work. In short, the experimental method is adopted in every chapter ; and it is thus that the inquirer after truth is taught, step by step, to appeal to the fountain source for most, if not all, information concerning “the wonder and mystery of Nature.” There is, however, a very marked disproportion in the amount of space allotted to each subject. Machines occupy only sixteen pages—probably the feeblest chapter in the book ; while Crystallography extends over as many as thirteen pages. We think also that too much attention (relatively, at least) has been paid to Electricity and Mag- netism. Pure and simple observation, even of natural phe- nomena, cannot properly be said te educate the mind, un- less the reasoning faculties are called into play ; and such subjects as Electricity, Botany, and Crystallography, if made an essential portion of school training, would doubtless tend to bring the whole question of science-teaching into disre- pute. The only experiments that should be performed in the laboratory are such as will bring to light a scientific fact ; and it should be remembered that a fact is scientific only in so far as it is interconnected with other facts. The more intimate this interconnection is, the better suited is the fact for elementary education ; because it gives rise to a greater amount of rational explanation, and tends, by reaction, to imprint upon the mind knowledge already acquired. Professor Hinrichs does not appear to us to attach sufficient importance to these views ; his work has therefore a disjointed aspect, and is wanting in large general ideas which should be cautiously introduced at proper intervals for the purpose of increasing the scope of the pupil’s understanding. We agree with him that the quantitative study of such subjects as the Law of Gravi- tation should be postponed to the last year of the school course ; but its qualitative study might be carried on with great advantage at a much earlier period ; for previous familiarity with such theoretical views as are capable of some sort of experimental proof will make a student anxious to examine the subject quantitatively at the earliest opportunity. For these reasons we regret to find certain, points omitted in the present volume, such as the Laws of Motion, which are so admirably adapted, not only for experimental verification, but as a means of explaining the principles of scientific induction. Still, if Prof. Hinrichs has not discovered every gem, he has nevertheless succeeded in pointing out the right path of discovery, along which he has acted on the whole as a faithful and thoroughly painstaking guide. The idea of the “ School Laboratory” is also a very ad- mirable one. It is, in fact, a monthly magazine, the aim of which is to inculcate the system of experimental work upon which Prof. Hinrichs so strongly insists; to give examples of methods and results ; and to aid both teacher and pupil. We trust that the efforts of this able reformer of science- teaching will be amply seconded ; and we believe that these Elements will be found of great service to every con- scientious teacher, who will be able to glean from them many valuable suggestions both as to method and treat- ment ; and we recommend them especially, because a widely-spread knowledge of a work of this kind will tend very much towards the introduction of experimental science into the curriculum of our schools, OUR BOOK SHELF Phrenology, and how to use ttin Analysing Character. Nicholas Morgan, (Gon 1871.) THE appearance of a book of this kind from time to time shows what a deep hold phrenology took upon the popular mind. Had it not been so, we should have neither writers nor readers of works upon ‘‘ The Science of Phrenology,” now that almost the whole foundations of the system have been shown to be either untrue or based upon misconceptions. The present work is illustrated by numerous portraits and other engravings, and several of the former are remarkably truthful representations of living or recently-living celebrities; though we doubt whe- ther the accompanying analyses of character will prove as agreeable to the originals as they are destined to be edifying to the public. The Dependence of Life on Decomposition. By Henry Freke, M.D., T.C.D., &c., Professor of the Practice of Physic and Lecturer on Chemical Medicine in Steven’s Hospital Medical College. (London : Triibner and Co.) THIS is a pamphlet of a controversial character, which would not prove interesting to the general reader. Dr. Freke’s views were originally published in 1848 in a work “On Organisation.” They are peculiar in many respects, but contain the germs of some important biological truths. The following passage (p. 28) may serve as an example :— “ Why, with an adequate supply of food, are we not able to work our brains, muscles, &c., for an zxdefinite period, like a steam-engine with an adequate supply of steam ? Because the tissues are disintegrated, and require nutri- tive repair. If the animal tissues did wzo¢ undergo dis- integration during the active discharge of their functions, why should not the animal, like the vegetable, continue to increase in dimensions during the entire period of its organic existence? It is because the organic tissues developed by the vegetable do of undergo disintegration when their construction has been completed, that the vegetable continues to grow and increase in dimensions during its entire life. Such is not the case with the animal, and that for this reason, namely, when the con- struction of the animal tissues, brain, muscle, &c., is com- pleted, those tissues undergo disorganisation while dis- charging their functions.” The Estuary of the Forth and adjoining Districts viewed Geologically. By David Milne Home, of Wedderburn. (Edinburgh : Edmonston and Douglas.) Mr. MILNE HOME’s name has long been known in con- nection with Scottish geology. His memoir on the Coal- fields of the Lothians was for many years the only trust- worthy geological account of those areas. In addition to this he has from time to time communicated to various scientific journals a number of papers chiefly on subjects relating to glacial geology. In this present volume he returns to these subjects, and gives us a description of the superficial formations of the basin of the Forth, together with what he considers to be the most feasible explanation of the somewhat intricate details he brings before his readers. He treats first of the form and physical features of the Estuary and the districts adjoin- ing ; secondly, of the formation or origin of the Estuary ; and, thirdly, of the superficial deposits met with in the area described. He conceives that the faults which intersect the strata along both sides of the Firth, and which not only have the same general bearing as the Estuary, but are also for the most part downthrows to south, in Fife- shire, Clackmannan, &c., and, in the Lothians, downthrows to north, have formed the deep trough or valley of the Forth—the depression caused by this series of step-faults having reached at least 2,000 feet. “Along the lines of these slips great precipices, or cliffs, were formed, several hundred feet in height, which, under the action of the sea By (London: Longmans, Green, and Sept. 28, 1871] NATURE 423 or the atmosphere, crumbled down.” The materials thus supplied went to form the superficial deposits, it being supposed that almost the whole of Scotland was under the sea at the time these changes took place. We feel sure that Mr. Milne Home will get few geologists to agree with him in these conclusions. In the first place, it may very well be doubted whether the faults which cut the strata ever actually showed at the surface in the manner supposed. It is much more probable that the dislocations took place so gradually that any inequalities arising there- from were planed away by denudation as fast as they ap- peared. But even were this not the case, it is quite certain that the faults referred to by Mr. Milne Home must date back to a vastly more remote antiquity than the later Tertiary periods. The Scottish Coal-fields, indeed, would appear to be traversed by some faults which, according to the Geological Survey’s map and description of the South Ayrshire Coal-fields, do not influence the overlying Per- mian. It is also indisputable that the igneous dykes, which Professor Geikie has shown to be of Miocene age, are all posterior in date to the faults which shift the Coal- measures. Mr. Milne Home does not take into considera- tion the prodigious amount of denudationthat the palaeozoic strata of the valley of the Forth must have undergone in the long ages that intervened between the close of the Car- boniferous period and the advent of the glacial epoch. There cannot be any reasonable doubt that the valley of the Estuary of the Forth existed as a valley long before the dawn of the age of ice. But Mr. Milne Home’s memoir is taken up chiefly with the history of the drift deposits, which he describes in considerable detail. Especially valuable are the numerous sections given, and the long lists of localities where glacial-strize, erratic blocks, kaims, and the other phenomena of the drift, may be studied. The author inclines to the iceberg theory of the formation of the boulder-clay, and thinks it may have originated at a time when “the ocean over and around Scotland was full of icebergs and shore-ice, which spread fragments of rocks over the sea-bottom, and often stranded on the sea-bottom, ploughing through beds of mud, sand, and gravel, and blocks of stone, and mixing them together in such a way as to form the boulder-clay.” Mr. Milne Home points to the presence of beds of sand included in the boulder-clay as one of several objections to the land- ice origin of that peculiar deposit. He thinks that if the iceberg theory be adopted, the explanation would be simply this, “that icebergs came at different periods, new sea-bottoms being formed in the intervals.” But, on the other hand, if the glacier theory be accepted, then it would have to be admitted that the land must have sunk under the sea for every bed of sand we find in the boulder-clay. The author, however, does not seem to be aware that fresh-water beds are found interstratified with the boulder- clay, so that the difficulty in either case is equal. We have not space to notice several other interesting points treated of in this memoir, which contains so many im- portant data, that we can recommend it confidently to our geological readers. We may dispute some of the author’s conclusions, but it matters not what interpreta- tion may eventually be put upon the facts, many of the facts are here, and Mr. Milne Home has done good service in bringing them together. je Ge LETTERS TO THE EDITOR [Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his Correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. | Phenomena of Contact In NATURE for August 24, Mr, Stone controverts two pro- Positions incidentally put forward in a review of Mr, Proctor’s book, ‘*The Sun.” They are :— sits : <) + ‘*y, That the irregular phenomena of internal contact of a planet with the sun, variously described as ‘ distortions,’ ‘ black drops,’ ‘ligaments,’ &c., are not always present, but are only seen ‘ sometimes.’ ‘*>, That when seen they are due to insufficient optical power or bad definition.” In writing that review, I tried to avoid the assertion of any proposition I could not fully sustain, and therefore very willingly give the evidence on which these propositions rest. At the out- set, however, I beg leave to call especial attention to the fact that I did not assert the second in an absolute manner, but only said that it was ‘‘indicated” by observations and experiments. The first proposition is sustained by the fact that at the last transit of Mercury, the majority of those observers who have described the phenomena saw neither ligament nor distortion, but only the geometrical phenomena of contact, the planet preserving its rotundity to the last. The following is a statistical summary of the evidence on both sides :—Among the numerous English observations published in the monthly notices, fourteen describe the phenomena. Of these three saw the phenomena go on regularly, while eleven saw liga- ment, black drop, or distortion either before or after the contact. Among these eleven there is little agreement as to the exact nature of the distortion. Owing to the low altitude of the sun in England, I take it that the atmosphere was much less favour- able than on the Continent. At Marseilles Le Verrier saw the black drop. He used a seven-inch glass, of which both the centre and circumference were covered by a screen, which is sufficient to account for the phenomenon by the diffraction thus produced. Mr. Stephen, who observed at the same place with a very large reflector, ‘*déclare n’avoir rien vu de pareil.” * Of the five observers at the Paris Observatory, Le Verrier sayst :—‘‘ Les observateurs ont remarque qu il ne s'est rien présenté de particulier, ni au moment du contact intérieur, ni apres ce contact. Mercure a touché le bord du Soleil en amin- cessant progressivement le filet de lumiére, mais sans produire le phénomene de la goutte.” Le Verrier was, therefore, so far as we know, the only observer in France who saw the black drop. At Madrid Ventosa may have seen several black drops ‘‘ tout- a-coup.” His description, however, is rather obscure. $ At Lund the egress was observed by Duner under very fa sour- able circumstances with a nine-inch glass. He says § :—‘‘ Die Bilder waren sehr ruhig, und die innere Beriihrung geschah in der Weise, dass der Lichtfaden Zwischen den Randern des Mercurs und der Sonne erst dann brach als seine Breite verschwindend klein gewordenwar. Eszeigte keine Spur einer Verdrehung der Bilder oder des von anderen Beobachtern erwahnten schwarzen Tropfens.” At Pulkowa fourteen observers observed the egress. I learn that not one saw anything but the geometrical phenomena of contact. To avoid a tedious collation of accounts which nearly all say the same thing, I remark that only two observers on the Continent saw any abnormal phenomena, namely, Kaiser at Leiden, and Oppolzer at Vienna. The first saw an elongation of the planet, which he thought might be due to maladjustment of his instru- ment.|| The second saw the sun’s limb pushed out by that of Mercury, so that apparent contact took place before the breaking of the thread of light.** Summing up all the accounts, I find the result to be :— Total number of observers who describe phenomena . 39 Number who saw the planet remain perfectly round, and the phenomena of contact occur with entire regularity, and without distortion, ligament, ordrop 24 Number who saw ligament, distortion, one or more drops, or other abnormal phenomena ewe OLS The twenty or thirty observers who do not describe the pheno- mena probably saw nothing abnormal, but they are not counted in the above list. The first proposition is, I conceive, fully established by the statistical facts cited. Passing now to the second, it may be remarked that when different observers give different descriptions of the same * Comptes Rendus, 1868, ii., p. 921-924. + Ibid. p. 948. fs t Astronomische Nachrichten, vol. Ixxii., p. 356. § Ibid, p. 378. || Ibid, vol. lxxiii., p. 214. ** Tbid, vol. Ixxii., p. 347. 424 NATURE [ Sepz. 28, 1871 phenomena, there must be some corresponding difference in the circumstances of observation, and that when among five observers three see the phenomena exactly as we know they are, while two see them as we know they are not, and even then do not agree between themselves, there is a strong pre- sumption that the latter do not see them rightly. I am aware of but a single attempt to determine experimentally the causes why one-third of the observers of the late transit, and many ob- servers of former transits, saw the planet distorted, namely, that of Wolf and André, to which Mr. Stone alludes. They found, in observations of artificial transits under various circumstances, that when they used a telescope of at least twenty centimetres aperture, with a good object glass, well adjusted to focus, they saw only the geometrical phenomena of contact, while, if the object glass was small, or not well corrected for aberration, or not well adjusted to focus, they saw the phenomena of distortion. * In the absence of farther investigation, which is much to be desired, these results seem to me, at least, to ‘‘indicate’’ that the phenomena in question are due to insufficient optical power, or bad definition either in the object glass or the atmosphere. At the same time I by no means insist on this proposition as established, and it is a great defect in the experiments in ques- tion that they do not extend to the effects of using shades of different degrees of darknessin observing the sun ; but of this anon. In his letter Mr. Stone quotes the observations of Chappe, Wales, Dymond, &c., in 1769 ; but I cannot admit that they bear strongly on either of the points in question, till we have some better evidence than now exists that their object glasses were such as Clarke or Foucault would call good. Again, the argument from irradiation, if it proves anything, proves too much. Ido not see why, upon the theory of Mr. Stone, the distortion should not always be seen. To be satis- factory, any theory of the matter must explain why it is that A, B, C, &c., see the phenomena, while X, Y, Z, &c., do not, and that of Wolf and André is the only one which does this. Mr. Stone objects to the experiments of the Paris astronomers, that their disc was not sufficiently illuminated to exhibit any optical enlargement. I do not know his authority for this assumption, but, whether well founded or not, it seems to me that if the sun were viewed through a dark glass, it would present the same optical phenomena of irradiation with a disc so illumi- nated as to appear of thesame brilliancy with the darkened sun. Thus, in the absence of evidence to the contrary, the Paris expe- riments may be taken as showing how the phenomena would present themselves in the case of the sun viewed through a shade of acertain (unknown) degree of darkness. Before we can make any application of the theory of irradiation to the phenomena of contact, we require to know whether the irradiation of an extremely minute thread of light, darkened so as to be barely visible, is the same with that of a large disc. [ am decidedly of opinion that it is not, and, if not, the fact that the sun’s disc is optically enlarged by the telescope or the eye of the observer, cannot be directly applied to the phenomena of a transit. To sum up my views ;—neither Mr. Stowe nor any one else will claim that the ligament he saw before the time of internal contact was a celestial reaiity—he considers it a result of irradiation, but whether of telescopic or purely ocular irradiation I do not under- stand. If the former, this is simply a species of bad definition, and there is little difference between us. I also admit, on my part, that if the telescope and the eye are such that from any cause whatever an exceedingly thin thread of light presents itself to the sense as a band several times thicker than it reaily is, then, as the real thread becomes invisible, the seeming band will appear to be broken through by what some may considera ligament and others a black drop, and the really sharp cusps will seem to be rounded off at their points. If I rightly understand Mr. Stone, he holds that these results of the thickening of the thread of light by what he considers irradiation are unavoidable. But this view is conclusively negatived by the fact that they actually were avoided by a large majority of the observers of the late transit. Admitting, then, that these spurious phenomena are not unayoid- able, it matters little whether we cail their cause irradiation or bad definition, though it is important that we should know its exact nature. The only attempt I know of to determine this is that of Wolf and André, and their results seem to me so nearly in accordance with wha we should expect, as to be quite worthy of acceptance, at least in the total absence of rebutting evidence. Simon Nrwcoms * Comptes Rendus, 1868, i. p. 921, Solar Parallax I HAVE waited ‘somewhat anxiously for Prof. Newcomb’s statement of the errors in a chapter on the Sun’s distance (‘* The Sun,” Chapter 1.). His review was certainly so worded as to imply very gross inaccuracy, and his explanatory letter, in which he remarked that more than a column of NATURE would be needed for the mere record of my errors, did not improve matters. This morning I havereceived his notes. The errors enumerated amount but to seven in all; I will leave your readers to judge of their importance. I. At p. 50, I assign to Hansen’s letter of 1854 the announce- ment of the value 8”'9159 for the solar parallax ; whereas this value was not announced by Hansen until 1863. TZanguam veferat. ansen’s priority remains unaffected by the change. 2. At p. 53, I mention that Prof. Newcomb deduced a value of 8”-84 (probably a misprint for 8” 81) for the solar parallax by a certain method. His real result was 8-809. Again my com- ment is ¢anguam referat. 3. At p. 53, Foucault’s ‘‘ parallax is given as 8’’"942, whereas the result actually deduced was 8°86,” The matter again is utterly insignificant ; but it chances that I have not given Fou- cault’s estimate of the parallax as 8942. I remark only that if Foucault’s estimate of the velocity of light is correct, the parallax would be 8-942. I deduced this result by a calculation made on my thumb-nail as I wrote. It is correct, however, and Foucault’s was not. 4. At p. 59, Isay that Mr. Stone deduced the solar parallax from observations of Mars made at Greenwich alone, and then by combining these observations with others deduced the solar parallax at 8943. Now, Prof. Newcomb says that he ‘‘ finds no discussion of the observations at Greenwich alone, 7 the paper here referred to.” But I refer to no paper whatever. A rough calculation of the parallax was certainly made from the Greenwich observations alone, though, as Mr. Dunkin remarks at p. 507 of his edition of ‘‘ Lardner’s Astronomy,” “the observations by this method (single-station observations) were comparatively unsuccessful,” ‘* owing to unfavourable weather at Green- wich.” Apart from the facts, which fully justify my statement— what could the correction be worth in any case? Only the final result was insisted upon, In a note on this matter, Prof. Newcomb makes “in passing” the really important observation that the method of determining the sun’s distance by observations on Mars from a single station was applied by the Bonds as far back as 1849. Mr, Carrington had already told me that he believed the Bonds had anticipated the Astronomer Royal. I wrote to Prof. Young asking for further information, and was waiting for hisreply, I am obliged to Prof. Newcomb foraiding me in this matter. The priority of the Bonds inthis matter should certainly be more widely known than it is. 5. Atp. 61. Thisisa very curious correction. I speak of Prof. Newcomb as having successfully treated the problem which was afterwards discussed by Mr. Stone; and he remarks that he knows nothing of the matter, and has read my statement with great bewilderment. JI am not responsible for it. There is aletter in the Astronomical Register for December 1868, signed only **P. S.,” but with unmistakable internal evidence of com- ing from the Astronomer Royal for Scotland, in which the follow- ing passage occurs :—‘‘I must not say a word about the pyramid sun-distance here, or my letter will never be allowed to see the light ; something, however, on the score of modern justice to our contemporaries | must beg leave to put in. Admirable is the praise given to Mr. Stone, and worthy, in so far, the credit abundantly bestowed on him at every step of the undertaking ; but why is there not one word about Prof. Simon Newcomb, of America, having already gone over that same problem similarly, and published the results a year sooner?” Of course, as Prof, Newcomb now writes that ‘‘he has no recollection of ever having made any independent investigation of the observations of the transit of Venus,” Prof. Piazzi Smyth was mistaken, and ‘the abundant discussions of Prof. Newcomb’s paper in various northern scientific societies last winter” (so speaks Smyth) were founded on some misconception of its purport. But Prof. Smyth’s statements were permitted to remain uncorrected ;—/Ainc ile lacryme. 6. Atpp. 61,62. ‘* The distortion of Venus at the time of in- ternal coniact is described as an ever-present phenomenon, and the apparent formation of the ligament as conten poraneous with true internal contact.” If what I say in pp. 61, 62 admits of being so misinterpreted (which I question), the same cannot be said of Sept. 28, 1871 | NATURE 425 my remarks inp. 63. My belief is now, as it has been for years (long before Mr. Stone’s paper was published), that under favourable conditions an exceedingly fine ligament must be visible at the moment of real internal contact, the planet’s outline being otherwise undistorted. But in most instances a coarser ligament is formed xo¢ contemporaneously with the moment of real con- tact. I have shown that the true moment of contact can be injerret from the formation of a coarser ligament as exactly as when a fine ligament is observed. This I still maintain, and I further believe that Mr. Stone’s opinion as to the cause of the phenomenon, an opinion independently enunciated by myself in November 1868 (see Scvevtific Opinion) is correct, and that the ex- perimen al tests which have been supposed to disprove it, have in reality no sufficient bearing on the question at issue. 7. Atp. 63. Itis unfortunate if my account of Stone’s proceed- ings suggests that I maintain he was the first to consider whether real or apparent contacts had been observed ; for I have but lately been maintaining the contrary view in a correspondence with an ex-president of the Royal Astronomical Society. I have invariably opposed the opinion here ascribed to me. Mr. Stone himself has never claimed what I am said to have claimed for him, He has made a definite claim, and that claim I have repeated and still hold to be just. Prof. Newcomb concludes with some general statements. He considers I am mistaken in supposing that astronomers generally regard observations on Venus in transit as the most trustworthy method of obtaining the solar parallax ; mistaken again in sup- posing that Mr. Stone has removed any ‘‘difficulties that had perplexed astronomers ;” and so on. Such statements are so vague that I shall scarcely be expected to discuss them. Until proof, or atleast some evidence to the contrary, is supplied, I can only say that now, as when I wrote ‘* The Sun,” my opinions on these points seem to me to be just. I am certainly not alone in holding them. RICHARD A. PROCTOR Brighton, September 23 Elementary Geometry f THE question raised on this subject naturally consists of two parts. The first relates to the unsuitableness of Euclid as a text- book, and the need of a work which shall so commend itself to ex- aminers and teachers, so to supplant it. The second question is —given the authoritative text-book, how is the geometry of which it treats to be taught to young students? The arguments on the first of these questions have been so ably and conclusively stated lately by several mathematicians, especially by Mr. Wilson, Dr. Joshua Jones, and Dr, Hirst, that there is no need to revive the discussion ; but I entirely agree with your correspondent in his conclusion that the book which is to supplant Euclid is at present a desideratum, and that it will probably be the work of more heads than one. Several books have been written during the last four years, and have formed the basis of the discussions which have since taken place on the requirements of the new programme. By theic means, the questions at issue between the Opponents and supporters of Euclid have become more clearly defined, and a greater unanimity of action has resulted amongst those who are labouring to supply this desideratum of modern education. But I am sure that most of these authors will admit that the issue of works intended for permanent text-books was premature, When the first question is settled, the second remains. Geo- metry is not essentially difficult, nor is it generally distasteful to young students. It becomes so, however, when they are required to commit the propositions to memory before they understand them, The educational purpose which geometry serves is not the discipline and exercise of the memory. A choice and pregnant passage from a good author may be learnt and retained in the memory without much difficulty, although its meaning may be very imperfectly understood, and it will richly repay the labour of its acquisition. It will be recalled again and again, and re- ceive new light, and afford new pleasure with every fresh associ- ation. Not so with geometry; it is useless if not understood, A child should be made to comprehend even the definitions before he commits them to memory. Let us suppose, for in- stance, that the definition of a circle is to be learnt, the prelimimary explanation should take some such form as the following, The teacher at the black-board, with chalk and compasses, and the pupils at their desks, with paper and compasses—the teacher draws a,circle and names the figure—he tells each boy also to make a circle, and then proceeds to question. What name is given to such a surface as that on your drawing paper? What kind of a figure shall we call one which can be drawn on a plane surface? Compare a triangle and a circle, and say how many lines form the boundary of the triangle? How many Ines contain the circle? Explain exactly what you do with the points of the compasses when you use them to make a circle? Why must the joint of the compasses be tight? Fix a drawing-pin in your drawing-board, and with a piece of thread construct a circle. What purpose does the thread serve in the construction? The defning properties of a circle are, therefore, these—(1) it is a plane figure; (2) it is bounded by one line, termed the circumference (3); every point of the circumference is at the same distance from a fixed point, termed the centre. After the definition is worded in its permanent form, and repeated, and written several times on paper, it will be re- membered. Again, let us suppose the propositions on the equality of triangles to be the subject; the following introductory ques- tions and exercises suggest themselves. Draw two straight lines, one 5 in. long, and the other 8 in.; then make with your protractor an angle of 43°. Construct a triangle having one of its angles equal to the angle drawn, and the sides of this angle equal to the given straight lines. Take the figures drawn by different boys, and compare them as regards size. Now consider the parts of each ; how many sides has each ? How many angles ? How many sides are drawn from given dimensions ? Letter them and then name them. How many angles? Name it. How many angles were not originally given? Name them. How many sides? Name it. Compare this third side, B C, in two of the figures. If the figures are all accurately drawn through- out the class, what must necessarily follow with regard to this third side BC in all the figures, &c. ? Finally, the proposition should be enunciated, and the proof learnt in the form in which it is to be remembered. Then the teacher may give three angles which may form the angles of a triangle, and when the cons‘ructions are made compare two figures from distant parts of the class. Similarly he may treat all the allied propositions. When taught in this way, the subject becomes so easy and attractive that it may be commenced at an early age. If, as some teachers maintain, Spartan severity be necessary to secure mental discipline, then this plan of teaching elemen- tary geometry will not be an improvement on that of forcing into the memory Euclid, pure and simple, without note or comment ; bat when the test of success is applied, I am sure the plan of making the early school work as easy and as pleasant as possible will require no other argument to support it. R. WORMELL “eat It is remarkable that Prof. Everett a:serts 4 to represent the reduced height of the mercurial column, when the wxreduced height is carefully indicated in Fig. 264 by the same symbol 4. Moreover it is distinctly stated on page 362 that ‘‘ the tension of the vapour is evidently equal to the external pressure minus ¢/e height of the mercury inthe tube,” Prof. Everett writes, ‘‘ In some instances I have endeavoured to simplify the reasonings by which propositions are established or formulz deduced” (Preface, part 1). This would lead most people to expect simplicity, which includes accuracy ; and they may well be astounded when they find not only unexplained but inaccurate formule. Prof. Everett’s promises, and not his com- plaint, were the grounds of expectations which have not been realised. Deschanel’s THE REVIEWER OF DESCHANEL’S ‘‘HEAT” Sept. 22 Science Mr. Forbes does not stand alone in his experience of news- paper science. The G/ode, however, is not generally looked on as a scientific paper, and no one would be likely to go to it for information on matters other than political. What shall we say, however, to the following paragraph, copied verbatim et literatim from the columns of the Mark Lane Express for September 4 ?— Newspaper “© CHARLOCK.—A correspondent inquires what he must do to abate the annoyance of it in his crops. We do not believe there is any mode of preventing its presence. Some seasons are dis- tinguished by its appearance. We do not think they come from 426 NATURE [ Sept. 28, 1871 seed, but is the result of some electrical action producing them spontaneously. The late Duke of Portland used to say they need not sow white clover where bones were used freely ; and where the pure white lime is used, clovers are seen without sowing seed. Also, if, asmay be seen any season on the roads of Derby- shire, where the roads are repaired with white limestone, the clovers are present by the side of the wheel-tracks, ‘The same may be seen on laying land down to permanent grass. Use farm- yard manures, and the coarser grasses are seen; use road- scrapings and compost, and the finer grasses are sure to come. The charlock is an unwelcome visitor ; but its removal in corn crops is often worse than the evil itself. ‘Let both grow together till the time of harvest.’ The seed has more value than some suppose, and when crushed will be found a good tonic. Nothing is given to us in vain.” Comment in this case also is needless. One hardly knows which most to admire in this rich paragraph ; the independence of the trammels of the ordinary rules of syntax displayed by the writer ; the teleological moral drawn at the end ; or the contempt for science manifested in the assertion of the possibility of so highly- organised a plant as the charlock arising ‘* spontaneously ’ in the ground. When such lamentable ignorance of the very elements of science is displayed by those who should be the leaders, what can we expect from the farmers themselves? Well may we exclaim, Qzs docebit ipsos doctores ! ALFRED W, BENNETT London, Sep. 23 IGE FEEASS 8 water flea, ' Daphne pulex, is a well-known inhabi- tant of rivers and fresh-water lakes, and, being dis- tinctly visible to the naked eye, often attracts the attention of water drinkers. Though a harmless crustacean, this little creature not only excited great interest in parliamen- | tary committees during the last session, but exercised a very powerful influence over the choice of a water supply for the northern capital of Great Britain. if known at all, is certainly less celebrated, and probably by no means likely to be so potent in its parliamentary influence ; nevertheless a short account of it may not be wholly uninteresting to the readers of NATURE. During a recent ramble upon the Morteratsch Glacier, | I turned over some of the isolated stones which lie upon | its surface partially imbedded in the ice ; under many of them I found hundreds of a minute jet black insect, which jumped many times its own length at a single spring, in a manner somewhat resembling the performance of a com- mon flea.* The ice flea is about one-twelfth of an inch long. six legs, supporting a body obscurely jointed like that of a bee, and furnished with two jointed antennze. The total length of the insect appeared to be about six times its thickness, the antennz being about one-fourth as long as the body. The insects were not found under every stone, they generally occurred under flattish fragments of rock, presenting a surface of about a square foot, and having a thickness of from 2 to 4 inches. Stones of this size are sufficiently warmed by the sun’s rays to melt the ice be- neath them more rapidly than it is liquefied by the direct solar beams. A surface of rock absorbs luminous thermal rays better than does a surface of comparatively white ice, and it transmits these rays to the ice beneath it, parily by conduction and partly by radiation from its under sur- face. into the ice, forming for itself a kind of basin. Sometimes these cavities are watertight, and then any space between the stone andthe walls of its basin are filled with water derived from the melting ice. Under such conditions I have never found any fleas beneath the stone. But occa- sionally the ice basin is drained, and it was under stones _ * My friend Prof. Eschenburg, of Ziirich, had previously observed these insects on the Morteratsch Glacier, and it was his verbal account of them that led me to search for them. The ice flea, || | sible for us to come to any definite conclusions. resting in such comparatively dry basins that the insects were found. In all cases nearly the whole of the fleas were found upon the ice, very few being attached to the stones. They were grouped together in shoals, so that probably forty or fifty of them frequently rested upon a single square inch of ice. On removing the stones, the insects were very lively, but this might be owing to their sudden transition from comparative darkness to direct sunlight I saw no indications of food cf any kind beneath the stones, indeed these insects must have a struggle for existence of a most severe character. Livingin an atmo- sphere the temperature of which never rises above the freezing point, they must be continually exposed to inun- dations during the day by the stoppage of the drainage of the ice basin, whilst on clear nights severe frosts frequently threaten them with an icy grave. Again, during the day the roof of their habitation is, as it were, continually falling in upon them, and thus constantly exposing them to the risk of being crushed to death ; for, as the ice melts be- neath the stone, the latter is continually changing its points of support. It may be, however, that the crystalline structure of the ice causes it to melt with a corrugated surface, which provides everywhere valleys of sufficient depth to protect the fleas from destruction by the fall of the superincumbent mass of rock. We have also not to search far for a possible source of food. The cold of the glacier benumbs and kills thousands of insects which alight upon its surface, and bees, wasps, flies, and moths are frequently seen dead upon the ice. Then there is the so-called “red snow,” and other allied organisms of similar habits, which may perhaps minister to the wants of this singular insect. Is the ice flea, like its irritating cousin, a nocturnal predatory insect, and does it issue from its dangerous abode at nightfall in search of frozen bees and butterflies? Perhaps some of the entomological readers of NATURE may be already acquainted with this animal, and be able to supply further information re- specting it. FE. FRANKLAND REMARKS ON PROF. CLASSIFICA TION CRYPTOGAMS WILLIAMSON'S NEW OF THE VASCULAR N discussing the points at issue between Prof. Wil- liamson and myself, it will be necessary for me to : | say a few words on stems in general, because we evidently Viewed through a pocket lens, it was seen to have have very different views of the construction of stems ; and until we thoroughly understand each other, it is impos- Ina young dicotyledonous stem (see Oliver's “ Lessons,” p. 112, fig. 67) we find three things : a quantity of cellular tissue surrounded by an epidermis, and near the centre a series of young fibro-vascular bundles. As growth goes on, these separate bundles coalesce and form a central cylinder of united fibro-vascular bundles. These bundles leave a portion of the cellular tissue in the middle of the stem, which becomes the pith. Outside the fibro-vascular bun- dles we have also a small quantity of the cellular tissue, but it soon becomes to a great extent inseparable from the sub-epidermal cells. Other portions of the cellular i c | tissue remain between the united fibro-vascular bundles, The stone thus melts its way an inch or two deep | and form the medullary rays. In many stems and in most roots these rays are wanting, and the cellular tissue would therefore be divided into two portions by the united bundles. Each fibro-vascular bundle consists of two portions, which are separated by a layer of cells capable of division, the cambium. On the inner side of the cambium cells we have in general spiral vessels, porous vessels, and wood cells, while on the outer side we have the soft bast and bast fibres. The epidermis is soon thrown off in many cases, and is replaced by layers of cork-cells Sept. 28, 1871] or peculiar thickened bast-fibre-like cells from underneath, The stem thus consists of three sets of tissues: (1) the limitary tissues, including epidermis, periderm, &c. ; (2) the fibro-vascular bundles ; and (3) the primitive tissue or Grundgewebe of Sachs (see “‘ Mo. Mic. Journal,” vol. iii. p. 160). In an older dicotyledonous stem we find the limitary tissues becoming largely developed, cork-cambium and layers of cork being formed. The fibro-vascular bundles have also largely developed, the cambium cells by division, and the conversion of these new cells into per- manent tissue has formed a number of annual rings of wood-cells and vessels as well as layers of bast, while the primitive tissue only increases very slowly in the medullary rays, the pith not increasing, and the primitive tissue under the epidermis becoming lost in the rapidly-developing bark, Such is the structure of a dicotyledonous stem. In a monocotyledon we have the same tissues, limitary, fibro-vascular, and primitive. The primitive tissue is largely developed, forming the cellular tissue by which the fibro-vascular bundles are surrounded (Oliver, ‘“‘ Lessons,” p: 113, fig. 68). These fibro-vascular bundles differ quite as much in the nature of their cells and vessels as those of the dicotyledon, often one form being developed in excess of the other. The limitary tissues also develop cork and other cells. There is thus very little difficulty in comparing a very young dicotyledonous stem with that of a monocotyledon. In the monocotyledons the fibro- vascular bundles are closed, and therefore no annual layers are found ; but in such stems as Draczena, Aloe, Yucca, &c., we have the stem increasing in diameter. The outer cells of the primitive tissue divide and form not only new primitive tissue but new fibro-vascular bundles (Sachs, “Lehrbuch der Botanik,” ed. 2, p. 103, fig. 90). Prof. Williamson would probably call these Exogenous Endogens. When we come to the Lycopod and Fern stem, we find the same parts—limitary tissues, fibro-vascular bundles, and primitive tissue. In ferns the bundles are more or less scattered, like those of the monocotyledon, while in the Lycopods we either have them separate or else all joined together to form a central axis (see Sachs, of. cit., figs. 66 and 89). Round this central axis in Lyco- pods we have the primitive tissue, while outside we have the epidermis often with peculiar thickened cells under- neath, forming part of the limitary tissues. In Mosses, Charas, and Thallophytes we have only the primitive and limitary tissues, the fibro-vascular bundles being entirely absent. In some of the Thallophytes, however, as in Lessonia, we may have the primitive tissue increasing just as in Draczena. In Lepidodendron, as in some of our modern Lycopods, we have acentral axis of combined fibro-vascular bundles, and a large quantity of primitive tissue, no longer all parenchymatous, asin many of our recent Lycopods, but mostly prosenchymatous, as in L. chamecyparissus. This primitive tissue went on increasing year after year, new cells forming by division, these being soon changed into hard prosenchymatous cells. Outside we have the limi- tary tissue strengthened, as in some of our recent species, by remarkable prosenchymatous cells. In Lepidoden- dron the primitive tissue was capable of dividing in the same way as that of Draczena. The stem increased year after year, not by growth of the wood-cells, &c., of the fibro-vascular bundles, as in a dicotyledonous stem, but by additions to the primitive tissue. I never denied that the Lepidodendron stem increased in diameter, but pointed out that the increase takes place by multiplication of the cells near the periphery of the primitive tissue, the portion not likely to be often preserved in Lepidodrendon stems. This mode of growth is quite compatible with the state- ment that the fibro-vascular bundles are closed as they are both in Ferns and Lycopods. As Prof. Williamson admits that “the large vascular cylinder of the fossil forms is a development of what is seen not only in Zyco- NATURE 427 podium chamecyparissus, but in every one of the nu- merous Lycopods of which I have examined sections,” there is no difficulty .in settling the matter. The cylinder in L. chamecyparissus is part of the primitive tissue, not of the fibro-vascular bundles. Such being the case, the central axis of Lepidodendron is not a “vascular me- dulla,” but a series of closed fibro-vascular bundles, In Lepidodendron we have merely a_ pseudo-exogenous growth taking place in the primitive tissue, while in Gymnosperms and Dicotyledons we have true exogenous growth in the fibro-vascular bundles. In Ferns this pseudo-exogenous growth is not likely to take place, as a fern produces only a few large leaves, while ina Lycopod or Lepidodrendron, which produces numerous small leaves, water for purposes of transpiration would have to be rapidly supplied in yearly increasing quantities. This is provided for by the increase which takes place in the wood-cells of the primitive tissue, not as in Dicotyledons, by additions to the wood-cells of the fibro-vascular bundles. Prof. Williamson has been led away by the mere superficial resemblance of the parts, and has never tried to understand the homologies of these stems. He has mistaken the united closed fibro-vascular bundles in the centre of the stem for a vascular medulla, ze., for a portion of the primitive tissue ; and he has mistaken the woody cylinder surrounding this—which is a modified portion of the primitive tissue—for the united fibro-vascu- lar bundles of a dicotyledon. After making two such fatal errors, can his proposed new classification be con- sidered of any value? W. R. M‘NaB A NEW DYNAMETER 2 need not be said that in astronomical observation it is always desirable, to say the least of it, to havea tolerably correct estimate of the magnifying power actually in use. This has hitherto been only attainable either by means of the maker’s valuation, or through the employment of the apparatus unfortunately termed a “ dynameter,” a word which every classical scholar would wishtoseeas soon as possible dismissed from circulation. The former alter- native is, I am sorry to say, often far from reliable; the latter involves an outlay not within the reach of every astronomical student. The Rev. E. L. Berthon, Vicar of Romsey, Hants, well known already for many ingenious and valuable inventions, has recently devised a little apparatus for attaining the same object, which deserves high commendation. Its very moderate price places it within the reach of all ; and its accuracy appears equal to that of instruments of more complicated construction and higher pretension. I have heard on excellent authority that very little dependence can be placed on the estimates of magnifying powers too frequently furnished to pur- chasers. Eyepieces are both constructed and rated too frequently by “rule of thumb,” and their real, if measured, will be found widely different from their nominal power. Some opticians, as, for instance, the celebrated reflector- maker Short, have had an unfortunate reputation for ex- aggerating the power of their instruments, and without any suspicion of misrepresentation: such has been the case even at the celebrated Optical Institute of Munich, as appears by the corrections made by W. Struve in the numerical values of the Dorpat oculars, 94, 140, 214, 320, 480, 600, 800, 1,000, 1,500, 2,000, being respec- tively lowered by him on trial to 86, 133, 198, 254, 420, 532, 682, 848, 1,150, 1,500. In this instance, it is pos- sible that some different mode of measurement may have led to the discrepancy. Uncertainty, it may be suspected, occasionally arises from this cause. I once undertook, at the special request of a friend, to verify with a double- image dynameter the power of some oculars constructed by a very eminent optician, whose name was an abundant guarantee for his good faith; but the results, on which I 428 NATURE [ Sept. 28, 1871 bestowed a great deal of care and trouble, trusting only to averages of many repeated measures, did not agree satisfactorily with the maker’s statement. I do not know whether it may have been generally noticed, but the remark is a very obvious one, that the limit of numerical error increases with the power, so that in the case at any rate of ordinary dynameters, minute accuracy in the estimates of very deep oculars bears evidence of its own futiliry. If it :epresents anything of value, it can only be the care and attention with which a mean was deduced from repeated trials; but even this would be better expressed in 10und numbers, as less likely to convey an erroneous impression to the uninitiated. Probably some form of apparatus may yet be devised which may secure greater minuteness in the measure- ment of very high powers, without entailing a dispropor- tionate outlay. In the mean time Mr. Berthon’s invention may be safely recommended as likely to prove of especial advantage to observers in general, T. W. WEBB THE NEW GANOID FISH (CERATODUS) RECENTLY DISCOVERED IN QUEENSLAND Il. ie appears to me that there is not the least justification for separating the living fish genericad/y from that extinct form, the teeth of which are known by the name of Cera- todus. Immediately after its discovery became known, and before we knew more than the outlines of its external characters, views to the contrary were expressed, evidently based on the assumption that a genus was not likely to have survived from the Triassic epoch. This is certainly a remarkable fact, but it is not more surprising than the other, viz., that fishes from one of the oldest epochs from which fish remains are known, are most closely allied to Ceratodus. We know that the same sfeczes occur on both sides of the Central-American isthmus—that is, that they have existed at, and remained unchanged from, the time when the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans were connected by one or several channels. Therefore, it would appear that there is a greater persistence in the ichthyic type than we have hitherto been willing to admit. Whoever has compared the teeth of Ceratodus runci- natus {rom the German Muschel-Kalk, and those of the Indian species described by Prof. Oldham, with the teeth of the living species, must admit their generic identity ; and if the Australian form really grows to the enormous size stated by some colonists, I have no doubt that the teeth of such large examples cannot be distinguished from the fossils mentioned. So close a resemblance in highly specialised teeth like those of Cevatodus is generally admitted to be of generic significance. Unfortunately no other part of Ceratodus is known to have been pre- served in the fossil state to serve as a further guide in answering this question. The strata in which the teeth ‘are found must have been much disturbed, as no two teeth have ever been met with z7 sz/w together ; but I cannot help thinking that soorer or later the vomerine teeth will be recognised. From their smaller size they would easily have escaped observation ; and their shape (which differs so much from that of the molars) would scarcely have allowed an observer to connect them with the genus to which they in reality belong. The next most nearly allied forms are the American and African Lefidosirens, a genus at present unknown in a fossil state. The skeleton (in some respects even to its minute details), structure of the fins, dentition, internal nostrils, three-chambered heart, co-existence of a lung with gills, intestinal tract, small size of ova: all present the strongest possible evidence of the close relationship between these fishes. The points in which they differ are of such a nature that characters indicative of an amphibian affinity in Lepzdosiren are modified in Ceratodus according to a distinctly ichthyic type, thus tying, as it were, Lepz- dosiren firmly to the class of fishes. The longitudinal valves in the bulbus arteriosus of Lefidoszren, reminding us of a similar structure in the heart of Batrachians, are replaced by truly Ganoid valves in Ceratodus; the im- perfect gills of the former genus are as perfect in the latter as in any other fish; the lungs of Lefiédosiren, paired as in a frog, are confluent into a single air-bladder- like sac in the Australian form ; instead of the closed ovaries with a developed oviduct and fallopian tubes of Lepidosiven, we find the ovaries of the Barramunda open, discharging the ova into the abdominal cavity, as in the Salmon family and other fishes. These differential characters may be considered by some of sufficient im- portance to refer the Lefzdoszvens and the Barramunda to two distinct groups. Some of the oldest fishes, known from the Devonian epoch, are designated by the names Crenodus and Dipterus. Whether they should be referred to one genus or two is a question about which opinions are divided, and into which J need not enter here. They are evidently repre- sentatives of the same ichthyic type as the Dipnoi of the present epoch. The similarity of the large molars to those of Ceratodus has been recognised for a long time ; but it is only recently that I have been able to ascertain, in an example in the Jermyn Street Museum, the presence of a pair of small vomerine teeth. Moreover, the same example presents as good evidence as we can expect ina fossil, that the nostrils are placed within the mouth. These characters are combined with the presence of acutely lobed paddles, and of a notochordal skeleton ; but there is the great difference that the end of the vertebral column is heterocercal, instead of being diphyocercal, as in Lepz- dosiren and Ceratodus. Therefore Ctenodus will form the type of a distinct dipnéous family. Thus, then, we arrive at the conclusion that Lep/dosiren, far from being an isolated representative of a distinct sub- class of fishes, is only one of the representatives of a sub- order of Ganoid fishes, characterised by the position of the nostrils within the mouth, by paddles supported by a jointed axis, by lungs co-existent with gills, by a noto- chordal skeleton, and by the absence of branchiostegals. The term “ Dipnoi” may be retained for this sub-order, which was developed in the earliest epochs from which fish-remains are known, while we have scanty evidence of its presence in Liassic and Triassic strata, and, in the present state of our knowledge, it appears to be lost, until we find it again represented by three living forms in the present period. Probably some other extinct genera be- longed also to this sub-order, but their remains are in too fragmentary a condition to admit of an exact definition of their affinities, During the examination of Ceratodus,I had so frequently occasion to refer to structural peculiarities of the P/agzo- stomata (Sharks and Rays), that I wasinduced to reconsider the relations existing between this sub-class and the Ganoid and Teleosteous fishes ; and I came tothe conclu- sion that the two former are much more nearly allied to each other than the Ganoids are to the Teleostei. The Plagiostomes were considered to be a distinct sub-class of fishes on account of the highly-developed state of the organs of reproduction in the female, besides the presence of copulatory organs in the male. Their ova are different from those of other fishes, having a very peculiar shape, and shell with adhesive appendages, and being of an un- usually large size, and few in number. They are impreg- nated internally; some of the species are viviparous. They have from five to seven external‘gill-openings. Al- though in external appearance a Ray and a Shark are apparently very different, yet these extremes are connected by a number of intermediate forms, and they form alto- gether one of the most homogeneous groups in the zoo- logical system. NX Sept. 28, 1871] NATURE On the other hand they agree with the Ganoids in _ having, in addition to the ordinary two divisions of the fish-heart, a third contractile chamber. This bulbus arteriosus is very different from the Bulbus aorte of the Teleosteous fishes, where it is simply a swelling of the walls of the aorta, not contractile, without valves in the interior, and separated from the heart by two valves oppo- site to each other. If this remarkable arrangement is deemed (and, I think, very justly) to be sufficient to sepa- rate the living Ganoids as a sub-class from the Te/eoste¢, it is certainly significant enough to suggest the union of the Ganoids with the Plagiostomes. Moreover, this character is supported by two others of great importance, viz., the presence of a spiral valve in the intestine, which is found in a more or less developed state in all Ganoids, Sharks, and Rays, but is entirely absent, even in a rudimen- tary condition, in the Teleostei, and by the optic nerves being placed side by side, and not decussating,as is the case in all our ordinary fishes. Of the characters connecting these fishes I will refer to one other, as it has been de- scribed above, namely, that the fore and hind limbs of the Plagiostomes are also paddles supported by a car- tilaginous structure, as in the Dzfxoz. The evidence in favour of a union of Ganoids with Plagiostomesis rendered complete bythe Chimeras, which hold a surprisingly intermediate position. They are Sharks in external appearance and with regard to the structure of their organs of propagation; they are provided with the same copulatory organs, and their ova are large, en- closed in a horny case, and provided with adhesive appen- dages. Many species of Sharks, when in a very young state, are provided with a double dorsal series of spines (permanent in certain Rays), which are lost with age ; and this most remarkable developmental character occurs likewise in young Chimeeras. On the other hand, there is only one external gill-opening on each side, as, for instance, in Cevatodus, which, on the other hand, shows the first step towards a coalescence of the gills with the walls of the gill-cavity. The skeleton is notochordal, and the palatal and maxillary apparatus coalesce with the skull, as in Dipuoz, which is not the case in any Plagiostome ; likewise the dentition approaches that of Ceratodus. Finally, Sir P. Egerton has drawn attention to the most important fact that the dorsal spine is articulated to a neural apophysis, and not merely implanted in the soft parts and immovable, as in Sharks, Thus, then, the union of these fishes in one sub-class appears to me fully justified, as far as the living forms are concerned ; but, as is implied by the name Pa/e- ichthyes, which I have proposed for this sub-class, it is intended to comprise also a great variety of forms from the Paleozoic Era, in fact, the predecessors of the Teleostean fish-fauna of the present period. I am aware of the objections that may be urged. First, it may appear to some to be an improper proceeding to unite in the same sub-class fishes of so different an appearance as a Shark and Lepidosiren, or as an Amia and a Pteraspis ; but let them consider what a comprehensive category a sub-class necessarily is—that the diversity between the fishes just named is not greater than that existing between a Sun-fish (Orthagoriscus) and an eel, or between a viviparous Em- biotoca and a Loricaria, forms admitted by every ichthyo- logist of the present day as members of the same sub- class, that of Teleosteans. In fact the Palzichthyes are composed of a similar series of modifications as the Teleosteans, some of the members of one sub-class exhibit- ing marked analogies with those of the other, inthe same manner as is the case with Placentalia and Implacentalia among mammals. To mix up ganoid-looking Teleosteans, like the Siluroids, with Ganoids, is as little in accordance with the advanced state of our ichthyological knowledge, as the union of Salamandra with Lacerta would be. Secondly, other naturalists may consider it very hazardous to estab- lish a division, of which the majority of members are extinct and known from remains of the hard parts only, and to characterise it by peculiarities of the soft parts. But why should we not make use of zoological evidence for the completion of the imperfect paleontological record, with the same benefit to science as in other cases, since not a few zoological problems have been, or can only be, solved by reasoning founded on palzontological facts? If, in the determination of affinities, we were to limit ourselves only to the consideration of those parts which have been preserved in the process of fossilisation, we could never expect any other result but the creation of most artificial assemblages of forms, although the characters of some natural families, or even orders, might be partly recognised. On the one hand, we know that all the Teleosteous fishes, that is, the types which are predominant in the present and next preceding epochs, and which were but sparingly (Coccosteus ?) represented in the Palzozoic, if they existed at all, agree, in spite of all other differences, with one another in possessing a two-chambered heart, with a rigid bulbus aorta: and decussating optic nerves, and in never exhibiting a trace of a spiral valve in the intestine.* On the other hand, we find that the few ichthyic types which have survived from the Paleozoic Era into our period, and those of which no immediate repre- sentative is known in that Era, but which approach that Amphibian fish-type by unmistakeable characters, agree, in spite of all other differences, in having a three-chambered heart, non-decussating optic nerves, and a spiral valve in the intestine. These are facts ; and it seems to be a fair conclusion that the members of the Paleozoic fish-fauna had essentially the same organisation of those soft parts as their surviving representatives. In conclusion I may shortly pass in review the living Paleichthyes, especially in regard to their distribution over the globe. 1, Of the order Plagiostomata or Marine Paleichthyes, ~ 140 species of Sharks, distributed among 39 genera, are known, and 150 species of Rays, belonging to 25 genera. They inhabit nearly all the seas of the globe, decreasing in number from the tropics towards the poles. Only very few enter or live in freshwater. 2. The order Holocephala contains only four species, viz., three Chimzeras and one Callocephalus ; they are re- stricted to the seas of the temperate zones of both hemi- spheres, and are absent between the tropics. 3. The order Ganotdet or Freshwater Paleichthyes is represented by one species of Azza, from North America ; three species of Lefzdosteus, from the same region, but extending southwards into Central America and Cuba 3 two species of Polypterus (Calamoichthys) from the tropi- cal parts of Africa ; two species of Polyodon, from the Mississippi and the Yantsekiang; about twenty-five Sturgeons, from the temperate and sub-arctic regions of the Northern Hemisphere ; two species of Ceratodus from tropical Australia ; one species of Lefzdoszren from the Amazon river, and one of Protopterus from tropical Africa. Although the majority of the Sturgeons pass a part of the year in the sea, they must be regarded as freshwater fishes like the migratory Salmones, because they deposit their spawn in the rivers, where they also pass the first period of their growth ; some species never enter the sea at any period of their life, and none are known to propa- gate in the sea. The total number of fishes known at present being about 9,000, the Pa/eichthyes form only 3°6 per cent. of thatnumber. But from the extent of the regions hitherto ichthyologically unexplored, and from the numerous addi- tions annually made to the list of known forms, I do not believe that we are acquainted with much more than one- tenth of the species of fishes actually existing. ALBERT GUNTHER * From these considerations A mphioxrus and the Marsipobranchii are ex- cluded, the former being evidently the type of a distinct sub-class. 429 430 NATURE [Sep¢, 28, 1871 METEOROLOGY IN AMERICA * III].—SELF-REGISTERING INSTRUMENTS fare e as is the ordinary barometer, the most valuable instruments are those which are automatic, or self-registering. Prominent among those used in America are the Self-recording Barometer and Meteoro- graph invented by Prof. G. W. Hough, Superintendent of the Dudley Observatory. Lord Rosse’s telescope has not done more for astronomy than will the self-regis- tering barometer do for meteorology. The diagram, Fig. 7, will illustrate the method of regis- tering the height of the barometer and thermometer on a single sheet, by the use of one set of mechanism in these simple yet complete and consummate contrivances. Let D be a drum six inches in diameter and seven inches in height, covered with a sheet of ruled paper. This drum is presumed to revolve at any convenient rate, say one inch per day, Let L be an iron or brass bar twenty-four inches in length, mounted on an axis passing through the point c. Let P be a steel pen attached to the end of the lever projecting over the centre of the drum. Let P’ and P” be platinum wires attached to the lever at three inches on either side of the axis ¢c. The wire P’ is over the shorter leg of a siphon barometer, and the wire P” passes into the end of an open mercury thermometer. Nowif the lever L be elevated at the end over the drum, the wire P’ will touch the top of a float resting in the shorter leg of the siphon barometer If then a battery, B, and electro-magnet, E, be arranged as in the diagram, when contact is made with the float, a current of electri- city will pass through the circuit, and the electro-magnet E is operated. If then, when the circuit is completed, a BAROMETER MOMETER ER im Hy LAH TH FIG. 7-—REGISTRATION OF THE HEIGHT OF BAROMETER AND THERMOMETER blow be struck on the pen P, by means of the electro- magnet, or a hammer unlocked by it, the dot on the drum sheet will indicate the height of the barometer at that time. Itis obvious that as often as the lever is elevated a record will be made. For the barometer an hourly record will be found to be sufficient. If the lever L is rigid and firmly mounted, the mere measurement of height by means of electrical contact can be carried to almost any degree of precision. It was found from numerous experiments made some years since, that the magnetic circuit is not completed for a distance of one ten-thousandth of an inch. Therefore, whatever source of error there may be in the results re- corded by this method is due to the barometer itself. In * We are again indebted to Harper's New Monthly Magazine for the continuation of the article by Prof. Maury, and the woodcuts which we re- produce this week. practice, from records extending over nearly one year, it is found that the results are inside the errors of reading from the drum sheet. A long experience has led to the conclusion that this degree of precision is sufficient for the investigation of barometric changes, and is but little outside the limit of error from reading a standard barometer. An examination of the diagram will also show at a glance how the height of the thermometer is recorded. It should, however, previously be stated that the thermo- meter is a little larger than those in ordinary use, and has a platinum wire, a, cemented in the bulb, communicating with the mercury in the inside. The following is a general description of a machine constructed for the Signal Service at the request of the chief signal officer. It registers hourly the barometer and wet and dry bulb Sept. 28, 1871] NATURE 431 thermometers, and thus shows the atmospheric pressure, the temperature of the atmosphere, and its hygrometric condition—z.¢., its condition of moisture or dryness. The engraving, Fig. 8, is a perspective view of this instrument. The recording lever, A, is a bar of iron about two feet in length, nearly balanced on the axis, supported by the clock-frame, C. The clockis constructed with rather stronger gearing than an ordinary movement, its office being to elevate and depress the lever A hourly, regulate the drum, D, and raise the two striking hammers, Hand H’. It is provided with a half-second pendulum, and requires winding once in two days, the weight drop- ping in that time about three feet. The shorter leg of the siphon barometer is shown at B, and the wet and dry bulb thermometers at T’ and T. Directly over the leg of the siphon, as also over the two en '} | uu J iJ Hl " | ' ; hi \ " FIG. 8,—THE METEOROGRAPH thermometers, the lever A supports a carriage, which is depressed or elevated whenever the lever A is in motion. The registering point, G, is connected with the lever, as shown in the diagram ; and the curvilinear motion of the end of the lever is converted into rectilinear by allowing G to slide against a vertical steel rod. To illustrate the action of the machine, we will suppose the lever A has reached its lowest point, the registering | pen G being at the Lottom of the drum. Now, in order | that we may be able to register the barometer on any part | of the drum sheet, it is necessary that the striking hammer | should be elevated and locked before the upward motion | of the lever commences. As the hammers are raised by means of an arm carried by the hour shaft of the clock, at the point where the hammers begin to rise the snail for | elevating the lever A is cut away, so that it remains at 432 NATURE [Sepz. 28, 1871 rest during a period of fifteen minutes, the time required for elevating the hammers H and H’. As soon as this is accomplished, the lever begins to rise slowly by means of the double snail on the hour shaft, the time required for traversing the drum being about fifteen minutes. When the position of the lever is such that the carriage in the rear of the clock touches the float in the shorter leg of the siphon, an electric current is established through the magnet, F, which unlocks the hammer H, causing the pen G to make a record on the drum sheet. After the lever has reached the top of the drum, it remains at rest fifteen minutes while the hammers are being raised, when it is gradually depressed. So soon as the platinum wires— attached to the carriage over the thermometers—touch the | with the mercury in the barometer. This screw carries a pencil, which traces upon a revolving cylinder or roll of paper a line showing the minutest movements of the column of mercury for every minute in twenty-four hours. This same screw also gives motion toa series of wheels | which carry types, by which, at the end of every hour, the height of the column of mercury is printed on a slip of Dapey to the accuracy of the thowsandth part of an inch : One of the most beautiful and simple contrivances used is a Wild’s Self-registering Barometer, of which we givea cut one quarter the actual size. It scarcely needs expla- nation, except to say that the tube A is suspended in a surface of the mercury in the thermometer tubes, electric currents are established through the magnets F and J, simultaneously or successively unlocking the hammers, and, as the case may be, making records as before. A complete double motion of the lever requires one hour. During this time the barometer and wet and dry bulb thermometers have each been recorded once. The records of the barometer and thermometers differ in time about half anhour. The wet and dry bulb thermometers are recorded within about one minute of each other, de- pending on the difference between them. One of the most marked and wonderful features of the invention of Prof. Hough is that it prints its own records. And this is done by a single screw, which rises or falls FIG. 9. —WILD’S SELF-REGISTERING BAROMETER (BAROMETER TUBE MOVEABLE) cistern of mercury, represented on the left of Fig.9. As the atmospheric pressure changes, the level of the mercury changes in the cistern, and the tube A rises or falls as the atmospheric pressure increases or diminishes. The weight of this tube as it floats in the mercury, and also that of the arm /, which supports it at G, is exactly balanced by the arm //, to which is attached a sliding weight, ///, adjustable by a small thumb-screw. 4’ is a steel crayon- holder fixed to the balance 7 77, and to which is fixed a crayon, c, whose point in seen in B to impinge upon a sheet of paper, 7 7, This sheet s moved by clock-work. When the atmospheric pressure is increased, the tube 4 is forced to rise a little out of the mercury in which it Sept. 28, 1871] NATURE 433 floats, and as it rises at G, the arm / is elevated. The crayon holder, being fixed on the balance at the fulcrum, 7 by two little screws, swings a little to the left, and the crayon which it carries with it makes a mark on the paper be- neath it, which mark indicates the rise of the barometer, or the increase of atmospheric pressure. If the pressure decreases, the pencil, of course, moves in the opposite direction, and shows the barometric fall. The roll of paper on which the record is made by. this automatic instrument is divided into rectangular parts, each one of which exhibits the atmospheric variations for twenty-four hours. At the end of every day this part of the roll is detached and put by to be bound up in book form in the records of the office in which the instrument is kept. 1871 4 HB oat ET A AA er line is the Wet Bulb z AAA = : niall)” = Ba ii = = =] me: E MM = ce = AMATI = 2 MERE | eee * BE * HN = Be MM = Me . 28 NK = a TS is in = | : HAC AN Hh I Het 10.—DRAPER’S PHOTOGRAPHIC REGISTFR OF BAROMETER AND TPERMOMETER AT NEW YORK, APRIL 28, FIG. The roll of paper is on a reel,'7, passing between two | rollers, g and 4, as seen in B (Fig. 9). By these perfectly simple devices, instead of obtaining only three daily recorded observations, the observer at every station gets a continuous and perpetual record for every second in the day. That is to say, instead of get- ting, as by the common barometer (observed three times a day), observations for three seconds in twenty-four hours, he gets them for as many seconds as there are in twenty-four hours, or 86,400, Thus it follows that the value of the self- registering barometer, as compared with the ordmary one, is as 86,400 to3! -Y =~ The marvellous accuracy and’ exquisite nicety with which all the observations forwarded to General Myer by the observers are marked ought to assure the public that nothing is wanting to give reliability to the published results and the “ probabilities” issued from his officers. A self-registering barometer, as well as other instruments HN NHI MAA aphic Register from Noon, December 11, 1870, half-inch per hour.) Two Thermometer and One Barometric Curve FIG. I1,—PHOTOGRAPH OF A STORM.—(Print from Photogr of equal sensitiveness, will be used by all the observer- sergeants. It is- scarcely possible for this invaluable instrumert to suffer derangement or to get out of order. A third most beautiful and sensitive self-registering 434 instrument is that of Mr. Peelor, of Johnstown, Pennsyl- vania, used with great success and satisfaction by the Signal Service. This needs no battery, no electricity, to work it. A simple clock-work is all that is required, and its operations are as exquisitely accurate and trustworthy as the best navy chronometer. A barograph and thermograph made by Mr. Beck, of London, similar to those used in the Kew Observatory, are on trial in the Signal Office, and good results are hoped from them. Their beautiful machinery might also be mentioned and described, but our space fails. Indeed, our limits have allowed mention to be made only of the most novel instruments employed by the signal offices. A specimen record of one of theseis presented in Fig. 10, showing the synchronous readings, on a given day and at a given place, of the thermometers (wet and dry bulb), the hygrometer, and the barometer, all upon one sheet of paper. We have already spoken of the beautiful adaptation of Prof. Hough’s Meteorograph to the work of printing its own registrations. The mechanics of meteorology have been advanced one step higher than this, and the regis- trations of the automaton are instantly and perfectly pho- tographed. The sheet of paper, suitably prepared for photographic impressions, is made to slide, by means of clock-work, before a gas flame. The mercury in the tubes protects a portion of the paper from the action of the light of the lamp, while above the mercury the rays of the lamp fall unobstructed upon the paper, and, making their im- pression, reveal the exact height of the mercury in the tubes. The “ photograph of a storm,” Fig. 11, shows the move- ments of the mercury in the two thermometers and baro- meter for twelve hours. This process, by which the weather is photographed, is employed by General Myer, and these necessarily exact records will prove most attractive pictorial representations of the great storms in the atmospheric ocean for the study of meteorologists all over the world. THE INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION AT VIENNA FOR 1873 ope Emperor of Austria has appointed an Imperial Commission to carry out the project of an Interna- tional Exhibition to be held at Vienna in 1873. The members of the Commission held their inaugural meeting in the hall of the Imperial Academy of Sciences at Vienna on Sunday, the 17th of September, under the presidency of the Archduke Rainer, The Exhibition is intended to be opened on the Ist of May, 1873, under the especial patronage of the Emperor and his brother, the Archduke Charles Louis. The Com- mission, which is composed after the models of the English and French Commissions, consists of the Archduke Rainer, president ; the Lord Steward of the Imperial Household, Prince zu Hohenlohe-Schillingsfiirst ; the Imperial Chan- cellor, Minister of the Imperial House and for Foreign Affairs, Count von Beust ; Prince zu Liechtenstein. Prince Schwarzenberg, Count Festetitz, and Count Potocki, vice- presidents; and the Lord High Chamberlain, Count Folliot de Crenneville, and other high courtiers, the Min- isters and heads of departments, the Presidents of both Houses of the Reichsrath, the presidents of the chief artistic, commercial, and scientific societies, and a number of gentlemen who have distinguished themselves in the various branches of science, art, and industry. The entire arrangements have been entrusted to the Austrian Consul-General at Paris, Privy Councillor Baron de Schwarz-Senborn, who has been nominated Director- General of the Exhibition. Local committees are about to be formed in the various provinces of Austria and Hungary, and a special Royal Commission is to be ap- pointed at Pesth, The objects to be exhibited will be NATURE 7 [ Sepz. 28, 1871 classified into 26 different groups, as detailed in the sub- oined programme. One great feature of the Exhibition will be an arrange- ment for the classification of the productions of all countries in groups corresponding with their geographical position, and great pains will be taken to render the Oriental department in every way worthy of the almost in- exhaustible resources of the Indian Empire. The posi- tion of Vienna is admirably adapted for this, having, besides the waters of the Danube, a direct communication with all the important harbours of the Levant v/d Trieste. The arrangement of the Eastern department will be con- fided to the Austrian Consul at Constantinople, Dr. de Schwegel, who has already acquired a great reputation for his knowledge of Oriental habits and productions. A new feature of the Exhibition will be an arrangement by which the treasured collections of the various museums of London, Paris, Berlin, Moscow, Lyons, Munich, Stutt- gard, &c., will appear in simultaneous position, and it is further intended to represent a history of inventions, a history of prices, a history of industry, and a history of natural productions, so that the world’s progress in arts, — p p prog > science, industry, and natural products, will thus be brought into contrast. The Emperor of Austria has granted the use of the “ Prater” for the site of the exhibition, and Mr. Scott Russell is at present in Vienna consulting with Baron von Schwarz as to the design for the building. Chevalier de Schaeffer, Director of the Austrian Consu- late General in London, who gained great experience at the London and Paris Exhibitions, has been entrusted with the preliminary arrangements respecting the contri- butions to be sent to the Exhibition from Great Britain. The objects to be exhibited will be classified in the following twenty-six groups :—1, Mining and Metallurgy ; 2, Agriculture and Forestry ; 3, Chemical jindustry ; 4, Articles of food as industrial products ; 5, Textile industry and clothing ; 6, Leather and india-rubber industry ; 7, Metal industry ; 8, Wood industry; 9, Stone, Earthen- ware, and Glass industry ; 10, Hardware industry ; it, Paper industry; 12, Graphical Arts and Industrial Drawing ; 13, Machinery and means of transport ; 14, Scientific instruments; 15, Nautical instruments; 16, Military accoutrements ; 17, Maritime objects ; 18, Archi- tectural and Engineering objects; 19, Cottage houses, their interior arrangements and decorations ; 20, Peasant houses, with their implements and arrangements ; 21, National domestic industry ; 22, Representation of the operation of Museums of Art and Industry ; 23, Eccle- siastical Art ; 24, Objects of Art and Industry of former times, exhibited by amateurs and collectors ; 25, Plastic Art of the present time; 26, Objects of Education, Training, and Mental Cultivation. Arrangements will be made for temporary exhibitions of such articles which by theirnature do not admit of an exposition of long duration. During the time the Exhibition is held, International Congresses are contemplated for the discussion of important questions to which either the Exhibition itself may give rise, or which may be specially suggested as themes suitable for international consideration. The arrangement of the Exhibition will be geographical, that is to say, according to countries, but in such a manner that the different territories of production shall appear as nearly as possible in the same order as they are situated naturally in the direction from the west to the east. SCIENTIFIC USE OF THE MONT CENIS TUNNEL At the sitting of the French Academy of Sciences on the 18th inst., M. Elie de Beaumont read an elaborate paper on the scientific instruction which may be derived from a close examination of the collection which is to a - Sept. 28, 1871] NATURE 435 be exhibited in the School of Mines in Paris of specimens \ of the strata obtained from the Mont Cenis Tunnel. This : collection, which consisted originally of only 127 speci- _ mens, has received 69 new specimens, which brings the total number to 196 altogether. The total vertical thickness of the strata explored was _ more than 7,000 metres. The general colour is grey, or, _ rather, black, and the colouring matter is mostly carbon. Bvery few fossils were met with, having been destroyed by _ the subsequent crystallisation. The disturbances which have created Mont Cenis and made it emerge from the bottom of the sea have pro- _ duced many cracks and faults. But all these faults have been filled up with quartz in a perfect manner in rela- tively modern times. The infiltration amounts practically _ tonothing. The only spring which was discovered is situated near Modane, and gives only seven gallons per minute. The water is cold. The contractors were obliged to send _ to Modane and Bardonnéche for the water required for drinking, and for grinding the stone. Mont Blanc, although 4,800 metres above the level of the sea, is only 3,500 above its own base. The vertical section of the perforated strata is thus equal to two Mont Blancs ; and it is something like one whole Himalaya. M. Sismonda, Professor of Geology at Turin, presented to the Royal Academy of Sciences, Turin, in the sitting of the 5th of December, 1866, a paper entitled Move osser- waztont geologiche sulle rocce anthracitifere delle Alpi, at the end of which was printed a map drawn by M. Sis- monda twenty-five years ago, and exhibiting the theoretical succession of strata. Everything was found in the place where it was supposed to be by M. Sismonda. No artesian well has ever given an opportunity of comparison with the perforation of Mont Cenis, as the deepest bored by European engineers is only 1,000 metres, and by the Chinese only 3,000 metres. The Acaderny listened during more than an hour to the lecturer. M. Faye presented to the learned Perpetual Secretary the hearty thanks of the Academy, and expressed a wish that a series of pendulum experiments should be conducted on the top of Mont Cenis as well as in the central part of the tunnel, to test the effect of the mass of the mountain on the time of the oscillations. NOTES WE believe that the stations to be occupied by the Eclipse ‘Expedition are Baikul, Gunote, and Manantoddy, near the Mala- bar coast ; Poodoocottah, near Trichinopoly ; and Jaffa, in Ceylon. These arrangemenis are necessitated by the informa- tion received as to the weather chances from the Viceroy of India and the Governor of Ceylon, who are taking the warmest inte- rest in the intended operations. It is hoped that Prof. Stokes / will take charge of the Expedition, and in this hope we venture to join very warmly. As our leading physicist, as Secretary of the Royal Society and potential President, as one who has so closely studied solar physics and the methods of attack contem- plated—on each and all of these accounts it is obviously for the advantage of science that the Expedition should be under his command. The Committee has communicated by telegram with Prof. Peirce, expressing a hope that the Expedition may be strengthened by the addition of some American observers who are all veterans in eclipse matters. Prof. Respighi has also been invited to accompany the party. We must not omit to add that Lord Lindsay has supplied the Committee with many valuable instruments, and is aiding in other ways. Dr. CARPENTER arrived at Malta in the Shearwater last week, and has been engaged in conjunction with Captain Nares, com- manding that vessel, ina series of researches on the Gibraltar current, intended to complete the inquiries made last year in the Porcupine. The existence of the outward undercurrent, which was indicated by the experiments of last autumn, has now been conclusively demonstrated. Dr. Carpenter will accompany the Shearwater to Egypt for the purpose of prosecuting in the eastern basin of the Mediterranean the physical and zoological inquiries which he carried on last year in the western basin. Mr. HIND informs us that on Friday night last he secured observations of an extremely faint nebulosity, which he believes will prove to be Encke’s Comet, though the predicted time of perihelion may be eight or nine hours too late. September 22 at 11h 37m 21S Twickenham M.T. (OPIS Oe ae On b Th 58™ 455'9 Ge Declineiern fa) v4) cee Pict ake This position depends on comparison with one of Bessel’s stars extending over more than an hour, during which motion in the right direction for Encke was apparent. Though very faint, it is hardly more so than Mr. Hind expected to find it from previous experience. We may look fora fine telescopic object in November, and one just visible to the naked eye after the middle of the month and in the first days of December, before it gets too near the sun’s place to be observable. THE College of Physical Science at Newcastle-on-Tyne has issued the prospectus of its first session, to open October 7. The following is the programme of studies :—Prof. Aldis will con- duct three classes in Mathematics ; two for junior students, and one for any who may enter with sufficient knowledge to enable them at once to take up subjects which will in future be ordinarily read by students in their second year. There will also be an Exercise class for all the students, In Experimental Physics, Prof. Herschel will have two classes ; the advanced class will contain experimental illustrations of Practical Mechanics, and of Heat considered especially with reference to its application in mining, manufactures, and to the steam-engine ; but there appears to be no provision for practical laboratory work, In Chemistry, Prof. Freire-Marreco will conduct both the course of lectures and the practical course in the laboratory. Prof. Page will deliver a course of lectures on Geology, and will accompany the students in field excursions or visits to museums. As yet there is no immediate prospect of a chair of Biology, though we understand its creation is a settled thing as soon as funds allow. The medical degrees at Durham University can now be taken without residence, but an additional year must in that case be made at Newcastle. The College has taken off the hands of the College of Medicine the new lecture room, built expressly for Chemistry and Physics, and the laboratories. THE Chargé d’Affaires of the Japanese Government in this country, who has looked with longing eyes on Messrs. Cooke's great equatorial, the gem of the present International Exhibition, should also inspect some meteorological instruments for transmis- sion to Japan. The following extract from a little illustrated news-sheet now being hawked about Yedo, giving an account of the late typhoon in the inland sea, and a picture of the ap- pearance of Kobe Bay after it, will show that the Japanese have as yet quite elementary notions in meteorological science :—‘* The Great Storm-Wave in Kishiu, Idzumi and Setsu.—The sydden changes and moyements of heaven and earth are caused by the commingling of the female and male elements, and the conten- tion of wind and rain. Alas! not even can the influence of the gods of Buddah prevail to govern them. It was on the night of the 18th day of the fifth month of the fourth (goat) year of Meiji, and about ten o’clock, that the wind and rain became ex- ceedingly violent, and a great storm-wave arising, not only the steamers, but also about 700,000 large and small boats were thrown ashore at Kinohana and Kumanoura in Kishin, at Sakai, and at Tempozan off Osaka. At the frightful destruction, old and young, males and females, wept and howled ; and the sound thereof was most pitiable. The number of the dead was in pro- portion to the size of the places (visited by the storm). It was 436 NATURE ed 4 a wonderful event, not heard of in former generations. On the following morning the rain ceased, and the mad wind became quiet, and then for the first time men felt at ease in their heart.” WE have to record the death, in his seventy-ninth year, of the Rev. William Hincks, F.L.S., for many years Professor of Natural History and Director of the Museum in University Col- lege, Toronto, and previously Professor of Natural History in the Queen’s College, Cork. Mr. Hincks, who had but just resigned his professorship owing to the infirmities of age, was an accomplished and enthusiastic botanist, and had also devoted much attention to certain depariments of zoology. He possessed a wide range of scientific knowledge, and through a long life had done much for the diffusion of scientific tastes and culture. Almost to the very close of life he was an enthusiastic student, actively engaged in pursuing his favourite researches, and alive to all that was passing in the scientific world. He published many papers on natural history and other subjects, some of which were specially devoted to the Fauna and Flora of Canada, chiefly in the ‘‘ Journal of the Canadian Institute.” To the Museum connected with University College, of which he was the director, he devoted much time and labour, and rendered it very valuable service. He was an active member of the Cana- dian Institute, and one of the Editing Committee, which is charged with the publication of the ‘‘Journal.” In 1869 he was elected president, and was re-elected the following year. Mr. SAMUEL SOLLY, F.R.S., expired suddenly on Sunday last. Mr. Solly was deservedly well known from his numerous contributions to the advancement of science, especially by his work on the ‘Human Brain,” ‘ Surgical Experiences,” an “* Analysis of Miiller on the Glands,” and by his various papers and Jectures on surgery in the medical journals, A GERMAN translation of Mr. E. B, Tylor’s ‘‘ Primitive Cul- ture” is in progress. Dr. Spengel is the translator, and the publishers Winter and Co. of Leipzig. OvrR old friend Cosmos, the publication of which has been suspended since September last, reappeared on the roth inst. in a new form, under the tile of Za France Scientifique, still edited by M. Victor Meunier. The new journal takes for its motto, “*Reégenérer la France par la Science, et la Science par la Liberté.” The three numbers already received contain articles original and selected on science and education. Les Mondes for September 23rd contains an account of an in- vention by M. Corbin, a sugar manufacturer of Lizy-sur-Ourcq, of a portable railway, which can be laid down daily in any position, and can be used for facilitating agricultural operations, causing a great reduction in the amount of labour required. The invention could evidently be applied only in the case of farms consisting of very large fields, as occursin some parts of the East of England THE Zoological Society of London have just received a fine living example of a species of Cassowary new to their collection. It is a young bird, but is probably referable to the Casuarius uniappendiculatus, described some years ago by Mr. Blyth from a specimen observed alive in Calcutta, although there are at present no traces of the single throat-wattle, from which the species obtained its name. In general appearance the new acqui:ition resembles the Mooruk or Bennett’s Cassowary (C. Lennettii) rather than the Common Cassowary of Ceram (C. galeatus). It is said to have been captured on the coast of New Guinea, near the Bay of Geelvink, and was, we believe, obtained by the Zoological Society from one of the sister insti- tutions of the Continent. In reference to our article last week on the Smithsonian In- stitution, we hear that quite recently the learned societies and public libraries of Holland have undertaken to co-operate with the Institution in this enterprise, by forming a Central Scientific Bureau of the Netherlands, at which the packages intended for transmission to America are to be collected, and forwarded from time to time to the Smithsonian Institution, which will distribute them to the parties addressed. The Bureau also proposes to establish special agencies in different parts of Europe, and has already announced the firm of MM. J. B. Bailliére and Son, or Paris, as the agents for France, to whom all French institutions are requested to address such copies of their works as may be intended for the Netherlands. WHEN ocean cables were first submerged, various apprehen- sions of probable injury were entertained, some of which have proved to be well founded, and others less so. It was supposed that worms or mollusks would burrow in the substance of the envelope, and ultimately penetrate to the centre of the wires ; or, again, that the attachment of barnacles, mollusks, or other marine animals on the exterior would invite the attacks of the sharks, rays, and other fish of powerful jaws, and induce them to subject the bunch of matter to such a mastication as should produce serious harm to the cable. To what extent any acci- dents have happened from this source it is perhaps difficult to say ; but we now learn from Harfer’s Weekly that the Florida cable between Punta Rosa and Key West has been injured in numerous places, as supposed by sea-turtles biting through or crushing it in their teeth, to such an extent as to destroy its con- tinuity. It is, perhaps, a question whether the turtle be charge- able with these operations ; and we think it is quite as probable that, under the circumstances, some ray or other fish has attacked it, and for the reasons already suggested. A CORRESPONDENT requests us to state that the valuable speci- mens of Stagonolepis Robertsoni and other reptilian remains from the upper Elgin sandstones, which Prof. Huxley has lately examined, are to be found in the Elgin Museum, and not in that of Dundee, as mentioned in our last week’s ‘‘ Notes.” WITH reference to the earthquake recorded in our last number as having occurred in Chile and Peru in June last, a correspondent informs us, that being at that time in Madeira, a perceptible shock was felt there on the 20th about 6 P.M. M. SrrouMBo, a Professor in the University of Athens, has suggested the substitution for some scientific terms in ordinary use of others etymologically more correct. He proposes in particu- lar saccharometer for saccharimeter, eidoloscope for kaleidoscope, rheumatometer for rheometer, rheumatostat for rheostat, apo- chrose for achromatism, phasmoscope for spectroscope. AMONG recently started magazines deserving a word of com- mendation is Ze Traveller, a monthly international journal for England and America, devoted to international topics, real estate and agriculture, and to universal travel. It contains original articles by well-known writers on the various subjects included under the above headings, some of which are illustrated, reviews, notes and queries, correspondence, &c., of a character calculated to interest a variety of readers ; and the price at which it is published brings it within the reach of all. Part II. vol. ii. of the *‘ Transactions of the Entomological Society of New South Wales” is occupied by the first portion of a description, by Mr. Macleay, of a collection of over 1,100 Coleoptera, brought from Gayndah a town on the Buraett River in that colony. Many of both genera and speciesare new. In this paper Mr. Macleay makes an innovation which he thus re- fers to in his introductory remarks :—‘* I have always hitherto, in describing new genera and species, adopted the system most usual with Engliso entomologists of giving these descriptions in Latin. On this occasion I intend to depart from that rule, as I believe that many of those who take an interest in Australian entomology will infinitely prefer the descriptions given in plain and intelligible English.” [ Sepz. 28, 1871 7 ; re < Sept. 28, 1871] NATURE 437 THREE important papers are reprinted by Mr. V. Ball, from the Fournal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal—‘ Notes on the Geology of the Vicinity of Port Blair, Andaman Islands ;” “*Notes on Birds observed in the neighbourhood of Port Blair during the month of August, 1869 ;” and ‘‘ Brief Notes on the Geology and on the Fauna in the neighbourhood of Naucowry Harbour, Nicobar Island.” THERE has been issued, under the auspices of the Accident Insurance Company, an admirable little manual of instruction for the prompt treatment of accidents and emergencies, by Mr Alfred Smee, the eminent surgeon. It is clear, comprehensive, and portable, and the reader is guided in the more important curative processes to which it relates by well-executed and instructive woodcut illustrations. **HuMAN Locomotion, how We Stand, Walk, and Run,” is the title of a lecture delivered last December at Cornell Uni- versity, by Prof. B. G. Wilder. Dr. Wilder’s lecture was pro- fusely illustrated by diagrams and interesting practical experi- ments. Among other matters he noticed the curious fact that a person never goes in a perfectly straight line for any distance, but always turns to one side or the other, and at last describes a circle and returns to the point from where he started. The deflec- tion is generally if not always from right to left, and is accounted for on the principle that one side of the body tends to outwalk the other. It isa received opinion among American hunters and woodmen that people who lose themselves in forests or extensive plains thus travel in a circle turning to the left. WE have received a pamphlet on the Economical Production of Peat and Peat Charcoal, as carried on at the works of the Peat Engineering Company, Redmoss, near Bolton, Lancashire. The peat is extracted from the bog, macerated, and moulded by machinery. It is also transformed into a superior quality of charcoal. That the manufacture is a profitable one is apparent from the fact that an acre of peat bog of the average depth of ten feet, will yield sufficient to make a thousand tons of charcoal, which, in competition with wood charcoal, can be sold at such a profit as would alone produce the value of the land from which it is extracted. It is stated that in 1852 the actual annual consumption of raw and carbonised peat in France amounted to 359,319 tons, a consumption which has since largely increased. THE Révue Universelle says that the German Confederation, in acquiring an extended frontier from France, has traced it, not upon a topographical plan, but, in all probability, on a geolo- gical map edited at Berlin. In fact, it is to be observed that the new boundaries between France and Germany absorb, for the benefit of the Confederation, all the rich deposits of the mines of oolitic iron in the basins of the Moselle and the Meurthe, with the exception of the Longwy group. Save this, which has been reserved, Germany has made herself mistress of the major portion of the best part of the most important mineral beds in France. These beds extend under the vast plateau which forms the east of the departments of Moselle and Meurthe, and crop out in the valleys from Longwy, in the north, as far as Pont-Saint-Vincent (Meurthe), in the south, and comprise a full quarter of the mineral riches of France. The new determination of frontier will have the effect of introducing into the productive industry of Germany, according to the statistics of 1867, ‘‘ twenty-three blast furnaces, producing 205,000 tons of metal ; 9,000 hectares of iron country, yielding 500,000 tons of ore; fourteen works manufacturing 127,000 tons of iron; and 22,000 hectares of coalfield conces- sions, yielding 180,000 tons of coal.” THE Maharajah of Bhurtpore has established workshops in which steam is the motive power for the industrial instruction of his people, ON THE STUDY OF SCIENCE IN SCHOOLS * EFORE we commence our regular and systematic study of science, I wish to say a few words to all of you who will hereafter take part in these studies, concerning the nature and character of experimental science, and certain matters connected with the pursuit of it. It will be well to discuss these subjects under the following headings :— Firstly. The rise and growth of the sciences we are about to study, and their distinguishing features. Secondly. The objects and aims of the experimental sciences, and the reasons why we study them. Thirdly. The methods we shall follow for the acquirement of a knowledge of science. Fourthly. The attitude of mind most favourable to such studies. As to the first of these divisions, I may mention that the boundary lines of the experimental sciences are very clearly defined. For we find at the extreme limit in one direction the mathematical sciences, mathematical astronomy, mathematical mechanics, and so on; and at the other extremity the classifi- catory sciences: zoology, botany, and so on. Our course lies between the two limits, where we find the physical sciences proper: statics, dynamics, mechanics, hydrostatics, hydrody- namics, pneumatics, acoustics, heat, light, magnetism, electricity. Chemistry is usually distinguished from these, both on account of the magnitude of the science, which necessitates separate and distinct treatises, and because it concerns the intimate structure or composition of matter, while the physical sciences proper are concerned with unaltered matter. But the term experimental sciences includes both the physical sciences and chemistry, and is hence the most convenient for our purpose. Most of the physical sciences partake somewhat of the character of the mathematical sciences, while chemistry is on the verge of the mathematical sciences. The physical sciences relate rather to dead matter, to inorganic, unorganised matter, while the clas- sificatory sciences relate to organised living matter: the former to the mineral kingdom (as it used to be called), the latter to the animal and vegetable kingdoms. Although isolated facts belonging to many of the sciences were known to the ancients, no science can be-said to have existed in anything like a complete form for more than 200 years, and several of them are less than a century old. The science of Statics treats of the balance of forces, of the relation of the various forces which act upon solid matter at rest. The derivation of the name from fotnu is sufficiently obvious. The science com- menced with Archimedes (who lived in the third century B.c.), and was greatly developed by Galileo, Bernouilli,.and Lagrange. When the equilibrium of fluids is discussed, it is called Hydro- statics (from #5wp), and the equilibrinm of gases is described under the head of Pxeumatics (wvévua). Hydrostatics owes its origin to Archimedes ; you will remember the story of his weigh- ing the crown of impure gold in water, and detecting the impos- ture ; and thus arose that which to this day is called the ‘‘law of Archimedes,” which asserts that when a body is immersed in a liquid, it loses a portion of its weight equal to the weight of the liquid which it displaces. Stevinus of Bruges, who wrote in the sixteenth century, and Pascal contributed much to the advance- ment of this science. The reverse of rest is motion, thus there are sciences relating to the motion of s: lids, liquids, and gases. Dynamics (Svvamis) treats of the motion of solid bodies, and of the relation of the forces which produce motion. It originated as a science with Leonardo da Vinci, who, besides being the greatest painter of his day, was an eminent mathema- tician, engineer, musician, and natural philosopher. He showed that if two forces are represented in magnitude and direction by the two sides of a parallelogram, the resultant is represented by the diagonal of the parallelogram. This is the important prin- ciple of the ‘‘ parallelogram of forces.” Galileo added the laws regarding falling bodies ; while Newton and Huyghens investi- gate the laws which regulate centrifugal forces. Hydrodynamics treats of the motion of fluids, and bears the same relation to dynamics that hydrostatics bears to statics. The motion of gases is discussed under the science of pneumatics ; we have no sciences of pneumastatics and pneumadynamics. Pneumatics dates from the discovery of Torricelli in 1642 that the air possesses weight. Eight years later, Otto von Guericke, of Magdeburg, invented the air-pump, and the science was then developed with great * A Lecture delivered at Marlborough College as an introduction to the commencement of Science teaching, by G. F. Rodwell. 438 rapidity. Before the end of the century various treatises on pneumatics had appeared, and perhaps no science so speedily reached maturity. The above sciences, it will be noted, relate to the properties of matter in its three forms of solid, liquid, and gas, when at rest and in motion. We come next to certain sciences which treat of the more subtle and intimate motion of the particles or molecules of matter, with various velocities and in various directions. Beginning with Acoustics, we have the vibra- tory motion of particles across a position of rest resulting in the production of what we call sound. The science of sound, although more or less linked with the art of music, has existed as an experimental science for less than a century. Vibratory moyements of the same character taking place in a subtle kind of matter called the ether or interstellar medium, constitute Heat and Light, the difference being one of velocity, and thus of degree rather than of kind, Finally, we may assume that A/agnetism and Zéectricity are conditions of matter perhaps not differing much from those which constitute light and heat. The science of Zight is certainly one of the older of the sciences. Euclid endeayoured to explain the laws of vision ; Ptolemy, the astronomer, wrote a treatise on Light ; the reflec- tion of light by mirrors, and its refraction by lenses, were well known facts in the time of Archimedes. Various treatises on the subject appeared during the Middle Ages. The Ars Magna lucts et umbre of Athanasius Kircher, published in the seven- teenth century, is a great folio, full of plates. Not long after its publication Newton made the important discovery of the decom- position of light, and treated various optical problems with great precision by mathematical means. Our term /ight is re- lated to the Sanskrit /o#, to see. Heat has not existed as an ex- perimental science for a century. The science has made great progress during the last thirty years. Heat was once believed to be an entity, a kind of matter, which passed from one sub- stance to another, and which effected certain changes during its transference. We now know that it is simply a kind of motion akin to that which constitutes light, so that it ceases to be matter, and becomes an attribute of matter. It is strange that the term /eat should be far more appropriate now than it was when heat was regarded as matter, although it was in use long before any theory or science of heat existed. The term appears to be derived from the Sanskrit zvd@i, to kindle, through the Greek atw, the Latin esfws, and the old High German evt. ‘* #stus,” says Vossius,” est commotio vel in aqua, vel in igni, vel in animo, omnis autem commotio feryorem gignit.” And the result of modern research has been to prove that what we call heat is, indeed, due to a commotion of particles of matter. Certain properties of heat were well known to the ancients, although the science itself isso young. Thus, Pliny states that the sacred fire of Vesta was kindled by reflecting the rays of the sun by mirrors. The story of Archimedes and the Roman fleet is well known to you. Lenses were known and were used as burning glasses. Aristophanes clearly alludes to the use of a glass lens for obtaining fire ; a lens was found among the ruins of Nineveh, and is now in the British Museum. Lactantius states that fire may be kindled by passing the rays of the sun through a glass globe filled with water. Magnetism has existed for about 270 years as an experimental science. A few magnetic experiments are mentioned by Lucre- tius, and by Pliny, and one or two Middle Age writers allude to the effects. Of course the mariner’s compass, which was known in Europe in the twelfth century, called attention to the exis- tence of the so-called magnetic force. The birth of the science dates from the publication by Gilbert of Colchester of a treatise entitled ‘‘ De Magnete,” in 1600. Thales, of Miletus, observed that amber when rubbed ac- quired the property of attracting light substances, and as the Greek for amber is #Aétpov, and the effect had not been ob- served in other substances, a new science arose called Electricity ; but the science has scarcely existed for more than 200 years. The inventor of the air-pump, Otto von Guericke, was also the inventor of the electrical machine. Thus Pneumatics and Electricity were called into existerce at almost the same time. Note how essential the invention of apparatus has been to the different sciences. Until experiments could be tried, and until instruments were devised for trying them, the natural sciences made no progress. Voltaic Electricity, or Galvanism, dates from the commencement of this century, and electro-magnetism and dia-magnetism are yet later developments. We learn from the above remarks that, although some of the fundamental facts of various sciences were known to the ancients, they never developed them, In fact, there was no experimental NATURE [ Sepé. 28, 1871 science among the ancients, they by chance lighted upon a few solitary facts, and with these they were well content. There could be no experimental science among them, for the funda- 7 : i mental feature of this kind of knowledge is, that it depends upon ~ the action of the mind upon matter, while the ancients preferred to exercise their intellects upon things not external to themselves. Physical philosophy is distinguished from mental philosophy by ; the fact that the former is based upon observed results obtained by the action of the mind aided by experiment, upon external matter, while the latter is based upon the actions of the mind upon itself according to definite laws instituted by the unaided intellect. The ancients elaborated the most admirable systems of mental philosophy, but they refused to have anything to say to experi- mental philosophy. We may take the following remarks of Seneca as to some extent an exemplification of the spirit in which the ancients regarded Natural Philosophy :—‘‘ The astronomer tells me of Saturn and Mars in opposition, but I say, let them be as they will, their courses and their positions are ordered them by an unchangeable decree of fate. Either they produce and point out the effects of all things, or else they signify them. If the former, what are we the better for the knowledge of that which must of necessity come to pass? If the latter, what does it avail us to foresee what we cannot ayoid? So that whether we know or not know, the event will still be the same ;” as if he said in the language of more modern science, “I am assured that the specific gravity of iron is somewhat more than that of manganese, and somewhat more than that of copper, but I know they are immutable, and it hence matters not how they differ.” Or again, ‘*I am told that there are iron and sodium in the sun, but I can never be there to verify it, therefore it cannot concern me.” The ancients were content with the truths which they possessed, and cared not to seek for the discovery of new truths. Thus, as I before said, they possessed no system of experimental science. You will perhaps ask me why physical truths cannot be discovered by means of the unaided intellect. Why is experiment necessary? We must remember that our senses, although infinitely more perfect than our most delicate and refined scientific instruments, are limited in their capabilities. They are devoted to the service of our organisms, and exist for the purpose of enabling us to fulfil all the conditions requisite for the maintenance of life, and to make us cognisant of the external actions of the material world. But this latter function they exercise only to the necessary extent. There are numberless phenomena beyond the direct cognisance of the senses ; there is, if I may so express it, light which is unseen by the eye, sound which is unheard by the ear, heat which is unfelt by the nerves of touch. I mean there are physical actions of the same nature as those which constitute light, sound, and heat, which we cannot directly recognise. It then becomes necessary to call in the aid of experiment and of various instruments to assist and exalt the action of the senses. We have a familiar example of this in the microscope. A speck which the unaided eye recognises with difficulty, is seen by exalting the capabilities of the eye in one particular direction to be a perfectly organised being, possessing many of the functions of creatures far higher in the scale of animal life. One of the Infusoria measures about the twenty- two thousandth of an inch in diameter, and can only be seen by the aid of a powerful microscope, yet it is a perfectly-organised creature. So also, when we wish to examine the various pro- perties of matter, it is absolutely necessary for us to aid the in- tellect and the senses by means of instruments and experiments, The properties of matter were utterly unknown to the ancients, because they relied upon the unaided intellect, and disdained ex- periment. Numberless effects in nature reveal themselves only when an unnatural and forced condition is imposed upon matter, **Occulta Nature,” says Francis Bacon, ‘‘magis se produnt per yexationes artium quam cum cursu suo meant.” Although many observers existed before the seventeenth cen- tury, there were but few experimenters. Observation, experi- ment, and reasoning, must go hand in hand, before experimental science can progress. We first find this combination in a very marked degree in Galileo, a professor in the University of Pisa, who was born in 1564, and wrote in the early part of the next century. He invented the telescope and thermometer ; demon- strated the theory of Copernicus, which asserted that the sun is the centre of our system, and that the earth moves round it ; dis- covered the satellites of Jupiter and the spots on the surface of the sun, and, in a word, made the first real progress in many of the sciences, Galileo is often called the ‘‘ Father of the Expe- rimental Sciences ;” it is certain that he was the first experi- E ~ - , Sept 28,1871 | NATURE 439 mental philosopher worthy of the name. the seventeenth century was: altogether prodigious ; at no time has so much been effected ; indeed the greater number of the sciences sprang into existence at this time. Science was greatly promoted by the establishment of Scien- tific Societies about the middle of the century. Literary Socie- ties had existed in Italy long previously ; these consisted of a number of members who met together at stated intervals for the discussion of literary matters, the recitation of poetry, and the " mencement of the proceedings. reading of essays. The names of some of these societies were sufficiently curious ; thus we find, among others, the following :— the Grieved, the Fiery, the Dispirited, the Solitary, the Rough, the Unripe. Baptista Porta founded the first scientific society in 1560, and called it the ‘* Academy of the Secrets of Nature ;” but on account of the privacy of the meetings, and the prevalence of occult and forbidden arts at this time, it came to be believed that the members used magical and diabolical influences, and the society was dissolved by the Pope. Shortly afterwards Porta published his ‘* Natural Magic,” in which he endeavours to prove that the magic of Nature is as wonderful as the magic of Art ; in a word, that we find in the phenomena of Nature results quite as wonderful as those produced by professed sorcerers. After the dissolution of Porta’s Academy, we find no scientific society until the formation of the Academy of Cimento in Florence, in 1567. This Scciety was not founded for the discussion of theoretical, or eyen simple observational science : ‘‘ our sole design is to make experiments and to relate them,” says the secretary at the com- Consequently, although the Society flourished for no more than ten years, a volume of ‘* Ex- periments made in the Academy of Cimento” appeared in 1667, and from its importance it was speedily translated into Latin, and into most of the languages of Europe. It contains a number of experiments relating chiefly to pneumatics and heat. About the year 1658, a few Oxford men, interested in science, agreed to meet in each other’s rooms once a week for the trial of experiments, and for the discussion of scientific matters. The number of members increased, and after a while the meetings were removed to London, and were held in Gresham College. Soon afterwards the society was incorporated by Charles the Second, under the name of the ‘Royal Society for Promoting Natural Knowledge.” Note the significance of the term Vatural as here employed. There was so much unnatural science in the world, so much magic, witchcraft, false knowledge, that the society thought it well to specify ‘‘ Natural Knowledge.” We find traces of the magical lore of the age in the accounts of early meetings of the Society ; thus we find in the minute-book of the Society the following entries under the year 1660 :— “June 5th. His Grace the Duke of Buckingham promised to bring into the Society a piece of an unicorne’s horn. “July 14th. A circle was made with powder of unicorne’s horn, and a spider set in the middle of it, but it immediately ran out several times repeated. The spider once made some stay upon the powder. “June 26th. Dr. Ent, Dr, Clarke, Dr. Goddard, and Dr. Whistler, were appointed curators of the proposition to torment a man presently with the sympathetical powder. **June roth. The fresh hazell sticks were produced, where- with the divining experiment was tried, and found wanting.” This Society continues to meet weekly, and in its Transactions may be found all the most important scientific memoirs which appear in this country, The Académie des Sciences was founded in Paris a few years after the Royal Society of London. The influence of scientific societies on the influence of experi- mental science has been, and still is, very considerable. Towards the end of the seventeenth century they were very generally dis- persed throughout Europe, and experimental results accumulated at a rapid rate. They were embodied in text books, and were soon introduced into the Continental universities, and thus became incorporated with general learning. No place in the world has taken so prominent a part in the furtherance of experimental science as the University of Leyden. Its professors during the seventeenth century were renowned throughout Europe, and students flocked from every part of the Continent to the Uni- versity. Again, it is a noteworthy fact that the first text book of physical science, and the first text book of chemistry, both issued from this university :—the Physices Elementa Mathematica of S’Gravesande, and the Z/ementa Chemie of Boerhaave. They each consist of two well-illustrated quarto volumes, and were pub- lished during the first half of the last century. The greater number of the sciences are made up of the discoveries of the last The science work of | two centuries, and these will come under our notice when we study the special science itself. I may, therefore, safely leave our brief survey at this point. (Zo be continued.) SCIENTIFIC SERIALS THE Révue Scientifique Nos, 8—12 has been to a large extert occupied by a report of the most important papers read at the recent meeting of the British Association ; but we find in addi- tion the following valuable articles :—A report of the very important course of lectures delivered by M. Claude Bernard at the Collége de France ‘‘On the Action of Heat on Animals ;” report of a course of lectures by M, Gréhant ‘‘On the Renewal of the Air in the Lungs,” largely illustrated by woodcuts ; a paper by M. Onimus on Les nerfs trophiques ; and a number of other papers chiefly bearing on physiological subjects, either translated from the English, or extracted from the proceedings of learned societies. Copious extracts from Mr. Darwin’s work **On the Descent of Man” are also translated from time to time. Der Naturvforscher, Nos. 31—34, August 1871. This journal is entirely made up of articles and abstracts from German, French, English, and Italian serials. Some of the latter are especially interesting to us, asbeing less known in this country, In the first number we find some researches by Prof. Nobbe of Tharand on the function of potassium salts in the nutrition of plants. The experiments were made on buck-wheat and rye ; they led to the conclusion that potassium is quite indispensable to the assimilation of plants ; without it no starch is formed in the chlorophyll-granules, and the weight of the plant remains constant, exactly as in pure water. Neither sodium nor lithium can replace potassium, the lithium being positively pernicious. An article giving the results of the second German Arctic Expedi- tion describes the climate of East Greenland, where the ground appears to be for three months free from snow, and covered with abundant herbage, fed upon by the reindeer and the musk-ox. The latter was not before known to inhabit this region. From an account of the water supply and soil of the town of Zurich, we learn that in the cholera epidemics of 1855 and 1867, no con- firmation could be found of Pettenkofer’s theory with respect to the connection of cholera and ‘‘ Grundwasser.” Prof. Nobius of Kiel, discusses the nutrition of deep-sea animals, especially in relation to the organic ‘‘slime,” which he believes to be chiefly of vegetable origin. Prof. Karsten related to the Austrian Pharmaceutical Conference in Vienna his personal experience of the poisonous properties of the famous manchineel tree ({/iAfo- mane manzanilla) of the West Indies and tropical America, which have been doubted by some naturalists. Being engaged for some hours in collecting its juice, Karsten was attacked with burning sensations of the skin, swelling of the face, eyes, &c., which compelled him to pass three days in total darkness, He attri- butes these effects to a volatile poison given off by the tree. Other papers are: Nyland ‘‘On the Phenomena of Discharge of Induced Currents of Electricity ;” Fritsch ‘‘ On the Geological History of the Santorin Group ;” Meunier “On the Cosmical Relations of Meteorites, and the Black Colouring Matter of the Meteorite of Tadjera ;”” Secchi ‘‘ On the Solar Protuberances ;” Young ‘‘On the Corona;” Klocke ‘‘On the Growth of Crystals,” &c. The following papers on physics are from journals little read in England :—‘‘ The Heat given off by Incandescent Platinum,” by Prof. Garibaldi of Genoa. He used, as Tyndall in his experiments on the electric light, a thermopile, but let the rays pass through a dry vacuum tube closed with thin plates of rock-salt, and absorbed the light rays by a solution of iodine in carbon disulphide. In this way the errors arising from the passage of the rays through a moist atmosphere and through prisms and lenses of rock-salt are avoided. He finds the ratio of visible and invisible rays given off from white hot platinum I : 253 but there was still some loss of the dark rays. (Il nuovo Cimento ; ser. 2; tom. iii.) In another research, Garibaldi has investigated the power of absorption for heat of the con- stituents of the atmosphere. The source of heat was heated platinum, and radiation took place through a closed vacuum, thus avoiding some of the errors of other experimenters. The power of absorption possessed by aqueous vapour was found to to be 7,937 times that of dry air. A valuable paper by Kundt («* Wiirzburger Verhandlungen.” Neue Folge, vol. iii.), discusses the anomalous dispersive power for particular parts of the spec- trum possessed by certain coloured substances as hematin, chloro< phyll, sandal wood, litmus, &c. 440 NATURE SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES BRrisTou Observing Astronomical Society.—‘* Report of Observa- tions to August 31.” Sol Phenomena.—Mr. T. W. Back- house, of Sunderlind, reports as follows :—‘‘A fine group of spots passed the sun’s centre in the southern hemisphere on the 17th August. I mate the following measarema2nts of its chief spot :— UMBRA PENUMBRA Date H, OM. Length Length Width August II 21 20 = 82,000 46,009 5 139 921620 —— 71,000 abt. 18,000 ” OES, 14,500 ae sas 90 TAS 200) 16,500 66,000 —— s 15 21 15 16,509 65,c00 34,000 ” 18 3 30 9; 500 59,000 39,090 os 20) 21 “o —— 75,000 —— a ‘21 21 20 smallish Bes —— into four The penumbra had a more ragged appearance than is often the case. If this group has returned to this side of the sun it con- tains no important spots this month. It generally contained two or three large penumbrze, of which I made several measurements, and on the 18th they were united at 3h 30m, making a penumbra 78,500 miles long and 41,000 wide at its widest part, and at 2th 10 n 84,090 miles long. By the 25th all its spots were so reduced as tu be quite small.” The Moon.—Mr. Albert P. Holden, of London, writes :— “Shortly before Jast quarter of the moon in August I ob- served the unilluminated portion unusually bright with earthshine. A few prominent craters could be traced, whilst the whole of the dark outlines of the A/are Serenitatis were easily recognised. The darkest object was the are Crisium, which appeared almost black, and very consider- ably darker than any other of the great plains. It does not seem improbable that the depth of colour seen in the A/are Cri- sium and other planes may be due to a covering of alluvial earth, to which vegetation may at times give the greenish tinge occa- sionally observable. August Meteors.—These phenomena were observed by the Rev. S. J. Johnson, at Crediton, and Mr. William F. Denning, at Bristol On August 10 Mr. Johnson wit- nessed the appearance of shooting stars at the rate of twenty- six per hour. Mr. Denning maintained a watch during three evenings, and the average number seen per hour was as follows : Aug 9, 18; 10, 28 ;11, 46. The maximum number was seen on the litter da‘e. He observed 260 meteors altogether during the above dates, and the sky was under observation for a period of 8{ hours. The most briiliant meteors were ol served at 12h 23m on Aug. 10, and at oh 44m and 12h 50m on Aug. It. Very nearly all the meteors observed radiated from the small star 6 in Camelopardalus. Nearly all of them were accompanied by trains, which became extinct immediately after the disappearance of the meteors themselves. The Nebula “in the Pleiades in Taurus.—Mr. Albert P. Holden has again endeavoured to pick up this object with his 3-inch refractor, but without success. “With good eye-sight and a clear atmosphere I have failed to find the slightest trace of the nebula on all occasions. I have no hesitation, therefore, in saying that in instruments of 3-inch aper- ture and under, the object is utterly invisible. I beg somemember of the society to search for this object with larger instruments, so that the question as to its actual disappearance may be beyond dispute. It is important that this question should be set at rest at once, because in the event of the nebula brightening we should certainly regret not having decisively established the fact of its disappearance. DUBLIN Royal Irish Academy, June 12.—The Rev. President Jellett in the chair. Profs. Sullivan and O‘Reilly read ‘‘ Notes on the Great Dolomite Bed of the North of Spain in connection with the Tithonic Stage of Prof. Opel.” (This paper was erroneously re- ferred to as read on the 22nd of May, vide azée, p. 136, where for “Opal” read ‘‘ Prof. Opel.”’)—-Dr. Sigerson read some additions to the ‘‘ Flora of Botanical District No. 10 (Ireland),” and on an anomalous form of the Corolla of Erica.— Bryan O‘Looney read ““Notes on Lebor na h-Uidhri,”” and G, J. Stoney and J. E. Reynolds read a paper on the ‘‘ Absorption Spectrum of Chloro- chromicacid.”” The following were elected members :—W. A. T. Amhurst, D.L. Norfolk, Captain R. Cooper, Rugby, Whitley Stokes, Calcutta, and Colonel Tyrrell, J.P., Londonderry. June 26.—Rey. President Jellett in the chair. Dr. Sigerson read ‘‘ Note on the Remains of Fish in the Alluvial Clay of the River Foyle.”—Rev. Dr. Reeves read a paper on the ‘‘ Topo- graphy of the Countyjof Armagh.”—Mr. G. J. Stoney, F.R.S., read ‘‘ Notes ona New Form of Spectroscope.”—Mr. W. H. Hennessy read a paper on the ‘‘ Tale of the Brudin Da Derga contained in the Lebor na h-Uidhri,” and Dr. Hayden read ““Notes on the Respiration of Compressed Air.” Paris Academie des Sciences, Sept. 18.—M. Faye in the chair, It was stated that the total amount of money in the hands of M. Janssen for the scientific expedition to Sumatra to observe the solar eclipse in December next will reach to 1,580/.—Several gentlemen sent letters describing the earthquake which was felt in Burgundy on the 9th of September, 7.45 a.M. At Tranant a number of fences which were piled together were overthrown in a straight line, making a deviation of 27° W. from the magnetic needle.—M. Combary, director of the Constantinople observa- tory, sent a note to describe the extraordinary cold felt in last May. In Yorkshire it was felt on the 12 h, at Paris on the 15th, at Constantinople on the 18th. The periurbation, which la-ted for some days, was felt also in Arabia, where the torrid deserts were affected by cold.—M. Leverrier read a letter from - Barceloneta describing the observations, which were made with more care than anywhere else in France, ;on the falling stars of the Novemb-r display of 1869 and 1870,—Several communica- tions were made relating to analogies exhibited by spectra of different subs ances belonging to the same family of chemical substances.~—-M. Delaunay read a note on the discovery of a new planet observed mm the Marseilles Observatory by M. Borelly on the 12th of September, 1871. Itisthe 116th, and is to be called Lomia. M. Borelly had discovered already the gist, 99th, and 11oth, and has given to them respectively the following names : Egine, Dike, and Lydia.—Communications relating to the cholera were three in number, and were all sent to the committee for the Bréaut prize, which is a sum of 4,000/,—A table placed before the chair was covered with samples of rocks extracted from Mont Cenis Tunnel, and arranged in a systematic collection, which will be exhibited in the museum of the School of Mines. M. Elie de Beaumont, the perpetual {secretary, read a very long paper on the instruction conveyed by this collection, the most important portions of which will be found reported in another column, BOOKS RECEIVED EnGuisH.—Experimeatal Mechanics R. S. Ball (Macmillan and Co.).— The Lichen Flora of Great Britain: Rev. W. A. Leighton (Shrewsbury, printed for the Author).— Miscellanies of John A. Symonds, M D : Edited by his Son (Bristol, J. Arrowsmith).—The So dier’s Pocket-book for Field Service: Col. Sic G J, Wolse'ey (Macmillan and Wo ). ForeiGn.—Archiy fiir Anthropologie, 4er Band. CONTENTS PaGE EXPERIMENTAL SCIENCE IN SCHOOLS. . . . + « - ss e « « 42 Our BooK SHEER Treg: syst 3) = cep aioirae) fe) oe) ant te LETTERS TO THE EDITOR :— Phenomena of Contact. —Prof. Simon Newcomp . ... . « 423 Solar Parallax-—R-A) Procror, F;R-A\S: = 5.2 2 eee 424 Elementary Geometry—R. WoRMELL . . ...... 425 Deschanel's. “Heat” We... 2G 20) cise ee) ere, Reena Newspaper Science.—ALFrep W. BenneTT, F.L.S. . . . . . 425 Ice Freas. By Prof. E. FRANKLAND, F.R.S. . . . . . + « » 426 REMARKS ON PrRor. WiLtiaMson’s NEw CLASSIFICATION OF THE VASCULAR CrypTOGAMS. By Dr. W.R. M‘Nap..... . 426 A New Dynameter. By Rey. T. W. Wepp,F.R.A.S. . . .. 427 Tue New Ganoip Fisu (CERATODUS) RECENTLY DISCOVERED IN QugENSLAND.—No. II. By Dr. A. GunTHER, F.RS. . . 2 « 428 METEOROLOGY IN AmeERICA: Self-registering Instruments (With Tilustrationss)\ Se FORE. SS ie a eae THE INTERNATIONAL EXxHiBITION AT VIENNA FOR 1873 434 Screntiric Usr or THE Mont Cents TunneL . . . 1. . « 434 NOTES! selec) Yo) oi) 5) oe Paper Reo hs =o Sie cere krcieey Meee, Sienna On THE Stupy oF Scrence IN Scxoots. By G. F. Ropwett, F.C.S. 437 Screntiric SERIALS . oh Casey Com OM eT Oat 1G. LEO SocIRTIES|/ANDYACADEMIHSM > ©. <) % «) leis) on oie el ta Dig BOOKS SRECHIVED). 0 / ts Mee ciel Yo Ne. isl @ ke Mase Sane RS 440 [ Sepé. 28, 1871 NATURE THURSDAY, OCTOBER 5, 1871 OBSERVATIONS UPON MAGNETIC STORMS IN HIGHER LATITUDES *7"HE extension of the telegraph into the more northern latitude of the Shetland Islands, between 59° 51’ and 60° 51’ 30” N., has afforded a much better opportunity of observing the frequency and variation of the magnetic and auroral storms that have of late excited some atten- tion and discussion in these pages. Some of the earliest recorded observations upon the strength and direction of these atmospheric storms, date from the time when the extension of the telegraphic wires over England rendered the phenomenon visible by the disturbance of the magnetic needle placed in circuit with the wires, and to a certain extent rendered possible the mapping down of the position and direction of the mag- netic storm over certain tracts of Great Britain. On the 24th September, 1847, remarkable magnetic disturbances were observed in London, and the direction and deflection of the magnetic needle noted. The effects of this magnetic storm were carefully observed at Daw- lish, Norwich, Derby, Birmingham, Rugby, Cambridge, Tonbridge, Wakefield, Edinburgh, and York. The mag- netic disturbance appears to have commenced about 1" 5™ P.M. on the 24th, and continued with variable in- tensity until 7" 30™ A.M. on the 25th. It may be interesting to give some of the galvanometer readings recorded as indicating the rapid oscillation and deflection of the galvanometer needle. In the period of time between 4" 17™ P.M., and 5" 48" P.M. on the 24th, or in about one hour and a half, the direction of the cur- rent had changed no less than ten times, showing a maximum swing of the needle over an arc of 50°. H, M. deg. HM. deg. 4.17 15 left 5.5 15 left 4.20 20 right Baio Nee ep 4.25 1 5.16 to right 4.25.30° TO! 55 5.22 18 left 4.35 () ay 5.25 14 right 4.38 W235 5.28 13 left 4.45 20 55 5-32 20 55 4.50 To left 5-34 AD cp 4.51 17 5 5.42 29 » 455 oy 5.48 3° 4.56 8 right During this magnetic storm, the variation of the dipping needle which was observed in London every 30", ranged between 69° 30’ and 67° 50’. In some cases these magnetic storms were so severe as to impede the working of the railway signals. On the 18th of October, 1841, a very intense magnetic disturbance was recorded, and amongst other curious facts mentioned is that of the detention of the 10.5 P.M. express train at Exeter sixteen minutes, as from the magnetic disturbance affecting the needles so powerfully, it was impossible to ascertain if the line was clear at Starcross. The superin- tendent at Exeter reported the next morning that some one was playing tricks with the instruments, and would not let them work. VOL, Iv. 441 It will be fresh in the memory of many of our readers that during the month of October last year, very remark- able and brilliant “auroras” were observed in London, chiefly of a deep blood-red colour, spreading from the zenith over a great portion of the heavens, It is, however, in the more northern latitude of the Orkney and Shetland Islands that the grandeur of these wonderful electrical phenomena can be observed, and that reliable data can be obtained from which hereafter some practical result may be deduced. As observed in Orkney and Shetland, the aurora, as a general rule, appears to concentrate and emerge from behind a dense mass of dark cloud lying low down in the horizon towards the north. The edge of this cloud-bank is serrated and jagged, as if the mass were electrically in a high state of tension, From behind this cloud-bank “dark” streamers will appear to start up high into the zenith, appearing as if attenuated portions of the edge of the cloud-bank had been dragged by some invisible power, these dark auroral rays being at the same time transparent as regards the power of transmitting the light of the stars, which shone through with undiminished splendour. At the same moment that these dark rays are emicant, brilliant green, violet, crimson, and white rays appear to stream upwards towards the zenith, but always with a less persistence of duration. These coloured scintillations change with greater rapidity than the black rays. During the month of December of last year, some very vivid prismatic tints were observed from the Island of Eday. From careful observation it was then remarked that the red coloured rays appeared generally to be of a partially opaque nature, and it could be readily seen that the light of a star, waen viewed through the red scintilla- tion, was dimmed as compared with the brilliancy of the same star when observed through the scintillations of another colour. In some of these displays, the most vivid and varied colouring was exhibited. These were noted down as visible to the eye at the same time, and as the colours were observed in contrast, the distinctiveness and brilliancy of the tint became the more decided. Black, pale yellow, strong yellow, white, violet, pale blue bright green, crimson shade fading into a reddish pink, pale orange, and a delicate sea-green tint. So far no- thing approaching to the indigo hue has been noticed. With this exception, the entire prismatic colours and | blending tints may be said to have been perfectly deve- loped in the rapid electrical scintillations of the aurora. The colours fade away and change with astonishing rapidity, and this variation in tint will take place without apparently any great electrical disturbance in the special ray observed, beyond a slight flickering motion. In these regions, where the atmosphere is so perfectly still and at times calm, repeated observation has determined the exist- ence of very appreciable sound to the ear, as an accom- panying phenomenon [to the rapid rush of the auroral streams towards the zenith. The intensity of the sound emitted variesconsiderably. At times, it greatly resembles that of the rushing noise caused by the firing of a rocket into the air when reaching the ear from a distance. At other times it has a strong resemblance to the sound pro- duced by the crackling of burning embers, but wanting in any very distinctive sharpness. AA 442 NATURE [ Oct. 5, 1871 In all these cases of auroral displays the inductive effects upon the telegraph wires are very strongly marked ; currents of varying intensity and direction flowing un- ceasingly through these metallic circuits. The result of observations made in Shetland during the months of September, October, November, and December last year, tend to show that these auroral disturbances attained their maximum effect upon the wires between 8 30" and g" 30™ A M., and between 8" 30™and 10" 30™ P.M. ; and such is the unstableness of these induced auroral cur- rents, that frequently in five minutes the electromotive force will vary from very much less than that of a Daniell cell to a current of such intensity that a brilliant stream of light will flash across the points of the lightning conductors with sharp detonating reports, the electromotive force of which would be scarcely equalled by 500 Daniell cells. In January last very curious electrical phenomena were observed at Lerwick through the day-time, in connection with the N.E. gales so prevalent at that period of the year. In Shetland these galesare almost withoutexceptionaccom- panied with very severe hail-storms. The day begins bright and fine, a clear sky, the barometer rapidly rising ; low on the horizon may be observed denseand angry-looking clouds. One by one these clouds travel fast towards the zenith, when all at once a fearful gust of wind, accompanied with the most violent hail-storm, will apparently break out of the cloud, and continue for about fifteen minutes. The wind then subsides, and the day appears as fine as before. In half an hour’s time a second cloud will have appeared, and there will be a repetition of the temporary tornado and hail-storm. The remarkable circumstance attending these successive storm clouds is that they appear to be a purely electrical phenomenon. The moment that the icy discharge takes place from the cloud with its accompany- ing “crack” of wind, an induced electrical current appears upon the wire, so strong that it attracts firmly down the armatures of the telegraph Morse apparatus. The moment, however, that the hail ceases, the current passes off, but with this result, that each successive cloud storm appears to induce a current flowing inan opposite direc- tion from the last, that is to say, the currents appear to be (using conventional language) positive and negative in their effects. That these storms are “ electrically excited” there is no disputing, and that they occur during the prevalence of the chief auroral displays is also a matter of observation, but so far their connection with aurora has not been sufficiently determined to permit any opinion to be ex- pressed. The recent successful completion of the telegraph circuit to Shetland, and the extensions immediately to be carried out one hundred miles farther north, will afford much greater facilities for auroral observation than has hitherto existed. It is also proposed to institute a careful spectroscopical examination of the coloured scintillations ; and now that the Meteorological Society are about to establish an observation station in Shetland, there is every prospect of some valuable data being collected on this interesting subject, which may hereafter cuide our meteoro- logical students in arriving at some satisfactory conclusion regarding the laws of electrical storms and auroral induc- tion. At present we are only able to record a few care- fully observed facts, THE LIGHT OF FUPITER’S SATELLITES Ueber die Helligheitsverhaltnisse der Fupiterstrabanten,von Dr. R. Engelmann, Observator der Sternwarte zu Leip- zig. (Leipzig; London: Williams and Norgate. 1871.) ‘ey all the satellite systems which so essentially enrich the retinue of the sun, none, when we have left our own moon behind us, promises such a reward for investigation as that of the planet Jupiter. The remoter ones may be, and probably are, intrinsically of a more remarkable charac- ter, but they are, and ever will remain to a great extent, beyond our reach; while the attendants of the largest among the planets are numerous enough to interest by in- dividual peculiarities, which their comparative proximity enables us to study with advantage. Yet it is readily observable that though ordinary telescopes of good quality would have done much towards elucidating their pheno- mena, very little progress has been made in the inquiry, especially in this country ; and the work now before us is the first attempt to collect and to make serviceable the scattered observations which exist, of which we are sorry to remark how few are due to the astronomers of Eng- land. The especial object of the eminent observer at Leip- zig has been not the theory of the motions of these satellites, but simply their physical aspect in regard to the variable light which they have long been known to re- flect, and to this investigation the author, notwithstanding constant engagement in important zone observatio 1s, has contributed far more than all who have preceded him. The instrument which he employed was the astrophoto- meter of Zdllner. In this ingenious contrivance, the light of the object to be examined is referred to that of one or more known comparison stars, by means of an artificial star produced by a petroleum flame, adjustable for bright- ness and colour by a Nicol prism, and a “ colorimeter,” or revolving wheel of tinted rock-crystal. But in order to eliminate the effect of unequal areas, so as to ascertain, not merely the absolute amount of light reflected, but the “albedo,” or reflecting power of each surface, it is, of course, necessary {o obtain reliable measures of these minute specks of light; and in order to decide the interesting question whether or not their rotation and revolution are, as with our own satellite, syn- chronous, their anomalies, or orbital positions relative to their primary, have to be taken into account, All this has been done with most praiseworthy care; the whole is discussed and reduced with scrupulous and exemplary attention to every possible source of accidental error ; and the result is given to the eye in several elabo- rate diagrams. We shall merely specify some of the con- clusions, which will be found of considerable interest to astronomers. The absolute brightness was found by the author, as it has been by all previous observers, very variable ; and from the irregularity and occasional rapidity of its changes, it becomes impossible to decide, in the case of the three interior satellites, whether the periods of rotation and revolution are identical. This, however, appears to be decidedly the fact with the outermost, Herschel I. had extended the inference to all of them; but such a result could not now be accepted ; and it seems probable that the spots which must occasion these varia- tions, and which have been repeatedly noticed when the Oct. 5, 1871] _ satellite has been on the disc of Jupiter, and by Dawes _-and Secchi even in other positions, may be of changeable character. Ata mean II. is relatively the most, 1V. the least Juminous. As to their micrometrical measurement, every one who is acquainted with the telescopic aspect of these minute discs will readily comprehend its difficulty. It has, however, been attempted in various ways, but not by the double-image micrometer, which does not seem _ to have been used ; the results, as may be expected, pre- sent considerable discrepancies, but the final values ob- tained by a combination of different methods in the hands _ of various observers are as follow :—I., 1/081 ; II.,0”g10; III., 1537; IV., 1282 ; or, in English miles, 2,498, 2,102, 3,551, 2,962, the solar parallax being taken as 8'"go. These values, all things considered, differ so little from those given by Lockyer (Guillemin’s ‘ Heavens”)— namely, 2,440, 2,192, 3,759, 3,062—that we may consider ourselves possessed of a very fair approximation to their real mag- nitudes. Astothe “albedo” of their surfaces, I. shows no great varia- tion ; it falls, according to Zéllner’s estimate of the reflective power of terrestrial materials, between that of marland white sandstone ; II. has the greatest variations of albedo, which at a mean somewhat exceeds that of white sandstone ; III., the variations of which are smaller andmore regular, comes between marl and quartzose porphyry ; IV., which varies least, equals that of moist arable land. It will probably be thought, however, that curious as these comparisons may be, the standards are much too uncertain to give any Satisfactory result. As to colour, Dr. Engelmann, after citing the elder Herschel’s estimates—I., white ; II., white, bluish, and ash-coloured ; III., white ; 1V., dusky, dingy, inclining to orange, reddish, and ruddy—specifies as the determination of other observers : I., yellowish ; II., white or yellowish ; III., intensely yellow with low powers ; IV., in achromatics a distinct dusky blue. (These colour- values at any rate afford no countenance to the common impression that Herschel had a bias for red tints.) To the writer, whether with two achromatics, or a nine-inch silvered mirror, this satellite has always appeared ruddy when its colour has formed the object of notice ; in such discrepancies something may be instrumental, something subjective. Itis pleasant to see here a very full appreci- ation of the laborious perseverance and honest accuracy of the labours of Schréter, to whose merit time seems to be doing tardy justice ; no notice is taken, however, of the observations of Gruithuisen, who twice appears to have seen spots on III on the background of the sky ; nor is reference made to the irregular shape of that satellite re- marked by Secchi and his assistant ; nor to the apparent discrepancy which has often been noticed between the magnitudes of the satellites and their shadows. Still, the treatise may be considered as very nearly an exhaustive one ; and a most important and acceptable contribution to planetary astronomy. It may be added that it contains avery valuable determination of the telescopic magnitude of Jupiter, from the average of eleven observers ; the re- sult being, with the double-image micrometer 37/609 for the equatorial, 35/°236 for the polar diameter; with the wire micrometer, 38312 and 35914: the former values, which he seems to prefer, exhibiting a flattening of T. W. WEBB 15°82. NATURE 443 OUR BOOK SHELF Transactions of the Geological Society of Glasgow. Vol. III. Supplement. On the Carboniferous Fossils of the Westof Scotland : their Vertical Range and Distribution. By John Young, Vice-President. Witha General Cata- logue of the Fossils and their Mode of Occurrence, and an Index to the Principal Localities. By James Armstrong, Honorary Secretary. (Glasgow, 1871.) THIS catalogue of fossils will doubtless be of great use not only to local geologists, but to others ata distance, who may desire to compare the treasures of English and Irish Carboniferous strata with what the equivalent beds in Scot- land have yielded. So far as they go, the lists appear to be drawn up with considerable care, and Mr. Armstrong is to be congratulated upon the result of what must have been somewhat laborious work. But we are sure he will be the first to admit that much, very much, still remains to be done before the Scottish Carboniferous flora and fauna can be satisfactorily compared with those of other countries. We are constantly being reminded throughout this catalogue that not only in private collections, but also in public museums in the West of Scotland, there are numbers of specimens under almost every class waiting to be identified, amongst which there is every reason to believe that not a few are species new to science. This, it seems, is specially the case with the plants, the rich flora of the Carboniferous period being represented sin the catalogue by only ninety species. But Mr. Carruthers, we are told, hasseveral undescribed specimens in hand, of which we shall, no doubt, hear by-and-by. The fishes, it would appear, also need looking after. There are eighty-four species, under forty genera, named in the catalogue ; but a large number in various collections have never been correctly identified with described species, and Mr. Young expresses a hope, in which we cordially join, that Prof. Young will be induced to prepare a special catalogue of these and the Reptilia, of which only seven species are given by Mr. Armstrong. The other classes are represented as follows :—Foraminifera, 2 genera, 4 species ; Hydrozoa, 1 g. 2 sp.; Zoophyta, 22 g. 59 sp. ; Echinodermata, 6 g. 15 sp.; Annelida, 4 g. 7 sp. ; Crus- tacea, 19 g. 71 sp.; Insecta, 2g. 2 sp.: Polyzoa, 11 g. 36 sp.; Brachiopoda, 15 g. 50 sp.; Lamellibranchiata, 28 g. 127 sp.; Pteropoda, I g. I sp.; Gasteropoda, I5 g. 75 sp.; Cephalopoda, 6 g. 46 sp. From these numbers it will be seen that the collectors have not been idle, and, no doubt, Mr. Armstrong’s catalogue, with its minute index to localities, will be the means of sending many to hunt in quarters which they have not already visited. Let us hope that they will note something of the conditions under which the fossils are distributed, and not content themselves simply by bringing away good bags full. Collectors cannot be too often reminded that it is of more importance, in the interests both of natural history and geology, to know one limited district thoroughly, than to go roving over half a country merely for the pur- pose of picking up finely preserved specimens. Each should mark out for himself some practicable area, and make it his endeayourto search every bed, eventhe most un- promising, noting not only the fossils he meets with, but the character of the stratain which they occur. He should also observe what effect a change in the character of a bed has upon the fossils it may happen to contain; whether they increase or decrease in numbers, whether they indi- vidually gain in size or become dwarfed, and, should cer- tain species disappear, what cthers, if any, are substituted for them. It is only by marking carefully such points as these that we can ever hope to acquire an adequate con- ception of the natural history of the old carboniferous lands and seas. Mr. Young is quite sensible of the short- comings of the collectors in this matter, and gives them some seasonable advice, which it may be hoped they will take to heart. If collectors paid better heed to these 444 NATURE 1 matters they would assuredly derive greater pleasure and profit from their pursuit, and do much more towards the progress of science. Mr. Young himself, however, not- withstanding the good advice he gives, is not always care- ful in drawing conclusions, geological evidence being some- times quite overlooked. Thus, we find him stating that the coal-measures (meaning, of course, the whole series of strata above the Millstone Grit) are ‘‘ evidently of land and fresh-water origin,” because they have yielded no marine organisms, save in one thin local bed near the top of the series, The occurrence of this stratum with its marine remains, indicates, as he believes, the return for a short time of the sea, which had for a very long period “been completely shut out by barriers.” Mr. Young is welcome to his belief. If every bed or series of beds in which no marine organisms occur must necessarily be of fresh-water origin, the lakes of old must have been some- thing worth seeing. There are several points suggested by the catalogue that we should like to have taken up, but our space is exhausted, and we can only conclude by strongly recommending Mr. Armstrong’s work to the notice of our geological readers, Io Ge LETTERS TO THE EDITOR The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his Correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. | On the Solution of a Certain Geometrical Problem A WRITER in the number of Nature for September 21, Mr. Rk. A. Proctor, in the course of a letter on the state of geometrical knowledge in the university, alludes manifestly to the solution of a problem which I have adopted in my edition of Euclid. The matter is of small importance in itself, but nevertheless as some points of interest are incidentally involved, I request you to allow me the opportunity of offering a few remarks. The problem is this: to describe a circle which shall pass through a given point and touch two given straight lines. Your correspondent considers that in giving a solution which depends on the sixth book of Euclid, instead of one which depends only on the third book, I exhibit signal geometrical weakness. The problem, I need scarcely say, is very old ; indeed, so old that a writer who had been long engaged in teaching could not pretend to solve it afresh, for he would certainly have in his memory one or more solutions which had become quite familiar to him. The solution by the aid of the third book is well known, for it occurs in several of the collections of geometrical exercises. The solution which I have adopted is also old, but seems not so well known. It is, I think, conspicuous for sim- plicity, elegance, and completeness. The demonstration is of the best and most impressive kind, requiring no laborious effort to understand and retain it, but being almost self-evident from the diagram. Even if the problem be treated as an isolated exer- cise, the solution which I have preferred will sustain a favourable comparison with that which more commonly occurs. But the determining cause of my choice was the position which the solution occupies as one of a connected series. I have just before treated a similar problem by the third-book method, so that if the same method had been used for the present problem, | there would have been only repetition without any substantial increase of knowledge; whereas by the course adopted the | student is introduced to fresh and valuable matter. The principle | of similarity and the notion of a centre of similitude are most instructively involved, and the student is prepared for a subse- quent investigation, which is similar but more complex. To sum up, the third-book method would have constituted no advance in the subject, where the sixth-book method takes a step im- portant in itself and in its consequences ; and therefore, following the example of an eminent geometer, I adopted the latter method. I may perhaps venture on the strength of my own experience as to the utility of the solution, to recommend it to the attention of other teachers. It is very important to bear in mind the distinction between what I may call absolute and relative merit which I have just exemplified. The solution of a single problem furnished by a candidate under examination, or by a contributor to a mathema- tical periodical, is very different from the investigation of one out of a chain of propositions in a mathematical treatise. In the former case there are no antecedent or subsequent conditions to regard ; in the latter case we have to consider what agrees best with the whole scope of the work, with what is to follow as well as with what has gone before. A writer, after arranging a para- graph or a chapter in what seems the best manner, may find himself constrained at a subsequent stage to make changes which would have been unnecessary, perhaps even undesirable, if the earlier portion had stood alone. Then, if a reader opens the book at random and criticises a passage without any regard to the author’s sense, the criticism may very naturally be quite inap- propriate. There is, however, a very important consideration of another kind which has been frequently disregarded, but which is pressed upon our notice by the interest at present felt in geometrical studies. Let us determine the reason which leads us in some, or in many, cases, to prefer a solution which involves only the third book of Euclid to a solution which depends on the sixth book ; this, I apprehend, is merely a persuasion that Euclid’s order is a natural order, so that in a well-arranged system the propositions of the third book ought to precede those of the sixth book. I am of this persuasion myself; I think that no scheme can be perfect, and, on the whole, I am well satisfied with Euclid’s. But there are places where Euclid is strong, and there are places where Euclid is weak ; and the position which he has assigned to the last three propositions of his third book, must rather be classed with the latter than with the former. His object, of course, must have been to lead up to his construction of a regular pentagon, and we cannot be surprised at the introduction of that remarkable process. But I have always envied the advantage in this respect to be claimed for the non-Euclidean systems, which transfer these propositions and place them after the doctrine of similar triangles ; thus the long and rather artificial treatment which they receive from Euclid is superseded, and the proposi- tions become almost intuitive. Hence, in fact, if we have re- course to the sixth book of Euclid when we might have accom- plished our end by the aid of the first thirty-four propositions of the third book, we may be fairly liable to the charge that we have not adopted the simplest and most natural method ; but the last three propositions of the third book are quite different in kind from the others, and instead of using them, it may be really as simple and as natural in many cases to use the principle of similar triangles. I shall be obliged to any person who may be skilled in prac- tical geometry if he will state what he considers the best method of actually solving the problem, supposing that both circles are to be determined which satisfy the conditions. I assume that we have the aid of compasses and also of one of the ordinary contrivances for drawing parallel lines. This is a matter of some interest, though of course unconnected with the theoretical solu- tion of the problem. I should be glad to make some remarks on the general subject which led to the notice of the particular problem I have discussed, but at present I have not sufficient leisure. I must content my- self with having shown that the course into which I am supposed to have drifted by geometrical incapacity, was adopted deliberately under the guidance of reasonable geometrical knowledge. I, TODHUNTER St. John’s College, Cambridge, Oct. 2 Structure of Fossil Cryptogams Ir was unfortunate that at the recent meeting of the British Association, Prof. Williamson’s paper had to be discussed in a very hurried manner, and he is, no doubt, justified in taking care ‘*that there shall be no misunderstanding as to the real point at issue.” I do not think that he has brought it out very plainly in his paper in NATURE, and perhaps, as he mentions me as an opponent of his views, I may be allowed to state precisely in what respects I differ from him. First, as to matters of fact. Prof. Williamson speaks of the central structure of the stems of the extinct Lycopodiaceze asa “‘vascular medulla,” by which he explains that he means a “structure containing vessels,” and that there shall be no mis- apprehension he adduces Vefenthes as possessing it ; the instance is a well-known one, and leaves no room for doubt as to Prof Williamson’s meaning. Now from the examination of specimens, and of the drawings of them published by Mr. Carruthers (the accuracy of which I believe Prof. Williamson does not dispute) I am quite satisfied that the central structure consists wholly of [ Oct. 5, 18971 | ree eee © a ll a Se ee. Oct. 5, 1871] NATURE 445 scalariform vessels, and that there is in fact nothing medullary or medulla-like about it. Outside this central structure is what Mr. Carruthers terms | the investing, and Prof. Williamson the vascular woody cylin- der. I believe that Mr. Carruthers is right in looking upon this as belonging to the central axis, which is therefore composed of two parts.* I find, which I did not sufficiently appreciate at the time, that Prof. McNab regards this investing cylinder as homologous with the cylinder of wood cells surrounding the central axis of fibro-vascular bundles which is met with in many recent Lycopodiaceze. From this I certainly dissent for two reasons ; (1) because I think its equivalent is to be found in the central axis itself, and not outside it ; (2) because it is not com- posed of wood cells but of scalariform vessels. Secondly, as to opinions. The terms Exogen and Endogen, as is pretty well known, were founded upon a mistake. A great deal too much has been made of the difference implied by them ; in fact, if we compare a one-year-old dicotyledonous shoot with -a monocotyledonous stem, we find that it does not exist. If Prof. Williamson will look at the stem of the common artichoke, he will find it difficult to convince himself that he is examining an ‘‘ exogenous” plant at all. The imagined characters which were implied by these terms are, nevertheless, as everyone knows, correlated with others, which _ vascular cryptogams. in the aggregate enable phanerogamic plants to be divided into two satisfactory groups ; but this is certainly not equally the case with the groups into which Prof. Williamson would divide the These groups, I think, most botanists will agree in considering in the highest degree unnatural, inasmuch as, assuming the vegetative distinction upon which they are founded to exist, it is a wholly artificial ground for classificatory purposes. Nor is it any argument that one vegetative character must be good because others are in use, since the simple answer is that these coincide with natural divisions, while Prof. William- son’s does not. I shall not dispute Prof. Williamson’s position that our living Ly copodiacez should be interpreted by the more complete extinct types. To dothis, however, the extinct types must be thoroughly understood ; when we are dealing with imperfect material, com- parison with the more perfect but less highly developed existing plants is not only justifiable but necessary. It is obvious that the great development of the stem in the Lycopodi2ceze of the Coal Measures was correlated with their arborescent habit. I am inclined to think with Prof. William- son that the stem increased in thickness ; it is certain that ZLefv- dodendron was branched, and not improbably also Szgi/laria. The branches as they were gradually developed must have been the cause of an increasing strain upon the stem ; it seems to me More congruous with known laws of. the response of structure to circumstances, to conclude that the stem was proportionately de- veloped as the strain increased, than that the stem should have been produced once for all of its maximum thickness without reference to the crown of branches that was finally to surmount it. I am quite prepared therefore to admit that the investing cylin- der may have increased by external additions, and probably did do so; this wou!d of course imply the existence of a cambium layer outside it. There is some analogy for this in the recent Tsoétes, where we have a ‘‘slight woody mass which occupies the longitudinal axis of the stem, but encloses 70 fith.” + Outside this we have a ‘‘bark-forming”” cambium (which also adds, but more sparingly, to the wood mass) ; in Sie//aria and Lepidoden- dron we might have had a cambium not merely renewing the bark but adding to the central axis. In whatever way the increase took place, it was, asI think, nothing more than an incident in the life history of a particular race of plants, nothing more than an adjustment to an arborescent habit dropped when the arborescent habit was lost, but showing a lingering ancestral tendency in /soc¢es.. Comparing a simple stemmed palm with Dracena, we have a parallel instance of the strengthening of the stem ari fassu with the continued deve- lopment of a system of branches; only in Dracena it is the circumferential part of the stem alone which developes. If I am right in regarding a stem gradually developing in size as the necessary correlate of a large system of branches, Prof, Wil- liamson’s view practically amounts to the old division of plants into trees and herbs. I cannot see how it can afford any safe ground for a re-arrangement of the vascular cryptogams. W. T. THISELTON DYER London, Sept. 26 * Monthly Micro. Fourn., 1869, p. 169. + Hofmeister, Higher Cryptogamia, pp. 356, 361 The Solar Spectrum May I venture to suggest that quite possibly something of value might be obtained by observing the sun during totality with a spectroscope of reasonable dispersive power (say four or five prisms) wthout a collimator, or even simply with one of the so- called meteor spectroscopes. If the bright rays and rifts are really and simply (or even mainly) composed of the green-line-giving substance, they will give a well-defined green image ; if they are formed by reflection (either at the sun or in our atmosphere) of ordinary sunlight, they would be so dispersed as to be invisible or nearly so, and if formed by the reflection of chromosphere light they would give several images, the red (C) and blue-green (F) being most con- spicuous. C, A. YounG Hanover, N.H., U.S., Sept. 13 * * Arrangements have already been made for carrying out a similar suggestion to this by the Eclipse Committee ; and the corona will also be observed with an open slit.—Ep. N. Eclipse Photography and the Spectroscope THE endeavour of the Eclipse Committee to secure some uniformity in the photographs from different stations next December does not appear to be duly appreciated, it being con- tended that immense ‘personality’? shown in various photo- graphers’ manipulation must frustrate the good intention. I submit that in this case the personality is greatly over-estimated ; that a number of competent photographers taking the same sub- ject would probably produce, under any ordinary circumstances, pictures bearing considerable resemblance ; while by using like apparatus and giving exposure of the same duration, we might safely predict a similarity of result amply sufficient for compara- tive purposes, and for the identification of structural peculiarity should it exist. Among others there is a possible advantage to accrue from uniform work by the philosophers which I have not seen or heard noticed. Supposing the outer corona, rays, streamers, or any portion of the apparently luminous matter be terrestrial, is it unreasonable to expect that photographs, taken at stations more or less widely separated, will, when properly combined in the stereoscope, give clear ocular proof of the sublunary situation of such luminous matter? Henry Davis Phenomena of Contact Mr. STONE can safely be left tomeet the arguments specially addressed to him in Prof. Newcomb’s letter; but as the subject relates to the only point of importance touched on in Prof. Newcomb’s criticism of my chapter on the sun’s distance, I crave permission to meet his general argument. I submit that he tries to prove too much. He admits that the phenomenon of irradiation exists in the case of adisc. The sun’s disc, then, must be to some extent enlarged, and the dark disc of Venus must be to some extent reduced by the effects of irradiation. Now this being so, what becomes of the cusps, when Venus is all but wholly on the sun’s disc? Either the irradiation is diminished near the cusps or it is not. If it is diminished there must be distortion, because the disc of Venus is then not uniformly reduced : if the irradiation is not diminished a ligament must appear. Let any one draw a large circle (say a foot in diameter) on paper, and a small one (say an inch in diameter) extending very slightly (say by the twentieth of aninch) beyond the boundary of the first ; and let him blacken the smaller circle as well as all the space outside the larger one. He has then a space represent- ing the disc of the sun with a very large Venus upon it near the time of internal contact. Now let him conceive the whole of this space (a sort of exaggerated crescent) slightly enlarged as by irradiation, the enlargement-fringe extending outside the boundary of the large disc and inside the boundary of the small black (incomplete) disc. He will find the conception of this enlarge- ment exceedingly easy everywhere save near the cusps ; but here there is a difficulty in determining how the fringe outside the larger disc is to be joined on tothe fringe inside the smaller disc. If he can conceive these two fringes meeting in such sort as to leave the reduced outline of the small disc completely circular up to the very points in which it meets the enlarged outline of the large disc, he will have done what Prof. Newcomb’s theory re- quires. But note, this must be done for the case when the fringe of enlargement is wider than the twentieth of an inch, by which the small disc overlaps the large one. When this is the 446 case, the task will be found to be impracticable ; but even when the overlap of the small disc is greater, the task can only be achieved by actually making new cusps out of the irradiation fringes. (A figure would make this explanation much simpler.) Prof. Newcomb says that he is decidedly of opinion that the irradiation of an extremely minute thread of light is not the same with that of a large disc. He does not seem to notice that if this is so, Venus just before, at, and just after internal contact, must be distorted. This even if—admitting the enlargement of the sun’s disc—he denies that the disc of Venus is reduced by irradiation. He fails also to observe that a peculiarity such as distortion, or the formation of a ligament, may escape the notice of inferior or not very attentive observers, and so all his negative observations be explained. It is no proof of superior skill in observation to see no signs of an illusory effect. Until we have observers who recognise no traces of irradiation when looking at the solar disc, we must believe that (as Mr. Stone has, I think, already asserted) the non-recognition of distortion or ligament formation is due to inattention, or want of observing skill. That this should be more common than close and careful scrutiny is not a very surprising circumstance, and proyes nothing. RicHarD A, PRocTror Oceanic Circulation In NaTuRE of August 17, I have just seen the report of the discussion on Dr. Carpenter’s paper on the above subject read at the late meeting of the British Association. Dr. Carpenter, explaining the movements on thermodynamic principles, states that he has ‘‘ found the gr7mm mobile of this circulation was not in equatorial heat but polar cold,” and explains that ‘‘ (1) As each surface-film cools and sinks, its place will be supplied, not from below, but by a surface influx of the water around ; and (2) the bottom stratum will flow away over the deepest parts of the basin, while, since the total heat of the liquid is kept up, there will be an upper stratum which will be drawn towards the cold area, to be precipitated to the bottom and repeat the action. Apply this principle to the great oceanic area that stretches between the equator and the poles, we should expect to find the upper stratum moving from the equator towards the poles, and its lower stratum from the poles towards the Equator. That such a movement really takes place is indi- cated, as it seems to me, by various facts.” It does mot appear, however, that Dr. Carpenter has well estab- lished his claim to the theories in question, while, in a pamphlet on the same subject, published in 1869 by Dr. Adolph Miihry of Gottingen, we find- such passages as the following :—‘* As the cause of the latitudinal circulation we have assumed the difference of temperature in the water between the equator and the pole.” He honestly gives Arago the credit of being, perhaps, the first to put forward this view in 1836; and after remarking (p. 11) that it might be considered doubtful whether it is the upper warm current from the equator or the under cold one from the pole that ought to be considered the primary, he says (p. 12) ‘‘ For us the primary ‘arm’ is the heavier, z.e., the colder polar stream, which, in obedience to gravitation, falls in a horizontal direction toward the lighter water of the hot zone; and the secondary ‘arm’ is the returning antipolar. It moves to replace what flows away, andis, therefore, the compensation-arm.”’ Here, without following Dr. Mihry any further, we find the thermodynamic theory advanced by Dr. Carpenter, and his primum mobile as well; but by giving him credit for ignorance of Dr. Miihry’s work, we may excuse him for laying claim to what is there put forward, and accepting therefore the commendation of others as unknowing as himself. Ice Fleas DuRING a recent ramble upon the Morteratsch Glacier, I also observed a large number of the minute black creatures described by Prof. Frankland in NaTurRE, No. 100. My attention had been directed to them ten years ago by Lord Anson on the ‘*snow-bones,” near the summit of the Aigischorn, They are only nominal ‘‘cousins” of the flea (Px/ex) of civilised life, and are not at all related to Dania, the ‘‘ water flea,” but are closely allied to the minute insects which are often seen on the surface of stagnant water, resembling grains of gunpowder, and skipping partly by help of their forked tail, folded under them so as to serve as a foot, hence their name Podura, or ‘‘skip-tail.” They have been named by Agassiz Desoria saltans. Their food, I conjectured with Prof, Frankland, consists of ‘‘red snow” and NATURE [ Oct. 5, 1871 other microscopic alge. Not being myself within reach of a good library, I can only furnish your readers with a key to further information. C. A. JOHNS In Nature of 28th September, Prof. Frankland, in intro- ducing the ice flea to the readers of NATURE, uses the expression “if known at all,” and concludes by asking information about it. The glacier flea, Desoria glacialis, was noticed and described by Prof. Agassiz as far back as 1845, in his Ascent of the Wetter- horn on the 29th of July of that year. Not having Agassiz’s work at present beside me, I cannot refer to it, but these fleas are noticed in an extract translated from an account of the ascent, and published in Hoge’s Weekly Instructor for Dec. 1845, vol. ii. p. 221. Onthe Aar Glacier they:are described as being scattered over the ‘‘surface of the snow in millions,” elsewhere, ‘‘as being collected in masses under the stones on the ice.” The New Dynameter THE letter from the Rey. T. W. Webb in your last number is a very tantalising letter. He tells us, and we could not wish to have a better authority, that a new dynameter has been in- vented by the Rev. E. Berthon, but he does not tell us how it is constructed or where it can be obtained. I may take this opportunity of mentioning a makeshift dyna- meter which I have found to answer very well when extreme accuracy is not required. I have a pocket telescope fitted with a Cavallo micrometer, z.é., a slip of finely divided mother-of-pearl screwed to the dia- phragm next the eye-glass. Unscrewing the two last draws of this telescope the end of the second is applied to the eye-piece of the telescope of which the power is to be measured, and the first draw pushed in till the image of the object-glass comes sharp upon the mother-of-pearl. The diameter of the image is thus given in divisions on the mother-of-pearl, the value of which, in hundredths of an inch, has been previously ascertained. —_—— W. R. Notaris on Mosses WITH reference to the notice of De Notaris’ book on Mosses, Iam informed by Dr. Dickie that the genus Haébrodon was dis- covered in Great Britain several years ago by the late Mr. McKin- lay, of Glasgow, and that he had received from Mr. Wilson about two years ago from his district Covomitrium julianum. Dr. Dickie sends specimens of Hadbrodon Notarisii gathered at Killin by Dr. Stirton. M. J. BERKELEY *," In the review referred to, Prof. De Notaris was erro- neously described as of Geneva, instead of Genoa.—Ep, N, RC: “Newspaper Science” My attention has just been called to a letter from Mr. David Forbes which appears in NATURE, Sept. 21, under the head “Newspaper Science,” and in which that gentleman, writing from Boulogne, pathetically describes the emotions with which he read a recent “article” in the Glode on ‘* Krupp’s” Gun-manufactory at Essen. I need hardly say how deeply I deplore the shock which I have unwittingly been the agent of inflicting on your distinguished correspondent. It will be some small satisfaction if you will allow me to express the hope that the “ desired result ” of Mr. Forbes’s ‘‘ reluctant ” compliance with the advice of his “ medical man,” and most wise resolve “ to eschew every- thing scientific for the next few weeks at least, in order to recruit before the winter labours commenced,” may not be utterly de- feated by the perusal of ‘‘a specimen of English scientific opinion,” of which Iam unhappily the author. It would be a terrible reflection indeed, that a stupid error on my part had, perhaps, imperilled the accuracy and success of Mr. Forbes’s ‘winter labours.” The blunder (or rather blunders) occurred as follows :—I, too, was ‘‘knocked up with work,” but being myself a ‘‘medical man” naturally only in part carried out my own prescription. I would, for the sake of Mr. Forbes, and the credit of ‘* English scientific opinion” in the estimation of his ‘‘ French acquaintance,” I had exercised a little more dis- cretion, However, unfortunately, I stumbled on the Krupp factory, and all forgetful of my dilapidated mental condition, wrote a note-paragraph (I never write ‘‘articles’’), which I vainly imagined might have been innocent and interesting. It is not always possible to compress even the manuscript necessary for a paragraph on toa single sheet of paper, and I grieve to say that after my paper had passed the editorial eye three words 7 } , Oct. 5, 1871] NATURE 447 forming the connecting link of a sentence must have been dropped. What I intended to say, without the slightest notion of giving a ‘‘technical or scientific” opinion, was, ‘‘ The iron is alloyed ix crucibles, formed with certain clays and a preparation of plumbago.” The words italicised disappeared in some mys- terious way. The next of my idiotic sentences goes on to talk about the crucibles, or ‘‘crveusets,” as, to the great scandal of Mr. Forbes, I ventured to call them. If I could stop here, an humble apology for my fault might, perhaps, serve my purpose, but, alas! I have more to answer for. Vaguely dreaming of the foot-pound, I actually zwrote kilometre for kilogyammetre, when _ speaking of the power of the new steam hammer ; and, worst of all, I also WROTE ‘‘ Sheffield Gun Metal.” Can I ever hope to be forgiven when thus I write myself down an ass? MEDICus P.S. —As to the question whether Krupp invented the process employed at his factory, I offer no opinion “scientific” or ordinary, I only repeat the impression which prevails. | © \ FURTHER NOTES ON CERATODUS INCE the article on Ceratodus (published in NATURE, Nos. 99 and 100), was written I have examined a mature female, transmitted, with other examples, by the Trustees of the Sydney Museum tothe National Collection, and am enabled to make the following additions :— 1. The oviduct in its developed conditions is, with re- gard to its internal structure, surprisingly similar to that of Menopoma. 2. The ova are expelled through the oviduct, and not through the peritoneal slits ; they receive in the oviduct a coating of an albuminous substance as in Batrachians. 3. The caudal termination of the vertebral column is subject to individual variation. In one example the neural and hzemal elements are continued far beyond the noto- chord, and are confluent into a tapering band, which is segmented, as is the case in some specimens of Dzpferus or Crenodus. ALBERT GUNTHER ON THE BENDING OF GLACIER ICE * R. MATTHEWS and Mr. Froude had supported long rectangles of ordinary ice at the two ends, weighted them in the centre, and thus caused them to bend. The ice employed, if I recollect right, was of a temperature some degrees below the freezing point, andin my little Alpine book recently published I expressed a hope that similar experiments might be made with glacier ice. I have been trying my hand at such experiments. The ice first em- ployed was from the end of the Morteratsch Glacier, and when cut appeared clear and continuous. A little expo- sure, however, showed it to be disintegrated, being com- posed of those curious jointed polyhedra into which glacier ice generally resolves itself when yielding to warmth. Still, when properly supported and weighted, a long stout rectangle of such ice showed, after twelve hours, signs of bending. I afterwards resorted to the ice of the sand cones, which, as you know, is unusually firm. From it rectangles were taken from three to four feet long, about six inches wide, and four inches deep. Supported and weighted for a considerable time, no satisfactory evidence of bending appeared ;| the bars broke before any decided bending took place. Smaller bars were then employed. Two of these were placed across the mouth of an open square box, their ends being supported by the sides of the box. They formed a cross, and a clear interval of at least an eighth of an inch existed between them where they crossed. The upper one was carefully weighted with a block of ice; after two hours it had sunk down, and * The following is an extract from a note addressed to Prof. Hirst, and sent from Pontresina in the hope that it would reach Edinburgh in sufficient time to be communicated to Section A of the British Association. It was a few hours too late.—J, T. was found frozen to the under one. They were then separated, and one of them was allowed to remain sup- ported at the ends and weighted by ice at the middle. In afew hours it had bent into a curve, the versed sine of which from a chord uniting the two ends was, at least, two inches. In fact, when the rectangles are thin, and the weight carefully laid on, flexure commences very soon, and may by cautious manipulation be rendered very con- siderable. I think Mr. Froude told me that in his experiment the molecules were “in torture,’ and that they in great part recovered their positions when the weight was removed. In the foregoing experiments the flexure was permanent. I tried to bend the rectangle just referred to back again by reversing its position and weighting it with the same block of ice. But whether owing to my want of delicacy in putting on the weight, or through the intrinsic brittleness of the substance itself, it snapped sharply asunder. I left in your hands when quitting London an exceed- ingly interesting paper by Prof. Bianconi, in which are figured the results of various experiments on the bending of, I think, lake ice. The foregoing experiments on glacier ice confirm his results. August 4 JOHN TYNDALL I may add that various experiments were subsequently made, and a means discovered of rendering the bending very speedily visible. I hope before long to return to the subject.—J. T., September 28 THE MIGRATION OF QUAIL dpe fact of this little bird having visited England this year in such numbers appears to have attracted the attention of naturalists as well as sportsmen. In the columns of the /7e/d may be found a census giving parti- culars of this migration. And it will appear a curious coincidence when I mention that there has been here a greater migration of quail this year than ever remembered before. Where they conie from is somewhat mysterious. They have been shot in hundreds in some paddocks, and found as numerous as ever in ten days. I can only account for it by stating that it has been a most remark- able year for grass, and consequently cover was good ; and this does not appear conclusive, for the grass has been good all over the country for hundreds of miles towards the north, from which direction some appear to think they come. They are found generally in paddocks, where thistles grow. Can there be any common cause affecting these facts ? Melbourne, August 10 AUSTRAL-ALPINE FARDIN DESSAI, ALGER i 1832 the then French Government conceived the idea of forming near the town of Algiers a botanical garden, in which all plants likely to be easily grown in Algeria, and which might be useful either for their orna- mentation, or from their economic value, should be kept for distribution or for sale. A portion of ground situated between the sea and the public road, and occupying the place of an old ama or marsh, was selected for this purpose, which is about two miles from the town. In 1867 the Emperor of the French conceded this establishment to the “Société Générale Algérienne,” under whose auspices, but under the direct superintendence of M. Auguste Riviére, the gardens at present are. In addition to the level swamp, the gardens now also occupy the slope of a low hill on the opposite side of the road. The level ground is laid out in alleys which open out into a circular boulevard which surrounds the whole garden. Carriages are admitted to the circular drive only, foot passengers to the cross walks. A stream of fresh water runs through the grounds, forming in one place a small lake. 448 NATURE [ Oct. 5, 1871 One fresh from the Botanical Gardens of Europe is astonished at every step taken in the Gardens by the wondrous vegetation which is shown by all the semi- tropical plants. Descending a few steps from the circular drive, a great palm avenue is entered. This avenue was planted in 1847, and is formed of about eighty trees of the date palm, nearly as many of the Latanza Borbonica, and about 150 of the dragon’s blood tree (Dvacena draco). The avenue is about ten yards wide, and between every two of the date palms there are two of the dragon’s blood tree and one Latania. It terminates ina clump of palm trees which are planted almost to the border of the sea, When it is borne in mind that the date palms are from twenty to fifty feet high, the Latanias averaging about twelve, and the Dracenas about eight feet in height, the general effect of this splendid avenue may be imagined, All the trees were in December last in full flower or fruit, the golden trusses of the date palm contrasting well with the more brightly-coloured clusters of Latania berries. It would require more space than is at our disposal to describe the contents of all the various small avenues that branch off from the main one. The most remarkable smaller avenues are, perhaps, the one formed of bamboo (Bambusaarundinacea), planted in 1863, and forming an immense mass of foliage, the stems support- ing which are from forty to fifty feethigh, and that formed of about 100 plants of Chamarops excelsa, each about ten feet in height. But remarkable as are these charming sub- tropical alleys, the visitor is more than surprised when on going towards the portion of the garden where the plants are grouped somewhat according to their natural orders, he finds specimens fifteen feet high of Carxyota urens and C. Cumingii, growing with vigour and covered with fruit; of Oreodoxa regia, from Cuba; several plants upwards of twenty-five feet in height; and a plant of Fubea spectabilis, which is twelve feet high ; and then just a few steps more and a parterre alloted to the natural family of the Musaceze comes to view. As both the plantain and banana are grown in large quantities for their fruit in another portion of the grounds, the family is here chiefly represented by such genera as Strelitzia and Ravenalia. Magnificent specimens of the latter genus, with stems nine to ten feet high, exhibited great combs of flowers. Weare not aware if the Travel- ler’s tree has flowered in Europe, and we were not pre- pared to find it in full flower in Algiers. It has not, however, matured its fruit in this garden. Near this grand parterre stood another with many fine specimens of Yucca, also a magnificent plot of Aralias, A. papyrifera, in full fruit and very handsome; the fine 4. /eplophylla and A. premorsa, thickly covered with spines, and the very ornamental A. farinzfera; and then one’s attention is caught bya large tree (Carolinea macrocarpa) from Brazil, with a couple of dozen of its fruit, each as big as a cocoa nut; by a small forest of Axona cherimolia in full fruit, which is nearly as good as that of the closely related species which yields the custard apple. Near these is an immense tree some thirty feet in height, covered with fruit of the Avocado pear (Persea eralissima) ; and at its feet isa quantity of guava trees (Pisidium Cattleyanum) crowded with its perfectly ripe, large, pear-shaped, golden fruit. trees, and forming numerous and never-ending festoons, were some specimens of Cacti, chiefly species of Cereus. Some of these were of great size, and one specimen, which had completely strangled a plantain tree some twenty-five feet, was said to have been covered in the autumn with 600 to 700 flowers. It must have beena sight worth a long pilgrimage to see. Enough has been said to show what a surprising number of semi-tropical fruits luxuriate in the beds of this well-watered garden, and we might add many well-known vegetables to the list, as sweet batat, yam, papaw; but all this while we have been writing of Growing up into the | the great level portion of the garden. Outside of this, and on the other side of the roadway, there is a small hill, two or three hundred feet in height, which slopes towards the garden and the sea, and is traversed by several ascending walks. This is the New Holland district of the garden, and certainly not the least interesting portion of it. In one section of it are different species of Acacia, many of them large trees, twenty to twenty-five feet in height. Of the Proteacez there were magnificent trees ; of the genera Banksia, Hakea,and Grevillea, the collection of species was very large, all of them just bursting intomasses of bloom. The most important of the trees growing in this corner of the hill was probably Eucalyptus globulus, of which some trees, now about forty feet in height and over four feet ard a half in circumference, were planted in 1862, and were then only a few inches high, Young well-established seedlings, of about ten inches in height, are sold for 20s. a hundred, and large numbers of them have been planted from time to time throughout Algeria by the French Go- vernment. This species grows in Algeria with most sur- prising rapidity, under very favourable circumstances growing eighteen to nineteen inches in height each — month, Its wood appears to be hard, close in the grain, and it is largely used in the construction of quays, bridges, and railways. This tree seems to do so well on the southern side of the Mediterranean that we think its culture ought to be successfully attempted in the south of Spain, in Sardinia, in Sicily, and the southern parts of Italy. In districts subject to heavy winds it requires for some years—owing to its rapid growth—some protection, but in places sufficiently warm for it, it ought to repay well for any little extra care it might be found to need. Among the few species that we noticed that did not succeed in these gardens, we may mention the Cedrus deodara; but Casuarina equisetifolia was flourishing, and one tree of Avaucaria excelsa was about sixty feet in height, and measuring a little over nine feet in circum- ference at its base. The object of the Society in keeping up these Gardens is, as we said, to introduce into Algeria all useful and ornamental plants likely to grow there. In addition they grow enormous quantities of young palms and other ornamental plants for exportation to Europe, and some few plants interesting to the botanist for exchange with other establishments. Ina place so favoured by nature and so easily accessible to Europe, it would be, we venture to think, well worth the while of the director of these Gardens to considerably enlarge the last portion of the Society’s design. How many tropical plants are yet unknown to the large collectors of Europe, and what a vast percentage of deaths occur among the collections sent from the tropics at any season of the year to our shores! But with Gardens like these at Algeria, situated on the sunny side of the Mediterranean, to act as a half- way house, the resources of the Botanical Gardens or establishments of the North would be indefinitely in- creased. Another purpose for which these Gardens might be made most useful is for forming a collection of speci- mens of plants or fruits of economic interest. Many of the fruits, stems, &c., which ripen in these Gardens as easily as cherries or potatoes with us, are not to be seen in some botanical collections, and are not, in Europe at least, to be purchased. How gladly would some botanist buy such as we here refer to if they were on sale, say at the depdt of the Algerian Society in Paris ; and the expense of putting up such in salt and water would be a mere nothing. The same remarks would apply in many cases to portions of the roots of remarkable genera, and also to flowers. In calling attention to these Gardens, we venture to suggest these hints to their well-known director, and also to that indefatigable botanist who, more than any other, now represents science in connection with the Algerian Society, Prof. Durando of Algiers. E. P. W. Oct. 5, 1871 | THE TEMPERATURE OF THE SUN HE increase of the volume of atmospheric air, under constant pressure, being directly proportional to the increment of temperature, while the coefficient of expan- sion is 0'00203 for 1° of Fahrenheit, it will be seen that a temperature of 3,272,000° Fah. communicated to the I 664 of the existing density. Accordingly, if we assume that the height of our atmosphere is only 42 miles, the eleva- tion of temperature mentioned would cause an expansion increasing its height to 6643 x 42 = 279,006 miles. This calculation, it should be observed, takes no cegnizance of the diminution of the earth’s attraction at great altitudes, which, if taken into account, would considerably increase the estimated height. Let us now suppose the atmosphere of the sun to be replaced by a medium similar to the terrestrial atmosphere raised to the temperature of 3,272,000°, and containing the same quantity of matter as the terrestrial atmosphere for corresponding area. Evi- dently the attraction of the sun’s mass would under these conditions augment the density and weight of the supposed atmosphere nearly in the ratio of 279 : 1; hence its 279,006 ar terrestrial atmosphere would reduce its density to height would be reduced to = 10,000 miles, But if the atmosphere thus increased in density by the sun’s superior attraction consisted of a compound gas princi- pally hydrogen, say 1°4 times heavier than pure hydrogen, the height would be 10 X 10,000 = 100,000 miles. The pressure exerted by this supposed atmosphere at the surface of the photosphere would obviously be 14°7 X 2779 = 410 pounds per square inch, nearly. Unless, therefore, the depth greatly exceeds 100,000 miles, and unless it can be shown that the mean temperature is less than 3,272,000° Fah., the important conclusion must be ac- cepted that the solar atmosphere contains so small a quantity of matter that notwithstanding the great depth it will offer only an insignificant resistance to the pas- sage of the solar rays. Now, the assumed mean tempe- rature, 3,272;000°, so far from being too high, will be found to be considerably underrated. It will be recollected that the temperature at the surface of the photosphere, deter- mined by the ascertained intensity of solar radiation at the boundary of the earth’s atmosphere, somewhat exceeds 4,035,000°. Consequently, as the diminution of intensity caused by the dispersion of the rays, will be inversely as the convex areas of the photosphere and the sphere formed by the boundary of the solar envelope, viz., 1°52 ; 1, the temperature at the said boundary will be 4,035,000° 1°52 The true mean, therefore, will be 3,344,800’, instead of ,272,000° Fah., a difference which leads irresistibly to the inference that, either the solar atmosphere is more than 100,000 miles in depth, or it contains less matter than the terrestrial atmosphere, for corresponding area. It will be demonstrated hereafter that the retardation of the rays pro- jected from the border of the photosphere consequent on the increased depth of the solar atmosphere (supposed to be the main cause of the observed diminution of energy near the sun’s limb), cannot appreciably diminish the intensity of the radiant heat. The ratio of diminution of the density of the gases composing the solar atmosphere at succeeding altitudes, is represented by Fig. 5, in which the length of the ordinates of the curve a @ 0 shows the degree of tenuity at definite points above the photosphere. This curve has been constructed agreeably to the theory that the densities at different altitudes, or what amountstothe same, the weight of the masses incumbent at succeeding points, decreases in geometrical progression as the height above the base increases in arithmetrical progression. The vertical line @ c has been divided into 42 equal parts, in order to facilitate comparisons with the terrestrial = 2,654,600° NATURE 449 atmosphere, the relative density of which, at corre- sponding heights, is obviously as correctly repre- sented by this diagram as that of the solar atmo- sphere. It is true that, owing to the greater height of the latter compared with the attractive force of the sun’s mass, the upper strata of the terrestrial atmo- sphere will be relatively more powerfully attracted than the upper strata of the vastly deeper solar atmosphere. The ordinates of the curve a @ 6 will therefore not repre- sent the density quite correctly in both cases. The dis- crepancy, however, resulting from the relatively inferior attraction of the sun’s mass at the boundary of its atmo- sphere, will be very nearly neutralised by the increased density towards that boundary, consequent on the great reduction of temperature—fully 1,380,000° Fah.—caused by the dispersion of the solar rays before entering space. It may be well to add that, in representing the relative height and pressure of the terrestrial atmosphere, a ¢ in our diagram indicates forty-two miles, while 4 c indicates a pressure of 14°7 pounds per square inch; and that in representing the solar atmosphere, @ ¢ indicates 100,000 miles and 4 ¢ 410 pounds per square inch. Bearing in mind the high temperature and small specific gravity, the extreme tenuity in the higher regions of the solar atmo- sphere will be comprehended by mere inspection of our diagram. Already midway towards the assumed boundary, the density of the solar atmosphere is so far reduced that it contains only ;)555 of the quantity of matter contained in an equal volume of atmosphere at the surface of the earth. Let us now consider the diminution of intensity occa- sioned by the increased depth through which the heat rays pass which are projected from the receding surface of the photosphere. Fig. 6 represents the sun and its atmosphere extending j of the semi-diameter of the photosphere, 77 /, cg, &c., &c., being the heat rays projected towards the earth. The depth of the solar atmosphere at a distance of 32 of the radius from the centre of the luminary, will be seen to be only 2’0012 greater than the ver- tical depth. Now, careful actinometer observations enables us to demonstrate that when the zenith distance is under 60°, the radiant energy of the sun’s rays in pass- ing through the terrestrial atmosphere is very nearly in the inverse ratio of the cube root of the depth penetrated (see the previously published table). The increase of epth resulting from atmospheric refraction, it may be well to observe, is too small at moderate zenith distances to call for correction ; nor does the atmospheric density vary sufficiently during bright sunshine to affect the radiant intensity appreciably. The table adverted to shows that an increase of the sun’s zenith distance of 5’ in 60° occasions a diminution of temperature hardly amounting to 0'044° Fah. Adopting the same rate of retardation for the solar atmosphere as that observed in the terrestrial atmosphere, it will be found that the loss of radiant energy of the solar rays at x of the radius from the border of the photosphere will be only 1°26 greater than at its centre. According to the researches of Secchi and others, the loss is fully three times greater than that established by the rate of diminution which we have adopted. This circum- stance, in connection with the extreme tenuity of the solar atmosphere, rendering any considerable loss improbable, points to the fact that some other agency than increased depth is the true cause of the diminution of the tempera- ture under consideration. Accordingly, the writer some time ago instituted a series of experiments with incan- descent cast-iron spheres, for the purpose of ascertaining practically if the reduction of temperature could be accounted for solely on the ground that the obliquity of the rays diminishes their energy. Previous experiments had demonstrated that the accepted doctrine is quite in- correct, which teaches that heat rays emanating from the surface of incandescent radiators are projected with equal energy in all directions. It was, found during those NATURE [ Oct. 5, 1871 a experiments that the ratio of diminution of radiant heat transmitted to a stationary thermometer by an incan- descent circular disc of cast-iron, turning on appropriate journals, is directly proportional to the sines of the angles formed by the face of the disc and lines drawn to the centre of the bulb of the stationary thermometer. It was clearly shown that those heat rays only which are projected at right angles to the face of the incandescent radiator, transmit maximum energy. The important bearing of this fact with reference to temperature tran- smitted by the heat rays of the photosphere from points near the border, is self-evident. The small angle formed by the ray ¢g, Fig. 6, and the tangent c f of the sur- face of the photosphere at c, explains satisfactorily why the radiant heat at a distance of .1, of the radius from the sun’s border, is considerably less than at the centre. It will be perceived that the angle fc @ diminishes very rapidly as the border of the photosphere is approached, and that when the extreme point is reached, the radiant ab=10000 cd=2?0012 heat transmitted would be infinitesimal if the irregularity ct the supece of the photosphere did not present a series of incline anes capable of projecting hez i direct line with El. e Benne ee ae Laplace, in the famous demonstration by which he proves that ‘‘if the sun were stripped of its atmosphere it would appear twelve times as luminous” (Mecanique céleste, tom iv., pp. 284—288), commits the grave mis- take of assuming that all rays emanating from a radiant surface possess equal energy. This assumption leads him further to the erroneous conclusion that the rays pro- jected from the retreating surface of the sun near the limb, act as rays from a lens, being crowded together in consequence of the obliquity of the radiant surface thereby, he supposes, acquiring increased intensity — hence the monstrous assertion of the great mathematician that, but for the interference of the solar atmosphere the luminosity would be eleven times more intense. ; The important question whether the solar atmosphere possesses any appreciable radiant power, and whether the od ‘ e Oct. 5, 1871 | NATURE 451 high temperaturé of the attenuated matter of which it is composed exercises any marked influence on the sun’s _ radiant energy, may unquestionably be answered practi- cally. An investigation, based on the expedient of con- centrating the heat rays of the chromosphere by means of a parabolic’ reflector, has been conducted by the writer for some time. The method adopted is such that only the heat rays, if such there be, from the chromosphere and exterior solar envelope, are reflected ; while the rays from the photosphere are effectually shut out. Fig. 1 shows the general arrangement; /’ a’ represents the photosphere, and ¢’ / the boundary of the surrounding atmosphere; #/Zis a circular screen exactly 10 inches in diameter, placed 53'76 inches above the base line ao. This distance obviously varies considerably with the seasons. Assuming that the investigation takes place when the sun subtends an angle of 32’ 1”, the screen £ /, if placed at the distance mentioned, will throw a shadow, fo, exactly 9°5 inches diameter; hence objects in the plane zo placed ‘within fa, will be effectually shut out from the rays projected by the photosphere, while they will be fully exposed to the rays, if any, emanating from the chromosphere and outer strata of the solar envelope. It should be observed that, owing to diffraction in con- nection with the extreme feebleness of the sun’s rays projected from the border, the shadow thrown by the screen # / extends considerably beyond the circular area defined by fo. Fig. 3 exhibits a /w// stze segment of this shadow as it appears round /a, the section coloured black in Fig. 2 being a photometric representation of the strength of the said shadow from /to a. Special attention is called to this photometric representation, as it shows that ob- jects placed within the circular area defined by fo are absolutely screened from the rays of the photosphere. It is evident that a parabolic reflector of proper size placed immediately below fo, will concentrate the radiant heat, if any, transmitted by the rays /_/ and ¢’ ¢ and theinter- mediate rays. Fig. 4 represents a section of the parabolic relector which has been employed during the investiga- tio. It consists of a solid wrought-iron ring lined with silvr on the inside, turned to exact form and highly pol'shed. An annular plate 9°5 inches internal diameter, is secured to the top of the wrought iron ring to prevent efiectually any rays from the photosphere reaching the reflector. The prolongation of the rays /’ f/-g’g and hn-a'oare shown by dotted lines f, ¢ and 7, 0; also the reflected rays directed towards the bulb of the focal thermometer, marked respectively /’, 0’ and g’, 7’. The investigation not being yet concluded, the following brief account is deemed sufficient at present. Turning the reflector towards the sun, without applying the screen & 1, a narrow zone of dazzling white light is produced on the black bulb of the focal thermometer, the mercurial column commencing to rise the moment the rays strike the reflecting surface. With a perfectly clear sky, the column during an experiment on August 29, 1871, reached 320° Fah. in thirty-five seconds. The screen #7 being applied, after cooling the thermo- meter, a zone of feeble grey light appeared on the black bulb nearly as wide as the oneproduced by the rays from the photosphere, but situated somewhat lower. The column of the focal thermometer, however, remained stationary, excepting the oscillation which always takes place when a thermometer is subjected to the influence of the currents of air unavoidable in a place exposed to a powerful sun. It is proper to remark that owing to the stated oscillation, it cannot be positively asserted that there was no heating whatever pro- duced by the reflection and concentration of the rays which formed the zone of grey light adverted to. But the recorded oscillations prove absolutely that the heating did not exceed 0'5° Fab. Assuming that such a temperature was actually produced by the reflected concentrated heat emanating from the solar envelope, the following calcula- | tion will show that the energy thereby established is too insignificant to exercise any appreciable influence on the sun’s radiant power. Theoretically, the temperature trans- mitted to the bulb of the focal thermometer by the rays Jf and o, Fig. 4, is inversely as the foreshortened illumi- nated area of the reflector to the zone of light produced on the bulb. Obviously these areas bear nearly the same relation to each other as the squares of /’ or o’ to the square of the radius of the bulb Z. The length of / being 4'77in., while the radius of the bulb is o'125in. ; calcula- tion shows that the temperature transmitted by the ray * would be increased 1,456 times if the reflector did not absorb any heat. Allowing that 0:72 of the heat is re- flected, the augmentation of intensity by concentration will amount to 0°72 X 1,456 = 1,048 times the tempera- ture transmitted by the rays fand 0. The records of the oscillations of the mercurial column during the experi- ments show, as stated, that the temperature resulting from concentration cannot exceed 0'5°, hence the temperature transmitted by the rays emanating from the heated matter I 2 X 1084 o'00047° Fah. The observations having been made when the sun’s zenith distance was 32° 15’, a correction for loss occasioned by retardation amounting to 0°26 will, however, be necessary. This correction being made, it will be found that the heat actually transmitted by the rays from the solar envelope during the experiment of August 29, did not exceed 0'00059° Fah., a fact which completely dis- poses of Secchi’s remarkable assumption that the high temperature of the photosphere is owing to the “ radia- tion received from all the transparent strata of the solar envelope” (see his letter to NATURE, published June 1, 1871). But we are not discussing the cause ; the degree of temperature at the surface of the photosphere is the problem to be solved. It was stated in the previous article that the radiant power of incandescent metals and metals coated with lamp-black and maintained at boiling heat, is directly proportional to the temperature of the radiator. A series of experiments with flames just concluded, proves posi- tively that under similar conditions a given area of flame of uniform intensity transmits the same temperature as incandescent cast-iron. Secchi’s assertion, therefore, that the photosphere, if composed of incandescent gases, “may have a very high temperature and yet radiate but very little,” is wholly untenable. The diminution of in- tensity attending the passage of the heat rays from the photosphere through the surrounding atmosphere, is the only point which can materially affect the question of temperature. We have shown that on a given area, the quantity of matter {contained in the solar at- mosphere cannot greatly exceed that of the terrestrial atmosphere; hence the retardation cannot be great. True, the depth of the solar envelope is vast compared with that of the earth’s atmosphere, but distance fer se does not affect the propagation of radiant heat. Admitting, however, the retardation to be as the cube root of the depth—the ratio observed in the terrestrial atmosphere—--- it will be found that the loss of energy produced by re- tardation of the heat rays is not important. The solar atmosphere being a = 2381 times deeper than the of the solar envelope will only amount to earth’s atmosphere, the retardation caused by the former will be 13°3 times greater than that of the terrestrial at- mosphere, which, as we know, diminishes the radiant in- tensity 17°64° on the ecliptic. Accordingly we are justified in asserting that 13°3 xX 17°64° = 234 6° Fah. will be the greatest possible diminution of temperature caused by the retarding influence of the matter composing the solar envelope. The admission in the previous article, that the retardation under consideration might be oor, was based on the extreme assumption that the obstruction is directly 452 proportional to the depth of the sun’s atmosphere. At first sight the loss of 234°6° appears to be a trifling reduction of energy ; yet if we consider the mechanical equivalent which it represents, we cannot doubt its adequacy to supply the motive force expended in pro- ducing the observed movement of the attenuated matter within the solar atmosphere. Dividing the temperature of the photosphere, 4,035,000°, by 234°6, it will be found that the computed, apparently insignificant, retardation exceeds of the entire dynamic energy developed by I 17,000 the sun—an amount fully 15,500 times greater than the solar energy transmitted to all the planets of our system ! Making due allowance for the extreme attenuation, and the small quantity of matter to be moved, the most ex- aggerated computation of the probable expenditure of mechanical energy called for in keeping up the currents of the solar atmosphere, fails to establish an amount at all equal to that capable of being generated by utilising 234° of the radiant heat emanating from the photosphere. In view of the foregoing statements and the demonstra- tions contained in the previous article on solar heat, we cannot consistently refuse to accept the conclusion, that the temperature at the surface of the photosphere is very nearly 4,036,000° Fah, J. ERICSSON THE Regius Professor of Physic at Cambridge (Dr. Bond) has issued a schedule of lectures on subjects connected with the study of medicine which will be delivered during the Academical year 1871-2. The following are the arrangements for this Term : Prof. Liveing will lecture on practical chemistry on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays, at I P.M., commencing October 10. The Linacre lecturer will deliver a course of medical clinical lectures on Fridays, at 10 A.M., commencing October 13. The Professor of Anatomy (Dr. Humphry) will lecture on practical anatomy on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, at 6 P.M, commencing October 16. Mr. C. Lestourgeon, M.4., will on October 19 commence a course of surgical clinical lectures, and will continue the same on each Thursday during Term, at 11 A.M. Anatomy and Physiology will be the subject of a course by the Professor of Anatomy, commencing October 21, at 1 P.M., and continued on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays at the same hour. The Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy (Mr. A. Newton) will lecture on those subjects on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, at I P.M., commencing October 23. Special departments in chemistry will be the subject of lectures by the professor of that faculty on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays at noon, commencing October 26. Practical histology will form a separate course under the superintendence of Dr. Humphry, commencing October 28 at 11.30 A.M., and continued each succeeding Saturday until its completion. TuE Franklin Institute of Philadelphia announces the follow- ing synopsis of lectures for 1871-72. The regular course will comprise a series of forty lectures, divided as follows :—1. ‘‘On Physics and Mechanics,” by John G, Moore, M.S. 2. “On General Physics and Acoustics,” by. Prof. Edwin J. Houston. 3. “On Guns, Gunpowder, and Projectiles,” by Lieut. C. E. Dutton. 4. ‘‘Onthe Chemistry of the Earth and of the Vital Process in Animals and Plants,” by Prof. Samuel B. Howell, M.D. 5. ‘On the History of Alchemy,” by William H. Wahl, Ph.D. 6. ‘*On the Metallurgy of Iron and Steel,” by Thos. M. Brown, Ph.D. Besides the lectures enumerated, the Insti- tute has arranged with a number of eminent lecturers for the delivery of a popular course of scientific subjects, and it is believed that the plan here indicated, of offering a series of lec- tures brilliantly and largely illustrated, will go far towards attract- ing the attention and interest of the public to these most im- portant subjects. NATURE [ Océ. 5, 1871 THE Managers of the London Institution, Finsbury Circus, announce the following programme of lecture arrangements for the coming season. ‘The courses of educational lectures will be as follows :—First course, commencing Monday, October 30: Eight lectures ‘‘ On Elementary Physiology,” by Prof. Huxley. Second Course, commencing Monday, January 15, 1872: Eight Lectures ‘On Elementary Chemistry,” by Prof. Odling. Third Course, commencing Monday, March 11, 1872: Six lectures “‘On Elementary Music,” by Prof. Ella, director of the Musical Union. Fourth Course, commencing Monday, April 29, 1872: Six Lectures ‘‘On Elementary Botany ; with special reference to the Classification of Plants,” by Prof. Bentley. A Course of Four Lectures, adapted to a juvenile auditory, ‘‘On the Philosophy of Magic,” by Mr. J. C. Brough, principal librarian in the London Institution, will be commenced on Thursday, December 21. A Course of Two Lectures ‘‘On Science and Commerce ; illustrated by the Raw Materials of our Manufac- tures,” by Mr. P. L. Simmonds, will be commenced on Thursday, November 23. This course will be illustrated by a large collec- tion of beautiful and interesting specimens of animal and vege- table products. The following lectures will probably be de- livered at the Conversazioni of the coming season :— “ The Teachings of the Spectroscope,” by Dr. William Huggins ; ‘“‘The Homing, or Carrier Pigeon : its Natural History, Train- ing, and Exploits,” by Mr. W. B. Tegetmeier ; ‘‘ The Sun,” by Mr. J. Norman Lockyer; ‘‘ Two Years’ Gleanings in Syria and Palestine,” by Captain Richard F, Burton; ‘‘The Haunts of Old Londoners,” by Mr. Thomas Archer ; ‘On Colour,”’ by Prof, Barff. The evening class for elementary chemical analysis will commence work, under the direction of Prof. H. E. Arm- strong, on Tuesday, November 7. In his address at the recent opening of the new Mechanics’ Institute at Bradford, Mr. W. E. Forster, M.P., remarked that when institutions of this kind were first established they were intended to give to mechanics scientific knowledge ; but it was discovered that that was impossible, except in rare cases, because mechanics had no elementrary teaching on which could be grounded scientific knowledge, and consequently these institutes were obliged to be turned very much into elementary schools and night schools, rather than into the teaching of science and higher literature, which we had hoped to give to our mechanics, A conviction, however, is now gaining ground that an essential portion of this elementary teaching consists of instruction in the rudiments of science, which would be of material advantage to none more than to the working classes. THE open Scholarship in Natural Science, established this year at St. Mary’s Hospital, has been gained by Mr. E. J. Ed- wards. This Scholarship is worth 40/. a year for three years. The Exhibition of 20/7, awarded at the same time, has been gained by Mr. Giles. Both gentlemen are students at the University of London. Tne Ettles Scholarship at the University of Edinburgh, which is annually awarded to the most distinguished graduate, has been given to Dr. Urban Pritchard, a student of King’s College, London. Dr. Pritchard also gained a gold medal for original researches on the structure of the organ of Corti, conducted by him in the physiological laboratory of King’s College. THE vacancy in the Botanical Department of the British Mseuum, caused by the promotion of Mr. Carruthers, has been filled by the appointment of Mr, James Britten, late assistant in the Royal Herbarium, Kew. Mr. RoBERT ROUTLEDGE, a scientific graduate in honours of the University of London, has been appointed conductor of the classes in Chemistry and Physical Science at the Manchester Mechanics’ Institute. These-classes are intended to encourage technical education among the working classes, and consist of dt Oct. 5, 1871] NATURE 453 courses on applied mechanics, steam and the steam-engines, acoustics, light and heat, magnetism and electricity, inorganic chemistry, and practical chemistry, held in the evening, and fully illustrated by experiments, diagrams, and models. The fees for members of the institution are, with the exception of the class of Practical Chemistry, one shilling per session, WE regret to hear from German advices, of the death of Prof. Schweigger-Seidel, of Leipzig, assistant Professor in Histo- logy to Prof. Ludwig. Prof. Schweigger-Seidel was well known for his careful and accurate researches on several difficult points of histology, especially connected with nerve-endings in the salivary glands, the lymphatic system, and the cornea. THE Geological Magazine records the death, at the age of thirty, of Dr. Georg Justin Carl Urbar. Schloenbach, Professor of Geology of the Polytechnic Institute of Prague. Previously to receiving this appointment, Dr. Schloenbach had resided in Vienna, where he was an active and energetic member of the k. k. Geol. Reich- sanstalt. It was whilst engaged for this Institute, travelling in Servia, that his constitution broke down, under the tremendous fatigue which geologists in these parts have sometimes to undergo. Camping out in what is by no means a tropical latitude brought on rheumatism, and shortly afterwards congestion of the lungs ended his life, after a painful but short illness. Goop progress is reported from the Hartley Institute, Southampton, both the day and evening classes being in a very flourishing condition. During the past year as many as 420 students attended these classes. As Science forms a large pro- portion of the instruction given, there can be but little doubt that the value of the technical knowledge so disseminated will be very great. THE next Actonian Prize or prizes offered by the Royal Insti- tution, will be awarded in the year 1872 to an essay or essays illustrative of the wisdom and beneficence of the Almighty. The subject is ‘*The Theory of the Evolution of Living Things.” The prize fund is two hundred guineas, and it will be awarded as a single prize, or in sums of not less than one hundred guineas each, or withheld altogether, as the managers in their judgment shall think proper. Competitors for the prize are requested to send their essays to the Royal Institution, Albemarle Street, on or before June 30, 1872, addressed to the secretary, and the adjudication will be made by the managers in December 1872. THE First Commissioner of Works and Public Buildings an- nounces that he intends again to distribute this autumn, among the working classes and the poor inhabitants of London, the surplus bedding-out plants in Battersea, Hyde, the Regent’s, and Victoria Parks, and in the Royal Gardens, Kew. If the clergy, school committees, and others interested, will make application to the superintendents of the parks nearest to their respective parishes, or to the director of the Royal Gardens, Kew, in the cases of persons residing in that neighbourhood, they will re- ceive early intimation of the number of plants that can be allotted to each applicant, and of the time and manner of their distribution. A RoyaL Commission has been appointed at Melbourne for Foreign Industries and Forests, the members being the Hon. S. H. Bindon, Chairman ; the Hon. G, W. Cole, M.1..C.; the Hon. R. Hope, M.D., M.L.C.; Mr. R. Ramsay, M.P.; Mr. J. F. Levien, M.P.; Mr. W. Witt, M.P.; Mr. T. M.B. Phillips, M.P.; Mr. F, Von Mueller, C.M.G., F.R.S; Mr, Thos. Black, Presi- dent of the Acclimatisation Society, M.D.; the Rev. J. I. Bleas- dale, D.D.; Mr. Paul de Castella; Mr. C. Hodgkinson; Mr. R. Brough Smith, F.G.S.; Mr. John Hood, The objects of the Commission are to consider and report how far it may be practicable to introduce into that country branches of industry which are known to be common and profitable among the farm- ing population of Continental Europe’; to specify which of such industries are most suitable to the soil, climate, and circum- stances ; to report on the best means of promoting their intro- duction into Victoria; to report how far the labour of persons at the disposal of the State may be advantageously used for that purpose ; to further consider and report on the best means of promoting the culture, extension, and preservation of State forests in Victoria ; and to report on the introduction of such foreign trees as may be suitable to the climate and useful for in- dustrial purposes. THE Government of India have resolved to organise a statis- tical department for the purpose of ascertaining and conserving the internal resources of India, Dr. Hunter will be the first Director-General of this new department. Ir seems hardly credible that no public monument exists in this country to the discoverer of the circulation of the blood This defect is now likely to be remedied, and preliminary steps have been taken at Folkestone, Harvey’s birthplace, to mark the tercentenary of his birth by the erection of a suitable public monument. Ata meeting convened by influential requisition— the Mayor of Folkestone in the chair—Mr. George Eastes, M.B., with whom the movement originates, read an interesting sketch of his life, labour, and character. Dr. Bateman, Dr. Bowles, and other local gentlemen, moyed resolutions appointing a numerous committee, nominating Dr. Bence Jones, F.R.S., treasurer, the Town Clerk of Folkestone and Mr. George Eastes, M.B., London, as honorary secretaries, AT the last sitting of the French Academy, an important paper was read on the results of M. Pasteur’s long and patient researches into the causes and the best mode of extirpating that terrible disease of the silkworm, the Jé/77e. His efforts appear to have been eminently successful in checking the epidemic, by the simple means of destroying the eggs from all moths which can by any. possibility have become tainted. The yield of healthy eggs is now again increasing rapidly in the south of France; and in a few years the disease will probably be all but exterminated. It is hoped that when the National Assembly again meets, some public recognition will be made of M. Pasteur’s eminent services, THE Observer comments with great justice on the dispropor- tion between the emoluments for divinity, and for legal, mathe- matical, and classical instruction at Oxford—‘‘ While the salaries of five legal professors, in the aggregate, reach 2,000/., those of the Latin and Greek professors reach 1,100/.; those of three professors of metaphysics, &c., reach 1,100/,; and those of three mathematical professors reach 1,400/,—showing an average of about 480/. for each professor ; the six professors of divinity enjoy the munificent income of upwards of 1, 000/, a yeareach, with houses into the bargain.” It adds, ‘‘ That Oxford should pay 6,300/. a year for doctrinal divinity, and only 5oo/. a year for Greek, is a quaint anomaly, to say the least.” If, however, our contem- porary had included statistics of the remuneration for science, it would have strengthened its case considerably. THE Fournal of Botany states that a great desideratum in botanical literature is shortly to be supplied. Considerable pro- gress has been made in printing a second edition of Pritzel’s ‘*Thesaurus Literaturze Botanic,” a catalogue of all works ever published in all departments of botanical literature, now twenty years old. WE have received from Mr, Marshall Hall a history of the cruise of the Vora, giving in a pleasant chatty form the main results of the expedition as they would interest the public at large. The more important zoological details will be found in another column, WE are glad to observe that the conductors of the Scottish 454 Naturalist are able to announce that with the next number the size of the magazine will be increased to 40 pages. portant and interesting contributions are announced for 1872 ; and we hope that this useful magazine will meet with the support and circulation that it deserves. Pror. J. LAWRENCE SMITH, in the September number of the American Fournal of Science, gives the following analysis of | the meteorite stone which fell near Searsmont, Maine, on the 21st of May of this year :— Nickeliferous Iron. . . hae 14°63 Magnetic Pyrites. : 5 . . . 2 3°06 Olivine 5 . A : 5 5 4 - 43°04 Bronzite, a hornblende with a little albite or orthoclase and chromeiron . : a 5 Sey Ir is stated that a crater of a new volcano has been formed on the mountain near Bivoria in the province of Girgenti in Sicily. THE cyclone which visited St. Thomas and Antigua on the 21st of August, continued its course towards the Bahamas, and reached Turks Island on the 22nd. The storm occupied about eight hours in travelling from St. Kitts to St. Thomas, 150 miles, and so had a rate of progress of about 18} miles per hour, but from St. Thomas to Turks Island the velocity decreased to about 121 miles per hour, taking about 31 hours to travel 380 miles. A siicut shock of earthquake was felt at Kingston, Jamaica, at 4 P.M. on the 3rd of September. THE star showers of the roth and 11th of August last were attentively watched in America as in Europe. At Sherburne, New York, according to the American Journal of Science, a party of six persons watched between 11.40 and 12, and saw 48 meteors. In the next hour 143 were seen, and in the first eighteen minutes of the next hour 32. The latitude of the radiant point was 14° less than that of the nebula in Perseus. Les Mondes gives the particulars of a remarkable meteorite ob- served at Marseilles by M. Coggia, on the Ist of August. It made its appearance at 10h. 43m., Marseilles mean time, at a point situated near the centre of the triangle formed by ¢ Serpen- tis and @ and 7 Ophiuchi. an easterly direction; at 10h. 45m. 30s. it passed between py, and p. Sagittarii, and at 10h, 46m. 35s. it almost occulted Saturn. The course became then still slower ; at 10h. 49m. 50s. it passed a little below o Sagittarii, and at 1oh. 50m. 40s. south of the star fof the same constellation. At 10h. 52m. 30s. it passed between « and @ Capricorni, where it remained for a moment stationary, then changing its course, it took a northerly direc- tion, leaving at Ioh. 57m. 50s. the star v Aquarii 1° 30’ to the west, and again stopping, at Ioh. 59m. 30s., a little south-west of B Aquarii. Regaining its original easterly direction, it then passed 8 Aquarii, stopping again near ¢ Aquarii, and then fell rapidly in a perpendicular direction near 6 Capricorni, and leaving to the east the almost full moon. peared a little north of @ Pisc. austral. at 11h, 3m. 28s. The diameter, which was at first about 15’, diminished rapidly, was a little over 4’ when it approached Saturn, and finally had scarcely more than the apparent size of Venus. During its perpendicular fall to the horizon, it gave out vivid scintillations. THE Times of India gives the following story :—Advices from Thangara state that at a place about forty miles distant on the hills, a thunderbolt fell on the 22nd of August after a heavy downpour of rain. The ground was literally cut up in conse- quence, and the whole of the huts standing there as well as their inmates were swallowed up in the chasm. Such a catastrophe has never been known in Sind. Some fifty or sixty persons perished. NATURE Several im- | The course was remarkably slow, in | It finally disap- | i [Oct. 5, 1871 On the 11th of July a strong shock of earthquake was felt at Valparaiso in Chile, preceded bya loud rumbling noise. On the 2oth, at II P.M., a very severe shock was felt at Santiago de Chile. THE following account of a hairy family appears in the Zdian } Daily News :—‘‘ The hairy family of Mandalay consists of a woman of about forty-five years of age, a man of twenty, anda girl of eleven, with hair over every part of their faces, forehead, nose, and chin, varying in length from three inches to a foot, and exactly the colour and texture of that onaskye-terrier. The hair of their heads, on the contrary, is just the same as on any ordinary Burman ; they appear to be quite as intelligent as the ordinary Burmans. The father of the woman was the first of the hairy progeny. He married an ordinary Burman woman, and the issue of the union was the present hairy head of the family. She married an ordinary Burman, and has issue, a son about twenty-three years of age, not hairy, and the boy and girl alluded to. The Burmese explanation of the phenomenon is, to say the least, curious, and might possibly possess a special interest for Mr. Darwin. These hairy people would be worth a fortune to the enterprising Barnum if he could get hold of them, but the King will not allow them to go out of his dominions.” SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE FROM AMERICA* HE fourth Annual Report of the Trustees of the Peabody Museum of American Archzeology and Ethnology has made its appearance, and presents a gratifying picture of the progress of this great establishment. The most important addi- tions during the year have been a collection of stone implements from Cape Cod presented by Mr. Samuel H. Russell, a series of duplicates from the Christie collection of London, and specimens obtained from explorations in Tennessee by Mr, Dunning, and in Central America by Dr. Berendt. These are supplemented by numerous single donations of greater or less value. In the course of some critical observations upon the specimens received by the Museum, attention is called to the great value of a collection of crania and human bones obtained from certain mounds in Ken- | tucky by Mr. S. S. Lyon, in the course of explorations made under the combined auspices of the Smithsonian Institution and of the Peabody Museum. The peculiarities of the crania of the American Indians have already been referred to by various writers, but some curious facts are detailed in the report in regard to other portions of the skeleton. Thus the ulna and radius, as compared with the humerus, were found to be much larger in the mound Indians, while the length of the tibia, as compared with the femur, is longer in the whites. In quite an unusual number of Indian skeletons the two fossze at the lower end of the humerus were found to communicate, producing a perforation, This feature, rarely met- with in the white races, occurs quite frequently in the mound remains, while in the black race it ap- pears to be still more frequent. An additional peculiarity of the mound bones consists in the flattening of the tibia, which, until the date of the present publication, has not been recorded as occurring in America, although remains from the dolmens of France, the quaternary drift of Clichy, and the burial caves of Cro-Magnon and Gibraltar, exhibit this in a very marked degree. As regards the pelvis, the breadth in ihe Indian races is found to be less than in the whites, while the three diameters of the brim of the true pelvis are greatest in the Indians. The transverse diameter and the size of the outlet of the pelvis are much the largest in the Indian, while the sacrum is less curved, supplying conditions which in the process of parturition are more favourable to the Indian women.—We have already referred at varioustimes to enterprises on the part of the Peruvian Government in exploring the less-known por- tions of that country, and we find in late South American journals details of a movement looking toward the examination of the regions of the Ucayale and Urubamba. The object of the expedition is to find a port which will open up to the Depart- ment of Cuzco a communication with the main branch of the Amazon, and thence to the Atlantic. The work is to be under the direction of Mr. Tucker, favourably known in similar enter- * Communicated by the Scientific Editor of Harper's Weekly. Oct. 5, 1871] NATURE 455 prises before. The present plan is for Don Raymundo Estrella and another commissioner to start from the port of Illapani in two large canoes, and make their way by the Urubamba to Iquitos, which is the Peruvian naval station on the Amazon, This is for the purpose of obtaining such a knowledge of the rivers as may fit them to serve as pilots to the steamer which is to ascend the Ucayale and explore the Urubamba. They are to make their way back about thirty leagues from Cuzco.— The daily papers of August 29 contain the latest reports from Captain Hall and his steamer Po/avis, in the form of a tele- graphic despatch from the United States ship Congress, dated at St. John’s, Newfoundland, August 28. It will be remembered that this vessel was detailed by the Secretary of the Navy to carry supplies of provisions and coal to be stored in Greenland for the use of the Arctic expedition. She left St. John’s on her outward trip on the 3rd of August, reaching Disco on the roth, passing hundreds of immense icebergs on the way. The Polaris was found at Disco, having reached that place only six days in advance, although she started long before the Congress. Captain Hall and his party were in good spirits, and sanguine of success. The Congress reports that Captain Hall left Disco on the 17th of August for the north, where communication with him will, of course, be uncertain for some time to come, unless the object of the expedition in reaching the north pole can be accomplished in time to return during the present year. It is understood that instead of going by way of Jones Sound, as was the original in- tention, Captain Hall will proceed along the eastern side of Smith Sound. By all accounts the water is much more open than for many years past, there being comparatively little drift- ice to bar progress. To the surprise of the officers of the Congress, the summer temperature of Greenland was found to be quite elevated, and there was a luxuriant vegetation to be seen around the settlement of Disco.— The Panama papers speak of the great success which several whaling ships are now meeting with in the Bay of Panama, quite a number of whales having been killed there every day for some time past. Itis stated that at the time the steamship C/i/e passed Payta, a school of small whales had been there in such abundance that the boats were afraid to leave the harbour.—We have already referred to the hydrographical and other explora- tions in Alaska by Mr. William H. Dall, under the patronage of the Coast Survey; and we now learn that he left San Fran- cisco for the northat the end of August, bound direct to Tiuliuk Harbour, Oonalaska, there to go into winter-quarters. It was his intention, according to his instructions, to make use of every favourable opportunity to survey the vicinity of that port, and in March to proceed westward, sounding and surveying as far as Kamtchatka, and then turning north and eastward to Cape Romanzoff, to return to Oonalaska, and thence proceed home- ward, The vessel obtained for the expedition, although small, is conyeniently adapted for its purpose, and can carry pro- visions for six months ; and it is expected that fresh supplies will be forwarded from San Francisco in March next. The party, besides Mr. Dall, consists of Prof. Harrington, the astronomer, Captain W. G. Hall, sailing-master, with two mates and five men, ON THE STUDY OF SCIENCE IN SCHOOLS * Il. WE now come to the second heading of our discourse, viz.,the objects and aims of the experimental sciences, and the reason why we study them. Now the main object of science is the discovery of new truths, and the destruction of oid errors. The human mind, much as it loves truth, has in the course of ages given birth to an infinite number of fallacies, specially in regard to the operations of Nature. Fallacies handed down by tradition ; fallacies elaborated in the mind of dreamers, and theorists, and believers in magic ; fallacies founded upon inaccurate observation, false experiment, perverted reasoning ; these have ever been the barriers which have most retarded the progress of true science ; and the earlier natural philosophers had to contend against a mass of such pre-existent opinion {and superstition. We can scarcely realise in the present day the amount of superstition which existed among all classes even two hundred years ago, and at an earlier period it was far more prevalent. That same Atha- nasius Kircher, who was before mentioned as the author of a book on light, and who also wrote on magnetism, gives a detailed ac- * Conclusion of a Lecture delivered at Marlborough College as an intro- tion tothe commencment of Science teaching, by G, F. Rodwell. count of an encounter with a dragon in one of the passes of the Alps, and illustrates his assertion by an exceedingly bold and imaginative woodcut. Metals were believed to be generated in the earth by the action of the sun. Gold had a large proportion of condensed sunbeams. A mine when exhausted was closed, and re-opened after some years in the hope that the metal would have been produced in the meanwhile. Many—among them Cardanus—believed that metals and minerals possessed a kind of life, and that certain changes in them, such as conversion into calx, were the result of their death. The air was peopled with invisible demons, who wrought all kinds of mischief, raised storms and whirlwinds, and warred against the works of man. Witches and wizards were in league with them, and could influ- ence them, and were hence treated with extreme severity. In 1487 there was an unusually devastating storm in Switzerland, and two old women, who were believed to be witches, were arrested on the charge of having caused it. They of course de- nied the charge, but during the torment of the rack they con- fesssed they had raised the tempest. They were forthwith executed—‘‘ Convicta et combusta.” These cases were by no means rare. Witches were believed to exist by the hundred and thousand, and to produce all kinds of supernatural effects. Pope Innocent VIII. issued a manifesto against them in 1488, and appointed inquisitors in all countries, armed with powers of ar- resting and punishing suspected sorcerors, In Geneva alone, no less than 500 persons were bummed in 1515 and 1516. So lateas the year 1716, two persons were executed in England for the practice of witchcraft. We can understand all this better if we bear in mind how much superstition still exists in the world. Not to mention those things which appear under pseudo-scientific names, we find in many out-of-the-way villages, specially in Ireland, a very firm belief among the uneducated in the power of charms, and the existence of witches. In a village not far removed from the outer world, a witch has been pointed out to me, and the laming of a horse and other disasters seriously attributed to her charge. Gaule, in his ‘‘ Magastromancer,” gives a list of fifty-two forms of divination, and he has omitted at least six which are found in the works of other writers. Among other forms we have divining by ashes, by smoke, by the lees of wine, by cheese, by figs, by knives and saws ; you will remember also some of the forms of divination practised by the Romans, But perhaps the delusion which has most militated against the growth and progress of true natural science has been alchemy—a false science which flourished for more than 800 years, and which was firmly believed in by thousands. The alchemists devoted their lives mainly to the search for two palpable impossibilities ; the Elixir Vita, which was believed to possess the power of conferring perpetual youth, and the Philosopber’s Stone, which was believed to transmute everything that it touched into gold. The search for this sub- stance, and the endeavours to make it by artificial means, occu- pied the attention of many notorious and eminent men. Albertus Magnus, who became Bishop of Ratisbon in 1259, and S. Thomas Aquinas, were particularly addicted to alchemy and magic. We hearmost of their magical powers, although their writings on alchemy still remain. Between them they made a brazen statue and endowed it with the faculty of speech ; but it was so garrulous that one day Thomas Aquinas, who was in vain trying to work outa mathematical problem, seized a hammer and destroyed it—at least, so say contemporary writers. Albertus Magnus once changed a severe winter into a most splendid summer within the space of his garden. Detailed accounts exist of the transmutation of lead and tin into gold. Raymond Lully states in one of his works that he converted 50,000 Ibs. weight of quicksilver, lead, and pewter into gold. Pope John XXII. was a great alchemist, and had a laboratory at Avignon. He wrote a work on the transmutation of metals, and at his death left a sum of eighteen millions of florins, the existence of which according to contemporary alchemists, proved the possibility of transmutation. And thus one might continue to give a long list of known men who devoted themselves to these useless pursuits ; and the unknown men could be counted by thousands. Here, then, we have some of the fallacies which it has been the object of science to disprove, and which, so long as they existed in full vigour, effectually prevented the progress of science. The dis- proval of these could only result in the discovery of new truths. There is an intense satisfaction in the discovery of absolute truth; truth which stands every opposition, which has been weighed in many balances and not found wanting; which has been submitted to every process of reasoning and of experiment, and has come out uninjured. Taking this discovery of new “ 456. truths as the first and greatest aim of science, we may, perhaps, take next some of Francis Bacon's more practical ideas about the objects and aims of science ; to. increase man’s sovereignty over Nature, to compel Nature to be subservient to his will, and to minister to his wants ; to restore his lost sovereignty over Cre- ation. And, indeed, when the new truths are discovered, they are soon applied to practical purposes, and to furthering the material good of mankind ; but to study science with this object alone is usually pernicious, and always to be avoided. Some of you will ask me the more direct use of science. I fear I cannot tell you much about this ; I would rather refer you to some of the enthusiastic—I hope not exaggerated—articles which have appeared from time to time during the last few years in various journals and magazines. It is directly useful for the purpose of science scholarships at the Universities, which are much on the increase ; also it forms a part of the examinations at Woolwich, and for the Civil Service. Scientific appointments are year by year becoming more numerous in this country and in Iniia. Indirectly, science is useful to every one. I say I cannot tell you much about its direct and_prac- tical uses, because I believe that the main use of it is to cultivate a certain set of mental faculties, to induce a certain mode of thought. The modes, and tones, and phases of mental action are as diverse as the modes of bodily action, and just as we exercise one set of muscles by rowing, another by riding, and a third by walking, so do we exercise a certain set of faculties when we study classics, another set when we study mathematics, and a third when we study sciences. The cultivation of this habit of thought engenders among other things a habit of observation and a spirit of inquiry. Questions suggest themselves daily, for an answer to which we must apply to science. Why do winds blow and storms rage? What are day and night, summer and winter, sunshine and frost? Of cer- tain common things we rarely think, or if we do we assign the simplest meaning to them. For how many centuries did not mankind believe the world to be flat, the sun to be a globe of fire quenched nightly in the western sea, the sky to be solid, and the stars set into it like gems! Savages still believe that the firmament is a solid dome, and the sun ani moon living creatures who walk across it. The third of our four divisions concerns the methods we shall follow ia our study of the sciences discussed above. Firstly :— lectures. It is essential that you should see the various changes wrought upon or within matter ; not alone hear about them or read of them. You must not only observe, but you must think of the experimental results ; understand them ; understand the means by which they are brought about. It will be well for you to take notes, roughly at first, to be copied out afterward, and extended from memory. It is a mistake to take very full no‘es during a lecture. They may become an almost verbatim report of the lecture; the spirit of the matter is lost becaus2 the mind is fixed upon a detail. Experiments also are often lost ; and at the end a mass of writing remains, but no knowledge of the work done. It is preferable to write down headings of sub- jects; the pith and marrow of the subject matter only ;—in a word, to make merely an outline of the picture, and to fill in the details afterwards from memory. Sketches of appa- ratus are always desired among the notes, also any general remarks, and queries. questioned, and at the commencement of each lecture the matter of the preceding lecture will be recapitulated ; at this time also your own queries will be answered. It is important that you should not allow any subject to be partially understood, or mis- understood. Make a note of any difficulty, and let it be cleared up at the commencement of the next lecture, or at some inter- mediate time. The misunderstanding of one important fact may render the right understanding of succeeding matter nearly im- possible. Then, later in the half, I should like you to read in text-books about the subject of your lectures, and thus to sup- plement the lecture-work by book-work. The advantage of this will be very apparent when you are examined. What we desire is that science shall grow up side by side with your other subjects of study, and enter into your daily life. It is thus only that it can possess any real vitality. And if any subject of study possesses not vitality—intense, active, exuberant vitality—it languishes, becomes unhealthy, weak, and ultimately useless. branch, then another, and then dies entirely. And when upon the tree of knowledge a new branch is grafted, we desire to see it growing up side by side with the great branches already there. Our school knowledge—the knowledge which in its entirety ful- At the end of each lecture you will be | It resembles a tree which loses first one | NATURE [Oc¢. 5, 1871 fils the conditions of that comprehensive word cz/twre—must be one and undivided ; hence a new subject can only flourish when it is woven completely into our school life, when it ceases to be regarded as a something extraneous and beyond the pale. I hope none of you are like the doctors of Salamanca whea they were confronted with Columbus, or like the cardinals who passed judgment upon Jordano Bruno and Galileo. I must add one word in conclusion as to the attitude of mind most conducive to a right study of natural science. In the first place it is necessary to free the mind from previous ideas and conjectures, and to neglect the evidence of the senses unsupported by extraneous means ; thus the earth seems to be flat, and the sun to be a glowing disc which moves around it, yet research has proved that our senses here deceive us. Again, how difficult it is to realise the fact that two sounds may produce silence, two lights darkness, until it is experimentally proved that such is the case, It is hard to believe that the force which manifests itself by attracting light bodies when amber is rubbed, is identical with lightning, yet such has been proved to be the fact. We must clear our minds from preconceived opinions before we can profit much by the teachings of science. Do not be discouraged by the apparent difficulty of science at starting ; all things newly presented to the mind require the exercise of some effort before they can be grasped. If the cur- rent of our thoughts is to be diverted into a new channel, it must needs require some time to change it from its old course, Comfort yourselves with the knowledge that at the outset you know more true natural science than did Aristotle and all the great philosophers of antiquity. The very science which you learn almost as soon as ycu know the alphabet, the fundamental ideas about the earth, the sun, the moon, the air, places you at starting ahead, in the matter of science, of the flower of Middle Age erudition: Professors of the Sorbonne, Doctors of Sala- manca, Monsignori of the Sacred College. If, at first, the path of science seems to wind uphill all the way, remember that when the toil is over the view from the summit is very glorious. The sun rises upon a new land infinitely vast, infinitely fertile ; full of streams by the side of which you may wander, and see all nature reflected in their pure depths. Above all things, I would ask you to study science reverently. Many of our studies concern the works of man, here we are dealing with the works of God, governed directly by His laws. Surely then it behoves us to bow our heads as we enter the portal of Nature, to be possessed of infinite humility, to assume no prying spirit of curiosity, to have no intellectual pride. Some of you no doubt remember Rembrandt’s picture of the ‘* Ana- tomic Lesson,” and the calm, reverent, inquiring look of the students who surround the dead man; a sort of awe in the presence of the wonderful mechanism of the microcosm Man, as we must have awe in the presence of the macrocosm Nature. A something almost akin to the deisedaimonia of the Ancients ; a reverential fear of that which is obscure, and but partly mani- fest. I know not whether the smaller and more obscure works of God do not convey this even more than those which are im- measurably greater. S. Augustine says, ‘* Deus est magnus in magnis, maximus autem in minimis.” We are scarcely more awed by the myriad stars and suns and systems around us than by the myriad atoms of which the smallest mass of matter con- sists, and which possess functions, attributes, actions, as definite in character, as varied in form, and as absolutely governed by immutable laws, as the members of systems comprising a million worlds, ten million miles away. ZOOLOGICAL RESULTS OF THE 1870 DREDG- ING EXPEDITION OF THE YACHT“ NORNA” OFF THE COAST OF SPAIN AND PORTUGAL* T the last meeting of this Association, held at Liverpool, I exhibited as one of the trophies of the Vorza Expedition a new silicious sponge, to which I gave the name of Pheronema Grayi, or ‘the Portuguese Bird’s-Nest Sponge ;” and on this occasion the following is a brief synopsis of other leading novel- ties and more general results of the dredging cruise. A few preliminary remarks on the origin and object of the expedition may preface this synopsis. * Communicated to the Biological Section of the British Association, Edinburgh, August 8, 1871. Oct. 5, 1871] To Mr. Marshall Hall, F.G.S., &c., who personally super- intended the expedition, are due the thanks of the scientific world for having so generously devoted his yacht Vorna to the purpose of scientific discovery. This gentleman had early in the year conceived the project of rendering science that service it is to be regretted so few owners of yachts are disposed to contribute ; and to him I feel myself under the deepest obligations for the opportunities afforded me during this cruise of acquiring that practical information so keenly appreciated by every working naturalist. Nor must I forget here to associate with his the name of Mr. Henry Lee, F.L.S., the worthy president of the Croydon Microscopical Society, as one of the chief instigators of the scheme, and the person to whom I am especially indebted for my introduction to Mr. Marshall Hall, as one likely to make the most of the opportunities that would be afforded. Having accepted the last-named gentleman’s kind invitation to accompany him as naturalist in a small way to the expedition, it was decided I should memorialise the Council of the Royal Society for a grant to defray the heavier expenses of dredging and collecting apparatus. My application was most favourably received, thanks to the numerous kind scientific friends who sup- ported it, and a sum of 50/, was immediately placed at our disposal for the purpose required. My indebtedness to the Royal Society for this liberal assistance has already been acknowledged, thongh I cannot permit so fit an occasion as the present to pass without once more endorsing it. By the middle of May everything was prepared, the Trustees of the British Museum, on the especial recommendation of Professor Owen and Mr. Waterhouse, extending me an extra three weeks’ leave of absence. The companionship and services of Mr. Edward Fielding were also fortunately secured, whose earlier dredging experiences with Mr. M ‘Andrew in the Red Sea seemed calculated, as they afterwards proved, to be of the most valuable assistance. Portugal was decided upon as a locality likely to yield us the most satisfactory zoological results, and on the re- commendation of Mr. Henry Woodward we resolved first to proceed to Vigo Bay, where, in company with his lamented brother, Dr. S. P. Woodward, and Mr. M‘Andrew, he had in the year 1856 obtained such abundant and valuable material. From thence it was proposed we should work our way down to Lisbon, our particular ambition being to reach the deep-sea fishing ground off Setubal, some twenty miles further south, from whence Prof. du Bocage, the talented conservator of the Lisbon Museum, had obtained specimens of the “ Glass Rope Sponge” (Ayalonema), and numerous other novel treasures. On starting, we touched and remained a couple of days at Guernsey, and at that spot a few hours spent in shore-collecting rewarded us with the earliest substantial fruits of the expedition ; seven more days brought us to Vigo, the point which constituted the first basis of our practical dredging operations. A detailed list of the numerous species collected throughout the cruise being in course of preparation for the more technical and exhaustive report to be presented to the Royal Society, I here propose, commencing at the lowest animal group, to briefly enumerate some of the more important forms taken, adding such remarks on the characters or connecting circumstances which render them more especially deserving of attention. Of all, the subkingdom of the Protozoa has perhaps furnished us with the most abundant and valuable material, the sponge class in particular contributing many novelties. Before leaving British waters even, the few hours spent in shore-collecting at Guernsey, already alluded to, resulted in the accession of three new species of the genera /sodictya and Hymeniacidon, which I have placed at the disposal of my kind friend Dr. Bowerbank to be described by him in his supplementary volume of the ‘‘ British Spongiadz,” now closely approaching completion. The moderate depths within the Laminarian and Coralline zones, from the shore line down to fifty fathoms, at which we collected and dredged in Vigo Bay, and afterwards further south in the neighbourhood ef Setubal and the Sado river, proved remarkably productive of species belonging to the same group, as also to that of the Calcarea or calcareous spiculed sponges including Sycow and Grantia, ke. The most interesting of any, however, were the species belong- ing to the Hexactinellidze, or hexradiate spiculed sponges, of which the beautiful Zuplectella and Hyalonema form familiar examples. Nine species belonging to this group were obtained at a depth varying from 400 to 800 fathoms off Cape Espichel and Cezimbra, including Ayalonema, Dactylocalyx, A phrocallistes Bocagii, Lanu- ginella pupa, and four other species new to science, three out of which necessarily constitute the types of new genera, the residue NATURE Our time being limited, the west coast of Spain and ! 457 again furnishing data enabling us better to appreciate the characters and distinctions of those previously made known to us. The form belonging to the same group, and described by my- self as Pheronema Grayi, and exhibited at the last meeting of this Association, is the most conspicuous among all these on account of its size, and I would here add a few more words in reference to this particular type. Since last year I have been afforded the opportunity of examining and comparing my own with numerous specimens of Prof. Wyville Thomson’s /o/tenia Carfenteri taken in the North Sea and also in the Atlantic, and from an evolu- tionist’s point of view, this examination hasled me to regard my specimens as holding rather the rank of a well-marked local variety than of a distinct species as I at first premised. A com- parison of the specimens, now placed side by side in the British Museum collection, will, I think, suffice to prove to all those inte- rested in this subject how strongly marked as varieties these two forms are. Meanwhile, the generic name of Pheronema adopted by myself I still retain, as I consider both Prof. Wyville Thomson’s form and my own to be local varieties of another species first described by Dr. Leidy of Philadelphia as Pheronema anne, and a letter recently received from Dr. Leidy himself more fully convinces me of this, though he has not yet bestowed on it the minute microscopical investigation of its structure needed for the effectual clearing up of this, at present, doubtful point. In my description .of other sponges belonging to this same Hexactinellate group, read before the Royal Microscopical Society, and published in their ‘* Transactions ” for November 1870, I have, in {creating a new genus and species, Askonema setubalense, erroneously associated Prof. Thomson’s name with it as having once pronounced the form to be of vegetable and not animal organisation. The mistake arose from the miscon- ception of a name singularly similar in euphony as pronounced to me by Prof. du Bocage, and I here avail myself of the oppor- tunity of rendering Prof. Wyville Thomson that ammende honor- able feel myself in duty bound to accord to him. Passing next to the class of the Foraminifera, our gatherings have been remarkably rich both from the coralline and abyssal zones, the latter furnishing us with numerous arenaceous types (Rhabdomina, &c.), and the former being notably abundant in species and varieties of Zagena and Cristellaria. Many of these forms are new to science and await description, and I must not forget to acknowledge here my indebtedness to Mr. Henry Lee for the very great assistance he has rendered me in his skilful preparation of the various gatherings of these minute organisms. To Mr. Henry Hailes also my best thanks are due for similar services. The Ccelenterate sub-kingdom has likewise furnished several new and rare forms, including among the latter category an example of Hyalopathes pyramidalis, M. Edw., one of the Antipathiidze now represented for the first time in our national collection, if not in this country. In the Alcyonarian group, Veritillum cynomorium, first taken sparingly in Vigo Bay, and afterwards abundantly in the Laminarian zone near Setubal, excited our warmest admiration. Nothing can exceed the beauty of the elegant opaline polypes of this zoophyte when fully expanded, and clustered like flowers on their orange-coloured stalk; a beauty, however, almost equalled by night when, on the slightest irritation, the whole colony glows from one extremity to the other with undulating waves of pale green phosphoric light. A large bucketful of these Alcyonaria was experimentally stirred up one dark evening, and the brilliant luminosity evolved produced a spectacle too brilliant for words to describe. The supporting stem appeared always to be the chief seat of these phosphorescent properties, and from thence the scintillations travelled onwards to the bodies of the polypes themselves. Some of the specimens of this magnificent zoophyte measured as much as ten inches from the proximal to the distal extremity of the supporting stalk, while the individual polypes, when fully exserted, protruded upwards of an inch-and- a-half from this inflated stalk, and measured as much as an inch in the diameter of their expanded tentacular discs. Numerous polyzoa were also dredged up from the various depths, many of which remain yet to be identified ; but the allied group of the Tunicata has perhaps furnished by far the most in- teresting material of the whole molluscoidan sub-kingdom ; sur- face-skimmings one morning near the mouth of the Sado river having rewarded us with numerous specimens of an Appendicus Zaria, which, from notes and sketches made at the time of their capture, I have since found to have presented phenomena seem- ingly not yet observed by any other naturalist. Hitherto these organisms have been presumed to constitutea distinct genus of 458 NATURE [ Océ. 5, 1871 Tunicata inter se, or otherwise to be the larval conditions of higher forms. My own observations, however, recorded in the ast July number of the ‘‘ Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science,” have led me to believe that they are the free swim- ming reproductive Zooids of higher Tunicates, bearing the same relation to them as many free swimming Jfeduse do to some stationary hydroid colony. At the greater depth of 600 and 800 fathoms, various species of Zérebratu/e were taken as re- presentative of the class Brachiopoda. Ascending yet higher to the subkingdom of the Mollusca, a large variety of interesting species rewarded our researches. In- cluded among these were—/usus contrarius, a common fossil of the Norfolk crag recently discovered in the living state in Vigo Bay by Mr. M‘Andrew, and dredged by us in the same lo- cality ; also a species of Cassis, remarkable from its being more closely allied to C. Sadwron and other species inhabiting the Japanese and Chinese seas than to any of its Mediterranean or Atlantic congeners. This circumstance of ‘its affinity is the more remarkable when associated with the occurrence of a species of Hyalonema (H. lusitanica) off the samecoast, likewise scarcely distinguishable from the more familiar Japanese form 4. Sieboldi. The Annelida and Crustacea have also furnished a fair quota of new and interesting species, to be reverted to hereafter ; and neither taking a step further onwards to the higher vertebrate sub-kingdom has good fortune entirely deserted us Availing ourselves, through the kind assistance of Prof. du Bocage, of the aid of the native fishermen and their appliances, we secured examples of several rare species of the deep-sea ground-sharks frequenting the Portuguese coast line ; and among others a fine specimen of Pseudotriakis microdon, a species recently discovered and described by Prof. du Bocage and his gifted collaborateur, Felix de Brito Capello. Generalising from the whole amount of material collected during our cruise off the Iberian coast, our plunder may be separated into two very distinct groups. One of these, includ- ing that collected from the shore line down toa depth of 100 fathoms, presenting an interblending of Mediterranean species with those prevalent on our own more temperate coasts. Among these former I may more especially mention the occurrence of Dendrophyllia ramea, a well-known Mediterranean branching coral in great luxuriance at the mouth of the river Sado, this being, I think, the first record of this coral being taken so far north, and also from the same locality Calappa granulata, Maia verrucosa, Murex trunculus and bran- daris, Cestum veneris, Veritillum cynomorium, and numerous other species belonging to the various Invertebrate divisions usually regarded as confined to the same more souther area. The residue and far smaller assemblage of species embraces those derived from the abyssal depths of from 400 to 800 fathoms, and all these, including many forms new to science, are characterised by their boreal or cold area facies, and in this respect con- tribute further evidence in support of the deductions arrived at by Dr. Carpenter, from his own more extended researches into the fauna of these same great depths in connection with the im- portant expeditions of the Porcupine and Lightning, and with which his name and those of his indefatigable colleagues, Prof. Wyville Thomson and Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys, are so worthily con- nected. In conclusion, it is my sincere hope that the rich reward at- tending our own humble efforts may stimulate other yacht owners to follow the example of my esteemed friend, Mr. Mar- shall Hall, influencing them likewise to devote their craft for one or a portion of a season to the cause of science, and to the explo- ration of those new deep-sea fields of discovery, now waiting to yield up the richest treasures to each earnest worker. Such men will find themselves more than compensated for the sacrifice of time or other interests by the fascinating nature of the work they undertake, in addition to earning for themselves the lasting gratitude of the scientific world. Our well-appointed and expensively-fitted-out Government expeditions should explore the remoter depths; but British pluck and private enterprise should esteem it their especial pri- vilege to unfold to us the yet hidden mysteries of the ocean world nearer home ; and if, again, all shall not succeed in discovering new phases of animal life, there is much and even more impor- tant work to be effected in ascertaining accurately the bathys metrical range and geographical limits and distribution of those forms already known to us. W. SAVILLE Kent PROF. BASTIAN ON THE GERM THEORY* FLPIDEMIC and acute diseases have many characters in com- mon ; they constitute a family the members of which are united by a certain bond of unity, though at the same time they are in other respects strikingly ditferent from one another. The ‘*general” character of the symptoms originally gave rise to the notion that these affections were in the main dependent upon changes in the nature and quality of the blood. This view is still the one most commonly entertained, and which seems most likely to be true. And seeing that particular sets of symptoms recur with as much definiteness as individual differences of con- stitution will permit, we have a right to believe that the changes in the blood—however induced and of whatsoever nature they may be—are definite and peculiar for each of these diseases. The successive changes in the blood which are the immediate causes of the phenomena of small-pox, must be quite different from those giving rise to the morbid state known as typhoid-fever. Variable as these several groups of symptoms are amongst them- selves in individual cases, yet is there a general resemblance which suffices to maintain the distinctive nature of each affection. In this broad sense they are undoubtedly entitled to rank as “*specific” diseases. They may be presumed to be associated with definite changes in the blood, though we have nota right to infer that such changes of state can only be induced in one way. Many well-known chemical changes are capable of being brought about by more than one agency. And just as there is the best reason for believing that cancer or tubercle may be initiated de novo by the operation of irritants upon the tissues of certain indi- viduals, and that such growths may subsequently be multiplied within the body by the contact-influence exerted by some of their disseminated particles ; so may we suppose, not only that specific substances (contagia) may be capable of initiating specific changes in the blood, but that certain combinations of circum- stances may by their action upon the human body entail similar definite changes and states of blood. Having to do with a per- verted nutritive activity and mode of growth in a limited area of tissue, cancer or tubercle may make their appearance; whilst, having an altered nutritive activity and set of changes occurring in the blood, this all-pervading tissue may lapse into the succes- sive states peculiar to one or other of the specific diseases, and so give rise to the symptoms by which they are characterised. This is by no means a forced analogy. Can cancer or tubercle arise in the individual without any pre-existing ‘‘ hereditary taint ” ? Can the states of blood peculiar to the several specific diseases arise de ovo, or independently of contagion? These are ques- tions whose import is really similar.t __ One of the great and distinguishing peculiarities of these specific diseases is their ‘‘contagiousness.” Although very differently marked in the several affections, this property is as interesting as it is important. The fact of its existence seems always to have had a large share in determining the nature of the general views which have been held concerning these affec- tions. Even in remote periods, by Hippocrates and others, they were commonly compared to processes of fermentation ; whilst since the time of Linnzus, more especially, attention has been often prominently directed to the many apparent similarities ex- isting between the commencement and spread of epidemic diseases, and the ‘flight, settlement, and propagation of the in- sect-swarms which inflict blight upon vegetable life.” These * Extracts from Introductory Lecture on Epidemic and Specific Contagious Diseases : Considerations as to their Nature and Mode of Origin. Deli- vered at University College, October 2, by H. Charlton Bastian, M.A. M.D., F.R.S. " + This double mode of causation is perfectly familiar to the chemist Particular chemical changes may occur under the influence of certain general determining conditions, which at other times (ir. the absence of these conditions) may be even more easily initiated by a single specific cause. The introduction of a crystalline fragment into a saline solution, and its determi- nation of the crystallisation of all the isomorphous salts contained in the solution, seems to be exactly comparable with the “‘ contagious” origin of diseases. But, under the influence of certain favouring conditions, crystalli- sation may occur without the contact of a crystalline fragment—the process may be “‘ spontaneous” in the same sense that the occurrence of the blood- change may be “spontaneous.” t Sir H. Holland’s ‘‘ Medical Notes and Reflections,” 2nd edition, 1840, p- 584. On the following page, the same author writes:—“ Connected with these facts is the observation, seemingly well attested, that the cholera some- times spreads in face of a prevailing wind, and where no obvious human communication is present—a circumstance difficult, if indeed possible, to be explained, without recourse to animal life as the cause of the phenomenon. No mere inorganic matter could be so transferred, nor is vegetable life better provided with means for overcoming this obstacle.” Whilst on the preceding page, the “‘animal species” had been admitted to be ‘ minute, beyond th¢ reach of all sense,” Oct. 5, 1871 | NATURE 459 analogies were seemingly strengthened by the increased know- ledge which gradually arose concerning the various parasitic maladies to which man and the lower animals were liable. Writing in 1839, Sir Henry Holland says in his essay ‘fOn the Hypothesis of Insect-life as a Cause of Disease,” ‘‘ The question is, what weight we may attach to the opinion that certain diseases, and especially some of epidemic and contagious kind, are de- rived from minute forms of animal life existing in the atmosphere under particular circumstances, and capable, by application to the lining membranes or other parts, of acting as a virus on the human body.” Now, the fact of the multiplication of the virus within the body was the peculiarity of these diseases, which, | above all others, caused such an hypothesis to be received with favour, Causes which are specific, and which seem capable of self-multiplication—what can such agents be but living things of some kind, plant or animal? This mode of argument was with many all-powerful. And when, after the discovery of the yeast- plant by Schwann, in 1836, new doctrines concerning fermenta- tion began to prevail, the views of those who believed in the living nature of the specific causes of epidemic diseases were in part strengthened. If all fermentations were initiated by the agency of living organisms, and the specific diseases were com- parable to processes of fermentation, then how natural was it that many who were moreover influenced by the other analogies, should be led to imagine that the specific causes of these diseases were also living organisms. Only now, attention became di- rected to the much lower organisms which are so ‘frequently as- sociated with fermentative and putrefactive changes, instead of to insects ‘‘ minute beyond the reach of’ all sense.” Here, then, is the origin of what in modern times has been termed ‘‘ The Germ-Theory of Disease.”? Like homceopathy and phrenology, this theory carried with it a kind of simplicity | and attractiveness, which insured its acceptability to the minds - of many. But, however, it seems to rest upon foundations only a little more worthy of consideration than those upon which these other theories are based. combination with the more generally received doctrines concern- ing the origin of life, there has gradually grown up an unwilling- ness in the minds of many to believe that these contagious diseases can arise de ovo. And this being one of those theories which tends to curb inquiry, and to check the possible growth of sanitary knowledge in certain highly important directions, it seems to me necessary to look with scrutinising care to its foun- dations, not only with the view to the advancement of medical science, but with the direct object of removing all checks which may exist to the growth of sanitary precautions against the origin of these most pestilential affections. Let us see, then, how far the ‘‘theory” fulfils the conditions which all good theories do fulfil—how far it explains a great number of the phenomena in question, without being irrecon- cilable with others. The advocates of the ‘* germ-theory ” have always rested their belief in it, in the main, because they considered that it offered a ready explanation of the increase of the virus of the contagious diseases within the body of the affected person, ‘This increase they suppose is not otherwise to be explained. All other con- siderations brought forward in support of the theory are just as explicable by another supposition. Fully admitting that the occurrence of a process of organic self-reproduction would be a very adequate way of accounting for the increase of the infecting material, we must see whether this mere hypothesis can be re- conciled with other characteristics of these affections. In the first place, it may be asked, whether such a process is actually known to constitute the essence of any general diseases. Because, if so, those in which it does occur, ought, in the event of the hypo- thesis being true, to present a close similarity to the diseases in which such a process is supposed to occur. Now, there are certain general diseases which do undoubtedly depend upon the presence and multiplication of organisms in the blood and throughout the tissues generally. There is the epi- demic and highly contagious distemper amongst cattle, known in this country by the name of the ‘‘ blood,” and which excites in man that most dangerous morbid condition called ‘‘malignant pustule.” The researches of M. Davaine* and others have re- vealed the fact that this disease is essentially dependent upon the presence and multiplication of living organisms, closely allied to Vibriones, in the blood of the animals affected, and that similar organisms are also locally most abundant in the contagiously in- cited .“‘malignant pustule” of man. Unless this latter is *® See Comp Rend 1864 and 1865 Now, owing to its influence, in | destroyed in its early stages, the contained organisms spread throughout the body and the disease speedily proves fatal. Of late, moreover, attention has also been called * to Pasteur’s re- searches on the subject of the very fatal epidemic which raged for fifteen years amongst the silkworms of France. This affection, known by the name of A¢érine, is dependent upon the presence and multiplication of peculiar corpuscular organisms, called Psorospermia, in all the tissues of the body. Both these general parasitic diseases are highly contagious ; both are contagious by means of organisms ; and in both the virus does increase by self-multiplication within the body of the animal affected. What more suggestive evidence could there be as to the truth of the ‘‘germ-theory,” say its advocates, than is supplied by the phenomena of these two diseases? Undoubtedly the evidence is irrefragable as to its applicability to these particular maladies ; but then comes the question whether they are comparable with the other affections to which the ‘‘ germ-theory ” is sought to be applied. And this question must decidedly be answered in the negative. These parasitic diseases are sharply distinguished from the others by the fact of their almost invariable fatality. Creatures or persons once affected in this way are, under ordinary circum- stances, thenceforth on the road to more or less immediate death, Happily, however, no fatality of this kind is characteristic of even such highly contagious diseases as scarlet fever and small« pox, or any other of the maladies with which parasitic organisms cannot be shown to be associated. Doubtless there are other general parasitic diseases amongst animals. In almost all the specific diseases to which man is liable, however, I have ins variably failed to discover any trace of organisms in the blood. The experience of many other observers has been similar to my own in this respect. But if living things were really present as causes of these maladies, then most assuredly ought they to con- form to that fatal type which is almost inseparable from the notion ofa general parasitic disease, and which we find exemplified by the course of Abrine, the ‘* blood,” and ‘‘ malignant pustule.”+ The fact then, that the general tendency in the acute specific diseases, is undoubtedly towards recovery rather than towards death, speaks strongly against the resemblance supposed to exist between them and the parasitic affections alluded to, and also against the hypothesis that they are dependent upon the presence of self-multiplying germs within the body. Such germs, when present, would besure to go on increasing until they brought about the death of their host. These considerations alone should suffice to inspire grave doubts as to the truth of the ‘‘ germ-theory.” And such doubts may be reinforced by many others. Thus, the several affections being distinct from one another, this theory demands a belief in the existence of about twenty different kinds of organisms never known in their mature condition, but whose presence as invisible, non-developing germs is constantly postulated, solely on the ground of the occurrence of certain effects supposed to be other- wise incapable of occurring. That, if existent, they are no mere ordinary germs of known organisms is obvious, because the presence of these has again and again been shown to be incapable of producing the diseases in question. Mr, Forster says,£ ‘There is not perhaps on the face of the earth a human creature who lives on coarser fare, or to a civilised psople more disgusting, than a Kalmuck Tartar. Raw putrid fish or the flesh of carrion—horses, oxen, and camels—-is the ordinary food of the Kalmucks, and they are more active and less susceptible to the inclemency of the weather than any race of men I have ever seen.”§ It has, moreover, been frequently demonstrated, that the organisms of ordinary putrefactions may be introduced even into the blood of man and animals without the production of any of these specific diseases. || Yet is the ‘‘ Antiseptic System” * Nature, 1870, No. 36, p. 181. + See paper by Dr. Wm. Budd in British Medical Fournal, 1863. t See AMfed.-Chirurg. Rev., 1854, vol. xiii.. where the supposed connection of diseases with processes of putrefaction is ably considered by the late Dr. W. Alison. § The Bacteria which are sure to be abundant in such food cannot, there- fore, be the much talked-of ‘‘disease germs.’ Such a diet is, of course, by no means recommended. Epidemic diseases are frequently most fatal when they once break out amongst a people whose diet is of this kind (see Dr. Carpenter, in Med.-Chirurg. Rev., 1853, vol. xi. p. 173), and could probably only be borne in certain climates by persons who lead a very active life. See, amongst others, Davaine in Comft. Rend, August 1864, and E, Semmer in Virchow’s A7c: s, 1870, Dr. Lionel Beale is well aware of this fact, and he, accordingly, whilst adhering to the germ theory, promul gates it under anew form. He says (Monthly Micros. Four., Oct. 1870 p- 205) :—‘‘ Concerning the conditions under which these germs are pro- duced, and of the manner in which the rapidly multiplying matter acquires sts new and marvellous specific powers, we have much to learn, but with 460 of treatment (good as it may be, irrespective of the germ- theory on which it has been based) pressed upon our attention on the assumption that the germs of putre‘action and the germs of disease are living organisms simi’ar in nalure. The strange persistency with which this view is advo- cated is not a little surprising, when it entails the obvious contra- diction that germs which do, under all ordinary circumstances, develop into well-known organic forms, should, when concerned in the production of the diseases in question, induce all the effects supposed to depend upon their prodigious growth and multiplication, and yet never develop, never become visible. And, whilst Bacteria and other organisms with which the un- known disease-germs are compared, flourish and reproduce in the much-vaunted, germ-killing, carbolised lotions ;* still carbolic acid continues to be recommended solely on account of its germ-killing powers, and the theory on which the practice is based is thought to derive support from the results ob- tained by the use of this agent. Surely no theory could be weaker on which to base a successful method of treatment ; and if, as its distinguished originator says,+ its general acceptance is principally hindered by the ‘‘ doubt of its fundamental principle,” then I would deliberately say that the blame, if any, cannot fairly be said to lie with those ‘‘ who have opposed the germ- theory of putrefaction.” The ‘‘ Antiseptic System” of treat- ment needs no support from a germ-theory ; it can be surely and unassailably based upon the broader physico-chemical doctrines of Liebig.+ The last blow, however, seems given to the ‘‘ germ-theory ”’ of disease, when we are told that the blood and the secretions in sheep-pox are not infective, though this disease is most closely allied to, and even more virulently contagious than, human small-pox. If germs had existed in ths general disease, and their multiplication was the cause of it, then most assuredly would they have existed in the blood and in other fluids of the body ; and yet, as Prof. Burdon Sanderson tells us,§ ‘‘In sheep-pox all the diseased parts are infecting, while no result follows from the inoculation either of the blood or of any of the secretions ; the liquid expressed from the pulmonary nodules has been found by M. Chauveau to be extremely virulent—certainly not less so than the juice obtained from the pustules.” Now, although ia other of these diseases the blood does undoubtedly exhibit infective properties, still the ascertained existence of even one exceptional case amongst maladies so contagious as sheep-pox, seems to be absolutely irreconcilable with the theory of the ‘‘ germ-theory,” more especially when this theory was started principally to ex- plain the phenomena of such highly contagious diseases. || vegetable organisms the germs have nothing todo. They have originated in man’s organism. Man himself has imposed the conditions favourable to their development. Man alone is responsible for their origin. Human intel- ligence, energy, and self-sacrifice may succeed in extirpating them, and may discover the means of preventing the origin of new forms not now in exis- ence.” This is undoubtedly a very much less objectionable form of the germ theory, though much additional evidence would be needed before we could accept the view that contagious diseases are due to the rapid multipli- cation of the contagious particles within the body of the creature affected. The non-contagiousness of the blood is as irreconcilable with this as with the other form of the germ theory. * See “ Modes of Origin of Lowest Organisms,” 1871, p. 85. And ina recently published paper ‘‘On the Relative Powers of Various Substances in Preventing the Generation of Animalcules on the Development of the Germs,” Dr. Dougall says: ‘If, as is alleged, germs are the source of putrefaction, then the strongest preventives »zxs¢ be the best antiseptics, and vice versé. Now, asseen in the table, carbolic acid occupies a very mediocre Pe as a preventive, therefore it is legitimate to conclude that it stands no igher as an antiseptic,” p. 13. + British Medical Fournal, August 26, 1871, p. 225. t These doctrines do not seem to have been adequately grasped by Prof. Lister. Fragments of organic matter are believed by Liebig to be capable of acting as ferments ; he, however, holds that their potency is deteriorated by heat almost as much as are the qualities of livng ferments. The experi- ments with boiled fluids in bent-neck flasks, therefore, upon which Prof. Lister so strongly relies in proof of the germ-theory, prove absolutely nothing as between the two theories of fermentation of Liebig and of Pasteur. Amongst the atmospheric particles there are sure to be dead ferments in the form of mere organic fragments. Now the doubt that previously existed was, as to whether they could initiate fermentation and putrefaction, or whether the presence of living germs was absolutely essential. In the ex- periments with bent-neck flasks, both fragments and germs must be simul- taneously excluded or admitted to the fluids. Prof. Lister's readers might suppose that Liebig had no objection to his ferments being boiled, and that the issue lay between the relative efficiency of oxygen and living germs. (See Gerhardt’s Chimie Organigue, t. iv. p. 545.) § Report ‘* On the Intimate Pathology of Contagion,” in Twelfth Report of Medical Officer of Privy Council. || Inoculation with the blood of a person suffering from measles has also in several cases failed to reproduce the disease. The different severity of small-pox taken in the ordinary way, and that induced by “inoculation” of the matter of a small-pox pustule, is also quite inexplicable in accordance with the ‘‘germ theory.” NATURE [ Oct. 5, 1871 Dr. Bastian tabulates the whole of the communicable diseases in the following manner :— PaRASITIC DISEASES AFFECTING: ¢ External (cutaneous) surface. \ Internal (mucous) surfaces. | Closed (serous) cavities. Many of them Tissues of organs or parts. Caused and (Psoro- propagated by capable of "4 Paes z the presence arising “de eee Cysticerct Nematoids, )and_self-mulri- novo.” oe plication of Blood. (Bacteridia in ‘ Malignant living units, Pustule,’ Psorospermie in ‘pé- ( brine,’ etc. 7 Tissuz DISEASES. A, Diseasesof Internal Formed Tissues and of Mucous Membranes. /Fibro-plastic growths. Cancerous growths. All tnoculable | Tubercular growths and capable of) Glanders. arising “‘de Syphilis. novo.” Gonorrhcea. Purulent ophthalmia. .Diphtheriaand Croup | Principally Sporadic, B. Diseases of the Blood (principally). , Erysipelas. All OE EES | Puerperal fever. and capable of ) Surgical fever. arising ‘‘de ‘\\ Pyemia. novo.” Hospital gangrene. Rabies. Rheumatic fever. a. Dengue. 6. Sweating sickness | Principally Intermittent fever. ) Endemic. a. Remittent fever. | 6. Yellow fever. / Summer diarrhea. a. Choleraic — diar- rhoea, 6, Cholera, Dysentery. Influenza. Mumps. Relapsing fever. Typhoid fever. Typhus fever. a. Cerebro - spinal menningitis ? 6, Plague. Varicella. Hooping cough. Measles. | Scarlet fever, \Small-pox, Caused and propagated by chemico-phy- sical agencies, and not by the multiplica- ticn of living units. COMMUNICABLE DISEASES. Contagiousness either absent, little marked, or more or less virulent ; all probably capable of arising “ de novo,” _ Often «Lpidemic. BOOKS RECEIVED EnGiisH.—The Subterranean World: Dr. G. Hartwig (Longmans and Co,).—Or the Use of the Ophthalmoscope: T. C. Allbut (Macmillan and Co.) —Rudimentary Treatise on Geology; Part I., Physical: Ralph Tait (Lockwood and Co.). CONTENTS Pace OBSERVATIONS UPON MaGnetic Storms tn HIGHER LATITUDES « 44 Tue Licur oF Juriter’s SATELLITES. By Rey. T. W. Wess, 1) eon ae temo Gc om. deOmlm 6 oo 3 2 OuR Book {SHEur” ys), G ) See wl an ae re te) Fe 443 Letters To THE Epitor:— On the Solution of a Certain Geometrical Problem.—I TopDHUNTER 444 Structurefof Fossil'Cryptogams —Prof.W. THISELTON Dyer, F.L.S. 444 The Solar spectrum. ~ Prof. C. A. Youne . ol ete beta 445 Eclipse Photography and the Spectroscope.—Henry Davis 445 445 Phenomena of Contact.—R. A. Procror, F.R.A.S. . . .. Oceanic; Circulation’: 07%) Wiles cs, bole lesen een ante nnn an Tce Pleas! Rey.’ C/A: JOoHNs, h:E:S. ie cee ee 446 The New Dynameter . . . 446 Notaris on Mosses.—Rey. M. J. BERKELEY, F.L.S. . . 440 “Newspaper Science." —MEDICUS. | -) fe) Nelite) uel ie) ee seen FurRTHER Nores on Ceratopus. By Dr. ALBERT GiinTHER, F.R.S. 447 On Tue BenpinG oF Gracier Ick. By Prof. J. TyNDALL, F.R.S. 447 Tue MIGRATION OF Quart. . Pet toe th! OmCMO a nde YY) JARDIN) DIESSA, “ALGER COOREe neers eretmert mney omnes 447 THe TEMPERATURE OF THE SUN. By J. ERICSSON . . . . . « 449 igs Oe COM aE > 0 GES ars Gos lobed ofA Go og Jian Screntiric INTELLIGENCE FROM AMERICA. . . . . . . 2. « 454 On THE Srupy oF Science 1n Scnoots.—No. II. By G. F. Rop- WELLS CIS.) Bo. Seren nae 455 ZooLoGICAL RESULTS OF THE 1870 DREDGING EXPEDITION OF THE Yacut “ Norna” orr THe Coast oF SPAIN AND PortuGaL. By W&SaVIuieiKEnt, F.Z.Souae coeds och: ae 0) Reet RSmSnnDES Oe Pror. BASTIAN ON THE GERM-THEORY. . . 2... +s ss 45° Boos RECEIVED...) . MaMereeniien totic lcuke 1) co leh remcene mE GOa THURSDAY, OCTOBER 12, 1871 RECENT UTTERANCES HE Oracle has spoken. In fact several Oracles have spoken. Let us take them seriatim. From the lips of two of the most enlightened members of the Cabinet we have had at last an authoritative expression of the | desirability — nay more, of the absolute necessity —of | scientific education for the country at large. Address- ing his constituents at Bradford on Monday the 2nd inst. in a speech to which we have already alluded, on the occasion of the opening of the new Mechanics’ Institute for that town, Mr. W. E. Forster, the Minister for Educa- tion, as he ought to be styled, made use of the following emphatic language :—“ The old grammar-school teaching was almost framed upon the advantage that Latin and Greek well taught gave to the boys; now, we find that the boys cannot do without the use of more general know- ledge than is given by Latin and Greek , that there must be a knowledge of modern languages. But there may be also a feeling that we ought to know something of the daily facts of life, and the rudiments of Science. There, again, I speak from a sense of my own want, and I have often thought how much more useful I might have been —at any rate, how much stronger I might have been—if I had had given to me a scientific education, such as I think we may now hope that our children will attain.” And again: “ We now believe that we have taken measures by which we may secure elementary education to all children of all classes in our borough, and throughout the country, and, consequently, those who attend this institution will have the foundation of a training that will enable them to fulfil the original idea of its promoters,” that is, “ to give mechanics scientific knowledge.” On the following day Lord Granville, the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, when presiding at the opening of the Dover College (intended to provide, at a very moderate cost, a first-class English and classical educa- tion), took the opportunity to make the following pertinent remarks :—“ Then there is the study of Science in its different departments. I believe this to be eminently wise, and a matter to which parents in the present day attach very great importance. I believe the results of this branch of education are of considerable consequence ; for after all, a mere smattering of education is of very little use in any department, but a really scientific mode of studying different branches of Science is one of the best and most useful instruments of education you can use, I remember reading a very remarkable speech, with most of which I agree, delivered by Mr. John Stuart Mill, on the difficulties of a comprehensive education. He said the study of Science taught young men to think, while the study of Classics gave them the power of expressing their thoughts. I own I have thought there is some little fallacy in the distinction drawn between the education taught in these twodepartments. I believe it is almost impossible for aman to study the ancient languages without himself acquiring great habits of thought, and I daresay you have all had opportunities of hearing some of the most dis- tinguished professors, some now dead and others living, who have conveyed their thoughts te their audiences in such singularly clear and perfectly eloquent language, that VOL, IV. NATURE 461 I feel there is something in the study of Science which makes a man feel that in what he is talking about, he must eschew all redundant and irrelevant verbiage.” The significance of these outcomes is not to be mis- taken, and Lord Granville’s remarks are of none the less authority because he does not happen to be our Home Secretary. His knowledge of the state of education in some other European countries has doubtless made him all the more sensible to the Jamentable defects of our own. Of the other leading members of the Cabinet, Mr. Glad- stone is too far-seeing a man to oppose the manifest ten- dencies of the age, Mr. Lowe has shown himself ready to respond to every legitimate demand made on the public purse by the proper representatives of the wants of Science, and the Duke of Argyll is himself a writer on Science. While we cannot but congratulate ourselves that our rulers are at length alive to the importance of making Science the base of all true education, a necessity we have so constantly and earnestly insisted on, we still cannot but inquire how it is that all this has been so long in making itself self-evident to our public men, In the same address from which we have already quoted, Mr. Forster pointed out that the original design of the founders of Mechanics’ Institutes was to give a scientific education to the working classes ; but that they soon found that there was an almost univer- sally spread absolute ignorance of even the most elementary facts on which a scientific education could be based. And yet all these years have been allowed to pass, and it is only yesterday, as it were, that any serious attempt has been made to provide a scientific education for the working classes. We are even surprised to find that the first advances made by teachers of science in this direction are met by an eagerness and enthusiasm which will soon outstrip the limited means at command to satisfy its cravings. In the higher strata of society it is the same; wherever the elements of science, natural or physical, are taught by a competent teacher, they are absorbed by boys and girls, and grown-up men and women too, with a zeal seldom bestowed on their Latin or Mathematics ; there is something in these studies which the human mind finds really to respond to its own instincts. If the next gene- ration of Englishmen does not grow up with more than a smattering of the rudiments of science, it will be the fault of the present teachers of science themselves. From men of high position but out of the Cabinet, who are clear-sighted enough to discern the wants of the age, we hear the same demands on every side. Sir J. Lubbock the other day, in addressing a meeting of working men at Liverpool, after delivering the prizes in connection with science classes, said that scientific men throughout the country unanimously regretted the manner in which the grants to elementary schools are distributed. Reading, writing, and arithmetic, although the foundations of edu- cation, are not education itself, and the schools will never be placed ona sound and satisfactory basis until they take a wider ground. And at the meeting of the Social Science Congress, held during the present week at Leeds, Mr. Joseph Payne, than whom no more practical authority could be found, read a paper on scientific teaching and the advantages of mental discipline for children, approving of the cultivation of the faculties of observation and ex- periment and direct training from nature. Science teach- BB 462 NATURE [ Oct. 12, 1871 ing, and not literary teaching, he said, ought to be the basis of all other knowledge. One of the best recent utterances on the relation of the State towards Science is contained in the address of Prof. Huxley, delivered at Birmingham on Monday last, as president of the Birmingham and Midland Institute. In | this admirable discourse he spoke of the principles of governing, and the relation of the State to its members, in a manner which enables us to congratulate ourselves that Prof. Huxley is no longer among the advocates of the limitation of State furictions. He repudiated the idea of the functions of a Government being confined to those of ‘a protective constabulary. Adopting the definition that the end of Government would be the good of mankind, he said he took it that the good of mankind meant the attainment by everyone of all the happiness which he could enjoy without diminishing the happiness of his fellow-men. The pursuits in which pleasure and happiness could be enjoyed by all, with detriment to none, were those which ought to be smiled upon by the State. If it were beyond the province of the State to interfere directly in commerce and the individual relations of men, it might safely foster these indirectly. He urged that it was the duty of Government to take the initiative in promoting the teaching of Science, leaving local energy, as soon as it could be evoked, to develop the work. The State should understand that local scientific institutions such as those at Birmingham, Manchester,and Newcastle-on-Tyne do not benefit the locality alone, but the nation at large. With regard to the effects of Government subsidies on private enterprise, Prof. Huxley clearly showed how base- less are the grounds of alarmon this head. There are those who maintain that the State has no right to do any- thing but protect its subjects from oppression, but even “ accepting the proposition that the functions of the State might all be summed up in one great negative command- ment, ‘ Thou shalt not allow any man to interfere with the liberty of any other man, Prof. Huxley said he was unable to see that the consequence was any such restriction as its supporters implied. If his next door neighbour chose to have his drains in such a state as to create a poisonous atmosphere which he breathed at the risk of typhus and diphtheria, it was just as much a restriction on his just freedom to live as if his life was threatened with a pistol. If his neighbour were allowed to let his children go un- vaccinated, he might just as well be allowed to leave strychnine lozenges about in the way of his (Prof. Huxley’s) children. And if his neighbour brought up his children untaught and untrained to earn their living, he was doing his best to restrict his (the lecturer's) freedom by increasing houses for which he had to pay.” There is nothing new in these utterances, nothing that was not obvious to thinking men years and years ago ; but they are of the highest importance nevertheless, for we | may now hope that their lead will be followed in our English fashion throughout the length and breadth of the land. It was wisely said not long ago, that one of the most certain ways to make the study of Science national would be to make Science itself fashionable. This is true, and we may now hope that this task will for the future fall on Cabinet Ministers and the like, for scientific men who attempt it are apt to become martyrs to the good cause, | the same consequences. THE LAWS OF POPULATION 1. Population : its Laws of Increase. By Nathan Allen M.D. (Lowell, Mass., 1870.) 2. Physical Degeneracy. By the same.i (New York : Ap- pleton and Co, 1870.) 3. The Law of Human Increase. By the same. R. NATHAN ALLEN, in three pamphlets, of which the titles are given above, discusses different aspects of a question of grave importance to American society, and indirectly to other societies also—namely, the com- parative infecundity of that part of the population of the United States described as “native Americans.” This fact, which seems pretty generally recognised, first came before Dr. Allen as a matter of personal observation, and he gives us more precise information from census returns. It appears that in the State of Vermont, for in- stance, the birth-rate even of the whole population, includ- ing the foreign element, is but three-fifths of what it is in England, while that of the strictly American population taken alone is estimated at only one-half of the Eng- lish standard. This fact is the more remarkable, since, as Dr. Allen points out, “the comparison is between a people occupying the healthiest part of New England, engaged principally in agricultural pursuits, scattered in settle- ment, and a population situated as that of England is, living mostly in cities and thickly settled places, as well as composed largely of the extremes in society.” Nor was it always so with the same race ; for a hundred years ago the number of children under fifteen years of age was, relatively to the adult population, double what it is now. As regards the causes of this difference, Dr. Allen does not assign more than a secondary place either to emigration westward or to prudential considerations. He himself regards the physical weakness of American women, their inattention to the rules of health, and the over-straining of their nervous system, as the chief determining causes of the smail number of children in a family. We have the usual complaints of tight-lacing, low dresses, in sufficient exercise, and so on, which have been urged by physical moralists in all countries ; but more special evils are pointed out in “ the excessive use of fine flour bread,” and the overstrained intellectual education of girls. To the latter cause Mr. Herbert Spencer has already ascribed At all events the fact of general physical weakness in American women seems to be made | out, and is curiously illustrated from one point of view by the estimate of a manufacturer, that more than seven | million feeding dottles are annually sold in the United the burden of taxation for the support of gaols and work- | States. So many mothers are unable to nourish their | offspring ! Dr. Allen further ventures on a general theory of popu- lation, which may be stated broadly thus :—That fecundity depends upon the perfect development or harmony of all the organs of the body. The principle thus stated is very vague, and the author cannot be called successful in his attempt te give it precision ; but the subject is too large for discussion here. The practical counsels which he ad- dresses tohis countrywomen are valuable and judicious, but so long as large families are regarded with disfavour, advice in this direction seems little likely to meet with acceptance. More promising are his suggestions as to the origin of this sentiment. If it be chiefly due, as he implies, to Ott. £2, 1871] ’ weakness of physical constitution, which causes women to dread the dangers of a large family, while “ their delicate organisation breaks down in bringing into the world one, two, or three children,’ then undoubtedly greater physical vigour might remove some of the moral obstacles to increase of population, We cannot regard moral causes, or, in the words of an American writer, the “feeling that has grown up of late years with respect to offspring,” as without importance. Is it possible, for in- stance, that certain circles of American society have come to resemble the Hungarians, in actually priding them- selves on their small families? If any such feel- ing as this should exist, it is not likely to be ex- pelled but by the supremacy of some stronger and nobler sentiment. Such might be found, one would have thought, in the sentiment of posterity, that pride in the destiny of their race, which occupies the popular imagination among Americans toa greater extent than in any other nation. Are the “native Americans” pre- pared to surrender the future of their country to foreign immigrants? This must be the case unless the tide should turn. At present, indeed, we hear only of a stationary ‘not a diminishing population, and were such a community standing alone, it might do no more than realise the ideal “stationary state” of the Malthusian philosophers. But, unfortunately, the other elements of population are not stationary, and to stand still in the midst of growth is to be choked. Such a prospect can hardly be a matter of indifference to the race which is thus threatened with extinction ; nor is it on several grounds without import- ance to the world at large. In the first place the New Eng- land Puritan stock is one possessed of many noble quali- ties which the world can ill afford to lose, and, secondly, it is hard to see where this process is to stop. If the influence of the 7z/zew has reduced the descendants of a people so mentally and physically vigorous as the English colonists of the seventeenth century, to a state of infe- cundity and “physical degeneracy” (to use Dr. Allen’s words), what are the prospects for later colonists, whether of English, Irish, or German descent? They willsoon be “native Americans,” and subject, as we must suppose, to the same laws of change. Is transplantation of a race, as Knox and others thought, impossible? This question is neither raised nor answered by Dr. Allen, but it is in- evitably suggested by the gloomy pictures which he draws. His pamphlets, in spite of much repetition, and an occasional superficiality of treatment, are worth read- ing by those who are interested in the important problems which he discusses, OUR BOOK SHELF National Health. By Henry W. Acland, F.R.S., &c. (Oxford and London : James Parker and Co., 1871.) Dr. ACLAND’s pamphlet should be read in connec- tion with the report of the Royal Sanitary Commis- sion, of which he was a member, and some of whose recommendations have already been embodied in a Government measure. Not that it is intended as an exposition or defence of that report, but rather as an expo- sition of the general principles of sanitary legislation and reform. It would be impertinent to say that in knowledge and enlightenment Dr. Acland is on the level of his important theme, but we may point out as his special | NATURE 463 qualification for treating a subject of such complex rela- tions, a certain comprehensiveness of mind, which does not allow him to leave untouched either the moral or the material, the scientific or the political, aspects of national health. We think it the more important to draw attention to this valuable quality because it is so often wanting in professional, perhaps especially in medical writers, and the want is so often a source of weakness. Dr. Acland does not forget, in treating of national health, the depen- dence of disease on poverty or of poverty on over-popu- lation ; and insists strongly on the often-forgotten princi- ples of Malthus. It is instructive to contrast the dangers he points out with the apprehensions of an entirely oppo- site kind entertained by Dr. Nathan Allen. On this side of the Atlantic we dread the results of too rapid multipli- cation ; on the other side their fear is lest, among a certain class, this danger should have been too completely averted. But both would agree that the property of fertility does not always belong to those whom we should think best fitted to be the progenitors of the race to come. Dr. Allen laments the decay ofthe highly cultivated and intellectual New Englanders ;.while Dr. Acland, quoting Mr, Galton, points out the possibility of “the races best fitted to play their part on the stage of life being crowded out by the incompetent, the ailing, and the desponding,” merely in consequence of a reckless system of early marriages. This very fact, we may remark, of the rapid multiplication of the “ incompetent and ailing ” is of itself fatal to the theory of population advanced by the American physician. In his remarks on the regulation of public health, Dr. Acland shows the same breadth of view as in treating the more scientific aspect of the subject, and his wise, we might say, statesmanlike advice contrasts with the too absolute and inconsiderate claims put forward by some medical and sanitary reformers. It should never be for- gotten that the power of seeing even the plainest evils cannot go beyond the general standard of public enlighten- ment, and that the power of removing them must be limited by the social and political conditions of the country in which we live. The following quotation appears to us to contain very sound advice :— “Two things and two only remain to be done. “First. To continue to interest intelligently the mass of the people in sanitary progress, and to interest them more systematically. “England must rule herself in these as in all other matters. The time is gone when people can be dragooned into cleanliness and virtue. We hear that the middle class of England is inefficient, the guardians of the poor bad, and the working classes ignorant. If so they are still the people ; they and their children pay the penalty of disease and of vice. Show them, truly and without exag- geration, the source of avoidable disease and of destruc- tive vice; they will abate it. Bring the knowledge to their doors, they have heart and will; give the power by enactment, and the work is done. “Second. To establish such a health department in the metropolis as shall with certainty appreciate the grow- ing wants of the people, as shall bring in bills to meet their wants, and shall disseminate information and advice without stint to every part of the country.” LETTERS TO THE EDITOR [Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his Correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. | Local Scientific Societies THE following statement appeared a short time ago in an article in Nature. ‘Throughout the country we find societies, field clubs, local museums, &c., all of which are more or less actively engaged in the pursuit of knowledge, local inquiries, or 464 NATURE « tod [ Oc¢. 12, 1871 1 explorations, &c., I fear this flattering description must have arisen from the writer not having a practical acquaintance with local societies. = In a society in the West of England, consisting of nearly 400 members, I know of but one who does anything for the local museum, or for the advancement of geological science. The society’s principal results are archzeological ; geology and natural history are in the background. Another west country society is divided into innumerable sections, which have their excursions, and an occasional general excursion; but their results in the cause of science are as valuable as those of an ordinary picnic party. This description will, I fear, answer also very well for one with which I am acquainted in Sussex. In all these instances the local museums are such as might be expected from such apathy. In too many instances the science of the scientific societies begins and ends with the name. There may, perhaps, be one or two members who are active, but feel little encouragement to do much for the public good, or in the way of contributing to the local museum. Of course these societies are composed in a great measure of members who take no interest whatever in science, and who join them without any definite object ; but it is a pity that the public should be subjected to such adelusion. There are, of course, some few societies which are fortunately more active, and produce valuable results, but as yet I have seen no good local museum in connection with them, and that is a bad test of the practical nature of a society. I know of but one museum which at all answers the description of a local museum, and that is at Bath, which is due to the genius and energy of Mr. Charles Moore. But as long as members of local societies collect for themselves and, not for the public good, their museums must remain at a stand still. Few have any idea of the valuable collections which are made, or the labour spent on their formation, by individuals who are indifferent as to what eventually becomes of them. It is want of public spirit and self-complacency, which are the great hindrances to all progress. Itis to be regretted that the Geological Society of London does not set more of an example to the provincial societies ; it ought to exert an influence throughout the country, and take some interest in their progress. The state of the collections at Somerset House is certainly not an honour to any society. The co-operation of local societies, and having their results published for the benefit of all, mzgit have a great effect on the advancement of science. A general contribution for the purpose of a weekly issue of British Journals of Science (in various departments), which should be common to all, would be a step of great importance. I know of no remedy for this state of ignorance and apathy as to the valuable results of which they might be capable, but such a co-operation, combined with a certain amount of union with the scientific societies of London, which might have the effect of keeping the provincial societies up to the mark, This must also be accompanied by a unity of object, as well as of system in the management and arrangement of their museums. Eo'Gois: Newspaper Science In reply to the letter of ‘‘ Medicus” in last week’s NaTuRE, allow me again to state that the curious details as to Krupp’s gun manufactory, with which the public were enlightened in the Globe of September I1, appeared in that paper as a leading article, and not as a mere ‘‘note-paragraph,” as ‘* Medicus,” who “never writes articles,” evidently desires to be understood. Had they been in the form of the ordinary newspaper paragraph, containing accounts of some wonderful discovery in zoology, chemistry, or mineralogy, such as, for example, some late ones on ‘‘the appearance of a gigantic lizard in North Wales,” ‘‘the extraction of the fixed air from the pea sausage for use in the | army,” or the ‘‘ abundance of platinum at Bathgate, in Scotland,’ which I find copied into the 7imes of to-day, I should not have troubled the readers of NATURE with my letter of September 13. When, however, we find such ‘* blunders,” to use ‘* Medicus’s” own word, whilst he admits at the same time that they ‘‘had | passed the editorial eye,” palmed on the public on the authority which should be due to the leading article of a highly respectable and largely circulated newspaper, I think it is high time to pro- test against technical science being popularised in this style ; and @ propos to style, the peculiarly pleasant and what would vulgarly but expressively be called the ‘‘ chaffing”’ style of ‘‘ Medicus’s” communication to NATURE conveys to the reader the impression that its author is more at home in writing for penny newspapers than for scientific periodicals. In conclusion, the perusal of the letter of ‘‘ Medicus” will certainly remind metallurgists of the man who, when he felt his feet slipping under him in the water, brought himself altogether out of his depth by imprudent and convulsive struggles to extri- cate himself. The use of the French word ‘‘ crveuset” instead of the plain English ‘‘crucible,” suggests a French source of information, and not the original German ‘‘ Schmelztiegel ” of Krupp’s manu- factory at Essen; and when ‘‘ Medicus” corrects his text, and tells us it should read ‘‘the iron is alloyed in crucibles formed with certain clays and a preparation of plumbago”’(!) metallur- gists will still believe that it was steel not iron which is intro- duced into these crucibles, and doubt its being alloyed at all. but only melted in them ; and will, moreover, be of opinion that if **Medicus ” was at home in the subject on which he has been writing, he would have at once explained that when he unfortu- nately described the steam-hammer as ‘‘ of the force of 25,000 kilometres” (in plain English, 15,532 miles), that the last word was simply a misprint for kilogrammes (so that the hammer was nearly 24? English tons), and not grasped at a straw in the shape of the far-fetched and in this instance equally misapplied term kilogrvammetre ! Davip Forses 11, York Place, Portman Square, London, Oct. 9 P.S.—If ‘‘ Medicus” desires correct information as to the steam-hammers, &c., at Krupp’s manufactory at Essen, he will find it in the recently-published official report of the Chamber of Commerce there, a short abstract of which is embodied in my fourth quarterly report (for 1871) to the Iron and Steel Institute, on the ‘‘Iron and Steel Industries in Foreign Countries.” The Cyclone in the West Indies I THINK others besides me would be glad of an article in your paper on the Cyclone of the 21st of August in the West Indies. The narrow limits of the hurricane are noteworthy. I hear from the West Indies that Nevis, between Antigua and St. Kitts, has escaped, being a little to leeward. Has Saba escaped likewise ? To windward Barbuda and Anguilla seem to have been also beyond the storm, as was also Virgin Gorda; the centre of the cyclone passing over St. Thomas (and, I presume, Tortola also) onits way to Porto Rico. I have exact details only from St. Thomas, which I could, I think, put at the service of any one writing on the matter ; but the principal fact in them is, that the main rush of wind, which did the damage, fell on the harbour from N.E. to N., destroying horribly all houses in the N.E. gully which slopes down to the harbour ; but so turned right and left by the high hills above the town, that it was impossible for one in the harbour to discern the actual direction of the maincurrent. This blast fell just before the central calm. I trust that we shall have from some ot your contributors somewhat which will throw more light on all hurricanes, from the lessons of this last. Excuse the interest which one who knows those seas and islands—when he passed through them, blazing in beauty and repose—must needs take in the details of such a tragedy. Eversley, Winchfield C, KINGSLEY On the Solution of a certain Geometrical Problem I REGRET that the work I referred to should have been so readily identifiable ; still more, that Mr. Todhunter should think I intended to imply ‘‘ signal geometrical weakness” on his part. I should imagine, on the contrary, that few living men surpass | Mr. Todhunter in geometrical strength; though I may have inferred from some passages in his works that that special part of his mathematical strength had not been so fully developed by practice as his power in mathematical analysis. It must be quite obvious to anyone who reads the whole of the appendix to Mr. Todhunter’s Euclid, that sooner or later the series of problems on circle-contact (¢.¢. to Prop. 16) would re- quire the introduction of the sixth-book method. This method is also very conveniently introduced in Prop. 7. But the omis- sion of all mention of the third-book method* would certainly | lead the student to infer that the sixth book must be employed. If it led me to infer that Mr. Todhunter happened not to know ecially as but three lines would be need=d to indicate the method, rom the given point A draw a perpendicular AgD to the bisector of b tween the given lines; produce A D to E so that D E is equal to AD; a circle described (by the preceding proposition) through D and E totouch either of the given lines will obviously touch the other also. Oct. 12, 1871 | NATURE 465 of the third-book method, I can readily show that such an infer- ence was by no means so absurd as might be inferred from his remarks about the oldness of the problem. For I remember distinctly an occasion on which the solution of this problem was required during a lecture at King’s College, London, at which my friends Baily (second wrangler in 1860) and Hudson (third wrangler in 1861) were present, Three of the students at once submitted to the lecturer the solution by the sixth-book method (which no one can well miss), and the lecturer (a second wrangler), while admitting that the solution was not very pleasing, was unable at the moment to suggest a better ; he added, jokingly, that the best way to solve the problem would be to describe a parabola having the given point as focus and either of the given lines as directrix. Now, he had not been long engaged in teaching, and it may be per- fectly true that one who had been so engaged ‘‘ would certainly have in his memory one or more solutions of this problem ;” but this would depend on the subjects he had been engaged upon. If he chinced to be one of the most eminent mathematical professors at Cambridge, it is probable that no problem in the higher analysis would be unknown to him, but the odds would be rather against than in favour of his being familiar with the best solutions of geometrical problems, just as the odds would be against his being proficient in the rules for ‘‘ Barter,” ‘‘ Tare and Trett,” and ‘* Alligation Partial.” From letters which have reached me I find that the general purport of my letter has been misapprehended, since some appear to infer that I question the geometrical power of our University mathematicians. I meant nothing so unreasonable. We have geometricians who rival (and I believe more than rival) in power the best Continental geometricians. But their geome- trical strength has not been attained during their University career ; and no one who considers carefully the mathematical course at either University, can believe that it tends either to form geometricians or to foster geometrical taste. I candidly admit that 1 do not speak of either course from personal experience. All I know of geometry was learned before my Cambridge time, and very nearly all I know of analytical mithematics was learned after that time. But I know quite well the nature of each course, and-can sustain my statement that our universities do not encourage the study of geometry. Whether they should do so is a matter on which I have expressed no Opinion, RICHD. A, PROCTOR Brighton, Oct. 7 P.S.—Mr. Todhunter refers to the actual solution of the problem as a ‘‘ matter of some interest, though of course uncon- nected with the theoretical solution.” As I have had some ex- perience in constructive geometry (having always made it a practice to solve astronomical problems constructively betore proceeding to numerical calculation), I may be permitted to make some remarks on this point. First I would add to the compasses and parallel ruler (the only instruments mentioned by Mr. Todhunter) that most useful instrument the square. With this instrument (which would be needed in any case) the following construction would be as convenient as the one founded on the sixth-book solution. The problem, be it remembered, requires that a circle should be described through a given point to touch two given straight lines. Let P be the point, AB and AFCG the lines, AHDK the bisector of BAC (this bisector must be drawn in both methods, so that I leave its construction untouched) ; with the square draw CPD square to AK, and PE square to CD ; with centre D draw circular arc PE ; with centre C and distance PE draw half circle FLG ; then FH and GK drawn square to AG (with the square) are radii of the two circles fulfilling the con- ditions, Prof. Newcomb and Mr. Stone In Mr. Proctor’s letter to NATURE of the 23rd ult., he remarks that Prof. Newcomb had stated to him that he was bewildered at having a discussion of the transits of Venus and the parallax of the Sun, deducible from them, prior to that of Mr. Stone, attributed to himself; and Mr. Proctor goes on to state that he was justified in his belief that such a discussion had been made because a writer, signing himself “P. S.” had asserted that it had in a letter appearing in the Astronomical Register for December 1868. He further gives two reasons for the unhesitating credit which he had given to the assertion of *©P.S.” The first of them is that there is strong internal evi- dence that the writer was a distinguished astronomer having those as his initials (or a part of his initials, it would be more correct to say); of this it seems scarcely needful to say more, as the writer in question may prefer not to be unearthed. But of Mr. Proctor’s other reason, may J be permitted to say a word? It is that the assertion of ‘‘P.S,” was ‘‘ permitted to remain un- corrected.” Had Mr. Proctor turned to the very next number of the Astronomical Register (that for January 1869) he would have found a letter signed also with initials ‘‘ W. T. L.” in which “*P. S.’s”? assertion that Prof. Newcomb had published any dis- cussion of the transit of Venus in 1769, is most emphatically contradicted. ‘‘P.S.,” it is true, made a rejoinder in the March number of the Register (page 65) but in it he neither denies “W. T. L.’s” contradiction, nor refers (as of course he could not) to any original investigation of the transit-of-Venus problem by Prof. Newcomb. He contented himself with the rather unin- telligible remark that ‘‘ W. T. L.’s” answer was not in ‘‘the spirit of the age we live in.” The latter writer in the following number of the Register (page 88) pointed how, in all probability, the mistake of ‘*P.S.”’ had arisen from misunderstanding part of the title of a paper by Prof. Newcomb on the Distance of the Sun, and the matter dropped. Now, as Prof. Newcomb was as likely to have seen ‘“W. T. L.’s” contradiction as ‘‘ P. S.’s” assertion, there would certainly seem no necessity for his further disowning himself what ‘‘ P. S.” had claimed for him. W. T. LYNN Blackheath, Oct. 2 Note on the Cycloid I po not know whether it has been noticed that the cycloid is a projection of the common helix (thread-inclined 45°). I sup- pose the property must have long since been recognised, but have not seen it mentioned. The proof is very simple, and may be thus presented :— Suppose a vertical circle to have its plane east and west (a lu- minous point, for the nonce), the sun in the meridian and 45° high. Then the shadow of the circle on a horizontal plane will clearly be a circle ; and further, if a point move uniformly round the vertical circle, the shadow of the point will move uniformly round the shadow-circle. Now, let the centre of the vertical circle advance horizontally towards the south, while a point moves round its circumference at the same uniform rate. The moving point will describe a right helix with a thread-inclination of 45% Its shadow will move uniformly round the shadow-circle while the centre of this circle advances uniformly and at the same rate in a straight line. It will therefore describe a cycloid. It is obvious that all the varieties of curtate and prolate-cycloids may be obtained as projections of helices, by changing the thread- inclination. Also it is obvious that if the sun (or the point of projection) were in the zenith, the shadow (or projection) of the helix first dealt with would be the curve called ‘‘the companion to the cycloid.” RicHarp A, PRrocror Is Blue a Primary Colour ? In recent works on colour blue is called a primary colour. If blue is a primary colour a mixture of yellow and blue tran- sparent pigments could not produce green, but would form an opaque combination. The colour produced by a mixture of yellow and blue pigments—if blue is an elementary colour— will depend on the colour reflected by the coloured layer itself, and not on the light passed through it from the white surface underneath. The brilliancy of the green produced by mixing yellow and blue pigment, isa measure of the transparency, to the green rays, of the blue pigment employed. Or in other words, there is as much green in the blue pigment employed, as there is green in the green produced by mixing that pigment with yellow. Blue must, therefore, be a compound colour, since the blue pigment passes the green rays. Further. When the light reflected from blue substances is examined with a prism, it is found to be composed of green and violet. Again, when green and violet are combined by means of a rotating disc, blue is produced. By varying the proportions of green and violet any colour from green through blue-green or sea-green, blue, blue violet or indigo to violet, may be obtained, Again, when the solar spectrum is thrown on a blue surface, the green and the violet rays are reflected in the same way as a yellow surface reflects the red and the green rays. The following is a simple way of showing that blue is not an elementary colour, and that violet is an elementary colour :— Take a piece of red, a piece of green, and a piece of violet 466 NATURE [ Oct. 12, 1871 glass. Any two of these form an opaque combination—that is to say, the first glass stops all the rays which could pass the second, and the second stops all that pass the first. Buta green and a blue glass do not form an opaque combination, but pass the green rays. If we place the red, the green, and the violet glasses in a row close to each other, with the green in the centre, place a piece of yellow glass so as to overlap the junction be- tween the red and green glasses, and a piece of blue glass to | overlap the junction between the green and violet glasses, and arrange the combination so that white light can pass through it, it will be seen that the yellow glass passes the red and green rays, and the blue glass passes the green and violet rays ; and that the only effect of the yellow and blue glasses is to deepen the colours when the light passes through them. Darrock, Falkirk, Sept. 23 JoHN AITKEN Anthropology and M. Comte PERHAPS you will allow me to state that your report of my paper ‘‘On the Anthropology of Auguste Comte,” read before the British Association at Edinburgh, is wreng in two essential particulars. First, I did #o/ attempt to ‘* expound the views of M. Comte according to the principles laid down by Mr. Darwin.” Comte’s views on man and his relation to the animal kingdom were published upwards of twenty years ago ; Mr. Darwin’s re- cently. Second, I did of ‘‘ maintain that Auguste Comte’s worship of humanity would be the great doctrine of the future.” I may, and do believe this, but I made no reference to it what- ever in the paper which you have so correctly mis-reported. The Positive religion was not the subject of discussion, and I limited myself to what my paper implied. J. KaINEs 3, Osborne Road, Stroud Green Lane, N., Sept. 22 A Plane’s —— ? would not the word asfect meet Mr. Wilson’s requirements? In reference to those important planes of every-day life, garden | walls or house fronts, its use is well established ; and there would be no violence to either custom or language in applying it to geometry. J. K. LauGuron [Another correspondent suggests the term “slope.” —Ep.} Meteorological Phenomenon AMONGST some old memoranda I find the following, which I copy verbatim :— JosEPH JOHN MURPHY Old Forge, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim, Sept. 18 “Monkstown, near Dublin, about 3.10 P.M. 25th of July, 1858, saw, about opposite the sun, an appearance like the rainbow, but horizontal, and extending along a few degrees of the horizon. The red was above the sea- horizon, and the green below. I could not make out beyond the green, but this might be because the blue was blended with the colour of the sea. As I did not see it commence, I cannot say how long it lasted. It faded gradually but rapidly, without any other change in the sky that I saw. The day was alternate sunshine and heavy showers ; the sun was shining at the time. «*This note has been made within half an hour after its disap- pearance.” Lunar Rainbow It seems probable, froma discussion of former observations, that the polarisation of the sky is altogether changed during totality, and that instead of being radial to the sun as at other times, its plane is perpendicular, or nearly perpendicular, to the horizon. This appears at all events to be the case overa very large area about the eclipsed sun. = In passing along a parellel to the horizon through the sun’s centre, we should expect to find, at some little distance fiom the limb, the pure atmospheric polarisation unaffected by any com- ponent due to the corona. At such a point an observer using a Savart might therefore expect to find the bands disappear at an angle of 45° to the horizon. Having carefully turned out all trace of the bands upon the centre of his field, let him now pass onward towards the sun’s limb (directing his attention all the time to the centre of his field only), whenhe there perceives the firsttraceof bands. He will know that the plane of polarisation has changed. If, on going bick- wards, the bands disappear again, while in passing onwards they continue to increase, he will know that that change is due to a component introduced by the corona; and he will be able to estimate the distance from the moon’s limb at which such a com- ponent first became visible. I feel disposed to think that by this method he will be able to trace the corona further than he could by the unaided eye ; forit will be somewhat equivalent to making the corona shine upon “a perfectly black back ground of sky ; and much more than equiva- lent to accomplishing this with a Nicol only, for the Savart will detect less than one-eighth of the polarisation detectable by the Nicol. The visible outer border of the corona is where our eye first distinguishes a difference between The light of the sky an The light of the sky + the light of the corona, Ir is perhaps answering somewhat at cross purposes, but | while by this method the visible outer edge of the corona will r ‘ ‘ be where we first distinguish a difference between an area of no polarisation and polarisation due to the corona. In using a Savart with a large field, the central portion of the field might well be marked by fixing in the common focus of the telescope a plate of glass with a small circle etched upon it corre- | sponding say to 8’ or 10’ of diameter in the field of view. A very perfect lunar rainbow was seen here last night. I | noticed it first at 9.42. At that time the northern portion of it only was visible, but its intensity steadily increased, and by 9.45 the there was a peculiar glare, extending upwards about 20°, the apex of the arch being remarkably clear and well-defined. The rainbow faded away as rapidly as ithad been developed, and at about 9.50 had entirely disappeared, At the time of the occur- rence the western portion of the heavens was very clear, and the moon about 8° above the horizon. Temperature cold, with a biting wind from W.S. W. R. Hinderton, Neston, Cheshire, Sept. 23 The Corona May I suggest a method of observation which would possibly be a more delicate test than that which our own sight affords for ascertaining the outer limits of the corona? arch was complete. Both at the northern and southern extremities | quarter of an hour on an endless roll of paper. A, C, RANYARD A Rare Moth hI A FINE specimen of the rare moth Deiofeia pulchella (crimson speckled footman) was captured by R. Beck on the Moors near Scarborough on the 11th inst. Could any of the readers of NATURE inform me whether it has eyer been taken so far north before ? W. E. WALLER Oliver’s Mount School, Scarborough, Sept. 22 Meteorology in America Tue writer of the article on this subject may be interested in hearing that a meteorograph, similar in some respects to that invented by Prof. Hough, was sent to the International Exhi- bition just closed in London, It was invented and constructed in Sweden, and one similar is said to have been performing satis- factorily for nearly three years. In the Swedish, as in the American instrument, the height of the mercury in the barometer, and the wet and dry thermometers, is felt by steel wires descend- ing the tubes ; but in the Swedish instrument the levers to which these wires are attached are acted on by very fine screws, the revolutions of which, translated by a series of wheels into the language of barometers and thermometers, are printed every The whole apparatus is set in motion bya galvanic battery, which even winds up the clock which regulates its own action. The barometer is tapped before it is registered, but there is no cor- rection for temperature. The price is 350/. The barometer invented by Prof. Wild seems to bear some resemblance to the barograph invented by Mr. King, and now used at the Liverpool Observatory. W. R. Ruined Cities of Central America In the summary of the proceedings of the late meeting of the British Association, in the issue of NATURE for August 31, is an abstract of a paper by Captain L. Brine, R.N., Ox the Ruined Cities of Central America. The gallant captain is wrong in stating that the existence of these ruined cities was unknown Oct. 12, 1871 | NATURE 467 until within a comparatively recent period. All the early chronicles abound in allusions to them—Remesal. Vasquez, Cogolludo, Villagutierre, Juarrez, and others. Uxmal and Chichen Itza, which Captain Brine speaks of as ‘‘discoveries,” were undoubtedly occupied places at the time Grijalva touched the shores of Yucatan. Copan, although then a ruin, was visited and minutely described by Dr. Palacios as long ago as 1576. Captain Brine would lead us to infer that these re- mains have been ‘‘ discovered” since the expedition of Del Rio to Palenque in 1787. That these Ruined Cities were built by the progenitors of the various families of the Tzeudal or Maya stock found in Central America at the time of the discovery, and who are still there, and that many of them were then occupied and flourishing does, not admit of doubt—is capable of demonstration. Big-eyed Wonder should be eliminated from modern specula- tion ! E. GEO. SQUIER New York, Sept. 14 The Dinnington Boulder I HAVE been favoured with a letter from a geologist residing at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, who kindly informs me that he has in- spected the ‘‘fossiliferous boulder,” and pronounces it to be a block of carboniferous limestone. This gentleman, from his knowledge of the district, says, that this limestone (underlying the coal measures) crops out about seven or eight miles to the west or north west of Dinnington, from whence probably it came. The question asked of its direc- tion of travel is therefore satisfactorily answered. J. BroucH Pow Barbourne, Worcester, Sept. 21 Mechanical Drawing In the opening address of the President of the Mechanical Section of the British Association, descriptive geometry and geometrical projection are both spoken of as subjects of little yalue to the mechanical draughtsman. Now, being interested in the matter, I would like to ask the nature of that special kind of mechanical drawing of which the Fresident spoke, and which leads to mensuration and geometry. I suppose from the address, descriptive geometry and geometrical projection will be dispensed with, seeing, as he says, that it is no loss to the mechanical draughtsman to be ignorant of the latter. As an illustration of that 7ea/ mechanical drawing which he advocates, would Prof. Jenkin be kind enough to show the method he would adopt in the construction of a drawing which would show the lines of intersection of the surfaces of a cone and sphere whose axes are not in the same plane? I can assure Prof. Jenkin that a word of advice from him will always be a great boon to the hardworking student. DRAUGHTSMAN Fall River, Mass., Sept. 18 Ice-Fleas I sHOULD have thought that the “ ice-fleas” described by Prof. Frankland had been almost as familiar to Alpine travellers as their more offensive namesakes of the chalets. They are de- scribed by De Saussure (Voyages, § 2249), by Mr. Morell, ‘€ Scientific Guide to Switzerland,” p. 275 ; by myself ‘* Alpine Regions,” p. 207, where references are given, chiefly to a paper by M. Nicolet in ‘*‘ Neue Denkschriften der Allg. Schiweiz. Gesellsch.” vol. y. (1841) ; and by other writers on the Alps. T. G. BONNEY St. John’s College, Cambridge Thermometer Observation ONE very hot day last summer I exposed to the sun, in the same position, three thermometers ; No. I was a new one mounted on box wood, No. 2 was similar, but very dirty from exposure to the weather ; No. 3 is what is known as a bath thermometer, with a metal scale. In the shade they all agree to about 1°, but in the sun No. 2 rose about 8° above No 1, and No. 3 about the same above No. 2. Here we have a discrepancy of about 16°, caused no doubt by the different heat absorbing and radiating powers of the substances on which the thermometers were mounted. I think this may somewhat account for the various readings we see announced by different observers. D, J. STUART THE USE AND ABUSE OF TESTS HE gradually increasing recognition of the claims of Science by the Government is cause for unmingled satisfaction to every one who is interested in the material and moral progress of the country. And now that the Government has set its hand to the work, it seems disposed to let no timorous counsels or half-measures prevail. The readiness with which the demands of astronomers have been met last year and this, the really admirable practical instruction recently given to science teachers at South Kensington, are evidence of the earnestness of the intentions of those in authority. In the present attitude of the Government towards Science, however, everything is not yet as it should be. Much of the practical value of this earnestness consists in the manner in which details are carried out,and there is one department of the administration in whicha spirit of mis- chief appears to delight in neutralising all efforts at improve- ment. The recent movement to compel all candidates for employment under Government to submit themselves to an educational test is in the main a good one; but it may be carried to an excessive, even to a ludicrous, extent. Tests are in themselves valueless, unless they are so contrived as to test the possession by the candidate of those qualifications which will best fit him for the office he aspires to fill. There are at the present time vacancies in one of our Government scientific establishments for two junior assistants, and the principal of the establishment was desirous of appointing two young men who possessed the needful qualifications of neat and orderly habits, punctua- lity, and obliging demeanour, and a love of Science for its own sake. The establishment in question has, however, the misfortune to be under the control of the Board of Works ; and when the authorities of this department heard of the vacancies, they insisted, notwithstanding the remonstrances of those most interested, in announcing them for public competition. The consequence will be that the posts will, in all probability, be given to those who display the best acquaintance with English History or French, but who have not proved themselves possessed of a single qualification for these particular posts, This Procrustean system of measuring all men by the same standard will not answer. The inevitable result will be to fill all the square holes with round men, and all the round holes with square men. As reasonably might we require all the clerks in the Foreign Office to be acquainted with the properties of the chemical elements, or every assist- ant in the library of the British Museum to be able to name the bones in the human skeleton; for these are as essential to the liberal education which every gentleman ought to possess, as a knowledge of English History or French. The system pursued in the British Museum, which is fortunately under the control of another depart- ment of the administration, would satisfy all reasonable requirements : that the principals of all establishments should have the right to nominate candidates to vacancies, subject to a qualification-test of their general acquirements. It is but fair that in departments where the efficiency of the subordinate officials depends so much on their willing- ness to co-operate heartily with their superiors, and on the possession of qualities which no examination can possibly test, the principals should have some voice in the appointment of those who may probably succeed to the offices they themselves occupy. An opportunity is thus also given for the encouragement of young scientific aspi- rants, who may be known as earnest and careful workers, but who would otherwise stand little chance of Govern- ment employ. We make these strictures in no carping spirit, but simply with a desire that the good work now commenced may not be marred by errors of administration. The only object of the system of competitive examinations, and of com- pelling all candidates for Government posts first to submit NATURE ‘ferns themselves to a qualification test, is in order that these | water at the bottom,and I have pointed out that such a_ offices may not be the refuge for genteel incompetence, | but may be bestowed on the most fitting aspirant. We fear the above facts will show that the present system is not calculated in all cases to secure this end. THE GIBRALTAR CURRENT R. CROLL having stated (NATURB, August 17) that, taking my own data, and having “in regard to the Gibraltar current and Dr, C.’s general oceanic cir- culation, determined the absolute amount of those effects on which his circulation depends,” he has satisfied him- self by mathematical investigation “that the work of the resistances greatly exceeds the work of gravity, and that consequently there can be no such circulation as that for which Dr, C. contends,"—I think it well to point out that the question of the existence of such a circulation is not to be disposed of C the calculations of even such an ex- pert computer as Mr, Croll, but must be decided by the collection and comparison of facts ascertained by observa- tion and experiment. Now, as it happens that an opportunity has been re- cently afforded me by the Hydrographer to the Admiralty of carrying out, in conjunction with Captain Nares, of H.M.S, SRearwerter, a series of farther researches on the Gibraltar current, which place beyond all doubt the outflow of dense Mediterranean water into the Atlantic, over the “ridge » or “marine watershed” between Capes Trafalgar and Spartel, and beneath the surface-inflow of | Adantie water, | would submit (1) whether there must not be some fundamental fallacy in Mr, Croll’s computations | in regard to the Gibraltar current, and (2) whether this fallacy should not destroy all confidence in the infalli- bility with which Mr, Croll credits himself in regard to the general oceanic circulation, No one can be more ready than myself to admit that this last doctrine is at present only a hypothesis, resting on a very narrow basis of fact. But as this hypothesis has been accepted as probable by such great masters in bali science as Sir John Herschel and Sir William homson, and as the means of putting it to the test will be supplied by the Scientific Circumnayigation Expedition, which (1 have every reason to expect) will be fitted out by Her Majesty’s Government next year, I would venture to Suggest whether prudence does not dictate to the opponents of that doctrine, that they should either drop further discussion of it for the present, or that at any rate they should refrain from attempting to demonstrate its impossibility, The number of NATURE which contained Mr, Croll’s letter, having also given an account of the discussion which took place in the Physical Section of the British Association on a communication I made to it with reference to this subject, | may mention that my especial purpose in that communication was to obtain the judg- ment of the able physicists there assembled, as to a fun- damental question at issue between my friend, Prof, Wyville Thomson, and myself, namely, the arwse of that flow of polar water over the deepest parts of the ocean bottom, bringing down its temperature even under the equator to 3355, as to the fact of which we are in entire agreement, By my excellent colleague it is considered® | that this flow is due to an_indraught of polar water, oc- casioned by the surface efflux of equatonal water result- ing from the action of the Trade Winds. To myself (not professing more than an elementary knowledge of physics) it seemed probable, on the principle of “least action,” that the surface-water so removed would be replaced by an inflow from some other part of the oceame surface, that is, by a horizontal circulation, rather than by an up- rising of the whole subjacent mass, so as to draw in polar *See his Address on “The Distritation of Temperature in the North Atlantic,” Natuas, July ap, i , contains, first, original memoirs ; surface-replacement is known to take place in the case c the Gulf Stream, one portion of which directly return into the equatorial current, completing the shorter cir- culation, whilst the other has its complement in the Green- land, Labrador, and other polar surface-currents, of which the principal is traceable southwards nearly as far as the — exit of the Gulf Stream from the Narrows, thus complet-— ing the longer circulation, The correctness of this “common-sense” judgment was most emphatically affirmed, on the basis of profound — physical knowledge, by Sir William Thomson and Prof. Stokes. It was agreed by these high authorities that in — the open ocean the action of wind on the surface can never produce any other than a surface movement; the _ water propelled onwards from one part of the oceanic. area being replaced by a surface inflow from other It is, therefore, for my opponents to explain how, other- wise than by gravity, it happens that polar water finds itself at the depth of 2,000 fathoms under the equator. That the bottom-temperature of the equatorial area, if there were no movement of polar water towards the equator, would be at least 20° higher than it is, may be asserted without the least hesitation ; the temperature of the Mediterranean, which is cut off from communication with the lower stratum of the Atlantic, (being 54° at corresponding depths, It was agreed by Sir William Thomson and Prof. Stokes, that when a wind blows continuously into a loch or ford, so as to produce a rise of water at its head tothe | amount of 6, 8, or 10 feet, such an excess ot vertical pres- sure produces an outward under-current ; the evidence of such outflow being afforded by the continuance of the surface In-current at the rate of three or four miles per hour, without any further increase in the rise of water at the head of the loch, This exceptional case was advanced by Sir W. Thomson as strongly confirming my general principle, not as invalidating it; and I would therefore recommend Mr, Croll to test his method of investigaton by this ascertained fact, rather than spend his time in demonstrating the impossibility of what he may hereafter have to admit as no less certainly proved. WILLIAM B, CARPENTER H.M.S, Shearwerfer, Malta, Sept. 29 SCIENCE IN ITALY [* NaTuRE for June 8, I sketched a short notice of same of the Italian scientific serials, among them the Annali di Chimica Applicata alla Medicina, published at Milan, With the commencement of the present the Gaseifa Chimica Jialiana has» been machel SE Palermo, The project of this publication originated in Florence with a society of Italian chemists, who met there in October last, and resolved to entrust the first year’s * direction » of the magazine to Prof, Stanilaus Cannizzaro of the University of Palermo, The Italian Chemical Gazette very nearly resembles the Feournal of the Chemical Society of Lender. Like this it second, translations or abstracts of the most important foreign chemical memoirs ; third, a review of technological chemistry, agricultural chemistry, and crystallography ; fourth, a summary of the principal chemical journals of Germany, England, and France ; fifth, miscellaneous notes that may be interesti to those who cultivate chemical science. It is published monthly, The most prominent, the longest, and most interesting of the original papers is by Prof. Cannizzaro; * Histori- cal notes and refiectians on the Application of the Atomic Theary to epee and on the Systems of ee for expressi e Constitution of Compounds. S — is cee in the number for January, April, and May, a aw Ea | Oct, 12, 1871] organic chemistry. NATURE 469 and is not yet completed. The following extract from the introductory observations will indicate the spirit in which it is written —“ A few are still dissatisfied with the argu- ments against the dualistic system, and continue to em- ploy the atomic weights of Berzelius, or the equivalents of elin ; and among those who have adopted the new System of atomic weights and formule, there are many who have done so merely in a spirit of concession, and make a display of scepticism respecting its intrinsic value ; others, on the contrary, push their faith to the extent of fanaticism, and give equal value to the essential and accessory parts of the system, or even cling to hypo- theses that merely lean against it or have been Second. They often speak on molecular subjects with as much dog- matic assurance as though they had actually realised the ingenious fiction of Laplace—had constructed a micro- scope by which they could detect the molecules, and ob- serve the number, form, and arrangement of their con- stituent atoms, and even determine the direction and intensity of their mutual actions, These things, which have been offered merely as hypotheses more or less probable, and to be taken for what they are worth as Simple artifices of the intellect, are valuable, and have done good service in collocating facts and inciting to further careful investigations that one day or other may lead to a true chemical theory ; but when perverted by being stated as actual truths, they falsify the intellectual education of students of inductive science, and bring re- proach upon the modern progress of chemical science.” We learned a great cee from Italy in the Middle Ages, and may yet learn more, I earnestly commend the above lesson to some of our laboratory aspirants, who are occu- pying themselves in ringing the changes upon organic compounds, and who afterwards describe their atomic achievements as glibly, mechanically, and confidently, as though they had been laying bricks or piling shot. An interesting paper (a note it is modestly called) on “The Absorbent Power of Red Phosphorus” is contri- buted to the May number, by Fausto Sestini, from the Laboratory of the Royal Technical Institute of Udine. (Udine is a small town, smaller than Croydon, and situ- ated about 7o milés N.E, of Venice. How many of such towns in England have Royal Technical Institutes with laboratories for original research?) The author finds that red phosphorus absorbs many substances without com- bining with them, after the manner of porous charcoal. Thus it may be made to take up 37369 per cent. of iodine, a considerable quantity of sulphur, rosaniline, &c. This | wer of “chemical adhesion * may be easily and strik- ingly shown by shaking powdered red phosphorus in a test tube containing a coloured solution of iodine in bisulphide of carbon. When a sufficient quantity of phosphorus is used, the whole of the iodine is taken up and the solvent rendered colourless. Rosaline is similarly removed from an etherial solution, and a portion of it may be again re- covered unaltered from the phosphorus by washing with alcohol. The July number contains some further contributions by Sestini from the same laboratory, on the proportions of bisulphide of carbon, its solubility in water, and the compounds formed by its contact with aqueous solutions of the oxides of the metals of the alkaline earths. Also some interesting communications from the laboratory of the University of Siena by Prof. G. Campani, among which is one showing that the absorption bands of an ammoniacal solution of carmine so closely coincide with those of blood, as to be undistinguishable in a spectro- scope with a scale of twenty degrees. Mr. Sorby will probably be able to tell us whether any difference ts dis- tinguishable by more minute examination. Lieben and Rossi contribute a series of rather impor- tant papers on some of the alcohols, and besides these there are some of the ordinary miscellaneous contributions to W. Marrisu WILLIAMS THE CRYSTAL PALACE AQUARIUM N Naturs of April 20 last appeared a short i. Stating that this © enterprise, of which great scientific use can certainly be made,” was taking form, and that when some of the marine animals were introduced, and the thing was in working order, a description of it would be given, The building undertaken by the Crystal Palace Aqua- rium Company was commenced in July 1870, much too late therefore to be opened when at first contemplated, April 1, 1871, though at Easter last half a dozen of the marine tanks were temporarily converted into freshwater ones, and some pike, tench, carp, eels, &c,, were shown therein for three days ; when the place was closed, and the progress of the works continued, and then the estab- lishment was finally opened on August 22, 1871, It would have been well if the sea-water had been in good condition in the early part of the summer, so that advantage might have been taken of the then exceptionally cool weather to transport some of the great abundance of animals at that time on the coasts of England; but that was not possible, and then; when the water wey fit, the weather became very hot, and the sending of many animals was thereby prevented, Such creatures as could be got, how- ever, were obtained, and the opportunity is now being taken of the present increasingly colder season to add other animals constantly, so that ina short time most of the tanks will be populated. The accompanying plan, on page 471, drawn to a scale of about soft. to rin., shows the ground occupied by the Aquarium and its adjuncts to be nearly 4ooft, long and ott. broad, and it is situated at the northern end of the Palace, on a portion of the site of it burnt in 1865. Itis of one story high, and, therefore, this ground plan shows everything, except the sea-water reservoir beneath the Saloon GG, extending under its whole width, and run- ning below Tanks 9 and 10, and going lengthwise from Eto H2, This reservoir contains $0,000 gallons of sea- water, and the tanks above contain 20,000 gallons, in all 100,000, gallons weighing a million pounds; and the fact of the aggregate contents of the tanks being only one-fourth of the contents of the reservoir, is extremely serviceable in keeping the water clear, as, supposing the water in, say tank ro (holding 4,000 gallons), became turbid from any cause, it can be emptied by syphons in less than an hour into the reservoir, where so comparatively small a quantity of fluid would not appreciably disturb the purity of so great a mass, from which, in less than half an hour, No, ro can again be filled, and thus all the tanks where animals exist, are, by being constantly pumped into, day and night, from the large, clear, and cool reser- voir below, where there are no creatures, kept ever in good order. The main aération which is thus depended on for the health of the creatures, is by these means produced by mechanical agitation, and the quantity of sea-weed neces- sary to decompose the poisonous carbonic acid gas evolved from the animals, which could not be effected by mechani- cal agitation, is grown upon the rocks of the aquarium by the action of light on the spores of algz existing invisibly in the water. As the motion of the water needs to be incessant, all the machinery is in duplicate, there being two boilers, each of four horse power, two steam-engines, each of three horse power, and two of Forbes’s patent pumps, and one of each is kept ever in action, the other being in reserve in case of accident. The sea-water issuing from the pumps at the rate (indicated by a counter, while a tell-tale clock furnishes evidence of the attention of three enginemen, each working for eight con- secutive hours) of from 5,000 to 7,000 gallons an hour, passes in the first place into the two highest tanks, 9 and 10, half into each, and from thence it runs, diverging north and south, as far as tanks 1S and 1, From 1§ it flows into 60, and from 1 into 39, in each case passing FRONT VIEW OF TANK NO. 10 (28 FEET LONG), CRYSTAL PALACE AQUARIUM, NATURE [Océ. 12, 1871 FRONT VIEW OF TANK NO, 9 (18 FEET LONG), CRYSTAL PALACE AQUARIUM, 47t NATURE Oct. 12, 1871] “65 pup ‘LS ‘9S ‘bS 01 zS ‘0S ‘gh ‘ob ‘Sh ‘Eb of 1b ‘QE 07 61 syunz ut poysuo av a2vGs fo yuvm sof y21ym ‘smosaD Ay Umoys st syunT 2yp ut dajvm-vI fo moxf fo uo}q274Ip 2Y[ *IOAIOSAY Ul 1OJBA\-vIaG Jo YSIoY Surmoys }LO] J “MOAIASAY 0} waysds Sunjepnos19 tH WON Ja}vA\-kaG JO vouEIjJUa Jo sjulod sayy ZH) sd 24 miaysks Durjey NOD 0} MOAIASAY WO 19]LM-vIS JO anssI jo JUIOg “gf 0} gz syuvy, Surd{ddns adig 19}va\-vag *Lz.0} 61 syuvy, SurAyddns adig 1aywa-vag "SI 0} 1 syuey Surdqddns sadig 19}vM-vag ‘sadig Suiywayy ‘woor snjyvivddy Sunjvopzy *(aqwatad) spunory aor[eg yua\ uorvorunWUOD ‘20 ONT {US “PIS ‘pavoqans 2101S ‘sjeuIUY 10J poo.y Sursedaad 10; qrig UOOIYIO AY *(pua saddn) A1oywasrasuod jo weg *A10JCAIVSUOD YIM uorjoUN ‘sdung wivajg omy, pue ‘soursuq wira}5 OM] pue ‘siajiog uiva}S OM], —+ SMO][OJ s¥ Suturejuo0d ‘ul00yY aN VY Iad O.l- Ath oo @G@eMOrD> NN WIA an > D.| (‘aqvartg) ‘09 0) 6£ syury, auuvyy paetseser Sururejuoa ‘Arayyey) s}urpusyy "gf 0} gz syury, suey Suturezuos ‘woo yyNoG ‘Lz 0} 61 syury ouueyy Sururejyuo0d ‘wooy yWoN ‘Ogi ‘agi ‘vgi ‘syuvy tayea-ysory payoafoid aa1yy ayy pur ‘gr 0} I syury, auuvyy Sururejuod ‘uoojeg uOO]|"S JO Spua YNos puv YyOU Jw sUI2ZI0G *saTqsuIn |, *(a1qqnd) spunory aovjegq yyIA uoryeoruNUITOD "S9SYOEJS AMOT[IG SUIOO1I10} “QOUl[eq 0} 9BSPOIIV}S *2OU[L WOIf ISLOIIL]G ree a]! »NQ \Fea [atta Bebb EEsyey = Ts = = BL ZEEEBEE 2 ee SS Ae phon 6 SS ee ee "WOIYVNOV ADVIVd TIVLSAUD AO NVId 472 NATURE [Oct. 12, 1871 below the floor of the gallery JjJ, and then the two currents converge centrally and fall together into the reservoir at tank 49. A portion of the water, how- ever, is arrested above tank 9, and is by separate pipes conveyed into the rooms H and 1, where, after cir- culating in the tanks 19 to 38, it finds its way to the reservoir below at F2 and G2. Independently, however, of the simple fall of water from one tank to another in steps of from 3 |to 6 inches in height in the series I to 18 (tanks 9 and: to being 6 feet high, while 1 and 18 are 3 feet high—all internally), other streams of water, mixed with great quantities of air in minute bubbles, are driven from the main pipe into all the tanks with force. through jets, so that myriads of such bubbles, controlled by stop- cocks, are forced in a state of fine division (resembling falling sand, or steam) nearly or quite down to the bottom of each tank, and thus the fluid is charged with as much atmospheric air as it will take up in open vessels. The amount of aération (which also depends much on the amount of water entering) varies much, according to the dimensions of the tanks. Thus, tank 10 holds 4,000 gallons, and tank 1 holds 400 gallons, and, as tank 10 has a stream equal to its own bulk running through it once an hour, it necessarily follows that as the same current flows through tank 1 (of only one-tenth the capacity of tank 10) then tank 1 has a stream equal to its bulk, ten times as often as tank 10, that is to say, once every six minutes, and as these grades of aération vary in all the tanks, they can be chosen according to the varying requirements of different kinds of animals. There is no intention to change the sea-water, but only to add from time to time a requisite quantity of distilled water to compensate for evaporation, and also to add whatever constituents the animals may deprive the sea-water of. For example, lobsters, crawfish, crabs, oysters, annelides with calcareous tubes, and many other animals, are constantly making new shells or adding to their old ones, and the matter is derived from the sea-water, and must be re-supplied.* The material used for the pumps, stop-cocks, and jets, and for nearly all the pipes (the exceptions being the stoneware pipes connecting tanks 39 to 60) is vulcanite, or hard india-rubber. This was recommended by Prof. Faraday for the purpose in 1857. In tanks 1 to 18 the creatures can be viewed only through the plate-glasses forming the fronts of the tanks; but in the twenty tanks of the rooms H and 1 (Nos. 19 to 38), which are made to contain small spe- cimens, the view is through the surface of the water, as well as through the glasses of the fronts, as in the table- cases of a museum. The shallowness of these tanks, varying in water-capacity frorn 40 to 270 gallons each, much increases both their aération and the accessibility of the objects they contain, and the much-shaded position of some of them, ¢.g., Nos. 19, 21, 25, 27, 28, 30, 34, and 36, affords meansof maintaining some organisms, both animal and vegetable, needing an unusual amount of darkness. For example, no green alga (Chlorosperms) will grow in the gloom of these tanks, while they are admirably suited for the A’odosperms (or red alge) whichalways flourish best in much obscurity. So, too, no direct sunlight can enter tank 1, and as it contains only sea-anemones, it may be expected that this intentional arrangement will some- what retard the usual fading of some of the colours of these animals when in aquaria. Tanks 1 to 18 are lighted from a source not seen by spectators in front of the glasses. In tanks 39 to 60 the view is only through the surface of the water. These twenty-two receptacles, each hold- ing about 300 gallons of sea-water, contain, or are intended to contain, creatures which are at intervals drafted into the show tanks (1 to 38) and, acting as reserves and not for public inspection, they enable large num- bers of animals to be purchased when they are to be cheaply and easily got, and thus these store-places in * The sea- water was supplied in casks by Mr, W, Hudson, of Brighton. part remove the uncertainty of supply, which hitherto has attended inland marine aquaria. They are also used to keep living food, as mussels and shrimps, for the other animals. For the general supply of the aquarium, the company possesses a large marine pond, in communication with the sea at every tide, and serving asa store, with a resident agent (Mr. C. Rogers),at Plymouth. This pondis capacious enough to furnish many animals, otherwise hard to be got, to all the public aquaria in Europe. The company has another agent (Mr. John Thompson) and store-place, at Southend, Essex; and supplies are obtained also from Weymouth, from Mr. R. T. Smith ; from Menaiin North Wales, from Mr. E. Edwards ; from Tenby,in South Wales, from Mr. W. Jenkins, together with other contributions from North and South Devonshire and the Channel Is- lands. Notwithstanding all these facilities, however, the difficulty of procuring animals in good health, and of suf- Nicient variety, and of right size, is very great—so great, indeed, on account of periods of excessive heat or cold, or rough weather, that there are probably not more thana dozen or fifteen weeks of any average year (with seldom a couple of weeks consecutively) in which animals can be most advantageously got, and this applies especially to fishes. The animals at present in the aquarium are the follow- ing* :—Sea-anemones, fourteen species ; tube and other worms, six species; star-fishes, three species; sea- urchins, lobsters, crawfish, edible-crabs, spider-crabs, swimming crabs, and various other crabs; prawns, two species; barnacles, oysters, mussels, cockles, and scallops; whelks, periwinkles, dogwinkles, and tops ; cuttles, two species ; and many fishes, as skate, angel-fish, launce, pipe-fish, lump-fish, and sucking-fish ; sole, plaice, cod, whiting-pout, whiting, and rockling; wrasse, four species; goby, three species; blenny, three species ; dragonet, gunnel, grey-mullet, sea-bream, sea-scorpion, two species ; pogge, gurnard, weever, and basse. All of these have to be fed constantly, many of them hourly, throughout the day, except on Sundays; and as for the sea- anemones, of which there are already in the aquarium over 3,090 individuals, everyone of them has a morsel of food proportioned to its size given it at frequent intervals witha pair of wooden forceps, by an attendant whose sole occu- pation this is, as these flower-like creatures being so very non-locomotive as to be almost absolutely fixed, cannot pursue their food, or in an aquarium obtain it in any other manner, they being deprived of the actual ocean, every wave of which, when the animals are in a state of nature, bringing them nutriment which is arrested by their out- spread and waving tentacles, * Marine Animals in the Crystal Palace Aquarium, from August 20 to October 10, 1871.—1. Actinoloba dianthus. 2. Sagartia bellis. 3. Sagartia miniata. 4. Sagartia rosea. 5. Sagartia venusta. 6. Sagartia nivea. 7. Sagartia troglodytes. 8. Sagartia viduata. 9. Sagartia parasitica. ro. Anthea cereus, x11. Actinia mesembryanthemum. 12. Bunodes Ballii. 13. Tealia ornis. 14. Cerianthus Lloydii. 15. Uraster rubens. 16, Cribella 17. Solaster papposa. 18, Sipunculus Bernhardus. 19. Nemertes Sabella reniformis. 22. Sabella 24. Sabella tubularia~ 25. Serpula con- 27. Spirorbis communis. 28. Gam- 30. Palamon squilla. 31. Crangon 20. Terebella conchilega. 21. unispira, 23. Terebella penicillus. tortuplicata. 26. Serpula triquetra. marus locusta. 29. Palazmon serratus. vulgaris. 32. Homarus marinus. 33. Palinurus quadricornis. 34. Pagurus Bernhardus. 35. Galathea strigosa. 36. Galathea squamifera. 37. Por- cellana platycheles. 38. Pinnotheres pisum. 39. Portunus puber. 40. Portunus depurator. 41. Carcinus Mznas. 42. Pilumnus hirtellus. 43. Xanthis florida. 44. Xanthis rivulosa. 45. Cancer pagurus. 46. Maia Squinado. 47. Hyas araneus. 48. Inachus Dorsettensis. 49. Steno- rhynchus phalangium. 50. Balanus balanoides. 51. Lepas anatifera. 52. Ascidia mentula. 53. Cardium echinatum. Anomia ephippium. 56. Eolis coronata. 57. Aplysia punctata. 58. Purpura lapillus. 59. Buccinum undatum, 60. Nassa reticulata. 61. Murex erinaceus. 62. Sepiola Rondeletii. 63. Octopus vulgaris. 64. Raia batis. 65. Squatina angelus. 66. Scyllium canicula, 67. Hippocampus brevirostris. 68. Syngnathusacus. 69. Ammodytes lancea. 7o. Anguilla acutirostris. 7x. Cyclopterus lumpus. 72. Liparis vulgaris. 73. Solea vulgaris. 74. Platessa vulgaris. 75. Motella vulgaris. 76. Merlangus vulgaris. 77. Morrhua vulgaris. 78. Labrus maculatus. 79. Labrusmixtus. 80. Crenilabrus melops. 81. Crenilabrus rupestris. 82. Callionymus lyra. 83. Gobius niger. 84. Gobius unipunctatus. 85. Gobius Ruthensparri. 86. Blennius pholis. 87. Blennius gattorugine. 88. Muranoides guttata. 89. Zoorces viviparus. go. Mugil capito. gx. Pagellus centrodontus. 92. ‘Tottus bubalis 93. Cottus scorpius. 094. Asphidophorus cataphractus. 95. Criglia hirundo. 96, Labree lupus. 54. Mytilus edulis. 55. Oct. 12, 1871] NATURE 473 ‘ The food consumed by a very few of the animals now present in the aquarium is vegetable, consisting of green seaweeds (Ulva, Porphyra, Enteromorpha, &c.), but by far the greater number have animal food given them. This consists of shrimps (alive or dead), crabs, mussels, oysters, and fish, but “ butcher’s meat” they never get. Thelarge amount of organic matter thus continually (from 8 A.M, till 6 P.M. on six days a week) placed in the water, and the correspondingly great quantity of excrementitious matter resulting from it, is nearly all rendered harmless by being “decomposed chemically by the oxygenation of the streams of water, and by the growing vegetation, without the use of any filter, and without the water being made turbid. In fact, the circulating system of the water in this aquarium is similar to, and avowedly made on the general model of, the circulating system of the blood of many of the animals which the aquarium itself maintains in life and health. Thus, the steam engine represents a heart, the coals con- sumed by the boilers are the food, the pipes are the veins and arteries, and the wide spreading air-charged streams of water discharged at the jets are the lungs. Very few deaths occur, and the condition of the creatures will be further improved when the vegetation will have grown more. There are, however,reasons for supposing that not in any aquarium yet devised can any pelagic animals be permanently kept, and that therefore the bulk of speci- mens must be littoral creatures. But there are many marine animals and plants, both of the deep sea and the shore, which at present cannot be kept in captivity at all. The reason of this is in some cases known, but with others there is not the smallest clue as to the means to be adopted for their successful maintenance. In front of tanks 1 to 18 are placed obliquely, and over tanks 19 to 38 are suspended vertically, glazed frames to contain drawings of the animals. These pictures will be numbered to correspond with the numbered descriptive paragraphs of a guide-book now being prepared for the aquarium, so that any animal can be readily found. Al- though tank No. 1 contains exclusively sea-anemones, and thus properly commences with the lower animals, yet the classification of the creatures throughout the building is not made with reference to any acknowledged system founded on organisation, but the creatures are, so far as the limits of the place permit, arranged with refer- ence to Aadzts rather than s¢ructure, and in such manner that, as much as possible, one animal shall not interfere injuriously with another. The building is very cool in summer. Thus, during the hottest part of the season just passed through, when the true temperature of the general atmosphere in the shade was 88° F., that of the air in the aquarium was only 68° F., and the sea-water never rose higher than 63° F. For winter, hot-water pipes are arranged to main- tain the temperature of the air from 60° F. to 65° F. The ventilation everywhere is remarkably good, and there is no tank in any of the entire series of sixty, which cannot be brought into free contact, when needed, with the open air. The amount of daylight can also be very exactly regu- lated ; and as, for the exhibition of the aquarium on winter evenings, it will be necessary to use powerful artificial illumination, some experiments are now being made on the best mode of lighting it, but it is not precisely known what will be the behaviour, in artificial light, of animals a great number of which are more or less nocturnal, Indeed, in an aquarium the difficulty ever is to show animals which endeavour to avoid being seen. The architect, Mr. C. H. Driver, of Victoria Street (the builders being Messrs. Jackson and Son),* has shown much ingenuity in turning to good account every part of the space placed at his disposal, and in his simplicity of design he has not disobeyed any law of service in con- * “Buildings for scientific purposes should be plain and useful above all things, 7 appearance as in fact.” —PROF, RUSKIN, struction, in any case. Everything is done with a meaning, and with a definiteand obvious purpose. Thus, as animals cannot exist with comfort without rock-work in the tanks, it has been plentifully introduced ; but whatever picturesqueness of form it possesses, is merely a conse- quence of its being in the first place useful, and so strictly and severely is this principle carried out, that such rock- work does not project anywhere even an inch above the water’s level, instead of being employed, as in most Continental aquaria, that of Berlin in particular, in the spectator’s part of the building, where it is not wanted, and where, being perfectly useless, it is therefore ugly, and is merely an expensive excrescence. Everything in the Crystal Palace Aquarium is made to look like what it is, and not like something else, and not to pretend to be some other and more expensive material. Thus, if deal wood for its preservation is necessary to be painted, it is not also grained to look like oak or walnut-wood. Nor is cement squared withi mitation masonry joints, or otherwise treated so as to looklikestone. Noristhereany use of sham marble, It was certainly deemed advisable to make the building externally to correspond in general appearance with the arched and other iron framings which compose the Crystal Palace adjoining, and in which the glass of that edifice is set, but even then, this framing on the out- side of the aquarium walls is employed usefully to strengthen those walls, which are purposely made in- sufficiently strong if such framing were absent. And wherever, either outside or inside the place, a little en- richment has been indulged in, it properly consists only in the decoration of construction, and not in the construc- tion of decoration. Systematiceconomy inthis Aquarium is in fact throughout observed in such manner that the largest number and variety of animals may be preserved in the best condition in the smallest space. The two woodcuts on page 470, each ona scale of half an inch to one foot, represent the pair of largest tanks, Nos. 9 and 10, inhabited by crawfish and other crusta- ceans, and by wrasse, grey mullet, and other fishes. The front of each tank is composed of three pieces of glass, divided and supported at equal distances from either end by two large vertical mullions of slate and iron, and sub- divided by three other and smaller vertical mullions of iron only. These six glasses, each measuring six feet square and one inch thick, are among the heaviest polished plates made in this country, by Messrs. Goslett and Co., and the water pressure on their aggregate surfaces amounts to 46,656 lbs., or nearly twenty-one tons. W. A. LLoyp THE BIRDS OF THE LESSER ANTILLES* (hee Lesser West Indian Islands, although mostly belonging to Great Britain and inhabited by a large number of intelligent colonists, and moreover easily accessible from our shores by a regular fortnightly line of packets, have hitherto been strangely neglected as regards their zoology. Of their botany we have an excellent account by Dr. Grisebach, published under the energetic superintendence of the authorities of the Herbarium at Kew. Iam anxious to call the attention of the students of NATURE to what an interesting field here lies available for investigation,—particularly as regards the ornithology of these islands. The West Indian Islands seem to me to constitute a distinct subdivision of the neo-tropical region, which may be called the Swb-regio Antillensis. This sub-region is divisible into two portions, which correspond to the two usually recognised divisions of the islands into the Greater and Lesser Antilles, The former of these is characterised by the presence of the remarkable mammal-forms So/e- * Principally extracted from a paper read before the Zoological S on March 21, 1871, 474 NATURE [ Oct. 12, 1871 nodon, Capromys, and Plagiodon ; and by several peculiar types of ornithic life, such as Spindalis, Sporadinus, Todus, and Saurothera, which run on as far as Porto Rico, but do not cross into the Lesser Antilles. The latter, if we put the Chiroptera aside, present but few traces of mammal_-life, except one or two species of Agouti (Dasy- procta) and Mouse (Hesferomys), but are tenanted by certain characteristic forms of birds, such as Rampho- cinclus, Cinclocerthia, Orthorhynchus, and Eulampis, which are not found in the Greater Antilles. The ornithology of the Greater Antilles is now tolerably well known to us, although specimens from most of the islands are rare in collections and difficult to obtain. The Lesser Antilles, on the other hand, are still very imper- fectly investigated as regards their birds, many of them being, so far as I know, still unvisited by any naturalist or collector. There can be no doubt, however, that every one of them is well worthy of being worked at, and that the results to be obtained from a thorough examination of the whole group would be of great importance towards a more complete knowledge of the laws of distribution. To show how slight our acquaintance is with this subject and how much remains to be done, I will mention the principal islands or island-groups in order, and specify what know- ledge we have of their ornithology. 1. The Virgin Islands.—Out of these islands we may, I think, assume that we have a fair acquaintance with the birds of St. Thomas, the most frequently visited of the group, and the halting-place of the West Indian mail- steamers. Mr, Riise, who was long resident here, col- lected and forwarded to Europe many specimens, some of which were described by myself,* and others are spoken of by Prof. Newton, in a letter published in the Jdzs for 1860, p. 307. Mr. Riise’s series of skins is now, I believe, at Copenhagen. Frequent allusions to the birds of St. Thomas are also made by Messrs. Newton in their memoir of the birds of St. Croix, mentioned below. In the “ Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia,” for 1860, p. 374, Mr. Cassin has given an account of a collection of birds made in St. Thomas by Mr. Robert Swift, and presented to the Academy : twenty- seven species are enumerated. Quite at the extreme end of the Virgin Islands, and lying between them and the St. Bartholomew group, is the little islet of Sombrero, “anaked rock about seven-eighths of a mile long, twenty to forty feet above the level of the sea, and from a few rods to about one-third of a mile in width.” Although “ there is no vegetation whatever in the island over two feet high,” and it would seem to bea most unlikely place for birds, Mr. A. A. Julien, a correspondent of Mr. Lawrence, of New York, succeeded in collecting on it specimens of no less than thirty-five species, the names of which, together, with Mr. Julien’s notes thereupon, are recorded by Mr. Lawrence in the eighth volume of the “ Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History of New York” (p. 92). The remaining islands of the Virgin group are, I believe, most strictly entitled to their name, so far as ornithology is concerned, for no collector on record has ever polluted their virgin soil. Prof. Newton (Zdzs, 1860, p. 307) just alludes to some birds from St. John, in the possession of Mr. Riise. 2. Sz. Croix.—On the birds of this island we have an excellent article by Messrs. A. and E, Newton, published in the first volume of the /dzs.+ This memoir being founded on the collections and personal observations of the distinguished authors themselves, and having been worked up after a careful examination of their specimens in England, and with minute attention to preceding autho- rities, forms by far the most complete account we possess of the ornithology of any one of the Lesser Antilles. It, however, of course requires to be supplemented by addi- * Ann. N. H.ser. 3, vol. iv. p. 225 ; and P. Z, S, 1860, p, 314. t Ibis, 1859, pp. 59, 138, 252, and 365. tional observations, many points having been necessarily left undetermined, and it is much to be regretted that no one seems to have since paid the slightest attention to the subject. 3. Anguilla, St. Martin, and St. Bartholomew.—Of this group of Islands St. Bartholomew alone has, as faras I know, been explored ornithologically, and that within a very recent period. In the Royal Swedish Academy’s “ Proceedings ” for 1869 will be found an excellent article by the veteran ornithologist, Prof. Sundevall, on the birds of this island, founded on a collection made by Dr, A. von Goés. Thespecies enumerated are forty-seven in number, amongst which the most interesting perhaps is the Zz- phonia flavifrons, originally obtained, along with one or two other species, in the latter part of the last century, and figured by Sparrman in his “Museum Carlsonianum,” along with several other species from the same island. 4. Barbuda.—Of this British island I believe I am correct in saying that nothing whatever is known of its ornithology, or of any other branch of its natural history. 5. St. Christopher and Nevis, to which may be added the adjacent smaller islands St. Eustathius and Saba.— Of these islands also our ornithological knowledge is of the most fragmentary description. Mr, T. J. Cottle was, I believe, formerly resident in Nevis, and sent a few birds thence to the British Museum in 1839. Amongst these were the specimens of the Humming-birds of that island, which are mentioned by Mr. Gould in his well-known work. Of the remainder of this group of islands we know absolutely nothing. 6. Antigua.—Of this fine British island I regret to say nothing whatever is known as regards its ornithology, Amongst the many thousands of American birds that have come under my notice during the past twenty years, I have never seen a single skin from Antigua. 7. Montserrat.—Exactly the same as the foregoing is the case with the British island of Montserrat. 8. Guadaloupe, Deseadea, and Marie-galante.—An ex- cellent French naturalist, Dr. ! Herminier, was for many years resident as physician in the Island of Guadaloupe. Unfortunately, however, he never carried into execution the plan which I believe he contemplated of publishing an account of the birds of that island. He sent a certain number of specimens to Paris and to the late Baron de la Fresnaye, to whom we are indebted for the only article ever published on the birds of Guada- loupe,* or of the adjacent islands. 9. Dominica.—Dominica is one of the few of the Caribbean Islands that has had the advantage of a visit from an active English ornithologist. Although Mr. E. C. Taylor only passed a fortnight in this island in 1863, and had many other matters to attend to, he nevertheless contrived to preserve specimens of many birds of very great interest, of which he has given us an account in one of his articles on the birds of the West Indies, published in the /dzs for 1864 (p. 157). It cannot be supposed, however, that the birds of this wild and beautiful island can have been exhausted in so short a space of time, even by the energetic efforts of our well-known fellow-labourer. 10. Martinigue.—Thisisland is one of the few belonging to the Lesser Antilles in which bird-skins are occasionally collected by the residents, and find their way into the hands of the Parisian dealers. There are also a certain number of specimens from Martinique in the Musée d’Histoire Naturelle in the Jardin des Plantes, which I have had an opportunity of examining ; but beyond the vague notices given by Vieillot in his “ Oiseaux de YAmérique du Nord,” I am not aware of any publication relating specially to the ornithology of this island. Mr. E. C. Taylor passed a fortnight in it in 1863, and has re- corded his notes upon the species of birds which he met with in the excellent article which I have mentioned * Rev. Zool, 1844, p. 167. | et, 12, 1871 | above, but these were only few in number. The Interna- tional Exhibition in 1862 contained, in the department devoted to the products of the French colonies, a small series of the birds of Martinique, exhibited by M. Bélanger, Director of the Botanical Garden of St. Pierre, in that island.* This is all the published information I have been able to find concerning the birds of Martinique.} 12. S¢. Lucta.—Of this island I believe there is no pub- lished ornithological information whatever. The little knowledge of its avifauna which I possess is derived from two sources : first, a few specimens in the Paris Museum obtained by, Bonnecourt, a French collector, who visited the island in 1850 and 1851 on his way to Central America ; and, secondly, a small series of unpublished coloured drawings in the library of the Zoological Society by Lieut. Tyler, who formerly contributed to the “ Proceedings” some notes on the reptiles of thatisland.{ These drawings although rough and unfinished, are characteristic and mostly recognisable, 13. S¢. Vencent.—St. Vincent was formerly the residence of an energetic and most observant naturalist, the Rev. Lansdown Guilding, F.L.S., who, however, unfortunately died at an early age in this island without having carried out his plans for a fauna of the West Indies. _ Mr. Guilding paid most attention to the invertebrate animals, but his collection contained a certain number of ‘birds, amongst which was a new parrot, described after his decease by Mr. Vigors as Psittacus Guildingti, and “probably a native of St. Vincent. 14. Grenada and the Grenadines.—Of the special or- -nithology of this group nothing is known. __ 15. &arbados.—The sole authority upon the birds of ‘Barbados is Sir R. Schomburgk’s well-known work on that island. || This contains (p. 681) a list of the birds ‘met with, accompanied by some few remarks. It does not, however, appear that birds attracted much of the author’s attention, and more copious notes would be highly desirable. Although Tobago and Trinidad are geographically reckoned in the Windward division of the Lesser Antilles, they have zoologically, I believe, nothing whatever to do with them. Both have been peopled with life from the adjacent mainland ; or, if in the case of Tobago this was ot originally the case, it has been overrun with conti- nental species, and, as well as Trinidad, now presents few, if any, traces of Antillean ferms. Of the ornithology of both of these islands we have excellent accounts ; of that of Tobago by Sir William Jardine,** from the collections of Mr. Kirk ; and of that of Trinidad more recently from the pens of Dr. Léotaud ++ and Dr. Finsch.tt P, L. SCLATER F REMARKS ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS EACHERS and students alike must feel grateful to Dr. Dickson for his “Suggestions on Fruit Clas- sification.” The number of names applied to varieties of fruit renders the study most laborious ; and as many of the varieties are closely related, the useless names ought at once to be got rid of One thing strikes me as being a defect in Prof. Dickson’s classification, and that is the employment of certain of the terms in two different ways. For example he uses the terms Achzene, Berry, * See article on Ornithology in the International Exhibition, 74s, 1862, p. 288. + On animals formerly living in Martinique, but now extinct, see Guyon, Compt. Rend. Ixiii., p. 589 (1866) - tT See P.Z.S. 1849 and 1850. § See his sketch of his plans, ‘Zool. Journ.,” ii. p. 437- || ‘‘ History of Barbados.” London, 1847. ** Annals of Nat. Hist., vols. xviil., xix., xx. (1846-47). ++ Oiseaux de l’ile de la Trinidad, Port of Spain, 1866. tt See Proc, Zool. Soc., 1870, p. 552. He died in 1832. NATURE { 475 and Drupe, in a broad and in a restricted sense. In a broad sense as the name of the gezus, if one may so speak, and again uses the same word as a trivial name— a species as it were of the genus. The same isalso true of his group of capsules, only he thinks a new name might be given to the fruits generally called capsules. It is un- fortunate that four out of his five groups should be open to such an objection, and every teacher will at once be able to appreciate the difficulty which the student must have when the same word is used both in a broad and in a restricted sense. The term Schizocarp seems to be a very admirable one, and I do not think the terminology of fruits would be in any way burdened if a few more re- sembling it were used, It is not without a very great deal of hesitation that I venture to suggest that new terms should be applied to Dr. Dickson’s four groups, Capsule, Achzene, Berry, and Drupe. I think that it is much less objectionable to introduce a few more terms, if distinctive and apposite, than resort to the difficult, and at all times confusing, expedient of using these words in a double sense. Taking the word Schizocarp as a type, I venture to suggest the term Achzenocarp for the group of Achaenes as used by Dr. Dickson, thus avoiding all confusion, and allowing the term Achzene to remain in its restricted sense. Regmacarp I would apply to the group of capsules, using the term capsule for one division of the group. Pyrenocarp seems applicable to the drupes, and Coccocarp to the berries. The derivation of these terms at once explains their application. Achzenocarp, from a, privative; chazvo, I open; and farfos, fruit. Regmacarp from vega, a rupture, in allusion to the dehiscence. Pyrenocarp from fyren, the stone of the fruit ; and Coccocarp from sokkos, a berry. In using these terms I would employ them in the following man- ner :— I, Dry Indehiscent Fruits. 1. Achznocarps. Carpels one or few-seeded. A. Glans. Pericarp hard and thick. B. Achzne. Pericarp thin. Including the varieties Caryopsis and Cypsela. 2. Schizocarps. Carpels breaking up into indehiscent portions. A. Carcerulus. Breaking longitudinally, no forked carpophore. B. Cremocarp. Breaking longitudinally, a forked carpophore, C. Lomentum. Breaking transversely. D. Dischisma. Breaking longitudinally, and then transversely. Fruit of Platystemon, The term, which is new, is derived from ds and schisma,a division. II. Dry Dehiscent Fruits. 3. Regmacarps. A. Follicle. Simple, dehisces by one suture. B. Legume. Simple, dehisces by both sutures. C, Capsule. Compound, dehisces longitudinally, transversely, or by pores. D. Regma. Compound, dehisces by rupture along inner angle of lobes. III. Succulent Indehiscent Fruits. 4. Pyrenocarps. Endocarp indurated. A. Drupe. One stone, simple or plurilocular. B. Pome. Two or more-stoned, ovary superior or inferior. 5. Coccocarps. Seeds ina pulp. A. Uva. Ovary superior, thick or thin skinned. B. Bacca. Ovary inferior, thick or thin skinned. IV. Succulent Dehiscent Fruits, A. Succulent Capsule. ¢,g., A2sculus, Balsamina. B. Dehiscent Drupe. ¢.g., Walnut. C. Dehiscent Berry. eg., Nutmeg, Squirting Cu- cumber, Vuphar advena. W. R. McNas 476 NATURE [ Oct. 12, 1871 NOTES WE greatly regret to have to announce that the state of the venerable Prof. Sedgwick’s health is such that he will be unable to deliver his usual course of lectures during the ensuing academical year. His place will be filled pro tem. by Mr. John Morris, Professor of Geology at University College, London. Though we cannot but regret the cause which has taken Prof. Morris to Cambridge, his nomination by Prof. Sedgwick to serveas his deputy is a cause of congratulation to the University. In Sir John F. Burgoyne, F.R.S., who died on Saturday last, in the goth year of his age, the English army has lost the most eminent man of science among her officers. In both civil and military capacities, as chairman of the Board of Public Works in Ireland from 1830 to 1845, and at the Siege of Sebastopol, he evinced engineering talents of no ordinary kind. Sir John Burgoyne’s only son perished in the Caf/ain, being in command of that ill-fated vessel. Dr. HENRY S. WILSON has been appointed Demonstrator of Anatomy at the University of Cambridge. Dr. Wilson formerly held a simi'ar office in the University of Edinburgh. Tue Professor of Chemistry at Cambridge, Mr. Liveing, will give instruction in practical chemistry on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays at1 P.M. The instruction will be given at the University Laboratory. The Laboratory will be open for stu- dents daily from ten A.M. until six P.M. The Demonstrator (Mr, Hicks, B.A.) will attend to give in-truction on mornings and afternoons alternately. The Professor of Chemistry will deliver a course «f lectures in Spectrum Analysis and some other special b-anches of chem stry on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays at noon, commencing on October 26, in the Chemical Lecture-room, next Downing Street. No fee will be required of those wh» do not wish for a certificate. THE Oxford School of Science and Art, in connection with the Science and Art Department of the Council on Education, South Kensington, has been granted the use of the New University Museum at Oxford, where lectures will be given this month on Mathematics (Elementary), Magnetism and Electricity, Animal Physiology, and Inorganic Chemistry. We regard this act of the University as one of very good omen. THE combined examination held by Magdalen and Merton Colleges for scholarships in mathematics and natural science terminated on Saturday, when the following elections were de- clared :—Magdalen College : Demyship in Mathematics—Mr, R. R. Corkling, Manchester Grammar School. Demyships in Natural Science—Mr. E. Steel, Manchester Grammar School ; Mr. G. R. Christie, Magdalen Coilege School. Proxime accesserunt for natural science demyship—Mr. Hamsworth, Mr. Hopwood, Manchester Grammar School. Merton College : Mathematical postmastership—Mr. F. G. Stokes, Cowbridge. Natural Science postmastership—Mr. Lane, Cheltenham Grammar School. There were fourteen candidates for the mathematical and sixteen candi- dates for the natural science foundations. AT the Oldham School of Science and Art, three Queen’s medals have been awarded by the Department to the artisan students of this school, the silver medal for mathematics to John Armitage ; a bronze medal for machine construction and drawing to John Robertson ; a bronze medal for applied mechanics to Thomas Marsden. Mr. Armitage has also gained a Whitworth Scholar- ship this year. WE have received the examination papers for the Scholarship and Exhibition ia Natural Science recently award by St. Mary’s Hospital Medical School. The questions appear to have been very carefully framed to show the attainments of the candidates in chemistry, physics, zoology, and botany, and we congratulate this young school on setting so admirable an example to its older sisters in encouraging a real knowledge of science among its students. EARL GRANVILLE has shown his interest in scientific instrue- tion by offering prizes in chemistry, mechanics, and mathematics to the examinees at the Margate centre of the Oxford Local Examinations. To Sir John Lubbock, who has recently been twitted on his predilections for prehistoric man, we commend a letter which has recently appeared in the Zimes to the effect that a large sec- tion of the old Temple of Avebury has just been parcelled off into building allotments, and that the remainder is likely to be similarly dealt with before long. It may be that from a utilitarian point of view this can no longer matter, inasmuch as this cele- brated remnant of the ‘‘ Stone Age” has been so thoroughly wrecked that scarce anything now remains of it. According to Dr. Stukely, the Temple was nearly perfect in the time of Charles II., who visited it, and had plans and drawings made, copies of which are reproduced in Dr. Stukely’s works. There were then standing between 200 and 300 stones, and it was, in his opinion, as superior to Stonehenge as a cathedral would be toa parish church. All that now remains of this wonderful monument, and of the two avenues, each of nearly a mile in leng:h, by which it was approached, is about two-thirds of the great circular earthen mound by which it was enclosed and about twenty of the stones. The rest have been utilised by the in- habitants of the village to build their cottages, erect their parish church, make bridges, stone fences, and mend the road. It is said that a beershop was built out of a single stone. This is encouraging ! THE death is announced of Mr. Thomas Pilgrim, engineer, who died on the 6thinst., at the age of seventy-one years, at his son’s residence at Plumstead. For the last thirty-five years Mr. Pilgrim was intimately associated with Mr. Francis Pettit Smith, and with the introduction of the screw-propeller. He acted as chief engineer of the Archimedes, the first ship ever sent to sea propelled by the screw. THE annual Exhibition of Fungi was held at the Royal Hor- ticultural Gardens, on Wednesday the 4th inst., and was decidedly better than any of its predecessors. Nearly all the British edible and poisonous fungi were shown in a living state, including several rare species. The visitors showed the greatest possible interest in the plants exhibited, and the Fungus exhibition was one of the best attended of the year. The prizes for the best collections of edible and poisonous species, offered by Mr. W. W. Saunders, were in the first place awarded to Mr. English and Mr. W. G. Smith ; but, through some informality on the part of these exhibitors, the first prize was ultimately conferred on Messrs, Hoyle and Austin, of Reading. MARLBOROUGH COLLEGE has taken an honourable lead among our public schools in the cultivation of science, and we therefore turned over with more than ordinary interest the leaves of the Report of its Natural History Society for the haif-year ending Midsummer 1871, just received. We do not look to these reports for papers of original research that materially ad- vance our scientific knowledge ; rather, for such as will in the first place show an accurate and careful observation of the phe- nomena of nature on the part of the writer ; and, secondly, that will promote the study of natural history among his hearers. We are disposed, therefore, to agree with the secretaries that the production at the meetings of these societies of papers which show a very limited amount of knowledge, if only such know- ledge as is shown be the result of honest work, is better than having no papers at all, and to endorse their remark in the pre- face, that ‘‘failure is the indispensable ingredient of success ; Oct. 12, 1871] NATURE 477. eo that if the Society is worth anything = all, it is strong enough to outlive many unsuccessful papers.” Judged by this ya “standard, the Report before us is decidedly satisfactory. A few gly of the papers read during the half are printed at length ; “put they contain evidence of much careful work in the various departments of natural science. Only one field day was held during the half; and the further publication of the new edition of the ‘‘ Marlborough Flora” is postponed till the next number. “The committee reports that the Botanical Garden, which was i last half in the corner of.the Wilderness, has fully pe ealised the hopes of its originators. We confidently expect from the Marlborough College Natural History Society a long career of usefulness, and no small share in moulding the scientific tastes of the rising generation. IN ow last week’s number we referred to the Burmese hairy eat, A correspondent of the Zies has supplied some addi- ional information, He writes: ‘‘ When I was at Mandalay in 1859, I saw the same woman and three of her children, The eldest and youngest were hairy like their mother, while the second, like his father, presented no such peculiarity. The hus- ‘band was a man who report said had been induced to wed this woman to become possessed of the marriage portion which the ‘King of Burmah had promised to bestow upon her on her bridal day. The bridegroom was a plucky individual at any rate, though his motives may have been somewhat mercenary. The hairy “woman, whose name I now forget, had a pleasant and intelligent face—there was nothing whatever repulsive in it. The hair on the face and breast was several inches long ; on the forehead it was parted in the middle, and blended with that of her head. Of a light brown colour on her cheeks, it paled gradually towards the bridge of her nose, and the centre of her lips, chin, and neck, ‘Those of your readers who have a copy of Colonel Yule’s narra- tive of the embassy to Ava will see a good likeness of the woman ‘and a description of herself and family.” THE fall Mall promises a novelty in literary publications. ‘An English periodical is to be printed in {Berlin, bearing the title of The German Quarterly Magazine. Its object is to make ‘the treasures of German learning accessible to the English speak- ‘ing public. Two of the most eminent literary men of Germany, Profs. Virchow and Von Holtzendorff, have undertaken its joint ‘management, conducting the editing alternately, so as to offer in one number articles chiefly on Natural Science under the great physician’s direction, and in the following essays on historical and political subjects published under M. Von Holtzendorff's super- vision. Messrs. ASHER AND Co. announce for November, ‘‘ Man in the Past, Present, and Future : a Popular Account of the Re- ‘sults of Recent Scientific Research, as regards the Origin, Posi- tion, and Prospects of the Human Race;” translated from the German of Dr. L. Biichner, by Mr. W.S. Dallas, F. LS. THE first two parts are published of a new edition of Griffith and Henfrey’s ‘‘ Micrographic Dictionary.” The names of the editors, Dr. J. W. Griffith, the Rev. M. J. Berkeley, and Prof, T. Rupert Jones, are a guarantee that the treatment of the various subjects will be carried down to the present state of scientific knowledge ; and that the book will be indispensable to every biologist and student of the microscope. ’ Mr. Ropert Gray, late Secretary to the Natural History Society of Glasgow, has issued a prospectus of his work shortly to be published, “ The Birds of the West of Scotland, including the Outer Hebrides, with Occasional Records of the Rarer Species throughout Scotland generally.” Since the publication of the works of Sir William Jardine, Prof. Macgillivray, and Mr. Selby, nothing in a collected form on the Birds of Scotland has been brought under the notice of ornithologists, and the book seems likely to fill a useful place in ornithological literature. A NEw description of lamp for street lighting has recently been experimented on in London, the principle of which is the application of reflectors, in order to bend down and utilise the amount of light which is at present wasted by upward radiation. It is manifest that the rays of light from a street lamp which now strike the eye of a spectator placed on the ground are only a small portion of those actually emitted by the flames. The rays which pass through the upper portions of the sides of the lantern, or through its sloping roof, are entirely dissipated, or at best, if partially and imperfectly reflected by clouds or atmo- spheric particles, become visible only in the form of the red glow which overhangs a distant town. Mr. Skelton, the inventor, calculates that about two-thirds of the light given by the gas flame are in this way lost, and he has arranged strips of looking- glass in such a way that the loss will be effectually prevented. The upper half of each side of the lamp, and the whole of each side of the sloping roof, are occupied by a frame, in which the strips are placed with their reflecting surfaces downwards, in a manner somewhat analagous to the laths of a Venetian blind. The precise character of the effect produced will depend upon the distance of the strips apart, upon their width, and upon their angle of inclination ; but the general result is, subject to small variations, that the street receives three times as much light as would fall upon it through lanterns of the ordinary kind. The frames holding the strips are glazed on both sides, and made dust-proof, so that the mirrors will not themselves become soiled or tarnished, and the reflector as a whole can be cleaned in the ordinary way, by simply wiping the glass. The plan is equally applicable to every form of Jamp, and the patent in- cludes the application of prismatic reflectors, which would pre- sent advantages in certain cases WE learn from the Photographic News that a correspondent, writing from Florence, says:—‘‘ The Ruballino Society have lent their steamer Sardinia to Mr. Josellis for his marine ex- plorations. Mr, Josellis has invented a marine photographic apparatus connected with a diving bell, by which photographs ot the ‘world below the sea’ can be taken. This diving-bell can be made use of in many ways, but one can understand how use- ful to natural science a series of negatives (to be afterwards en- larged) of the myriads of zoophytes found in the subaqueous world would be.” Good news this for the managers of the approaching four years’ dredging expedition. We should like, however, to hear something more of the principles of the apparatus. THE editor of the Scottish Naturalist proposes to do for the Lepidoptera of Scotland what has been so well done for British plants in the Cyéele Britannica. He solicits the assistance of all persons acquainted with the subject in ascertaining the distri- bution of the species throughout the country, which for that purpose is divided into thirteen natural districts. In addition to the district distribution, information is solicited on the following points :—The vertical range of each species ; the relation between the range of a species and that of its food-plant ; the relation between the range of a species and the geological formation of the district ; the influence of the proximity of the sea, for some insects (as is the case with certain plants) appear to occur at a higher north latitude on the sea coast than inland; and local races or varieties. The list will be illustrated by a map of Scotland. It will appear primarily in the Naturalisi, but a limited number of copies will be printed in a separate form. THE ratio of suicides has been established by M. Decaisne re- cently before the French Academy of Sciences. It isin London only one in 175 deaths ; in New York, one in 172; in Vienna, one in 160; but in Paris, it has reached one in 72. The number of suicides from drunkenness, which in 1848 was 141 for all France, reached 4or in 1866. We doubt the accuracy of all these figures. 478 NATURE [Oct. 12,1895 n ARGUS AND ITS SURROUNDING NEBULA, &c* IN the last paper I had the honour of bringing before the Society, I referred to a correspondence which was then pend- ing on the star 7, and the attached nebula, in the constellation Argo-Navis. It will be fresh in the minds of many of the members of this Society that authorities, previously quoted, have confirmed the alterations that have been recorded in this object. Mr. E. B. Powell, of Madras, writing to the Royal Astro- nomical Society some observations on the binary star a Centauri, has a concluding note thus :—‘‘I have to observe that to Mr. Abbott must be ascribed the first publication of the fact that 7 is no longer in the dense portion of the nebula, where it was seen by Sir John Herschel.”—( Vide Monthly Notices R.A.S. vol. 24, p. 172.) It was in March 1865, that I first pointed out the fluctuations in this object, through the Melbourne equatorial, to Mr. Ellery at the Observatory, when the star 7 was out of the nebula, and the altered figure of the dark space was filled with 12th magnitude stars, richly coloured as described in Monthly Notices R.A.S., vol. 25, p. 192. Nothwithstanding this in connection with all other evidence, strong opposing influences have been brought to bear against the movements which have been observed, although it is well known to every astronomer that there is nothing stationary in the universe. The distance of such objects as the nebula about 7 Argus is in all cases so immensely great, their position in the sky often unfavourable, and convenient times for observing so far apart, that any alteration or physical changes may for centuries remain unknown. The late Sir William Herschel writes, and is followed by Sir John, thus :—‘‘ Gravitation still further condensing and so absorb- ing the nebulous matter, each in its immediate neighbourhood might ultimately become stars, and the whole nebula finally take on the state of a cluster of stars,” &c.—(Vide ‘‘ Outlines of Astronomy,” 5th edition, p. 640.) Mr. Proctor considers that an increased or decreased distance in space may account for the fluctuations. The present object was observed and faithfully recorded by Sir John Herschel, when stationed at the Cape of Good Hope in the year 1837. It is quite impossible to say what, if any, altera- tions may have taken place in the nebula before that time; but it is ceriain that changes have taken place both in the star and in the nebula since 1854, and these fluctuations have been so great and unusual as to raise a doubt in the mind of Sir John Herschel as to their reality. This opinion, coming from such an authority, has influenced: many others, who, notwithstanding all evidence, and without a single observation of their own, have refused to credit these recorded facts. Some also, who have but lately commenced observing, contrary to all scientific rule, ignore all previous observations made by others, in order to make an opening for their own. To decide certain points of difference which are said to exist between the drawings made by Sir John Herschel, Lieut. Herschel, and myself respectively, referees have been appointed by the Council of the R.A.S. The present paper has relation to the observations made for, and the reply sent to, the referees, in answer to their queries on the points alluded to In carefully looking over the drawings taken at Bangalore by Lieut. Herschel, with the object 7 Argus, 15° above the horizon, and also the reversed copy of Sir J. Herschel’s, and on considera- tion of the discussion given with the drawings, I do not think that Lieut. Herschel’s observations tend to disprove any one of the alterations which I have previously communicated to the Society. The present drawing, and the answers given to the referees, will, I think, render this clear. The present observations have been made with the same in- strument as the former ones, the object in the same position— approximately ©o° above the horizon. The measures were taken with a bar micrometer by Cook and Sons, the bars being care- fully traced in pencil on the drawing paper, in such a manner as exactly to fill the field of the telescope. All the stars visible were dotted down, the distances from 7 of the 6th, 7th, and 8th magnitude stars were lettered, measured, and catalogued from a scale of equal parts, after which the micrometer pencil lines were rubbed out, and the nebula inserted. The first question put by the referees relates toa comparison ot the positions of the principal stars and smaller groups as shown * Read at a meeting of the Royal Society of Tasmania, 9th May, 1871. in my two drawings, which are said to have a sufficient general agreement with each other, considered as eye drafts, while they are irreconcilable with both Sir John’s and Lieut. Herschel’s configurations. A simple inspection of my drawing ot 1870 with the reversed drawing of Sir John Herschel (A.A., plate 4 in the Monthly Notices R.A.S.) will show that the following principal stars hold a relative position considered as eye drafts, but not with the Cape Monograph as expressed in the letter D.D., C.C., (A), (®), B-C., (E.), 522, 558, 640, 337, 383, 415, (vs (A), &c., &c. There are many other stars in my copy of 1870 that are not laid down in plate 4, pricked off from Lieutenant Herschel’s drawing. The other question of note refers to my “having placed within 11}¥’ (on the scale of my drawing of 7) five stars of magnitude at least equal to 7, that is, the 7th magnitude, while in Sir J. Herschel’s monograph only one star of that magnitude (marked C.) occurs within that distance ;”’ and continues, “can you give any elucidation of the cause of the discrepancy? also if you would furnish some instrumental determination of the difference of R.A., and P.D., between 7 and other stars of equal magni- tudes.” In my acknowledgment of this letter to Mr. William Huggins, F.R.S., &c., I mentioned that it was not my intention or desire to dispute either Sir John’s or Lieutenant Herschel’s configura- tions, but to call the attention of the astronomical world to the altered features of both the star and the nebula, with a view of obtaining a solution of the changes seen in this most remarkable object. I further stated that the above question was of a physical nature, and could only be answered as such. On reference to my former papers, it will be seen that mention is made, more than once, of the fact that the increase of stars of the same magnitude as 7 renders it difficult to know that star from others, but by its position, and a marked difference in the /ight. ' It is to this cause I have so frequently referred the increase of light, which I think is now clearly confirmed by a com- parison of Lieutenant Herschel’s description with that of Sir John’s. At one of the monthly meetings of the Society, Sir John Herschel considered the increase of light in the object, as recorded, very strange, and remarked, “when I was at the Cape the nebula could not be seen at all with the naked eye.” Lieutenant Herschel, when at Bangalore, compared the increased light, when the object was only 15° above the horizon, to that of Pleiades in Taurus. Mr. Le Sueur, in his report on the Melbourne reflector, says “the nebula around 7 Argus has changed largely in shape since Sir J. Herschel was at the Cape. The star shines with the light of burning hydrogen,” and in his opinion ‘‘has con- sumed the nebula.” At the monthly meeting of the Royal Society of Victoria, held on the 13th of March, 1871, Mr. Fairlie McGeorge, who has now charge of the reflecting telescope at the Melbourne Observatory, read a paper in which he referred to some observations made with that instrument on the star 7 Argus, and the nebula ; and stated ‘that the object had evidently undergone great changes since Mr. Le Sueur made his sketches of it. It was now beyond a doubt that enormous physical changes were still taking place.” The catalogue accompanying my present drawing, made for the referees, and laid on the table, will show that there are now in the same field two stars of the 6th, two 63, three 7th, four 73, four 8th, and nine of the 8} magnitude, and it is literally crowded with others of from the 8} to the 12th magnitude. Those lying outside the field and occupying an area of about 14°, have their magnitudes attached The small cluster I take to be Sir J. Herschel’s 3276, described as ‘‘a fine, bright, rich, not very large cluster,” if so it is now a beautiful cluster cf richly-coloured stars, quite equal to « Crucis. It is almost impossible to define the boundary of the nebula, as it appears to be gradually fading away, and is not so distinct in outline as formerly. The finest nights have always been selected for observing, and no delineation of the object has ever been given, but what was an accurate representation ofits appearance through the telescope. The following is an extract from a letter addressed by Mr. Severn, of Melbourne, to the Astronomer Royal, and printed in the Monthly Notices, Royal Astronomical Society, for April, 1870 :—“‘I may say that I cannot confirm the new position given to 7 Argus in respect to the nebula. I have watched it for fourteen years, and itis just where it was ; of course much less brilliant.” A letter dated 21st June in the same year which I received Oct. 12, 1871] NATURE 479 from Mr. Severn contains the following passage :—‘‘ My present motive is to draw your attention to the injustice done you in the m Argus business ; I have of course read all your letters in the Monthly Notices of the R.A.S. on the subject. You must not allow the Spectator, or Mr. Le Sueur, or any other man to deprive you of your discovery ; you have at least done, and that years ago, what the 4ft. Cassegranians and Mr. Le Sueur are claiming as their discovery. I can’t stand this, and therefore if you don’t defend yourself, by writing to our papers, I must. I send you a Leader with my paper in it, also another 7 7.” On reading these two extracts, which are dated about the same time, it will appear that the writer must have very suddenly changed his mind. In June 1869 I visited Melbourne for the purpose of seeing the new large reflecting telescope, and must confess to being much surprised on seeing the object 7 Argus in such a small field with so large an instrument. Mr, Le Sueur thought at the time that he saw a faint shadow of a lemniscate ; and what I saw was a dark path across the nebula, not unlike that portion of Eridanus, occupied by 188 and 198 1. C. and not far from the star Achernar. The object was only seen between passing clouds, and although the best speculum was in the instrument at the time, the definition was not good. In June 1862 I brought before this Society a copy of the drawing made from observations on that beautiful cluster of coloured stars known as « Crucis, the original drawing, &c., of which was at the time remitted to the Royal Astronomical Society, with notes on the variation of both colour and position when compared as eye drafts, with Sir John Herschel’s observa- tions made at the Capeof Good Hope. (Vide Monthly Notices, R.A.S., Vol. 23, p. 32.) As the instrument used at the Cape was in every respect different from the one used in Hobart Town, and the effect of colour varying, as it does, so much in different persons, I discon- tinued observing to allow time for other changes to become known, and have now waited nearly nine years, in order to compare the object with the previous drawing by the same optical means. Sir John Herschel estimated this cluster to be formed of from 50 to 100 stars ; in the drawing of 1862, a copy of which now lies on the table, there were laid down 75 stars to which the colour of each was given. It is now known that certain altera- tions have taken place since 1862, but a series of cloudy nights has prevented the possibility of preparing a sequent to the former drawing in time for the present meeting. F, ABBOTT SCIENTIFIC SERIALS Transactions of the Manchester Geological Society, Vol, ix., Parts 1, 2, and 3; Vol. x., Part 1. We have in these first three parts the President’s Address and the papers read before the society during the session 1869-70. The papers are twelve in number, and embrace a variety of topics. Mr. Boyd Daw- kins gives an account of some explorations in the Denbighshire caves. In one of these a large quantity of human bones was found intermingled with remains of horse, goat, hare, rabbit, badger, large birds, wolves, wild cats, foxes, and Celtic short- horns, roe and red deer. He is of opinion that this cave has been used as a burial place at different times in the pre- Roman era. The skulls found belong to that type which Professor Huxley terms the ‘‘river bed skull,” and the tibize indicated the platycnemic character or the bandy-leggedness of the people to whom they belonged. There are other three papers on paleontological subjects— ‘‘ On a_Speci- men of ;Homalonotus Delphino-cephalus,” by Mr. Edward Holber; ‘‘On some Starfishes from the Rhenish Devonian Strata,” by Mr. J. Eccles, and “On two Species of Pro- ductus,” by the same author. To these may be added another by the president, Mr. J. Aitken, “‘On the Pholas- boring Cootroversy,” in which the author concludes, against the notion upheld by Mr. Macintosh, that the holes found in the faces of certain limestone rocks at many different levels, even as high as 1,435 feet above the sea, have been bored by pholades dunng a period of submergence. He inciines to the beliet that the holes have been formed by land moiluses, as originally suggested by Dr. Buckland. There are several papers «n physical geology, which will repay perusal. The longest of these is one by Mr. Spencer, *‘ On the Millstone-Grit Rocss” of Halifax, which will be of use as a guide to that locality. The author distinguishes four beds of grit separated by intervening thick shales. Lists of fossils are given, and these are not a meagre as one might have expected. Mr, J. Curry has a paper “On the Throw of the Pennine Fault,” which he thinks is not So great as is commonly believed. Some interesting ‘‘ Observa~ tions on the Temperatures at the Pendleton Colliery,” by Mr. J. Knowles, are sure to be frequently referred to. “On some of the Causes of the Different Modes of Working and Ventilating Coal Mines,” by Mr, Warburton, contain some wholesome criticism. He maintains ‘‘ that the systems of working coal, as at present practised, do not depend upon the nature or condition of either the coal or the roof, but upon the mining education of those who have the management.” Difficulties in the way of ventilation arise from ignorance and from the modes of working often interfering with well-known natural laws. Other papers in Vol. ix. are **On the Use of Gunpowder in Mines,” by Mr. Greenwell ; ‘‘On two Dykes in North Lancashire,” by Mr. Eccles ; and ‘‘ Observations on some Specimens of Silver Ore from United States,” by Mr. Fletcher. Part 1. of Vol. x. is occupied for the most part with the President’s address, in- augurating the session 1870-71. Mr. Aitken treats of our coal supply in its various aspects, and a number of other, chiefly palzontological, topics. The other communications in this part do not call for any special remark. They are three in number, viz., ‘The Spirorbis Limestone in the Forest of Wyre Coal Field,” by D. Jones ; ‘On Faults ia Drift,” by J. Aitken ; and ‘‘On the Underground Conveyance of Coals,” by G. C. Greenwell. We are glad to see from the report of the Council that the Society is flourishing, and that the number of contri- butors to the Transactions is increasing. Verhandlungen der k. k. geologischen Reichsanstaltzu Wien. Nos. 8 and 9 (1871). No.8 contains the usual short summaries of papers and reports, among which may be mentioned one on the last earthquake and the hotsprings and solfataras at Milo ; and another on the Tertiary Land-fauna of Central Italy, by E. Suess. The other papers are more of local interest, but a number of useful analyses of minerals is given. Among the notices of contempo- rary publications is one of a work by Dr. Prestel, on the Climatal and other Changes which the Coasts of the North Sea have undergone since Glacial Times. In No. 9 will be found a short account of a Coast Survey of the Adriatic Sea, The survey when completed will, it is expected, make the bed of this sea as well known as that of any other which has been explored. The bottom of the south basin of the Adriatic is covered throughout, it would seem, with a yellow sludge or slime, which is brought down by the large rivers of Albania. In this same area a re- markable rocky plateau rises up from the slimy sea-bed, at a depth of from 325 to 370 fathoms to within 100 fathoms of the surface. Some details of other parts of the sea bottom are given. Thenum- ber contains several other reports, among which we find some account of the Library of the Institute, which would appear to be ina flourishing condition, The usual literary notices and lists of books received conclude the number, — = SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES LonboN Royal Microscopical Society, October 4.—Mr. W. Kitchen Parker, F.R.S., President in the chair. The first meeting of the session was held on Wednesday evening. Mr. Parker contributed a valuable paper ‘‘On the Development of the Facial Arches of the Embryo Salmon,” at the conclusion of which he expressed his opinion that the development of the brain case of the osseous fishes demonstrates that group to be much closer allied to the Sauro- psida, or Birds and Reptiles, than it is to that of the Batrachia, or Frog tribe. Mr. Parker highly eulogised the use of chromic acid as a medium for hardening without distorting the substance of the brain when required for seciions.—Dr. Spencer Cobbold handed in a report on some preparations of Eniozoa with accom- panying notes, forwarded to the Society by Mr. Morris, of Sydney, and made observations on some of the most interesting forms. Of the five species collected by Mr. Morris, Dr. Cobbold stated that by far the greatest amount of importance was to be attached to the discovery in Australia of Stepha- nurus a ntatus, This Entozoan was introduced to thescientific world as early as the year 1834 by Navtterer, who found it in large quantitics infesting the adipose tissues of a breed of Chinese pigs, on the Rio Negro in Brazil. Up to the year 1870 nothing further was heard of this parasite, when Dr. Cob- bold received a communication from Prof, Fletcher, of New 480 NATURE Pe. [ Oct. 12, 1871 York, stating that it was committing great destruction among the pork-raising districts of the United States, thousands of pigs in some localities falling victims to its ravages. In aspect and structure Stephanurus bears a close resemblance to 77ichina, but is of much larger size, the cysts of the former frequently mea- suring an inch or an inch and a half in length ; its greater magnitude is the principal safeguard against its introduction into the human subject. Dr. Cobbold supplemented his remarks with some observations on the question of sewage irrigation connected with the propagation of entozoic diseases. In his opinion it playeda very important part, and he did not feel his position in the slightest degree destroyed from the fact of Mr. Hope’s ox brought up for nearly two years on the produce of the “‘ Bretoa”’ irrigated farm being entirely free from internal parasites of any kind. This animal had never been allowed to graze, but had had all its food cut and carried to it ; its water was all brought to it, and altogether the animal had been so carefully guarded and nurtured that the Entozoa were shut out from any chance of obtaining a foothold. The soil, again, on Mr. Hope’s estate was of such a porous nature that the matter containing the undeveloped germs was at once absorbed, while on swampy ground, as instanced about Croydon and other low-lying districts, where this mode of irriga- tion was practised, the roots of the grasses were constantly im- mersed init. The prevalence of tape-worm and other entozoic diseases in those parts of India where sewage irrigation is carried out, is enormous, and thousands of cattle are destroyed as being unfit for human food. This wanton destruction of all carcases containing traces of Cysticercus, or other Entozoa, Dr. Cobbold severely censured, as the meat, on being thoroughly cooked, even though infested with parasites, is wholesome, free from any ab- normal taste, and its consumption is unattended by deleterious results, PARIS Academie des Sciences, September 25.—M. Faye in the chair. M. Dumas, the perpetual secretary, gave many interesting details of a report written by a committee of which he is a member, describing the Py//oxera vastatrix, the pest of the vine. A prize of 400/. was offered for its destruction by the French Government, and will be awarded in 1873. But two candidates have invented means which appear to be good. M. Faucon has suggested putting the whole vine garden under water for two days, which is sufficient to suffocate the insects with injuring the plant itself. When it is impossible to inundate, M. Blanthou suggested to water with a liquid composed of 1,000 parts water and one of impure phenic acid.—M. Fonssagrives has discovered that the mouldiness of Roquefort cheese, which is eaten by French gourmets only in a state of putrefaction, when placed on a piece of bread, developes the Osdinm aurantiacum, which may account for the abundant appearance of this pest last summer.—M. Dumas re- ported upon the results obtained by microscopical selection, as suggested by M. Pasteur and practised by many French silk- worm breeders for curing the silkworm plague known as Adébrine. The results are magnificent, and the plague may now be consi- dered as almost entirely suppressed. Last year one-tenth of the French silkworm breeders used the method invented by M. Pasteur, and the use of it will be almost universal in the course of a few years.—M. Grimaud of Caux, one of the veteran mem- bers of the Parisian scientific press, read a memoir ‘‘ On the Smoke of Locomotives in the Mont Cenis Tunnel.” M. Grimaud finds it to be a great objection, and to require much caution. But such is not the advice of people who are fresh from the tunnel.—M. Philips read a long paper, by a gentleman who does not belong to the Institute, ‘* On the Integration of some Special Differential Linear Equations.” He commented largely upon the paper, which he finds worthy of much consideration. New communications ‘On the Spectrum Analogies of Simple Bodies”’ were also read. PHILADELPHIA Academy of Natural Sciences, January 3.—Mr. W. M. O. Vaux, vice-president, in the chair. Professor O. C. Marsh, of Yale College, exhibited a tooth of a new species of Lophicdon, from the Miocene of New Jersey, which was the first indication yet discovered of remains of the Tapiridze on the Atlantic coast, or of the genus Zofhiodon in this country, east of the Rocky Mountain region. The tooth, which was in a perfect state of preservation, was the first true molar of the left upper jaw. It measured across the crown seven lines in antero-posterior diameter, and eight and one-quarter lines in transverse diameter. This would indicate an animal intermediate in size between L, occidentalis and L. modestus of Dr. Leidy. From the latter species it may readily be distinguished by the enamel of the crown, which is smooth and not wrinkled. As this species is evidently distinct from any described, Prof. Marsh proposed for it the name Lophiodon validus. ‘The specimen was found in the miocene marl of Cumberland County, New Jersey, and appa- rently at about the same horizon as the Z/otherium Leidyanum, and Rhinoceros matutinus Marsh, from Monmouth County. J.nuary 24.—Mr. Vaux, Vice-President, in the chair.—Mr, Thomas Meehan presented a fruit of a pear, which presented the external appearance of an apple, gathered from a Tyson pear tree growing in the garden of Dr. Lawrence, of Paris, Canada. Dr. Lawrence had a Rhode Island greening apple near the pear tree, and some of the latter interlaced with it. The pear tree was full of blossoms last spring, but only those interlacing bore fruit. They had all the appearance of apples, so much so, that many who had seen them supposed there must have been some mistake as to Dr. Lawrence gathering them. Dr. L., had, how- ever, when he first saw them, obtained Mrs. Lawrence’s aid in separating the branches, so that there should be no mistake. The specimens had been sent to Mr. Meehan, who regarded them as apples; but on cutting them open, found the seed to be of the pear. The granular matter characteristic of the pulp of the pear also existed in the carpels, but none in the pulp, which was wholly fibrous, as in the apple; the insertion of the stalk, also, was that of the pear. Instead of the cavity being funnel- shaped, as in the apple, it was campanulate, as if the stem had been pushed in, carrying the epidermis and pulp with it. He had no doubt that the fruit had the pedicel, carpellary walls, and seeds of the pear, with the granular pear-pulp wanting; but with the fibrous pulp and epiderm of the apple. As to the law of its production, he disliked speculation, but it would seem that there were two ways in which it might be produced— either by ajnatural evolution of form, independent of sexual influence, which plants at times exhibited, or by cross- fertilisation with the apple. In the latter case, if found true, it would have an important bearing on the question often mooted, whether cross-fertilisation effected change immediately in the fruit impregnated, or whether change only appeared after the germi- netion of the impregnated seeds. In the case of varieties of Indian-corn, we know the change is immediate; and it was generally believed some cucurbitaceous plants furni-hed similar facts; but he thought it had not been known in other plants, especially in the case of species as distinct as the apple and pear. BOOKS RECEIVED ENGuIsH.—The Micrographic Dictionary: Griffith and Henfrey; New Edition, Parts 1 and 2 (London: Van Voorst).—Homo versus Darwin (London: Hamilton and Co.).—Notes on Comparative Anatomy: W. M. Ord (Lendon: Churchill). Fk OREIGN.—(Through Williams and Norgate).—Neues Handworterbuch der Chemie: Dr. Hermann y. Fehling: Erster Band, rte u. 2te Lieferung. CONTENTS Pace RECENT) UTTERANCES Wiel ist oy cele! a ©) ceuitel (5) .e) oa 461 MHESLAWS “OF POPULATION ~~ & 60s) ee eaten ee Our Book) SHELF. Syste. 6) 1c) cp ey chet s fe), fo hc men st ay LETTERS TO THE EDITOR :— LocalScientific\ Societies: yayeteyyic) yet sea) a (ol kas Newsp»per Science.—Davip Forbes, F.R.S. . . .. .. + 464 Cyclone in the West Indies. -Rey. Canon KINGSLEY . Mer bore te On the Solution of a certain Geometrical Problem.—RicHArD A, PROCTOR WE RsAcSipe ie iey) =) a bee reel ce a cs) i Prof. Newcomb and Mr. Stone.—W. T. Lynn, F.R,A.S. . . . 465 Note on the Cycloid —Ricuarp A. Proctor, F.R.AS. . . . 465 Is Bue a Primary Colour?—JoHN AITKEN. . «©. . «© « . «+ 405 Anthropology and M. Comte.—J. KAINES. . . . . 5 @ 466 A Plane’s t—JSR WaAvGHTOn = 7 eyes eee - 465 Meteorological Phenomenon.—)JosEPpH JOHN Murpny, F.G.S. . 466 Eupar Rainbow, . hl: . Sf) 200%) 20% ee Dhe|Corona—A. CeRANYARD, FSRVACS: 2 < ee) eee enne mero A Rare=Moth.—W..E- WALEER) = sc) 42) suse 495 Meteorology in: America (ic pls) scuccenys ener ntS ccna 466 Ruined Cities of Central America —E. Geo. Squier . 466 The Dinnington Boulder.—J. BroucH Pow, F.GS. . =). fergOy Mechanical Drawing PCED on bono on hy Ice Fleas.—Rev. T)G. Bonney, F5G:S: 5 2°. 6 2 5 - + 467 Thermon.eter Observation —D. J. StuarT . . .. . . « « 467 THe USE AND AbuSsE OF ‘Dests) s)c)0 20k 3 0k Sate Ree 467 Tue GipraALTAR CurRENT. By Dr. Wm. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. 468 Science tn Iraty. By W. Matriev Witttams, F.C.S.. . . . 468 ee CrysTAL Patace Aquarium. (With Illustrations.) W. A. LOYD . 0 o_o Fat ete ots Pad ve ag usta cer. oe en a Tue Birps or THE LesseR ANTILLES. By Dr. P. L. SccaTer, F.R.S. eA REMARKS ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF Fruits. By Prof. W.R.McNap 475 Noves e ies BI aS cy Op EE 8. “els! pac wee pen ea 70) 1) ARGUS ANDITS SURROUNDING NEBULA, &c. By F.Ansort, F.R.A.S. 478 SCIENTIFIC SERIALS . ee telete! Touche site ote le, Pe Ve) SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES . . . «. « «ss « « « Bud to Ye) Booxs RECEIVED .. « cA\piaiun gel ie: fel onNens/e" cele) cells mC Ree Een Be NATURE. THURSDAY, OCTOBER 109, 1871 HELMHOLTZ ON THE AXIOMS OF GEOMETRY HE Academy journal of the 12th of February, 1870 (vol. i. p. 128), contained a paper by Prof. Helm- holtz upon the Axioms of Geometry in a philosophical point of view. The opinions set forth by him were based upon the latest speculations of German geometers, so that a new light seemed to be thrown upon a subject which has long been a cause of ceaseless controversy. While one party of philosophers, especially Kant and the great German school, have pointed to the certainty of geometrical axioms as a proof that these truths must be derived from the conditions of the thinking mind, another party hold that they are empirical, and derived, like other laws of nature, from observation and induction. Helm- holtz comes to the aid of the latter party by showing that our Axioms of Geometry will not always be necessarily true ; that perhaps they are not exactly true even in this world, and that in other conceivable worlds they would been- tirely superseded by a new set of geometrical conditions. There is no truth, for instance, more characteristic of our geometry than that between two points there can be only one shortest line. But we may imagine the existence of creatures whose bodies should have no thickness, and who should live in the mere superficies of an empty globe. Their geometry would apparently differ from ours ; the axiom in question would be found in some cases to fail, because between two points of a sphere diametrically opposite, an infinite number of shortest lines can be drawn. With us, again, the three angles of a rectilineal triangle are exactly equal to two right angles. With them the angles of a triangle would always, more or less, exceed two right angles. In other imaginary worlds the geo- metrical conditions of existence might be still morestrange. We can carry an object from place to place without neces- sarily observing any change in its shape, but in a sphe- roidal universe nothing could be carried about without undergoing a gradual distortion, one result of which would be that no two adjoining objects could havea similar form. Creatures living in a pseudo-spherical world would find all our notions about parallel lines incorrect, if indeed they could form a notion of what parallelism means. Nor is Helmholtz contented with sketching what might happen in purely imaginary circumstances. He seems to accept Reimann’s startling speculation that perhaps things are not as square and right in this world as we suppose. What should we say if in drawing straight lines to the most distant fixed stars (by means not easy to describe), we found that they would not go exactly straight, so that two lines, when fitted together like rulers, would never coincide, and lines apparently parallel would ultimately intersect? Should we not say that Euclid’s axioms can- not hold true? It may be that our space has a certain twist in a fourth dimension unknown to us, which is in- appreciable within the bounds of the planetary system, but becomes apparent in stellar distances. Though Helmholtz gives most of these speculations as due to other writers, he seems, so far as I can gather from his words, to stamp them with the authority of his own highname. It requires alittle courage, therefore, to main- VOL, IV. 481 tain that all these geometrical exercises have no bearing whatever upon the philosophical questions in dispute. Euclid’s elements would be neither more nor less true in one such world than another; they would be only more or less applicable. Even in a world where the figures of plane geometry could not exist, the principles of plane geometry might have been developed by intellects such as some men have possessed. And if, in the course of time, the curvature of our space should be detected, it will not falsify our geometry, but merely necessitate the extension of our books upon the subject. Helmholtz himself gives the clue to the failure in his reasoning. He says: “It is evident that the beings on the spherical surface would not be able to form the notion of geometrical similarity, because they would not know geometrical figures of the same form but different magni- tude, except such as were of infinitely small dimensions.’ But the exception here suggested is a fatal one. Let us put this question: “Could the dwellers on a spherical world appreciate the truth of the 32nd proposition of Euclid’s first book?” I feel sure that, if in possession of human powers of intellect, they could. In large triangles that proposition would altogether fail to be verified, but they could hardly help perceiving that, as smaller and smaller triangles were examined, the spherical excess of the angles decreased, so that the nature of a rectilineal triangle would present itself to them under the form of a limit. The whole of plane geometry would be as true to them as to us, except that it would only be exactly true of infinitely small figures. The principles of the subject would certainly be no more difficult than those of the Differential Calculus, so that ifa Euclid could not, at least an Archimedes, a Newton, ora Leibnitz of the spherical world would certainly have composed the books of Euclid, much as we have them. Nay, provided that their figures were drawn sufficiently small, they could verify all truths concerning straight lines just as closely as we can. I will go a step further, and assert that we are in exactly the same difficulty as the inhabitants of a spherical world. There is not one of the propositions of Euclid which we can verify empirically in this universe. The most perfect mathematical instruments are not two moments of the same form. Weare practically unacquainted with straight lines or rectilineal motions or uniform forces. The whole science of mechanics rests upon the notion of a uniform force, but where can we find such a force in operation? Gravity, doubtless, presents the nearest approximation to it ; but if we leta body fall through a single foot, we know that the force varies even in that small space, and a strictly correct notion of a uniform force is only got by receding to infinitesimals. I do not think that the geometers of the spherical world would be under any greater diffi- culties than our mathematicians are in developing a science of mechanics, which is generally true only of infinitesimals, Similarly in all the other supposed universes plane geo- metry would be approximately true in fact, and exactly true in theory, which is all we can say of this universe. Where parallel lines could not exist of finite magnitude, they would be conceived as of infinitesimal magnitude, and the conception is no more abstruse than that of the direc: tion of a continuous curve, which is never the same for any finite distance. The spheroidal creatures would find the distortion of their awn bodies rapidly vanishing as cc 482 = NATURE [Oct. 19, 1871 Sa ee eee the distance of the motion is less, which only amounts to the truth, that a small portion of an ellipse is ulti- mately undistinguishable from a circle. The truth of the Axioms of Geometry never really comes into question at all, and Helmholtz has merely pointed out circum- stances in which the figures treated in plain geometry could not always be practically drawn. It is a second question whether the dwellers in a spherical world could acquire a notion of three dimen- sions of space. We must remember that such beings could bear no analogy to us, who have solid bones and flesh, and live upon a solid globe, into which we can penetrate a considerable distance. These beings have no thickness at all, and live in a surface infinitely thinner than the film of a soap bubble, in fact, not thin or thick at all, but devoid of all pretensions to thickness. There would be nothing at first sight to suggest the threefold dimensions of space, and yet I believe that they could ultimately develop all the truths of solid geometry. They could not fail to be struck with the fact that their geometry of finite figures differed from that of infinitesimals, and an analysis of this mysterious difference would cer- tainly lead them to all the properties of tridimensional space. Indeed, if Riemann, prior to all experience, is able to point out the exact mode in which a curvature of our space would present itself to us, and can furnish us with analytical formule upon the subject, why might not the Riemann of the spherical world perform a similar service, and show how the existence of a third dimension was to be detected? It might well be that the inhabitants of the sphere had in the infancy of science never suspected the curvature of the world, and, like our ancestors, had con- sidered the world to be a great plain. In the absence of any experience to that effect, it is certain that the notion of thickness could not be framed any more than we can imagine what a fourth dimension of our space would be like. We have some idea what a world of one dimension would be, because as regards “ze we are ina world of that kind. The characteristic of time is that all intervals beginning and ending at the same moments are equal. But suppose that some people discovered a mysterious way of living which enabled them to live a longer time between the same moments than other people; this could only be accounted for by supposing that they had diverged from the ordinary course of time, like travellers taking a round- about road. Though in one sense such an occurrence is utterly inconceivable, yet in another sense we can probably anticipate the character of the phenomenon, and the 47th proposition of Euclid’s first book would doubtless give the most important truth concerning times thus differing in direction, With all due deference to so eminent a man as Helm- holtz, 1 must hold that his article includes an zgnoratio elencht. Hehas pointed out the very interesting fact that we can conceive worlds where the Axioms of our Geometry would not apply, and he appears to confuse this conclu- sion with the falsity of the axioms. Wherever lines are parallel the axiom concerning parallel lines will be true, but if there be no parallel lines in existence, there is nothing of which the truth or falsity of the axiom can come in question. I will not attempt to say by what pro- cess of mind we reach the certain truths of geometry, but I am convinced that all attempts to attribute geometrical truth to experience and induction, in the ordinary sense of those words, are transparent failures. Mr. Millis another philosopher whose views led him to make a bold attempt of the kind. But for real experience and induction he soon substituted an extraordinary process of mental experimentation, a handling of ideas instead of things, against which he had inveighed in other parts of his “ System of Logic.” And the careful reader of Mr. Mill’s chapter on the subject (Book II. chapter 5) will find that it involves at the same time the assertion and the denial of the existence of perfectly straight lines, Whatever other doctrines may be true, this doctrine of the purely empirical origin of geometrical truth is certainly false. W. STANLEY JEVONS LEIGHTON’S LICHEN-FLORA OF GREAT BRITAIN The Lichen-Flora of Great Britain, Ireland, and the Channel Islands. By the Rev. W. A. Leighton, F.L.S. (Published for the Author. Shrewsbury, 1871.) T falls so rarely to the botanical reviewer in this country to notice works on Lichenology, that we gladly avail ourselves of the present opportunity of introducing to our readers a little unpretentious volume which has the excel- lent object primarily—“ of elevating the knowledge of our insular lichens to a level with that of other branches of our country’s flora,’ and which, moreover, completely vindicates the title of Britain’s lichens to at least equal study with the other families of her cryptogamia. Since the publication of Mudd’s excellent “‘ Manual” in 1861, the additions made to the lichen-flora of Great Britain and Ireland have been both so numerous and important, that lichenological students have felt the want of some sys- tematic work containing a complete list of the British lichens up to the present date, along with specific diag- noses and other aids to their identification. It was gene- rally felt, moreover, that no fitter authority could undertake so intricate a labour than Mr. Leighton, whose name is identified with lichenological progress in this country by the publication of many important papers of a mono- graphic character, and who is justly regarded, both by home and foreign botanists, as the representative and father of lichenology and lichenologists in Britain. The present work, which we are glad to find is to be followed, in due time, by another which is even more urgently required —a Conspectus of all known lichens throughout the world—is a convenient 12mo volume of about 470 pages, which confines itself mainly to a systematic enumeration, with specific diagnoses, of all the lichens at present known to occur in “ Great Britain, Ireland, and the Chan- nel Islands.” The nomenclature and _ classification followed are those of Dr. Nylander, of Paris, who is described as “the facile princeps of modern microscopic lichenologists.” Succeeding the specific diagnoses, the author cites the leading synonyms ; gives references to published plates and fasciculi of dried specimens ; narrates the general geographical distribution of species through- out the world, on the one hand, and throughout the three kingdoms on the other ; specifies the particular loca- lities of growth in each of these latter kingdoms; and gives, so far as possible, the date of original discovery in Britain, with the name of the discoverer, Oct. 19, 1871] NATURE 483 Besides the fruits of laborious compilation, the work obviously contains a large amount of original research. There are no less than seventy-five species, varieties, or orms, described for the first time (though not necessarily in this volume) by Mr. Leighton himself ; many of these referring, however (as in the case of the Graphidec), ta varieties or forms that do not apparently require sepa- rate description and nomenclature. He has also given great attention to the action of certain che- mical substances on the thallus and apothecia, and has to a considerable extent employed the said re- action in his minor classification. Only those who have attempted similar works can understand the immense labour involved in their preparation ; and British botan- ists ought to feel, and doubtless do feel, themselves under great obligations to Mr. Leighton for undertaking and successfully executing so difficult a task. The present work has been published at Shrewsbury for and by the author himself—a procedure which enables a writer to escape the irksome and mischievous fetters sometimes imposed by publishers. But this circumstance—of local publication—is apt to be attended with certain counter- vailing disadvantages ; so that in the present instance it does not surprise us that the typography, paper, and binding—the general up-get of the volume—do scant jus- tice to all the author’s labours in its compilation. It is always an ungracious task to expose faults in a work that is, on the whole, excellent ; that has been a labour of love ; that embodies the fruit of much research ; and that could have been fitly undertaken by very few indi- viduals. But Mr. Leighton himself apparently invites co-operation, if not criticism, in order to the prepara- tion of a fuller and more accurate second edition ; and his present work contains defects of a character that seriously mar its usefulness to the student, and that no honest reviewer, if he is to be critical at all, would be warranted in passing without notice. It is then a very serious defect of the book that it contains no Index of Species and Varieties, alphabetically arranged after the manner of that in Mr. Crombie’s Enumeration. For small genera, containing not more than half a dozen species, it may be comparatively easy to find varza or communis, or any other type; but in large genera such as Lecanora. Verrucaria,and Lecidea, each containing from 73 to 233 species, the student must carefully read that number of names, spread over 53 to 110 closely printed pages in each case, before he finds perhaps the species of which he is in search. Only the most ardent lichenologist, who has abundant leisure as well as patience at command, will care to take this amount and kind of trouble. The omission referred to is of such importance that we counsel Mr. Leighton to lose no time in issuing a full and legible Index of species and varieties as a supplement to the pre. sent work; and to avail himself of the opportunity, which we trust its rapid sale and extensive circulation will give him, of inserting such an Index in its proper place in a second edition. The form of the said Index should be that adopted by Crombie in his Catalogue of the British Lichens (1870), and not that of Mudd, in his Manual (1861), which is infinitely Jess easy to use. In his present work, Mr. Leighton assumes too high a previous standard of technical knowledge on the part of the student. How many beginners in lichenology are likely to know—without being informed—what our author means by a “glypholecine” epithecium, or “ bacilliform ” spores? In fact, there ought to be a Glossary, to explain the meaning of the technical terms employed throughout the work; and this is the more necessary, seeing that, unlike Mudd in his “ Manual,” Mr. Leighton gives no Intro- duction explanatory of the general structureand morphology of lichens. Further, the student cannot be expected to know by intuition the meaning of the abbreviations used by the author, such as B. ; Bohl. ; Zw. ; M.and N.; Arn. ; Fellm; Th.M. Fr.; Flk. D.L.,; Nyl. Syn., Scand. or Pyr. ; Hepp sporen ; and so forth. There ought certainly to have been prefixed a full explanation of all these, and similar, contractions ; which explanation would necessarily include a comparatively complete and most useful Lichen Bibliography. Again, there is no standard of form, size, or colour, We are told that certain spores are large, mode- rate, small, minute, or very minute ; and certain spermatia long, shortish, or shortly cylindrical. But in no case are measurements given; and the student has to form his own opinion as to the signification of these unscientific, vague, relative terms. He is left, moreover, to conjecture as to. what constitute the “ positive” and “negative” re- actions of hydrate of potash and hypochlorite of lime ; and as to what is a “ vinous” reaction of the hymenial gela- tine with iodine ! The work professes to give a “fud/ diagnosis” of each species. But that surely cannot be considered a ful? diagnosis, which systematically omits almost all reference to the important Secondary Reproductive Organs? In not a single species, so far as we have been able to discover, is there a full description of the Spermogones / Pycnides are not once mentioned in the volume ! No doubt in one or two species the character of the sfevmatia is sketched by a single term, or by other inadequate means, Thus in Ofe- grapha amphotera the spermatia are said to be “ different from O. vulgata;” but we are not told what is their character in O. vu/gata. There are certain large and im- portant genera in which the spermogones are not at all mentioned even in the diagnosis of the genus (e,g., Verru- caria, Cladonia, Collema, Leptogium, Opegrapha, and Graphis) ; while in others such a description as ‘ Sper- matia various” (e.g. in the Ramadlinez) conveys little or no real information! In a very few exceptional instances, among the higher Lichens, are spermogones or their con- tents described. Where the attempt is made, the result is singularly bald and unsatisfactory, and is obviously not the fruit of original investigation. And, further, the beginner will scarcely understand what is meant by crenated, oblong cylindrical, straight, curved, or slender spermatia, without plates, which are wholly wanting in the present volume, A student cannot be said to have acquired a “knowledge” of Lichens, who is ignorant of the characters of their Spermogones and Pycnides. Tothe biologist or physiolo- gist, therefore—to him whose object is to study the whole Natural History of a given Lichen-species—such omissions in a systematic work on a national Lichen-flora is one of primary importance. The author tells us that he aims at descriptions, which will “/facé/itate the stucent (sic. the italics being ours) in the ready and accurate determination of his specimens ;” that is to say, the naming or ticketing of them, which is something very different from imparting a knowledge of all their natural characters! The truth is 484 NATURE [ Océ. 19, 1871 that such works as the present are calculated not to create Biologists, but to perpetuate a race of mere collectors and labellers—men whose highest aim is to gather “new” or “‘rare” species ; who spend their holidays in accumulating sfeczmens, sending those that are un- familiar across the Channel for identification or naming. One of the results of the latter procedure is that the present work contains no less than 200 British species or varieties bearing Nylander’s name as the author of their first description ! While, however, meagre attention has been thus be- stowed upon the secondary reproductive organs, undue prominence is given to the action of potash and lime on the thallus and apothecia, and the reaction of iodine with the hymenial gelatine ; phenomena that are so uncertain and inconstant that they vary even in the same individual under different circumstances. We would not exclude chemical or ay natural characters from the definition of species ; but the present work seems to us to furnish ample illustration of the danger of making use of secondary, trivial, inconstant characters as a basis for classification (e.g. the genus Cladonia.) The localities of growth are satisfactory so far as they go; but they are utterly inadequate as representing the distribution of species in either of the three kingdoms, In order to specify, with at all adequate fulness, the diversity of locality occupied in England, Scotland, and Ireland respectively by the species enumerated, Mr. Leighton must have examined for himself the contents of all the Lichen-Herbaria in these kingdoms ; and, though the said herbaria are neither numerous nor large, compared with those of flowering plants, such a labour is obviously im- possible for any ove man of average leisure and oppor- tunities. There is no Tabular Summary showing the numerical richness of the British Lichen-Flora ; an omission, it may be, of minor importance, but still of importance, inasmuch as it is always interesting to “take stock” occasionally of the rate of progress of the additions that are being made to a national Sub-Flora. Basing our calculations on the data supplied by the present work, we find a total of 73 genera and no less than 781 species ; whereas only last year in his enumeration, Crombie (p. 124), gave the whole number of British Lichens then known as 658, the dif- ference apparently representing, or consisting of, so-called new species. Of the host of these ~ew species added of late years to our Lichen-Flora, perhaps not above one- fifth will survive in that “ struggle for existence,” to which they will sooner or later have to submit at the hands of the philasophic botanist. A large proportion will doubt- less be found to consist of mere forms of common, pro- tean, widely distributed species—forms that neither require nor deserve separate nomenclature and rank. We have not exhausted the list of blemishes in the book before us. But to notice @// the errors in matters of detail ; all those points on which other lichenologists are likely to take grave exception to his views ; all the faults in typography or otherwise, would extend and expand this review into a Treatise on the Classification of Lichens ; for it would necessarily deal with certain features of that Nylanderian system, which Mr. Leighton follows in his present work, With all the aids the author gives the student, it will, we fear, be impossible for the latter to identify the majority of the less common and familiar species without reference to authentic specimens named by Mr. Leighton himself. The work is so elaborate and complex, the principles and practice of classification adopted in it areso puzzling, that we candidly confess our own general impression to be one of increasing bewilderment, and of growing indisposition to attempt the identification or nomenclature of Lichens at all! We hesitate not to avow our own preference for studies on the Biology of the common economical species, such as those which af present are called Cladonia ran- giferina, Usnea tarbata, Ramalina calicaris, Parmelia saxatilis, Roccella tinctoria, or Lecanora tartarea. On the whole, however, the “ Lichen-Flora of Great Britain” is a work that should find a place in every public botanical library in the three kingdoms, as well as in the private libraries of all students of the extremely puzzling cryptogamic family of which it treats. W. LAUDER LINDSAY OUR BOOK SHELF A Complete Course of Problems in Practical and Plane Geometry, adapted for the Use of Students preparing for the Examinations, &c. By John William Palliser, Second Master and Lecturer of the Leeds School of Art and Science. (London: Simpkin and Marshall.) A NEw class-book on Practical Geometry commends itself to our attention. Mr. John Palliser, of the Leeds School of Art and Science, has produced one of those educational works which a demand created by Government examina- tions has recently brought to our aid. Reserving our opinion as to the final tendency of an epidemic for what are called practical results, we must, in justice, say that this class-book of Mr. Palliser’s is the very thing for cheapness, conciseness, comprehensiveness, to rapidly possess the student with a ready-handed ability to answer all demands of the examiner. The work is not encum- bered with demonstration, for this, in view of the proposed end, would be out of place ; it is a laboratory of experi- mental formule. We have a recipe for constructing all conceivable polygons within the compass of a single circle, for drawing lines to invisible points, and for trisecting the most obdurate angles by the magic of a slip of paper. Faith is all that is demanded of the student, faith in the formule before him, and industry to get them by heart. Not troubled with the Why, he has only toremember the How ; but he must be careful, exact, and neat-handed; and this, if not mental training, is next of kin toit. The arrange- ment of the book is generally good, the style concise in the extreme, the letter-press wonderful at the price, and the diagrams, with their faint, dark, or dotted lines, are highly effective and intelligible, not less so from the fact of the lettering being (what we very seldom find it) correct. To examine in detail the 220 problems of Mr, Palli- ser’s book is more than we can just now undertake ; but so far as we have dipt into them there is little to complain of, considering that the work is merely practical. The style, we have said, is concise ; but (if we might venture a criti- cism on a point where most geometers are more guilty than Mr. Palliser) it would lose nothing in intelligibility if the nominative case were less frequently preceded by a multitude of perplexing conditions which really have tq be neglected by the learner till the sajd nominative is reached, and then returned te lastly in that natural order of thought which geometers have a fancy for inverting. Whilst taking these minor exceptions, we must not omit to call the author’s serious attention to Problem 13, which, whether we consult the diagram or the letter-press, is wholly fallacious. Such a construction will not effect the Oct. 19, 1871 | object of the problem, the bisection of the angle, though the line H K will converge in common with the two given lines. We must further enter protest against the wagual7- fied proposal “to draw a straight line equal to the true length of the circumference of a circle” (Prob, 184) as misleading to the learner. But, any such defects notwith- standing, here is a most wonderful eighteenpenny book. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his Correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous communications, | Geometry at Oxford In the last number of Nature Mr. Proctor remarks that ‘‘no one who considers carefully the mathematical course at either University, can believe that it tends either to form geometricians or to foster geometrical taste.” With regard to Oxford, I think it is only fair that some quali- fication should be offered to this conclusion, In Cambridge, candidates for mathematical honours have to run their race in a course clearly marked out for them, and loss of place is naturally the result of individual vagaries. But in Oxford the order of merit is not carried further than distribution into classes, and I do not believe there is anything to prevent a skilful geometrician finding himself in the first class with those who put their trust most in analytical methods. I cannot pretend to much geometrical capacity, but I know something of Oxford mathematical teaching. Speaking for my- self, the fascinating lectures of the present Savilian Professor of Geometry will never cease to hold perhaps the most prominent place in my recollections of university work. It is quite true that I remember conversing with a college tutor who was rather doubtful about modern geometrical methods, and seemed disposed to look upon these lectures as ‘‘dangerous.” He was a great stickler, however, for ‘‘legitimacy,” thinking it wrong, for ex- ample, to import differential notation into analytical geometry ; but I do not think he had a large following amongst younger Oxford men. I certainly did not find, in reading with some of them, that geometry was at all in disfavour. I have often had neat geometrical solutions pointed out to me of problems where other methods proved cumbrous or uninteresting ; and conversely I have found geometrical short cuts were far from objected to. On the whole, the characteristic feature of the Oxford exami- nation system (most marked in the Natural Science School, but making itself felt in all the others) being to encourage a student after reaching a certain point in general reading to make himself strong in some particular branch of his subject, I believe special attention to geometrical methods would pay very well. Oct. 13 W. T. THISELTON DYER Elementary Geometry Your ‘correspondent, ‘‘A Father,” has in view a very desirable object—to teach a young child geometry—but I fear that he is likely to miss altogether the path by which it may be reached. His principle, that ‘‘a child must of necessity commit to memory much that he does not comprehend,” appears to me to be totally erroneous, and not entitled to be called a fact. To this time-hallowed principle it is due that a large proportion of all wno go to school learn nothing at all, while those more suc- cessful learn with little improvement of their faculties. It isa convenient principle which allows the title of teacher to be as- sumed by those who only hear lessons. Children labour under this difficulty that they learn only through language, which is to them a misty medium, particularly when the matter set before them is in any degree novel or abstruse, and no pains are taken to clear up the obscurity of new expressions. Children know nothing of abstraction, and learn to generalise from experience, not from words. Committing tomemory what is not understood is a disagreeable task ; begetting a hatred of learning, and causing many to believe that they want the special faculty required for the task set before them. ‘The art of teaching the young ought to be the art of enabling them to comprehend, and memory ought to be strengthened not by drudgery but by being founded on understanding and by the rational connection of ideas. Now geometry is the science of figure ; it theorises reality, and the truth of every proposition in it may be made apparent to the NATURE 485 senses. Double a piece of paper and cut out a triangle in dupli- cate. The two equal triangles thus formed, A and B, may be put together so as to form a parallelogram in three different ways. The child who makes this experiment will learn at once LES NESS EEG EB ie aa what is meant by a parallelogram, and he will perceive its pro- perties, viz., that its opposite sides and angles are equal ; that it is bisected by the diagonal, &c. But if he learns all this by rote, he acquires only a cloud of words, on which his mind never dwells. Propositions touching abstractions and generalisations can never be understood by the young without abundant illus- tration. When a geometrical truth is made apparent to the senses, when seen as a fact and fully understood, the language in which it is expressed having no longer a dim and flickering light, is easily leaned and remembered, and the learner listens with pleasure to the discussion of the why and wherefore. It is not enough for a child to learn by rote the definition of anangle, He ought to be shown howit is measured by a circle ; and by circles of different sizes. In short, he ought to be taught what words alone will not teach him, that an angle is only the divergence of two lines. Let us now come to the important theorem that the three angles of any triangle are equal to two right angles (Euclid i. 32). Cut a paper triangle, mark the angles, then separate them by dividing the triangle and place the three angles together.. They will lie together, filling one side of a right line, «nd thus be equal to two right angles. Let the learner test the theorem with triangles of every possible shape to convince himself of its generality, and then, fully understanding what it means, he will also understand the lan- guage in which it is proved. It is a mistake to decry the use of symbols. They enable us to E ; ; get rid of the wilderness of words, which form a great impedi- ment in mathematical reasoning. Ordinary language can never group complex relations for comparison so compactly as to bring them within the grasp of the understanding. When we would compare objects, we place them close together, side by side. But the features and lineaments of objects described in language are too widely scattered to be kept steadily in view. Itis easier to learn the use of symbols than to commit to memory what is not understood. Those who would learn mathematics without sym- bols can advance but a little way. yt Neither is there any good reason for rejecting the second book of Euclid, though it certainly may be much abridged. The rela- tions of whole and parts, sum and difference are easily exhibited, and an acquaintance with them is of great value to arithme- ticians, Let us take for example the following propositions : “© The squares (A and B) of any two lines (or numbers) are equal to double the rectangle under those lines (R and R, or the pro- duct in case of numbers) and the square of their difference D.” Now these figures being constructed, it will be found that when the two squares are placed together as in Fig. 2, the rectangles cover exactly the parts marked with diagonals, and the square of the difference the remainder. In numbers, the square of 5 = 25 ” ay =e) 34 Double product of 5 and 3 30 Square of diff. 4 34 486 Here is a perfect demonstration evident to the senses. But let us go one step further. The rectangles in the preceding theorem may be bisected by diagonals and set round the square of the difference in such a manner as to form the square of the hypo- thenuse of the right-angled triangle, the sides of which are also those of the assumed squares. The squares of the sides of a right- angled triangle, therefore, are together equal to the square of the hypothenuse, since the former may be changed into the latter. The same conclusion may be arrived at by a still shorter and simpler course. Let any two squares be joined together as in the annexed figure, or, rather, let them be cut in paper in one piece. Then take ac equal to the side of the greater square, and joindcandce. Cut off the two equal triangles ac and cde, and place them in the positions of m/ and /7e, and the two squares will be thus transformed into the square of the hypothenuse of the right-angled triangle, of which they form the sides. Thus we have at oncea demonstration of the famous Pytha- gorean theoiem (Euclid i. 47), and have attained with three or four steps the same height climbed by Euclid with forty-seven. The words of his demonstration, committed to memory by a child, remain there mere words and nothing more. Words serve to mark and denote ideas, but cannot create them, where the material of ideas does not already exist. But the child who with paper or card amuses himself in going over the visible de- monstration suggested in this letter, in various forms and re- peatedly—for neither old nor young can be said to learn a truth merely by its transient recognition —will assuredly awaken to an agreeable consciousness of the reasoning faculty, and feel no difficulty in future geometrical studies. In 1860 there was published for me, by Messrs. Williams and Norgate, a little volume entitled, ‘‘ The Elements of Geometry Simplified and Explained,” adapted to the system of empirical proof, and of exhibiting the truth of theorems by means of figures cut in paper. It contained in thirty-five theorems the quint- essence of Euclid’s first six books, together with a supplement of thirty-three not in Euclid. There was no gap in the sequence or chain of reasoning, yet the 32nd and 47th provisions of Euclid were respectively the 3rd and 17th of my series. This book proved a failure, for which several reasons might be given, but it will be sufficient here to state but one, namely, that it came forth ten years before its time. What became of it I know not. But of this Iam convinced, that though I failed, success will attend those who follow in my footsteps. W. D. CooLry THE discussion in your last part on methods of teaching elementary geometry reminds me that at a period when I was teaching the subject to a considerable number of pupils, I fre- quently overcame the difficulties of very young or inapt students by commencing with the study of a so/id, such as a cube, en- couraging the pupils to frame definitions for the parts of the object. The ideas existing in the child’s mind of a solid, a plane, a line, and a point, were thus put into words in an order the reverse of that in which they would have been had Euclid been used. The chief properties of parallelograms and triangles fol- lowed, and were easily discovered by the use of a pair of com- passes, scissors, and paper, and that at an age when Euclid was a sealed book. I believe children can be most easily taught to solve problems in plane geometry when they occur in connection with early instruction in practical solid geometry. Most children try to draw, and if they were encouraged to represent simple objects by “‘ plans” and ‘‘ elevations,” the necessity of obtaining aknowledge of how to describe the forms presented to them would frequently carry the pupils through a large number of the principal problems of plane geometry with a pleasure they could not experience if the ‘* problems” were put before them, without any reason for their solution but the teacher’s command. The powers of truthful representation gained by such teaching, would NATURE [Oc¢. 19, 1871 be of the utmost value to thousands who would never attempt to learn ‘‘ Euclid ;” whilst, so faras I am able to judge, it is more likely to prepare the boy to read formal works on geometry with pleasure than to create a distaste for the study, THOMAS JONES Woolwich, October 9 The Coming Eclipse I HAVE been very much interested in Mr. Lockyer’s lecture at the Royal Institution on the lateeclipse. I am especially glad that he is at length able to acknowledge the existence of com- paratively cool hydrogen, because in my Eclipse Report of 1868 (vol. xxxvii. Part 1, R.A.S, Memoirs), I stated that I believed from the evidence of the photographs that hydro- gen was dispersed from the prominences in visible streams in some cases, and in others invisibly. But while Mr. Lockyer admits this, he seems to me very un- necessarily to avoid everywhere the use of our familiar term ** atmosphere” to include the whole gaseous envelope of the sun, This seems to me to be the sense in which Kirchhoff used the word when he said it was extensive.* It certainly was the sense in which I used it, and, I believe, that in which all who spoke of an extensive atmosphere did so use it. In this sense there can be no doubt that the sun Zas an extensive atmosphere, the outer portion of which is comparatively cold and capable of reflecting light if the polarisation now not doubted be due to reflection. There is one consideration which, however, does not seem to have occurred to Mr. Lockyer. If the cold atmosphere, as I will venture still to call it, reflect the prominence light, it will also reflect the solar light. Its reflected light then should be such as reaches us at ordinary times, and not so exclusively chromospheric. Adding to this the light which is due to cool | hydrogen, we should have, I anticipate, a faint continuous spec- trum with the bright line F, and also a solar spectrum with, perhaps, some of the chromospheric lines reversed. That is not what has been found, and I do not at present see any way of reconciling the facts with the theory that the undoubted polarisa- tion is due to reflection. Before going to another subject, I would wish to direct atten- tion to my friend Captain (now Major) Branfill’s observations in 1868+ on the polarisation of the corona. Mr. Proctor, indeed, in his book on the Sun, says that the Astronomer Royal did not consider them conclusive, but I have his official statement that he did so consider them, and an inquiry as to Mr. Proctor’s authority leads me to think that Mr. Airy’s meaning was mis- taken. I think any one who reads the account in the original will feel that the plane of polarisation was satisfactorily deter- mined. An observer in 1870 has said that he found the bands of Savart persistent. I have not now time to look up the reference, but he used, it seemed to me, the centre of the moon as the centre of rotation. Captain Branfill was careful not to do this, as his figures prove (page 25 of Report). Now to the future. I have received from Government an in- quiry as to recommendations to observers coming out. I am now suggesting, in addition to my own station at Dodabetta, that observers should be stationed at Kotagherry in the Nilgherries, at Manantoddy among the coffee districts to the west, and at Tirupur, close to Avenashy Road Station of the Madras Railway. Of these Manantoddy is the least accessible, but the whole will give a range of stations from $8,600 feet high down to the ordinary level of the plain country. More observers could be accommodated on the Nilghernes, where the weather, I am assured, is likely to be excellent. Of Ceylon I have not satis- factory accounts, nor of the west coast. If these stations be adopted, I would suggest that, if possible, there should be a conference of observers. The possibility will depend on our leisure, which, probably, none of us can now oresee, I should say that I have made these suggestions without reference to Mr. Pogson, because I know nothing of his plans, having received no answer to inquiries ; it is possible those may modify projects, but any visitors should bear in mind that it is almost necessary that some European residences should be close to their stations. J. T. TENNANT H.M, Mint, Calcutta, Sept. 11 * Mr. Lockyer has long ago shown that the Sun’s atmosphere lies partly above and partly below the superior limit of the photosphere. The word Atmosphere was used by Kirchhoff in the manner indicated, because he believed the photosphere to be liquid.— Eb. + American observers seem neyer to have seen the Report. Oct. 19, 1871] British Mosses Nor having noticed in the last number of Nature, Oct. 12, any correction made by either the Rev. Mr. Berkeley or Dr. Dickie, of a statement made by the former gentleman in the previous number, Oct. 5, which, as it reads, is calculated to lead to error, if left unnoticed, I send you this note. In the short paragraph at p. 446, ‘“‘ Notaris on Mosses,” Mr. Berkeley, in correcting a previous omission having reference to the genus Habrodon, states that Conomitrium julianum had been sent to Dr. Dickie by Mr. Wilson from his district,” Warrington. This being only one side of the truth, I take the liberty of supply- ing the other side. Any person reading the paragraph as it stands would certainly suppose that this very elegant, and very remarkable moss was a native of the Warrington district, which it is not, nor of any other part of the British Isles that 1am aware of. No doubt Dr. Dickie received fresh specimens of the moss from Mr. Wilson at Warrington, as I also did, but they were of foreign origin, and only cultivated by Mr. Wilson in his little conservatory at Warrington, where he had them placed in a large- mouthed jar filled with water, in which condition I saw the plants during the month of October, 1870, on the occasion of the last visit I paid to my now departed friend. I may further remark that I had been led to suppose it was Dr. Schimper, of Strasburg, who first made known the genus Habrodon to be British, In the summer of 1865 he and the late Mr. Wilson paid mea visit at Dublin, and after leaving Treland, Dr. Schimper accompanied a party to the Highlands of Scotland, on which excursion the Habrodon was discovered growing on trees near Killin, whence I have specimens from the party, which were collected on that occasion. Glasniven, Oct. 16 D. Moore Corrections A PARENTHETICAL passage in my ‘‘ note on the Cycloid” has been transposed. Instead of ‘‘ (a luminous point for the nonce) the sun in the meridian,” &c., it should have been ‘‘the sun (a luminous point for the nonce) in the meridian,” &c. In Mr, Abbott’s paper on 7 Argus and its surrounding nebula there occurs the statement that I consider ‘‘an increased or decreased distance in space may account for the fluctuations of thenebula.” I have never suggested such an explanation. What I have said is that the fluctuations, if real, would seem to suggest that the nebula has not those inconceivably vast dimen- sions which would correspond to the vast distance once assigned to it. My opinion was (and is), ofthat the nebula is nearer than it was formerly, but that it is nearer than it was formerly supposed to be, RIcHD, A, PROCTOR A Universal Atmosphere WILL you permit me ‘to ask Mr. Mattieu Williams how, on his hypothesis, ‘‘that the atmosphere is universal, and that each planet attracts to itself an atmosphere in proportion to its mass,” he accounts for the well-known fact that the moon shows no signs of an atmosphere sufficient to produce any indication of refraction during the occultations of a star? I think Mr. Williams’s book deserves far more attention than it has received, so I trust I shall be acquitted of any wish to indulge in carping criticism. JOHN BROWNING 111, Minories, October 10 The Temperature of the Sun HAvinG been absent from home I have but just seen Mr. Ericsson’s article on the ‘‘Temperature of the Sun” in Nature, (No. ror, p. 449. All who feel an interest in the subject must be indebted to Mr. Ericsson for the experimen- tal evidence which he has contributed to the investigation, and for such further light as his ingenuity will doubtless enable him to throw upon it ; but few, I think, will be inclined to admit that the reasoning advanced in his recent article justifies in any degree the inferences which he has there drawn. At the outset of the inquiry it does not seem very likely that we shall gain much correct knowledge of the condition of the solar atmosphere by inquiring what that condition would be if it were replaced by a medium similar to the terrestrial atmosphere, and containing the same quantity of matter for corresponding areas of the spherical surface, If the casé were otherwise it would be necessary to point out that Mr. Ericsson’s numerical results are vitiated by his omission to consider that the volume of NATURE 487 a sphere varies as the cube of the radius, and therefore that on the data assumed by him the earth’s atmosphere raised to the temperature of the solar surface, instead of attaining a height of 279,006 miles, would barely reach to one-twelfth of that limit. But I may further remark that the assumptions on which Mr, Ericsson’s calculations are founded are open to many objections. It is far from certain that the direct proportion between the in- crease of volume of gases at constant pressure and the increase of temperature, holds good for an enormously high temperature such as prevails in the solar atmosphere, and it is certain that the resistance offered by that medium to the passage of radiant heat depends not solely or mainly on its temperature, but on its chemical—z.¢. its molecular—constitution. It may further be noted that Mr. Ericsson’s experiments on the diminution of heat emanating from a disc of incandescent iron, according to the angle at which its face is inclined to a fixed thermometer, do not justify similar conclusions with regard to heat emanating from a mass of incandescent gases or vapours, At the same time it may be regretted that Mr. Ericsson has not given fuller details respecting the experiments in question, which may give valuable results irrespective of the conclusions to which he has applied them, JOHN BALL Flight of Butterflies CAN you tell us where the yellow butterflies are going? About ten days since, while chatting with several gentlemen at the Jackson Sulphur Well about caterpillars, one of them re- marked that the worm was about, for, says he, the yellow butter- flies are all going east. We thought at first he was telling us a “‘ fish story”, but soon became convinced that he knew whereof he spoke, for while we sat there a great number of bright-coloured, medium-sized butter- flies came by us, all winging their way towards the rising sun. Now, we do not think that this fly is related to the caterpillar, for the moth that lays the egg of that destructive wormis a very different fly ; nevertheless it is a singular fact that they are all going east. I have been at several different points since leaving Jackson, and at every place they fly the same way. Can you tell us whither they go? Perhaps if you will ask the question in your widely-circulated journal, some naturalist, or somebody over to the eastward, may tell us where they rest. ALA Mobile, Sept. 6 [A similar fact will be found recorded in our ‘‘ Notes” re- specting the Urania leilus.—ED. |] Velocity of Sound in Coal THIs is a very interesting subject, at least to those who have anything to do with coal mines. And yet I have not met with anything that points to it, nor any formula whereby it might be calculated. But perhaps this is a subject to which the attention of physicists has not been drawn. I have been told that blast- ing has been heard at the distance of 150 yards underground, and I have heard the signals of the colliers, z.¢., by hitting the surface of the coal with one of their tools, at the distance of fifty or sixty yards, and have also heard the shouts of the men at the distance of fifteen yards ; but I have never met any person who could give the velocity, nor seen any book on physics in which there is anything concerning it. But perhaps it is a very hard subject to deal with from the difference of the specific gravity of the coals, and also the different temperatures that we meet there. And if from these different causes it would be hard to find the real velocity, yet by calculating a velocity that might be rather theoretical at first, we might by degrees come nearer the truth. D. JosEPH Ty Draw, Pontyfridd, Oct. 5 Prof, Newcomb and Mr. Stone I Am obliged to Mr, Lynn for pointing out that the statement by ‘‘P. S.” was contradicted. I had not been aware of this, It never occurred to me to doubt either the authorship or the authenticity of the statement. I cannot tell how it chanced that ‘“W. T. L.’s” response escaped my attention. Perhaps I never saw the January number of the Astronomical Register; or, perhaps, a variety of other reasons which would not interest your readers, 488 NATURE [ Oct. 19, 1871 The only point of the least interest in the matter (if the matter has any interest at all) is the fact that Prof. Newcomb did not discuss the observations of 1769, as I had believed. I have already admitted this, and withdrawn those expressions of com- mendation which I had founded on the strongly-worded letter of Prof. Smyth, so that I am rather at a loss to know what purpose Mr. Lynn had specially in view when he wrote his letter. I thank him, however, as warmly as though I knew what he meant. Ricup, A. PRocror SCIENCE AT THE UNIVERSITIES HE following courses of lectures will be delivered at the University of Oxford in Natural and Physical Science during the ensuing term:—The Sedleian Pro- fessor of Natural Philosophy, the Rev. Bartholomew Price, M.A., will deliver a course of Lectures on Light, on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays, at one o’clock, commencing October 19th, at the Lecture Room, Mu- seum, Upper Corridor South. The Savilian Professor of Astronomy, the Rev. C. Pritchard, M.A., proposes to give two courses of lectures during the present term ; the one on Astronomical Instruments, the other on the Lunar Theory. The Professor of Experimental Philosophy, R. B. Clifton, M.A., will give a course of Lectures on Experimental Optics, on Wednesdays and Fridays, at twelve o’clock, commencing October 20, at the Physical Laboratory, University Museum. The Physical Laboratory of the University will be open daily for instruction in Practical Physics, from ten to four o’clock, on and after Thursday, October 19. The Linacre Professor of Anatomy and Physiology, G. Rolleston, D.M., will lecture on Circula- tion and Respiration, on Tuesdays, Fridays, and Satur- days, at one o'clock, commencing October 20, at the Museum. The Professor proposes to form classes for Practical Instruction, as in former terms. Persons who join these classes will come to the lectures on Saturdays at one o'clock, and will also come to the Museum on three mornings in the week for study and demonstration, under the superintendence of Mr. Charles Robertson, the Demonstrator of Anatomy, and Mr. C. S. Taylor, of Merton College. The Hope Professor of Zoology, J. O. Westwood, M.A., will not lecture during the present term, being engaged in the classification of the Hope, Burchell, Bell, and other collections, at the New University Mu- seum, where he will be happy to see gentlemen desirous of studying the Articulated Animals, daily, between 1 and 5 P.M. A course of lectures will be given on behalf of the Professor of Chemistry, by A. Vernon Harcourt, M.A., in continuation of the Professors course, on Tuesdays and Saturdays. at eleven o'clock, commencing October 21, atthe Museum. There will also be an Explanatory and Catechetical Lecture on Thursdays, at eleven o'clock, to commence on Thursday, October 26. The Laboratory of the University will be open daily for instruction in Practical Chemistry from 9 A.M. to 3 P.M., on and after Monday, October 16. The ordinary course of instruction in the laboratory includes those methods of Qualitative Analysis, a knowledge of which is required of candidates for honours in the School of Natural Science who make Chemistry their special subject. In addition to this two courses of instruction will be given in the Laboratory, the one on the Methods of Qualitative Analysis, the other a course of elementary practical instruction in Chemical Manipulation, intended for those commencing the study of Chemistry. At Cambridge the following lectures in Natural Science will be delivered during Michaelmas Term in connection with Trinity, St. John’s, and Sidney Sussex Colleges :— On Electricity and Magnetism (for the Natural Sciences Tripos), by Mr. Trotter, Trinity College, on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, at 10, commencing Wednes- day, October 18. On General Physics, Sound, and Light (for the Natural Sciences Tripos 1872, and following years), by Mr. Trotter, Trinity College, on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays, commencing Thurs- day, October 19. On Chemistry, by Mr. Main, St. John’s College, on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, at 12,in St. John’s College Laboratory, commencing Wed- nesday, October 18. Attendance on these lectures is recognised by the University for the certificate required by medical students previous to admission for the first examination for the degree of M.B. Instruction in Prac- tical Chemistry will also be given. On Paleontology (the Protozoa and Ccelenterata), by Mr. Bonney, St. John’s College, on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, at 9, commencing Wednesday, October 18. On Geology (for the Natural Sciences Tripos, preliminary matter and Petrology), by Mr. Bonney, St. John’s College,on Tuesdays and Thursdays, at 9, commencing Thursday, October 19. A course on Physical Geology will be given in the Lent Term, and on Stratigraphical Geology in the Easter Term. Papers will be given to questionists every Saturday at 11. On Botany, for the Natural Sciences Tripos, by Mr. Hicks, Sidney College, Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays, at 11, beginning on Tuesday, October 31. The lectures during this term will be on Vegetable Morphology. Mr. Hicks will also give examination papers in Botany to candidates for the next Natural Sciences Tripos on Mondays, at I P.M., beginning October 30. These examinations will be free to those who have attended the botanical lectures of the last term. On the Elements of Physiology, by the Trinity Przlector in Physiology (Dr. M. Foster), Mon- days, Tuesdays, and Wednesdays, at 11 A.M., commencing Monday, October 23. A course of Elementary Practical Physiology, on Wednesdays and Thursdays, commencing Wednesday, October 25, at 2 P.M. AN EXPLOSION (2) ON THE SUN* N the 7th of September, between half-past 12 and 2 P.M., there occurred an outburst of solar energy remarkable for its suddenness and violence. Just at noon the writer had been examining with the telespectroscope an enormous protuberance or hydrogen cloud on the eastern limb of the sun. It had remained, with very little change since the pre- ceding noon, a long, low, quiet-looking cloud, not very dense or brilliant, nor in any way remarkable except for its size. It was made up mostly of filaments nearly horizontal, andfloated above the chromosphere, with its lower surface at a height of some 15,000 miles, but was connected to it, as is usually the case, by three or four vertical columns brighter and more active than the rest. Lockyer compares such masses to a banyan grove. In length it measured 3’ 45”, and in elevation about 2’ to its upper surface, that is, since at the sun’s distance, 1” equals 450 miles nearly, it was about 100,000 miles long by 54,000 high. At 12.30, when I was called away for a few minutes, there was no indication of what was about to happen, except that one of the connecting stems at the southern extremity of the cloud had grown considerably brighter, and was curiously bent to one side ; and near the base of another at the northern end a little brilliant lump had deqeloped itself, shaped much like a summer thunder- ead. What was my surprise, then, on returning in less than half an hour (at 12.55), to find that in the meantime the whole thing had been literally blown to shreds by some inconceivable uprush from beneath. In place of the quiet cloud I had left, the air, if I may use the expression, was filled with flying @ééy7s—a mass of detached vertical fusi- form filaments, each from 10” to 30” long by 2” or 3” wide * From the Boston Yournal of Chemistry, communicated by the author. rs} Oct. t9, 1871] NATURE 489 brighter and closer together where the pillars had formerly stood, and rapidly ascending. When I first looked, some of them had already reached a height of nearly 4’ (100,000 miles), and while I watched them they rose with a motion almost perceptible to the eye, untilin ten minutes (1.5) the uppermost were more than 200,000 miles above the solar surface. This was ascertained by careful measurement ; the mean of three closely accordant determinations gave 7’ 49” as the extreme altitude attained, and I am particular in the state- ment because, so far as I know, chromospheric matter (red hydrogen in this case) has never before been observed at an altitude exceeding 5’. The velocity of ascent also, 166 miles per second, is considerably greater than any- thing hitherto recorded. As the filaments rose they gradually faded away like a dissolving cloud, and at 1.15 only a few filmy wisps, with some brighter streamers low down near the chromosphere, remained to mark the place. But in the meanwhile the little “ thunder head,” before alluded to, had grown and developed wonderfully into a mass of rolling and ever-changing flame, to speak accord- ing to appearances. First it was crowded down, as it were, along the solar surface ; later it rose almost pyra- midally 50,000 miles in height; then its summit was drawn out into long filaments and threads which were most curiously rolled backwards and downwards, like the volutes of an Ionic capital: and finally it faded away, and by 2.30 had vanished like the other. The whole phenomenon suggested most forcibly the idea of an exf/osion under the great prominence, acting mainly upwards, but also in all directions outwards, and then after an interval followed by a corresponding inrush : and it seems far from impossible that the mysterious coronal streamers, if they turn out to be truly solar, as now seems likely, may find their origin and explanation in such events. The same afternoon a portion of the chromosphere on the opposite (western) limb of the sun was for several hours in a state of unusual brilliancy and excitement, and showed in the spectrum more than 120 bright lines whose position was determined and catalogued—all that I had ever seen before, and some fifteen or twenty besides. Whether the fine aurora borealis which succeeded in the evening was really the earth’s response to this mag- nificent outburst of the sun is perhaps uncertain, but the coincidence is at least suggestive, and may easily become something more, if, as I somewhat confidently expect to learn, the Greenwich magnetic record indicates a disturb- ance precisely simultaneous with the solar explosion, C, A, YOUNG Dartmouth College, September 1871 THE KEA—PROGRESS OF DEVELOPMENT A NOTICE of the development of a striking change in the habits of a bird may be considered by naturalists interesting enough to justify a brief record in your journal. The Kea (WVestor nofabilis) may be seen and heard in certain localities amidst the wild scenery of the Southern Alps in the middle island of New Zealand, for it is not so rare as has been described. This fine bird belongs to one of our indigenous genera, an examination of its structure proves that it shares with the Kaéaa claim to a position amongst the 777chog/ossine or Brush-tongued Parrots ; the under side of its thick tongue near the tip is fringed with papillz, enabling it to collect the sweets of its favourite blossoms. Through how many years has this species been content to range over shrub-covered heights and rock-bound gullies, gathering its subsistence from the nectar of hardy flowers, from the drupes and berries of the dwarfed shrubs that contend with a rigorous climate, and press upwards almost to the snow line of our Alpine giants? To these food-resources may be added insects L— found in the crevices of rocks, beneath the bark of trees and its aliment not wholly vegetarian, yet such as called forth no display of boldness in order to procure a sufficient supply. This peaceful demeanour was observed under the ascendency of Moaic conservatism. The European has been the means of corrupting the simplicity of its ancient habits ; the meat-gallows of the back-country squatters attracted the attention of our mountain-parrots in the winter season, To them they became points of interest in their wanderings, and furnished many a hearty meal torn from the dangling carcass as it swung in the frosty air ; neither were the drying sheepskins, stretched on the rails of the stockyard, neglected. The Paneka has been destined to supply the enterprising Kea with a dainty only equalled perhaps by that which the epicurean African cuts warm from his bovine victim—our educated bird now tears his food from the back of the living sheep. From a local paper one learns that, for the last three years the sheep belonging to a settler “in the Wanaka district, (Otago) appeared afflicted with what was thought to be a new kind of disease ; neighbours and shepherds were equally at a loss to account for it, having never seen anything of the kind before. The first appearance of this supposed disease is a patch of raw flesh on the loin of the sheep, about the size of a man’s hand; from this matter con- tinually runs down the side, taking the wool completely off the part it touches, and in many cases death is the result. At last a shepherd noticed one of the mountain parrots sticking to a sheep and pecking at a sore, and that the animal seemed unable to get rid of its tormentor. The runholder gave directions to his shep- herds to keep watch on the parrots when mustering on the high ground ; the result has been that during the pre- sent season when mustering high upon the ranges near the snow line, they saw several of the birds surrounding a sheep which was freshly bleeding from a small wound in the loin ; on other sheep were noticed places where the Kea had begun to attack them, small pieces of wool having been picked out.” From the recent settlement of the country, it would be quite possible to date each stepin the development of the destructiveness of the Kea, the gradual yet rapid change from the mild gentleness of a honey-eater, luxuriating amidst fragrant blossoms when the season was lapped in sunshine, or picking the berried fruits in the more shel- tered gullies when winter had sternly crushed and hidden the vegetation of its summer haunts. Led, perhaps, to relish animal food from its partly insectivorous habits, its visits to the out-stations show something like the bold thievery of some of the Corvidae, whilst its attacks on sheep feeding on high ranges exhibit an amount of daring akin to the savage fierceness of a raptorial. Is the posi- tion of Nestor in our avifauna an anomalous one? A sucker of honey, devourer of fruit, destroyer of insects, render and tearer of flesh—will the difficulty be met by classing our mountain bird as omnivorous, or is it to be considered as only one other instance in which system puzzles and hampers the field naturalist? Tuos. H, Ports ON A NEW FORM OF CLOUD* ae accompanying figure on p. 490, represents a form of cloud which I have seen but twice in my life;* the first time about the commencement of June 1871, at five o’clock in the evening, at Washing- ton, U.S. ; the second at Beloit, Wisconsin, U.S., during the same year, and at the same hour. The state of the atmosphere presented similar meteorological con- ditions at both times. The appearances coincided with * See my new classification of clouds with ‘sixteen engravings in the Rural New Yorker, January 29, February 26, April 9, May 21, June 4 and tr. It will be reprinted in the Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1870, with an historical introduction, in print now for the next number of the Annales Hydrographiques of Paris, 490 NATURE [ Oct. 19,1871 a north-west storm passing slowly north of the city without bursting, and disappearing in the south-east. Great branched masses of cloud appeared suspended from a sheet of Pallio-Cirrus. Some resembled bunches of grapes (a), others stalactites (4) in a striking manner, and still others formed round balls (c) separated by the azure of the sky. These balls seemed to be formed of snow flakes, and approached the form of Cirro-Cumu- lus; one might say of masses of snow rolled upon themselves by the effect of electric currents deve- loped during the storm. This was accompanied by thunder and lightning at Washington, and by lightning only at Beloit. @ represents one of these balls de- tached, with two sorts of penumbra, darker in e and /, and a streak at g, the rest whitish. Somebody at Beloit told me he had seen this form of cloud two or three times. A slightly brilliant aurora borealis was seen at Beloit the same evening. The night of its appearance at Washington no aurora was visible, but I do not know whether there may not have been one in other parts of the United States. The same evening and the next day at Beloit the temperature fell several degrees. It is a general belief that the aurora borealis is followed by a decrease of temperature. We know that in higher strata of the air vapour of water floats constantly in the form of frozen needles, especially in the polar regions. It is not impossible that these ice needles may be drifted by the electric current which engenders the aurora borealis* into lower latitudes, and thence towards lower strata of the atmosphere by the winds and storms. Hence the cooling of the air which is said to attend the aurora. ANDRE Poky EXOGENOUS STRUCTURES AMONGST THE STEMS OF THE COAL MEASURES HE perusal of Dr. M‘Nab’s reply to my short article : on the existence of an exogenous process of growth amongst the cryptogamic stems of the coal measures, confirms my previous conviction that the discussion of the details of my proposition can lead to no beneficial results until the publication of my large store of new * * See my Memoir on the Development of Electricity during the Aurora Borealis in the “ Annuaire de la Société Météorologique de France,” 1861, vol, ix. p. 42. facts has been completed. Dr. M‘Nab’s article convinces me, as indeed is necessarily the case, that he has no con- ception either of the nature or of the extent of those facts. Were it otherwise, he would see ata glance how far his explanations are from accounting for them. He has given an exposition of a common process of exo- genous growth, which is true as far as it goes; but I can assure him that the modifications of that process, so far as we can infer from peculiarities of structure, have been much more varied in past geological ages than he is aware of. He is pleased to affirm two things which require proof: (1) that I have “ been led away by the mere super- ficial resemblance of the parts;” and (2) that I have “never tried to understand the homologies of these stems.” To the first of these charges I plead not guilty ; to the second I reply that I was “#yzzg to understand these things when he was a child at school. Whether or not I have succeeded remains to be seen, but as yet he has told me nothing new to me. In studying the relations of the several parts of a plant, we have to consider three things, of which Dr. M‘Nab has mainly dwelt upon one. These are— 1. The relative positions of the tissues. 2. The mode of their development. 3. The functions they have to perform. FIG. I The first point where I shall differ from Dr. M‘Nab is in supposing that a correspondence on the first of these clauses invariably pre-supposes a similar correspondence on the second. I shall have to show on a future occasion that Nature has attained the same end in more ways than one ; and that she refuses to be shut up to that dicho- tomous arrangement pre-supposed by Dr. M‘Nab; but for the present I will limit my illustration to the par- ticular mode of growth upon which he rests his case. If we take a perfect Stigmaria, we find its centre (a, Fig. 2, p- 491) to be occupied by an axis of ordinary cellular pa- renchyma unmixed with any vascular tissue. This is sur- rounded by a ligneous or vascular cylinder (4) which, in its turn, is invested by a thick bark (c) consisting of a mix- ture of parenchyma and prosenchyma arranged in definite positions. The central axis differs in no respect whatever from the celluiar piths of ordinary exogenous stems. The woody cylinder consists of vessels which, in the trans- verse section, are arranged in radiating lines (@) running from the pith to the bark; these lines are separated by intervening cellular tracts (e), which I, in common with Brongniart and Dr. Hooker, designate medullary rays. The radiating lines of vessels exhibit proofs of distinct interruptions to the process of growth, and afford clear evidence that the cylinder began as a thin ring of vessels surrounding the pith, and which grew, by successive concentric additions of vessels, to its peripheral surface where the cambium layer is found in ordinary exogens. We have here no trace of the limiting tissues of which Dr. M‘Nab speaks ; the growth has been free and prac- Oct. 19, 1871] ‘ NATURE 491 tically continuous, in an outward direction, by the addition of layer after layer. The materials for the new vessels have obviously been furnished by some proto- plasmic element which, whether we call it cambium, or choose to give it some other name, was located at the line of junction between the wood and the bark. The additions effected byits agency have gone on through successive ages until the thin vascular cylinder became a large hard-wooded stem capable of upholding a gigantic forest tree. If we turn to the medullary rays, we find that they con- sist of vertical laminz of cells. In the tangential section they appear asvertical lines of cells (7, Fig. 1, p. 490), undis- tinguishable from those seen in the corresponding sections of most conifers. In radial sections made in the plane of the medullary rays, we find that the latter proceed con- tinuously from the pith to the investing bark, with each of which tissues they become intimately blended at their corresponding extremities. The component cells further exhibit, in this radial section, the mural arrangement so | characteristic of ordinary medullary rays. As the vascular | cylinder increased in diameter by additions to its exterior, so these medullary rays became lengthened by the similar addition of new cells to their outer extremities, such cells being supplied from the same source (cambium) as the corresponding new vessels. Now, in ail these processes of growth, I re-affirm that we have nothing which can, in any plain sense of the word, be termed Acrogenous. I can discern no material difference between what I have just described and what occurs in a Cycad or ina Conzfer. In all these cases the additions are equally. made to the exterior of a gradually enlarging cylinder, new cells being added to the outer extremities of the medullary rays, and vessels to the intermediate lines of vascular tissues ; the raw material for both having been furnished, as in exogens, by some protoplasmic layer located between the vascular cylinder and the bark. I do not very clearly understand what Dr. M‘Nab means when he speaks ofa“ pseudo-exogenous” growth, or of an “increase which takes place in the wood cells of the primitive tissues, not, as in Dicotyledons, by additions to the wood- cells of the fibro-vascular bundles.” I detect no such difference as he seems to imply in the example which I have given. If I rightly understand his meaning, Dr. M‘Nab considers me to affirm that in all these cryptogamic plants of the coal-measures, there has been exactly the same process of growth, corresponding in each minute detail, as takes place during the growth of an oak tree. I have never affirmed this. On the con- trary, I shall have to show that, amongst these coa plants, there are indications of many remarkable combi- nations and varied modifications of the process of growth. Whether we do or do not accept the doctrine of evolution, we should expect to find such generalised combination | amongst these primeval forms of vegetable life. I once more repeat, however, that these matters are scarcely capable of further discussion until my series of detailed memoirs has been published. When this takes place, I | think Dr. M‘Nab will see that I have not made the two | “fatal errors” which he imagines I have done, and that there is more in my proposed classification than he, at present, has any idea of. Atthe same time I may remind him that the recognition of an exogenous process of growth amongst cryptogams is not now propounded for the first time. Dr. Hofmeister has given us most de- tailed accounts of such a process in his history of the de- velopment of Isoetes—itself a Lycopodiaceous plant. I merely propose to show that a mode of increment which now lingers in this one dwarfed genus amongst living Lycopodiacez, was once widely diffused, not only through- out this group of plants, but equally presented itself amongst the Calamitacez. Prof. Dyers temperate and intelligent reply to my | article on the above subject resolves itself into two parts, the first of which deals with facts and the second with opinions. As to his facts he is in the same position as Dr. M‘Nab. He is not acquainted with the materials for forming an opinion which [I have in my hands, and upon which my views are based, consequently he has taken one extreme type of Lycopodiaceous stem, and made its supposed characters representative of the entire group. No. 129 of the Proceedings of the Royal Society which contains an abstract of my last memoir on the subject, would have shown him that I do materially differ from Mr. Carruthers in my interpretation of Lefido- dendron selaginoides, the plant to. which he refers, which difference of opinion I also expressed at the Edin- burgh meeting of the British Association. I there showed that the central axis does not, as Prof. Dyer affirms, “consist wholly of scalariform vessels,” but that these vessels are largely intermingled with true scalariform cells. But this is not all. The plant in question is but one of a large variety of forms. It occupies one end of a linear series of types—the opposite extremity of which series exhibits a very different aspect. The medullary vessels, which, in Lepzdodendron selaginoides, are thus intimately commingled with the medullary cellular tissue, in the other types gradually recede from the centre to the peri- phery of the central cellular axis ; the latter thus assuming the condition of a purely cellular parenchymatous pith, the cells of which are not even scalariform. The medul- lary vessels, thus driven to the periphery, now assume the position of the medullary sheath of the higher exogens. The vascular tissues for which I claim an exogenous origin are superadded to the exterior of this vascular me- dullary cylinder. We thus see that the central axis of these plants, instead of consisting of two parts, as Prof. Dyer affirms, really consists of three,* viz, a central cel- * Stigmaria is an exception. In it the medullary vessels are altogether absent, as stated in my reply to Dr. M‘Nab. 492 lular pith, an inner ring of vessels belonging to the medul- lary portion of the axis, and an external vascular cylinder, which grows by additions to its exterior, and which no more belongs to the central medulla than do the ordinary wood layers of an exogenous phanerogam, It has unquestion- ably been the product, as Prof. Dyer admits to be pro- bable, of a cambium layer. Speaking cf the Lycopodiaceous stems of the coal measures, Prof. Dyer says, “Iam inclined to think, with Prof, Williamson, that the stem increased in thickness.” This point is not one to be thought about as if it was uncertain. We have in our museum accurate casts of the Dixonfold trees, and the base of the stem of the largest of these, above the point whence the huge roots are given off, is twelve feet incircumference! Higher up it is eight feet. There is surely no room for questioning an increase of thickness here, and this instance is but one example of what is sufficiently common in the coal measures. When we turn to the interior of these large trees, we find, as I have abundant evidence to prove, that they were enabled to sustain their huge bulk by an exogenous development of their outer cylinder of vessels, which were not mere modi- fications of the medullary vessels, but something super- added. This woody structure was amply provided with medullary rays, and each of the several layers of the thick bark increased #ar7z fassu with an increase of the ligneous zones, whilst a large cellular pith occupied the centre of the stem. So much forthe facts, which are very different from those recognised by either of my two opponents. Now as to opinions, Prof. Dyer says he thinks that this increase was “nothing more than an incident in the life- history of a particular race of plants, nothing more than an adjustment to an arborescent habit dropped when the arborescent habit was lost.” I am not sure that I understand all that Prof. Dyer means in this pas- sage. He appears, however, to imply that these exogenous conditions were merely adventitious growths assumed for a season, and thrown off at the earliest opportunity ; that they had no true affinity with the plants in which they were found. I confess I see no grounds for so remarkable a conclusion, especially remembering that, atleast, these con- ditions lasted throughout the vast duration of the Devonian and Carboniferous ages. That one object of the exogenous growth was to enable these trees to sustain a huge super- structure, is doubtless true, though we find that growth in myriads of plants that have no such ponderous super- structures ; but must we not say the same thing of the oak and the beech, as well as of the Lepidodendra? Isee no difference between the cases. We have no more reason for regarding these conditions as merely an incident in the life-history of a particular race in the one instance than in the other. I will not now discuss the value of the terms exogen and endogen, since the question has little importance in reference to the present object. I will only say that the mode of growth of a plant appears to me to have equal value with the mode of reproduction. There is a fashion in these matters—and in some circles there is now a tendency to elevate the reproductive at the expense of the vegetative, with which I do not agree, but I repeat this is not a question essentially important at present. My two great objects have been, first to demonstrate the existence of the exogenous structure in the trees in question ; and second, to show the absurdity of applying the term acrogen to trees so constructed. The value of my proposed classification is an indepen- dent question. I attach but a limited importance to the artificial boundary-lines introduced by systematisers, and do not wish to assign more to my own than to those of others ; nevertheless, such divisions are useful so far as they indicate affinities, and it is because I find such affinities in the plants before us, waecognised by existing classifications, that I have suggested a new one. Whatever value different minds may attach to the fact, there exists NATURE [ Oct. 19, 1871 —$§ $$ $$$ ————————— the great vegetative difference upon which I have dwelt between the Lycopodiaceze and the Calamites on the one hand, and the Ferns on the other. There is certainly something more involvedin this fact than “ the old division of plants into trees and shrubs,” with which Prof. Dyer compares it. Such a division is merely one of size and duration, not of organisation. Herbs, if they belong to the exogenous group, are as truly exogenous in their type as the most gigantic trees of the same class. Size has nothing to do with the matter. The same uniformity of type, apart from size, exists amongst |my fossil cryptogams, True, the exogenous growth attains the fullest development amongst the large trees—but all the rudiments of this growth are equally to be found in the small ones, as my forthcoming memoirs will demonstrate. The outer exogenous growth must be distinguished from the primitive vessels of the central medullary axis. I have yet to publish a remarkable series of facts illus- trating this point. I have stated in a previous article that, in one sense, the exogenous vessels are a development of the vascular bundles of the living Lycopods. This is teleologically true rather than morphologically. Viewed in | the latter aspect the two groups of vessels are independent of each other. The medullary vessels may be, and often are, primitive tissues formed at the first growth of the plant or of its young branches. The exogenous ones are something added, furnished by a cambium layer. The two groups retain their independent positions permanently, just as in living exogens the medullary sheath remains distinct from the woody cylinder which encloses it. W. C. WILLIAMSON NOTES WE believe that the arrangements of the Eclipse Expedition are nearly all made, and that the numbers are now complete. The Expedition sails on Thursday next in the AZirzapore, arriving ~ at Point de Galle on the 27th November, if all goes well. M. Janssen, we believe, is already ex voyage. Prof. Respighi, of Rome, will accompany the English Expedition, Botu Mr. Hind and M, Stephan at Marseilles have obtained observations of Encke’s comet. Mr. Hind thus writes: ‘It is a large, faint, and very diffused nebulosity—a different-looking object from what I remember it in one or two former returns, when it has been drawing just within reach of the telescope. The last observation on the 12th of October gives the following place :—At 9» 16™ 18° mean time at Twickenham, right ascen- sion, 1" 7™ 37°85; north declination, 36° 47’ 38". The ephe- meris for this appearance, published in Wéanges Mathématiques, of the Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg, and calculated by Herr von Glasenapp, of the Russian National Observatory at Pulkowa, required, according to the above observation, correc- tions of 36 seconds in right ascension and ten minutes in declina- tion, subtractive in both elements. The comet’s positions for the next few days will be nearly as follows :— for Midnight at Greenwich. R.A. Decl. N. heeeeaxtls Deg. Min. October 19 ‘ Oo 30°7 ». “Bsinray yeh : ee LO) tS - 38 45 » = 23 5 5 ele PSH) 5 sto Le) p25 we 23 483. «38 «(59 THE Expedition to Moab, which has been organised by Dr, Ginsburg, and goes out under the auspices of the British Associa- _, tion, will leave England in January. Its object is to explore » the geography, antiquities, and natural history of the region. Canon Tristram will accompany Dr. Ginsburg. Bulletin Astronomique de ? Observatoire de Paris is the title of an official circular, containing meridional observations of the sun, Oct. 19, 1871] moon, and planets, made at the National Observatory, and news as to comets, minor planets, and the like. It promises to be very useful, and it is to be wished that other observatories will follow M. Delaunay’s example. THE contract for the new telescope which Congress has author- ised the National Observatory at Washington to procure has been given to Mr. Alvan Clarke, of Boston, the well-known manu- facturer of astronomical apparatus, It is to be of twenty-six inches aperture, and to be completed, according to contract, in about two years. Itis understood that Mr. Clarke will again visit Europe for the purpose of carefully examining the principal tele- scopes there before completing the one in question. He has already minutely examined Mr. Newall’s 25-inch, the chefd’euvre of our English opticians, Messrs. Cooke and Sons, of York. THE College of Physical Science at Newcastie-on-Tyne is now fairly at work. Already nearly fifty students are en- rolled, and more are expected. Professors Aldis, Page, Her- schel, and Marreco delivered their introductory lectures to large and appreciative audiences. Each of the professors, while touching especially on his own particular branch of science, di- lated on the advantages accruing from the study of physical science, not only to the student who desires a special technical education, but to the community at large. Prof. Aldis, while expressing a hope that the advantages of the College would be thrown open to women as well as to men, made the following admirable remarks on the study of mathematics by women :— “A mathematical training, by which I do not mean learning Euclid by heart, will be a good preparation for the study of poli- tical economy and for the study of nature; I think not a bad preparation for the proper management of a house, and the mother’s duties towards her children, Iam sure that the time spent in receiving such a training, even if by getting it a lad or a lass be obliged to commence active duties a year or two later, will be time well spent, and will give an impetus which will carry them both through life with an ease which scarcely anything else will afford.” We understand that Professors Herschel and Marreco intend that physical and physico-chemical measurements shall be practised by the students, although there is yet no phy- sical laboratory. At the time of going to press the question of admitting ladies had not been decided. A fair start seems to have been made, and we can only wish the new college as pros- perous a future. Trinity College, Cambridge, has, it appears, the power of electing to its Fellowships men of scientific or literary distinction, and we are extremely glad to learn that Dr. Michael Foster has been thus elected. Dr. Foster was recently appointed to the newly-created post of Przelector in Physiology at the College, and this election to a further share of the emoluments and administra- tion of the College proves that the members of the foundation are determined to carry out their intentions of promoting the study of Physiology in Cambridge. A temporary laboratory has been fitted up in the New Museums of the University, in which Dr. Foster gives lectures, and conducts the practical teaching. At the same time Mr. Hopkinson, Senior Wrangler of 1871, wes elected a Fellow of Trinity College. These elections are the first- fruits of the act of last session admitting Nonconformists to a full share of the benefits of the University. Mr. WALTER WILLIAM FISHER, B.A., was on Saturday elected to an open Natural Science Fellowship at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, the examiners for which, Dr. Odling and Mr, A, Vernon Harcourt, made honourable mention of Mr. Christo- pher Childs, Scholar of Merton College. Mr. Fisher entered at Worcester College, from whence he gained a Natural Science Postmastership at Merton College, and was placed in the first class in the Natural Science Schools in Trinity Term 1870, Mr. Moscarpt, from the Somersetshire College, Bath, has been NA TORE 493 elected to a Mathematical Scholarship at Worcester College, Oxford, on the Finney Foundation, open fro hac vice; and Mr. White, from the Liverpool Institute, has been also elected an Exhibitioner. It is gratifying to learn that Her Majesty has conferred the honour of Civil Companion of the Bath on Mr. J. H. Parker, the distinguished antiquarian. It is not often that we find either Science or Art so highly recognised in England ; but is the Companionship of the Bath the fittest reward we have to bestow on scientific merit ? THE forty-fourth annual meeting of the Association of German Naturalists and Physicians has lately been held in Rostock. It has entered on the fiftieth year of its existence, having been focnded in 1822 by Oken, who brought together twenty-one naturalists in Leipzig. Since that time a meeting has been held each year, with five exceptions. In 1831 and 1832 the meetings were suspended on account of the prevalence of cholera; in 1848, on account of political disturbances; and in 1867 and 1870 on account of war. The SAvitish Medical Fournal states that the recent meeting was not so numerously attended as usual, many of the members having probably been detained at their homes through a fear of their professional services being required on account of the occurrence of cholera. One of the principal features of the meeting was an eloquent address by Prof. Vir- chow, on the position and prospects of natural science in the new national life of Germany. SEVERAL friends of the Saturday half-holiday movement in London have offered the sum of thirty guineas for competition to London field-naturalists and microscopists for the encourage- ment of Saturday afternoon field excursions for botanical, geological, and microscopical purposes. The Duchess of Sutherland offers ten guineas to botanists in three prizes for the best collection of mosses, including the Hepaticze, obtained within twenty miles of London ; the Countess of Ducie ten guineas to microscopists in three prizes for the best lists of the ponds and other aquatic resorts within fifteen miles of London, and the Microzoa found in them ; and the Marquis of Westminster ten guineas to geologists in two prizes for the best list of open geological sections and exposures of the strata of the London district, giving the fossil species found in each section, and the characteristic species of each formation exposed, and for the best notes on the connection of the landscape scenery of the London district with its geology. This movement is an admirable one, and altogether to be commended, Professional collectors and dealers are wisely excluded from the competition, the prizes being intended exclusively for those with whom natural history pursuits are solely the recreation of their leisure after-business hours. THE Atheneum states that Prof. Owen has written to the Mayor of Brighton, ‘fon the subject of a survey of the Sussex Wealden deposits, the district made famous by the discoveries of Mantell.” Any efforts made by Brighton to get together be- tween the present date and August 1872, the date of the meet- ing of the British Association, a collection illustrative of the Iguanodon and other extinct animals, would be esteemed a favour, and would be appreciated by members and visitors. Prof. Owen recommends Mr. E. Charlesworth as peculiarly qualified for carrying out the scheme of the authorities, and benefiting perma- nently the Brighton Museum, After a recent meeting of the Town Reception Committee, Mr. Charlesworth addressed a few of the members of the Committee on the Weald deposits ; but the town authorities have no power under existing Acts of Par- liament to levy rates for palzeontological researches, THE Coventry Institute has arranged for a complete course of Science Classes in connection with the Department of Science and Art through the approaching winter, in inorganic chemistry, 494 NATURE [ Oct. 19, 1871 animal physiology, magnetism and electricity, physical geo- graphy, and mathematics. Weare particularly glad to see that they are arranged for young persons and adults of both sexes. IN reference to the threatened destruction of what still remains of the Druidical Temple at Avebury, a correspondent of the Times states that negotiations are in progress for the purchase of the land intended to have been sold for building allotments, so that the remains of this fine old temple shall remain in their present state. PROF. PHILLIPS’s so much looked-for work on the Geology of the Thames Valley is announced for publication, The Professor proposes to make it his text-book for a course of lectures on Ox- ford Geology, to be delivered this term at Oxford. A SEVERE earthquake shock was felt at Callao and other places on the coast on August 21. The direction of the undula- tions was from N.W. to S.E., and the shocks lasted for fifteen seconds. Cero Azul and Pisco also suffered from the same shock. | | Upper Forest Tin Works, near Swansea. On Sunday the 8th of this month, a violent earthquake shock was felt at Pera and Constantinople. The motion lasted for about five seconds. No great amount of damage was done, THE terrible fire at Chicago, which raged during the early part of last week, and of which the ravages far exceed those of the Great Fire of London, affords us an additional example from which to judge of the truth of the so-much-disputed assertion, that extensive fires are almost invariably followed by heavy downpours of rain, which have been caused by them. In this case the latest telegrams assure us that the fire was chiefly checked on the third and fourth days by the heavy and con- tinuous downpour of rain, which it is conjecture was partly due to the great atmospheric disturbances which such an extensive fire would cause, especially when we are told that the season just previous to the outbreak of the fire had been particularly dry. Tue Association formed in California for the purpose of intro- ducing Eastern fish into the waters of that State has received a first instalment in 15,000 young shad, hatched in the Hudson River just a week before, and brought in large tin cans filled to the shoulder with fresh water. They proved to be in excellent condition on their arrival on the Sacramento, and were taken thence higher up the river to Tehama, where it was proposed to plant them, The expenses of this enterprise are borne from an appropriation on the part of the State of 5,000 dollars for this special purpose, A VERY remarkable collection of medicinal and other drugs has been brought together in the Exhibition of Natural Industry of the United States of Columbia or New Granada in the City of Bogota. Among febrifuges it includes the yellow quina of Zaragoza and the Sarpolata, which is considered more effective even than quina of dye plants. It is observed that Mr. P. M. Gonsalez has produced three shades of green from plants dis- covered by him in Antioquia. The Achivilla of that province produces golden yellow, the Bruja a splendid red, the Ojo Venado an intense black, and the plant of the Sagus a blue equal to indigo. THERE is in the Museum at Cassel a curious collection illus- trating European and other trees. It is in the form ofa library, in which the back of each volume is furnished by the bark of some particular tree, the sides are made of perfect wood, the top of young wood, and the bottom of old. When opened the book is found to be a box, containing either wax models or actual specimens of the flower, fruit, and leaves of the tree. THE New Vork Times states that a solid section cut from one of the original ‘big trees” of California is in New York on its way to a European Museum. Five men were employed twenty- five days in felling this huge tree ; its height is 302 ft., and its largest diameter 32 ft. The specimen was cut at a distance of 20 ft. from the base. The stump is covered in, and is now used as a ball-room! It has been .ascertained from counting the annular rings that the tree is more than 2,500 years old. A CORRESPONDENT of the Stationery announces a new fibrous plant for paper-making purposes, the Cizeraria maritima, or sea rag-wort. Several very satisfactory results have been received from various paper-makers as toits great utility for trade pur- peses, and there is every reason to believe, if proper attention is paid to its cultivation, it will in time become a staple article of commerce amongst manufacturers. The seed, at present, is im- ported from France and the south of Europe, but preparations are being made for growing it on a large scale in this country. The same journal, in an article on ‘‘ Iron-paper-making,” gives a history of the manufacture of the thinnest sheet of iron ever rolled, manufactured by Messrs. W. Hallam and Co., of the The sheet in question is 1oin. by 54in., or 55in. in surface, and weighs but 20 grains, which being brought to the standard of 8in. by 5}in., or 44 sur- face inches, is but 16 grains, or 30 per cent. less than any pre- vious effort, and requires at least 4,800 to make rin. in thick- ness. Ir is stated that tobacco in any form may be used with great advantage against snakes of all kinds. By pouring a decoction of it in suspected places, they are driven away, and this fact is known to both the natives of Hindostan and to those of North and South America. If it can be administered to them it is certain death, *In his ‘Contributions towards the Materia Medica and Natural History of China,” Mr. Frederick P. Smith records the following facts respecting the use of Fungi as food in the Celestial Empire :—Large quantities of Fungi are eaten by the Chinese of every province under the name of Hiang-kw’an, and have some medicinal or dietetic properties assigned to them. The Polypori, or Boleti, are generally preferred to the Agarics, so largely eaten in Europe. Awei-h'ai, or Ti-k‘ai, are edible Agarics, or Helvellz, and perhaps include poisonous sorts. They are burnt and applied to swellings and sores. 7Zi-ri is probably an Agaric, said to be tonic in its effects. {The Muh-rh are a numerous class of parasitic fungi growing on trees. They are much eaten. They come from Ching-ting fu in Peh- chihli, Shun-king fu and Sui-ting fu in Szch‘uen, Li-p‘ing fu in Kweichau, Yun-yang fu in Hupeh, and from Shang chau and Han-chung fuin Shen si. Manchuria and the Amur country supply a portion of this food. The S#4-rh is a Polyporus brought from Fung-t‘ien fu in Shingking, Hwui-chau fu in Nganhwui, Nan-kang fu in Kiang-si, and from Lai chau in Hunan, Z*u-kw‘an, or Ti-fan, are Agarics or Amanitas, or answer to the ‘‘toad-stools” and other injurious fungi. Some of them are said to cause irrepressible laughter. Alum and chicory are reported to be antidotal to their poison, Japanese mushrooms appear in the tariff as 7wng-yang-hiang-hu. MUCH interest was excited in the scientific journals some time ago by the accounts given in the Panama papers of the flights of a beautiful butterfly, the Urania leilus, By late advices from Panama we learn that these insects were passing over that city, from west to east, in July last, in very large numbers, and in some cases were attracted into houses by the light so as to al- most fill the apartments. They are said to be accompanied during the day by swallows and swifts, and in the night by the different species of goat-sucker, which probably destroy large numbers. Nothing is at present known, however, of the place whence they came, nor the region to which they are ultimately bound, Oct. 19, 1871 | NATURE 495 SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE FROM AMERICA * SOME of our readers are probably aware of the important archzeological discoveries made a few years ago in the island of Cyprus by Mr. L. Di Cesnola, United States consul at that island, and of the interest which they excited throughout the civilised world. This consisted in the finding of a buried city, and of numerous graves of the ancient Phoenicians and other early races of the island of Cyprus, previously entirely unknown. Excavations were prosecuted by him at great expense, and re- sulted in the accumulation of an enormous mass of treasures of art of gold, silver, bronze, pottery, &c. Various government authorities and public museums of Europe have, it is understood, opened negotiations for the acquisition of the entire collection, and it was stated that an offer had been made from Boston for their purchase ; but nothing definite appears to have been accom- plished. It is said that of the various offers, one on the part of the French Government was most satisfactory, but that the con- summation of the purchase was prevented by the late war. The value of these treasures will be shown by the following enumeration of the specimens of the collection, especially when we bear in mind that many of them are most exquisite specimens of art, and all are of undoubted authenticity and great antiquity :— Antique Greek, Phoenician, and Roman glass-ware un- guentaries, bottles, bracelets, tear-bottles . 0 - 1200 Pheenician, Assyrian, Egyptian, and Greek vases from three feet in height to two inches : 0 c - 4000 Greek and Roman and Byzantine lamps, with and without bas-reliefs and inscriptions . : 6 B . . 1400 Bronzes of every kind, strigiles, pateras, fibulas, speculas, » spear-heads, &c. 2 . 6 é . AZO Pheenician, Greek, and Cypriote (?) inscriptions . f 96 Stone statues of every size (Temple of Venus) . - 204 Stone heads of every size (Temple of Venus) . c OO) Terra-cotta statuettes, votive offerings, &c., . ' ZO Gold objects, cylinders, scarabees, &c., . 0 o Lisio} 8560 These were obtained by excavating at least 8,000 graves, and from the Temple of Venus at Golgos, the discovery of which by Mr. Cesnola was scarcely inferior in archeological importance to that of ancient Nineveh by Mr. Layard. In this were found numerous inscriptions inan unknown Semitic language (Cypriote?). —In previous numbers we have given an account of certain deep-water explorations in the great lakes, which resulted in the detection of species of crustaceans and of fishes new to science, and belonging to marine rather than to fresh-water types. This, of course, does not prove the occurrence of other marine conditions at the bottom of the lakes, such as salinity of the water, &c., although it may perhaps excite a suspicion to that effect. Additional researches have been prosecuted during the present season in this direction, two parties being engaged in them—namely, Mr. James W. Milner, of Waukegan, and Mr, Sidney J. Smith, of Yale College, the former working princi- py in Lake Michigan, and the latter under the auspices of the Engineer Department, in Lake Superior, Both these gentlemen have carried on their labours at depths exceeding 100 fathoms, and have determined the existence of various novel forms of animal life, of which due mention will be made hereafter.—Pro- fessor J. D. Whitney, in a recent communication to the Academy of Sciences of San Francisco upon the use of the barometer in determining altitudes, remarked upon the effect which tempera- ture exerts upon the instrument, and stated that the difference between the cold of winter and the heat of summer would some- times, in the same instrument, involve a difference in the estimate of a given height of as much as seventeen feet. He hoped in time to have tables prepared which should give the allowances that must be made for each day of the year, and for different times in the day, an observation at 9 A.M. sometimes giving a different result from one taken at 2 P.M. at the same altitude on the same day. He also expressed his dissatisfaction with the aneroid barometer as a means of measuring altitudes, although he had experimented with the best that were offered in the market. He found them reliable for a certain time only, and they appeared to have spells of irregularity from which they recoveredg very * Communicated by the Scientific Editor of Harper's Weekly. slowly. He did not find any upon which he could rely for heights above 1,000 feet.—From the Alaska Herald we learn that M, Alphonse Pinart had reached Nushigak on the 31st of May, where he was received very cordially by the authorities. While there he made numerous photographic pictures of the scenery, and gathered collections in ethnology and palmontology. He left Nushigak on the 16th of June, on board the steamer Yohn Bright, for the Yukon River, and expected to reach the interior in time to attend the great July fair held by the Yukon Indians. PROF, HUXLEY ON THE DUTIES OF THE STATE WE are able to give the following extracts from Prof. Huxley's address at Birmingham, to which we alluded last week :— The higher the state of civilisation the more completely did and must the action of one member of the social body influence all the rest, and the less possible was it for any one man to doa wrong thing without interfering more or less with the freedom of all his fellow-citizens. So that, even in its narrowest views, the functions of the State, it must be admitted, should have a wider power than even those who, without this doctrine of adminis- tration, were willing to admit. It was urged, he was aware, that if the right of the State was conceded to assign limits at all, there would be no stopping it, and that the principles which justi- fied the State in enforcing vaccination and education also justify it in prescribing his religious belief, and mode of carrying on his trade or profession, or in determining the number of courses he should have for his dinner, or the pattern of his waistcoat. But surely the answer was obvious, that on similar grounds the right of a man to eat when hungry might be disputed, because if he were allowed to eat at all he must be allowed to use that faculty which told him he must not surfeit himself. But in practice every one knew that a man left off when reason told him that he had had enough. And so, properly argued, the State, or govern- ing body, would find out when reason was carried far enough. But so far as his acquaintance with those who carried on the business of Government went, it was that they were far less eager to interfere with the people while the people were keenly sensitive. He could not discover that Locke affected to put the doctrine of modern liberation—that the toleration of error was a good thing in itself, to be reckoned amongst the cardinal virtues ; on the contrary, he was strongly opposed to this, and he laid it down that whenever it was necessary for the preservation of civil society that toleration should be withdrawn it ought to be with- drawn, . . . There must be strong and cogent reasons for legislation on abstract matters, before the governing body entered upon such a course of legislative action as that of which he had spoken, and which might tend towards that state contemplated by the champions of Nihilism. He then quoted the doctrine laid down by Mr. Herbert Spencer, to the effect that the rela- tions of political bodies bore a strong resemblance to vertebrate animals in their organisation, and that as the brain was the guiding power of the animal, so in communities the Government answered the same purpose. . ... . In fact, much of our social relations were based upon this simple law—that one man established his right to the one thing, and in another direction to abstain from doing another thing. In many cases government degenerated, and became a recognised system for effecting fraud and plunder ; but wherever sound. social re- lationships existed between different members composing the social life of a country, this was impossible. But to reach this every man, and the aggregation of men in communities, limited their independence. He next spoke on individual responsibility, and said that it was the duty of the individual to protect society ; if the individual breaks all bonds, then society perishes. The welfare of the social organisation depended not only on the brain, or the government, but on the members ; but unquestion- ably a good deal depended on what the functions of the Govern- ment were. This touched at the root of social organism, and the problem which had presented itself to many minds was one not easy to solve. John Locke had furnished them with an answer which for a time sets the matter at rest. The end of a Government is the good of mankind. The good of mankind was not something which was an absolute fixed thing for all men, whatever their capacities. It was possible to maintain the indi- vidual freedom, and promote the higher functions that the govern- ment has translated into another sphere ; but what ought we men in our corporate capacity to do in the way of restraining the free jindividual in that which was contrary to the existence 496 of nature? John Locke had furnished them with the solution— true erevfas Dei—in which every man’s faculty was such as to allow him to control all those desires which ran counter to the good of mankind, and cherish those only which would benefit the welfare of the whole of society, and which every man felt as sufficiently true to enable him to know what he ought to do. Society as now constituted consisted of a considerable number of the foolish and the ignorant—a small proportion of good genuine knaves and a sprinkling of capable and honest men, by whose efforis the former were kept in a reasonable restraint. Such being the case, he could not see how the limit could be laid down as to the question which, under some circum- stances, the action of Government might be rightfully carried on, The question was where they ought to draw the line between those things which a State ought to do, and which they ought not todo. The difficulty which met the statesmen was the same as that which met all of them in individual life. Moore and Owen, and all the great modern Socialists, bear witness that Government might attain its end for the good of the people by some more effectual process than the very simple and easy one of letting all matters of enterprise alone. He thought that the science of politics was but imperfectly known ; and that perhaps they would be able to get clearer notions of what a State might or might not do, if they estimated the truth of the proposition, that the end of government is the good of mankind. It was necessary to consider a little what the good of mankind really was. The good of mankind meant the admission of every man to all the happiness which he could enjoy without diminish- ing the happiness of his fellow men. Having dwelt at some length on this point, Mr. Huxley went on to say that it was uni- versally agreed that it would be useless to admit the freedom of sympathy between man and man directly ; but he could see no reason why the State might not do many things towards that end indirectly. He was not going to argue that there should be a State science, or a State organisation, such as they bad seen in France, by which all scientific teaching was to be properly regu- lated. On the contrary, the State had left local enterprise to work out its own ends as soon as local intelligence and energy proved itself equal to the task. These local efforts not only benefited the localities; but every means of teaching, every stimulus given to intellectual life was so much positively added to the wealth and welfare of the nation, and as such deserved some equivalent modicum of support from the general purse. But if the positive advancement of the peace, wealth, and intellectual and moral development of its members were the objects which the representative of the corporate authority of society, the Government, might justly strive after in the fulfilment of its end, which was the good of mankind, then it was clear that the Government might undertake the education of the people, for education promoted peace by teaching men the realities of life, and the obligations which were involved in the very existence of society ; and promoted the intellectual development, not only by training the individual intellect, but by sifting out from the mass of ordinary or inferior capacities those which were competent to increase the general welfare by occupying higher positions ; and lastly, it promoted morality and refinement by teaching men to discipline themselves, and leading them to see that the highest, as it was the only permanent, content was to be attained not by groveling in the rank stream of the foulest sense, but by con- tinually striving towards those higher peaks where, resting in eternal calm, reason discerned the undefined but bright ideal of the highest good, ‘‘a cloud by day, a pillar of fire by night.” ON THE STRUCTURE OF THE PALZOZOIC CRLNOIDS * HE best known living representatives of the Echinoderm class Crinoidea are the genera Avntedon and Pentacrinus— the former the feather stars, tolerably common in all seas ; the latter the stalked sea-lilies, whose only ascertained habitat, until lately, was the deeper portion of the sea of the Antilles, whence they were rarely recovered by being accidentally entangled on fishing-lines. Within the last few years Mr. Robert Damon, the well-known dealer in natural history objects in Weymouth, has procured a considerable number of specimens of the two West Indian Pentacrini, and Dr. Carpenter and the author had an opportunity of making very detailed observations both on the * Abstract of a paper read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, by Prof. Wyville Thomson, April 3, 1871. NATURE [ Oct..19, 1871 hard and the soft parts. These observations will shortly be published. : The genera Antedon and Pentacrinus resemble one another in all essential particulars of internal structure. The great distine- tion between them is, that while Avfedon swims freely in the — water, and anchors itself at will by means of a set of “dorsal — cirri,” Pentacrinus is attached to a jointed stem, which is either — permanently fixed to some foreign body, or, as in the case of a fine species procured off the coast of Portugal during the cruise of the Porcupine in the summer of 1870, loosely rooted by a whorl of terminal cirri in soft mud, Setting aside the stalk, in Anfedon and Pentacrinus the body consists of a rounded central disc and — ten or more pinnated arms. A ciliated groove runs along the “oral” or ‘‘ ventral” surface of the pinnules and arms, and these tributary brachial grooves gradually coalescing, terminate in five — radial grooves, which end in an oral opening, usually subcentral, sometimes very excentric. The cesophagus, stomach, and intes- tine coil round a central axis, formed of dense connective tissue, apparently continuous with the stroma of the ovary, and of inyo- luuions of the perivisceral membrane ; and the intestine ends in an anal tube, which opens excentrically in one of the inter-radial spaces, and usually p:ojects considerably above the surface of the disc. The contents of the stomach are found uniformly to con- sist of a pulp composed of particles of organic matter, the shields of diatoms, and the shells of minute foraminifera. The mode of nutrition may be readily observed in Anfedon, which will live for months in a tank. The animal rests attached by its dorsal cirri, with its arms expanded like the petals of a full-blown flower. A current of sea water, bearing organic particles, is carried by the cilia along the brachial grooves into the mouth, the water is ex- hausted of its assimilable matter in the alimentary canal, and is finally ejected at the anal orifice. The length and direction of the anal tube prevent the exhausted water and the fcecal matter from returning at once into the ciliated passages. In the probably extinct family Cyathocrinids, and notably in the genus Cyathocrinus, which the author took as the type of the Palxozoic group, the so-called Crinoidea Tessellata, the arrange- ment, up to a certain point, is much the same. There is a widely-expanded crown of branching arms, deeply grooved, which doubtless performed the same functions as the grooved arms of Pentacrinus ; but the grooves stop short at the edge of the disc, and there is no central opening, the only visible apertures being a tube, sometimes of extreme length, rising from the surface of the disc in one of the inter-radial spaces, which is usually greatly enlarged for its accommodation by the interca- lation of additional perisomatic plates, and a small tunnel-like opening through the perisom of the edge of the disc opposite the base of each of the arms, in continuation of the groove of the arm. The functions of these openings, and the mode of nutrition of the crinoid having this structure, have been the subject of much controversy. The author had lately had an opportunity of examining some very remarkable specimens of Cyathocrinus arthriticus, procured by Mr. Charles Ketley from the upper Silurians of Wenlock, and a number of wonderfully perfect examples of species of the genera Actinocrinus, Platycrinus, and others, for which he was indebted to the liberality of Mr. Charles Wachsmuth, of Bur- lington, Ohio, and Mr. Sidney Lyon, of Jeffersonville, Indiana ; and he had also had the advantage of studying photographs of plates, showing the internal structure of fossil crinoids, about to be published by Messrs. Meek and Worthen, State Geologists for Illinois. A careful examination of all these, taken in connection with the description by Prof. Loveén, of //yponome Sarsii, a recent crinoid lately procured from Torres Strait, had led him to the following general conclusions. In accordance with the views of Dr. Schultze, Dr. Liitken, and Messrs. Meek and Worthen, he regarded the proboscis of the tesselated crinoids as the anal tube, corresponding in every respect with the anal tube in Avedon and Penfacrinus, and he maintained the opinion which he formerly published (Edin. New Phil. Jour. Jan. 1861), that the valvular “pyramid” of the Cystideans is also the anus. The true mouth in the tesselated crinoids is an internal opening vaulted over by the plates of the perisom, and situated in the axis of the radial system more or less in advance of the anal tube, in the position assigned by Mr, Billings to his ‘‘ambulacral opening,” Five, ten, or more openings round the edge of the disc lead into channels continuous with the grooves on the ventral surface of the arms, either covered over like the mouth by perisomatic plates, the inner surface of which they more or less impress, and supported beneath by chains Oct. 19, 1871] of ossicles ; or, in rare cases (Amphoracrinus), tunnelled in the substance of the greatly thickened walls of the vault. These internal passages, usually reduced in number to five by uniting with one another, pass into the internal mouth, into which they doubtless lead the current from the ciliated brachial grooves. [n connection with different species of /atyceras with various crinoids, over whose anal openings they fix themselves, moulding the edges of their shells to the form of shell of the crinoid, is a case of ‘‘commensalism,” in which the molluse takes advantage for nutrition and respiration of the current passing through the alimentary canal of the echinoderm., //yfonome Sarsii appears, from Prof, Lovén’s description, to be a true crinoid, closely allied to Antedon, and does not seem in any way to resemble the Cysti- deans. It has, however, precisely the same arrangement as to its internal radial vessels and mouth which we find in the older crinoids. It bears the same structural relation to Anéedon which Lixtracrinus bears to Pentacrinus, Some examples of different tesselated crinoids from the Burling- ton limestone, most of them procured by Mr. Wachsmuth, and described by Messrs. Meek and Worthen, show a very remark- able convoluted plate, somewhat in form like the shell of a Scaphander, placed vertically in the centre of the cup, in the position occupied by the fibrous axis or columella in entacrinus and Antedon, Mr, Billings, the distinguished paleontologist to the Survey of Canada, in a very valuable paper on the structure of the Crinoidea, Cystidea, and Blastoidea (Si//iman’s Journal, January 1870), advocates the view that the plate is connected with the apparatus of respiration, and that it is homologous with the pectinated rhombs of Cystideans, the tube apparatus of Pen- tremites, and the sand-canal of Asterids. Messrs. Meek and Worthen and Dr, Liitken, on the other hand, regard it as asso- ciated in some way with the alimentary canal and the function of nutrition. The author strongly supported the latter opinion. The peri- visceral membrane in Anéfedox and Pentacrinus already alluded to, which lines the whole calyx, and whose involutions, support- ing the coils of the alimentary canal, contribute to the formation of the central columella, is crowded with miliary grains and small plates of carbonate of line ; and a very slight modification would convert the whole into a delicate fenestrated calcareous plate. Some of the specimens in Mr. Wachsmuth’s collection show the open reticulated tissue of the central coil continuous over the whole of the interior of the calyx, and rising on the walls of the vault, thus following almost exactly the course of the perivisceral membrane in the recent forms. In all likelihood, therefore, the internal calcareous network in the crinoids, whether rising into a convoluted plate or lining the cavity of the crinoid head, is simply a calcified condition of the perivisceral sac. The author was inclined to agree with Mr. Rofe and Mr. Bil- lings in attributing the functions of respiration to the pectinated rhombs of the Cystideans and the tube apparatus of the Blastoids, He did not see, however, that any equivalent arrangement was either necessary or probable in the crinoids with expanded arms, in which the provisions for respiration, in the form of tubular tentacles and respiratory films and lobes over the whole extent of the arms and pinnules, are so elaborate and complete. ON THE RELATION OF AURORAS TO GRAVITATING CURRENTS * ROF. LOOMIS’S observations of the number of Auroras in each month of 1869 and 1870 (American Fournal of Science, 3rd S., i. 309) are specially noteworthy, both because of the careful accuracy of the observer, and because they are the first published observations which furnish satisfactory data for an ap- proximate determination of the Jaws of auroral distribution. If the auroras are, as is now generally believed, luminous manifestations of terrestrial magnetism, it seems reasonable to look to them for some additional evidence upon the question of the relation between magnetic and gravitating currents. Messrs. Baxendeli and Bloxam have already pointed out some resem- blances between hyetal and magnetic curves (see Proc, A. P. S., x. 368) and if analogous resemblances can be traced between hyetal and auroral curves, they will be interesting and suggestive. I have not found the similarity between the annual distribu- tion of rainfalls and auroras sufficiently striking to impress any * Read before the American Philosophical Society, May 5, 1871, by Plin Earle Chase. ; 4 f NATURE 497 one who has not made a special study of the causes of resem- blance and difference. But, as Ihave repeatedly urged, currents are subject to an increased number of disguising disturbances, in proportion to the sluggishness of their motion, and the time which is consequently required for their formation and change. We may very reasonably look for analogies between the daily and the anoual auroral or magnetic curves, of a character for which we could hope to find no parallel in wind, rain, or ocean current curves, If we desire, therefore, to find evidence of the joint influence of solar expansion and gravitating equilibrium, we should look where it is most likely to be found, and to the best of the obser- vations which may be supposed to be fairly comparable. There are similar variations of solar attitude, and consequently increas- ing and diminishing solar force, in the day and in the year, but the effects of these variations upon the precipitation of vapour are more likely to be shown in their greatest simplicity by the means of observations at different hours of the day than at different seasons of the year. I know of no published observations of this character at New Haven, but there are some extending over a long series of years at Philadelphia and at Greenwich, the curves at each station indicating minima of rainfall at noon and midnight, and maxima in the morning andevening. The differ- ence of longitude between Philadelphia and New Haven being less than 24", it is not likely that there is any material difference in the daily rain-curves at the two places. In order to make the curves fairly comparable, both in regard to the times and the magnitudes of deviation, I treated the auro- ral observations in the same manner as those of rainfall (Proce. A. P.S, x. 526). Both in the magnetic and in the hyetal phe- nomena, the greatest effects accompany the grea'est atmospheric changes. But inthe magnetic disturbances the principal maxima occur in the spring of the year and the morning of the day, while the general evaporation is increasing ; whereas, in the daily rains at Philadelphia, the principal maximum occurs in the afternoon, when evaporation is diminishing. I have, therefore, compared the midwinter ordinate of the auroral with the noon ordinate of the rain curve, and the midsummer auroral with the midnight hyetal ordinate. The auroral observations and the normal ordinates of the ac- companying curves are given in the following table. I presume no one will doubt that the condensation of vapour, which is re- presented by the rain-curve, is occasioned by the simple operation of gravitation in blending currents of different temperatures, and I see no reason for postulating any different law for the de- velopment of electricity and magnetism in the aurora, Comparative Table of Auroras and Rainfalls Month. ecaote Normals. Hours. pote 88 fo) gL January ; 5 90 I ou 94 2 93 February 3 E31 98 3 98 103 4 105 March . 2 AT 107 5 110 109 6 113 April, : 44 109 7 113 108 8 112 498 NATURE Rap [Oct. 19, 1871 Month. Peieek Normals. Hours. Roweals May . “ : 36 106 9 109 103 10 105 June . 5 ce IOI II 102 100 12 103 July . : a Bf IOI 13 106 103 14 109 August : a gh 105 15 108 107 16 104 September . eas 106 17 98 103 18 92 October 4 - 38 100 19 87 95 20 85 November . ey, QI 2r 87 89 22 90 December . sy 430 87 23 QI SCIENTIFIC SERIALS Sahrbuch der haiserlich-kinighichen geologischen Reichsanstalt. Vol. xvi. No. 1. (Vienna.) The first paper in this part of the Yahrbuch is one by Prof. Kreuz, “ Das Vihorlat-Gutin-Tra- chytgebirge.” This is one of those painstaking lithological papers which are less commonly met with in our own scientific journals than one could wish. The author has carefully ex- amined under the microscope the trachytic rocks of the Vihorlat- Gutin mountains of North-eastem Hungary, a range which stretches from north-west to south-east in the same direction as the Carpathian Sandstones. He groups the rocks under three divisions :—(1) Augite-andesite ; (2) Sanidine-oligoclase-trachyte ; (3) Breccias and Tuffs; and his descriptions of the two former are particularly full and interesting. The breccias and tuffs are necessarily less susceptible of clear concise description ; they appear to vary as much and in as short a space as similar volcanic accumulations elsewhere.—Prof. Koch, of Ofen, con- tributes ‘‘ Beitrag zur Kentniss der geognostischen Beschaffenheit des Urdniker Gebirges,” an isolated little mountain range, Which stretches between the Danube and the Save in East Sclavonia. He describes the Tertiary strata he examined in his last visit to that district as being grouped round the foot of the hills. The beds are of marine, fresh, and brackish-water origin. He does not determine their exact geological horizon, but gives lists of the fossils he obtained. The paper concludes with an account of a mass of sanidine-trachyte, which the author believes to be of Tertiary age.—A paper on Awlococeras Fr. V. Hauer, by Dr. Edm. von Mosjsisores, is illustrated with four lithographic plates. This and the following paper ‘‘ On the Tertiary Forma- tion ot the Vienna Basin,” by Theodor Fuchs and Felix Karrer we recommend to the attention of our palzontologists. Fuchs’ and Karrer’s paper is most elaborate, and contains copious lists of fossils which, besides being interesting in themselves, are use- ful for purposes of comparison. The Yakrbuchk concludes with ‘‘Studien aus dem Salinargebiete Siebenbiirgens,” by F. Posepny ; this, however, is only the second part of the paper, the first part having been published so far back as 1867. These saliferous regions are described in considerable detail, and numer- ous chemical analyses are given. A map, and sections, &c., accompany the paper. We should mention that the Fahrbuch includes obituary notices of two former members of the Institute, the well-known Wilhelm Haidinger, and Urban Schloenbach, an enthusiastic paleontologist and geologist who was cut off at the early age of thirty-one. THE three numbers of the Quarterly Fournal of Microscopical Science of the present year contain a number of valuable original contributions to science, besides transactions, chronicles of the progress of histology and micro-zoology, and various reviews and short notes and memoranda. In the January number Prof. Allman describes a new mode of reproduction by fission in a new hydroid polyp, which he figures in a plate.—Haeckel’s researches on the nature of Coccoliths and Rathybius are noticed at length, and the remarkable Radiolarian AZy.xo- brachia is figured in a tinted plate.—Mr. Archer, of Dublin, to whose researches published in the same journal in 1869 we owe | our knowledge of a most beautiful and interesting group of fresh water Protista—the Heliozoa—contributes to the April number a further account of new fresh water rhizopods, illustrated with two coloured plates.—In the same number Mr. Moseley figures and describes the nerves of the cornea, and Mr, Lankester gives a minute account of the structure and mode of formation of the sperm-ropes of the river Annelids.—In the July number an ex- ceedingly valuable memoir by Dr. Van Beneden appears ‘‘ On the Development of a Species of Gregarina,” which he de-— scribed last year (also in the Journal). It appears that the Gregarinz exhibit a young stage when they are devoid of nuclens, and have great activity and worm-like form ; to this stage Dr. Van Beneden applies the name fseudo-filarian.—In the same number Mr. Sorby gives an elaborate paper on the colouring matters of leaves, which has an appropriate place in a journal devoted to microscopy, since it is only by the micro-spectroscope that many of those colouring matters can be studied on account of their small quantity, and, further, since the application of such — methods of analysis to histology as the micro-spectroscope affords is of the very highest importance.—Various points relating to the instrument itself are discussed in these three parts by Dr. Royston Pigott, who figures his aplanatic searcher and its results on the Podura scale ; by Messrs. Dudgeon, Newton, aud others, who describe new apparatus.—Mr. Moseley gives accounts of how to use gold chloride and silver nitrate in histological research, and how best to prepare and cut sections of the frog’s egg for embryo- logical study.—The original paper by Dr. Nitzsche, of Leipzig (illustrated), on the reproduction of the Bryozoa, and the reply to Mr. Hincks, are important, and on a very curious point. It is, however, to the chronicles and notes which we would espe- cially call attention as of service to biological students. Long abstracts of all the important papers published in the German periodicals are to be found—in some cases illustrated by wood- cuts ; thus we have Neuman on the origin of the red blood cor- pucles, Kranse on connective tissue, Flemming on fatty tissue, Schobl on the bat’s wing and mouse’s ear, Pfliiger on the method of demonstrating nerve-endings in the liver and other glands, Exner on the Schneiderian membrane, Cienkowski on the sporo- gonia of .Voctiluca, and many other such. In the Yournal of Botany for October, Dr. Braithwaite con- tinues his Recent Additions to our Moss Flora. Mr. R. Tucker gives some Notes on the now well-defined Flora of the Isle of Wight ; and Dr. Moore Notes on some Irish Plants. Mr. F. Stratton contributes an article on Monotropa hypopitys, confirming the statement of other recent observers that this plant is not truly parasitic. The remainder of the number is occupied by short notes, reviews, reports, and reprints. THE Scottish Naturalist for October opens with a timely re- print of an extract from Mr. Patrick Matthew’s work on Naval Timber, published in 1831, and referred to in Darwin’s ‘‘ Origin of Species,” in which he distinctly enunciates the theory that ‘*circumstance and species have grown up together,” or that new species have arisen from old species adapting themselves to altered circumstances. The most important original articles in the number are: The Baleens, or Whalebone Whales of the North-east of Scotland, by Mr. R. Walker; Notes on the Tetraonide of Perthshire, by Mr. R. Paton; On the Altitudes attained by Certain Plants (varying from those already recorded), by Dr. F. Buchanan White ; and On Scottish Galls, by Mr. J. W. Hz. Traill. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES Paris Academy of Sciences, October 2.—M. C. Jorden read a mathematical paper ‘‘ On the Classification of Primary Groups.” Two papers on subjects connected with physics were read, one by M. A. Cornu, ‘‘On the Determination of the Velocity of Light,” in which he suggests an improvement in the method proposed by Fizeau for this purpose, and anote by M. G. Salet on the Spectra of Tin and its components, which he describes as the most singular he has ever seen. —On astronomical subjects several com- munications were made.—M. Chasles replied to a statement made by M. Bertrand at a previous meeting with regard to Aboul Wefa’s method of calculating the position of the moon. M. Yvon Villareau communicated a long paper, full of mathemati- cal formule, ‘‘On the Determination of the true Figure of the Earth, without the necessity of actual levellings.”—M. Delaunay read a note on the two recently discovered planets, Nos. 116 and 117, in which he indicated that the planet discovered at Ver- sailles by M. Borelly, and named Lomia, must be numbered 117, as the planet discovered by M. Luther two days afterwards had been previously detected in America by Mr. C. H. F. Peters.— Oct. 19, 1871] NATURE 499 Letters on these planets by MM. Luther and Peters were also communicated by M. Leverrier, and M. Delaunay presented a ‘determination of the orbit of Lomia by M. Tisserand.—The same gentleman a note on the nebule discovered by M. ‘Stephan at Marseilles, and a note by M. Loewy on a new equa- torial instrument. The latter is mounted like a transit instru- ment, but its body is bent at a right angle, and the images are carried to the eye of the observer by means of prisms or mirrors. ‘The advantage, according to the author, is that the observer can carry on his investigations without changing his place, and that the necessity for an expensive revolving dome is done away with. —A fourth letter from Father Secchi, on the protuberances and other remarkable portions of the surface of the sun, was read. It contains a classification of the phenomena in question, and notices the chromosphere, protuberances, and clouds. Of the second several kinds are described.—M. de Fonvielle presented the programme of an intended balloon-ascent for the purpose of noticing the meteors of November 1871, and MM. Regnault and Elie de Beaumont made some remarks upon the same subject.— A letter was read from M. A. Poéy on the law of similar evolution of meteorological phenomena, in which he indicates the existence of aconnection between the periodicity of meteorological phe- nomena and the diurnal and annual movements of the earth.— M. G. Lemoine presented a second part of his investigation of the reciprocal transformation of the two allotropic states of phosphorus, and M. Berthelot a second part of his researches upon ammoniacal salts, In the latter the author treats of the compounds of ammonia with boracic and carbonic acids.—A paper was read by M. C. Mene, giving numerous analyses of clays belonging to the carboniferous formation.—The tables of meteorological observations made at the Paris Observatory during the month of September was also communicated to the meeting. October 9.—M. Bertrand presented a note by M. Painvin on the determination of the rays of a curve at any point of a surface defined by its tangential equation.—M. P. A. Favre read a continuation of his thermic investigations upon voltaic energy, in which he gives the results obtained by him in experiments with batteries containing fuming nitric acid, permanganic and sulphuric acids mixed, and hypochlorous acid. In connection with this subject, M. F. Le Blanc also presented a note on the energy of piles with two liquids. Ina note on the most economical arrangements of voltaic batteries with regard to their polar electrodes, M. T, Du Moncel discusses the question of the desirability of reducing the size of the positive electrode, — M. Ruhmkorff described an arrangement for obtaining an ex- ceedingly intense induced magneto-electric current. — Several astronomical papers were read, and among them a notice by M. Faye of the history and present state of the theory of comets, in which he contends for the existence of a repulsive force (so/ar repulsion) manifested in the phenomena of comets. —M. Delaunay announced that M. Stephanhad observed Encke’s comet at Mar- seilles on the night of the 8-9th October, In searching for this comet M. Stephan had’ discovered some new nebule.—M. Bertrand presented a reply to the remarks made by M. Chasles at the last meeting of the Academy on the determination of the | position of the moon by Aboul Wefa, and MM. Leverrier and Chasles remarked upon the desirability of searching the Oriental | libraries for the astronomical writings of that author. —M. Delaunay communicated a note by M. Tisserand containing the determination of the orbit of the planet No. 116 (discovered by Mr. C.H. F. Peters) —M. Laugier presented a paper by M. Pagel, containing observations of the determination of the magnetic needle made at the Observatory of Toulon since the year 1866.—M. Roux presented an investigation of the artesian water of Rochefort, which comes up from a depth of nearly 857 metres. He gave a detailed analysis of the mineral contents of this water, and noticed the temperatures observed at various depths during the boring, which were considerably in excess of those recorded at Grenelle.—M. Billebault forwarded a note on the employment of gas-tar in the treatment of diseases of the vine, and especially against Phylloxera vastatvix. The destruction of this insect was also the subject of notes by MM. Peyrat and Deleuze.—M. E. Duclaux presented a note on a means of causing at will the hatching of silkworm eggs, which consists in exposing the eggs for a certain time to the action of cold.—In a note on the time which elapses between the excitation of the electric nerve of the torpedo and the discharge of its apparatus, M. Marey described some experiments made by him, from which it would appear that the nervous action is transmitted rather more slowly in the electric nerve than in the motor nerve of a muscle.—M. H. Sainte-Claire Deville communicated a note by M. A. Sanson on the theory of the early completion of the bones, in which the author replied to an objection to his theory made by a German writer. PHILADELPHIA Academy of Natural Sciences, February 6.—The Presi- dent, Dr. Ruschenberger, in the chair. Prof. Leidy stated that he had recently received a small collection of fossils for examination from Prof. J. D. Whitney, who obtained them from California. The specimens are as follows:—A frag- ment of an inferior molar, apparently of A/astodon ameri- canus. Of this specimen Prof. Whitney remarks that it was obtained from a depth of 80 feet beneath the basaltic lava of Table Mountain, Tuolumne County, Cal., where it was found in association with remains of human art. A much worn lower molar of a large horse, probably the ZLguss pacificus, from 16 feet on Gorden Gulch. The triturating surface of the crown measures 133 lines fore and aft, and 1o lines transversely, inclu- sive of the cementum, Two equine molar teeth, which, accord- ing to the accompanying label, were obtained 350 feet below the surface, at Soulsbyville, Tuolumne County, Cal. One is an unworn upper back molar, apparently of a species of Profohippus. It is moderately curved from behind forward and downward, but only slightly from within outward. It is 21 lines long in a straight line. Its greatest breadth above the middle, fore and aft, is nearly 9 lines ; its thickness about 7 lines. The other tooth is a lower molar, about one-third worn, probably of the same species. The triturating .surface is ro lines fore and aft, and nearly 7 transversely. Two teeth labelled ‘‘ Found ten feet be- low the surface at Dry Creek, near Bear Creek, Mercer County, Cal.” One of the specimens appears to be the portion of a canine tooth, and the other is an incisor. They resemble in form the corresponding teeth of the lama, and probably belong toa species of the same genus. The incisor is about 14 inch in length ; the crown externally is 11 lines long and 4} lines wide. March 7.—The President, Dr. Ruschenberger, in the chaire Mr. Thomas Meehan referred to some observations he made bes fore the Academy last autumn in regard to a peculiar storing up of turpentine in the common insect, Reduvius novenarius, Since then entomologists had been investigating the use for which this turpentine was employed, without success. He was now able to report that it was for the purpose of fastening its eggs on the branches of trees, and for sticking them together ; also, in proba- bility, as a means of protection against enemies and the weather. The eggs of the Reduvius were inserted in groups, and each set upright one against another with the turpentine, like the cell ina honeycomb. It had hitherto been supposed by entomologists that the matter used for this purpose was a secretion of the insect itself ; but so faras he could judge by the senses, the matter used was merely turpentine, and no doubt the turpentine he had obs served the insect storing up in the fall.—Mr. Meehan exhibited some flowers of the common Souvardia /eiantha of the green- houses, and of the hardy Dewtzia gracilis, and referred to his papers, published a few years ago in the Proceedings of the Academy, on practical dicecism in the trailing Arbutus (Zfigea repens) and Mitchella repens, in which he pointed out that these plants, though apparently hermaphrodite, had the stamens and pistils of different characters in separate plants, and were, there- fore, subject to the laws of cross-feriilisation as indicated by Darwin. He had had his attention called to the Lowverdia by Mr. Tatnall, of Wilmington, Del., as furnishing a similar instance to that of Zpigwa and AMitchella, to the same natural order as which, the Cizchoncous division of Rudiacee, the Bouvardia be- longed. These had some plants with the pistils exserted, while in others only the stamens were visible at the mouth of the corolla tube. Mr. Tatnall had not had the matter suggested to him early enough to say that it was so in all cases; but he believed that these flowers, which practically might be termed pistillate and staminate, were found entirely on separate plants. Thisis avery important fact, as the Bowvardia is not raised from seeds in green- houses, but from cuttings of the roots, and, therefore, all these plants with separate sexes must have been produced from one criginal individual, without the iervention of seed, and thus confirm the position advanced in a previous paper of the speaker on “‘ Bud Variations,” namely, that variations in form, and, by logical in- ference, new species, may arise without seminalintervention. In the specimens of Deutzia gracilis were two forms of flowers on the same plant. Besides the large ones with stamens and pistils appa- rently perfect, there were numerous small flowers in which the 500 NATURE [ Océ. 19, 1871 petals were only partially developed. The filaments were entirely wanting, but the anthers were as perfect, if not larger than in what we should call the perfect flowers. Anyone could see that these small flowers were the result of deficient nutriment, and would be apt to pass the matter over with this simple reflection ; but he wished to emphasise the fact that this defective nutrition rendered the female organs inoperative, while the male organs were still able to exercise their functions ; thus affording another instance, if any more be needed, of the truth of his theory of sex, namely, that with defective nutrition, the female sex is the first to disap- pear, and that only under the highest conditions of vitality is the female sex formed. In the case of the Bowvardia a similar law was seen. The most vigorous stems, or, as they would techni- cally be called, woody axes, produced the female flowers. —Prof. Cope made some observations on a Batrachian of the coal mea- sures, Sauropleura rvemex, Cope. A specimen more perfect than the type recently obtained by Prof. Newberry exhibited posterior limbs such as has been ascribed to the S. fectinata. ‘The ver- tebrze posterior to this point were perfectly preserved, and supported the remarkable processes to the end. March 21.—Dr. Carson, vice-president, in the chair.—Prof. Leidy made the following remarks on Zienia mediocanellata. Recently, one of our ablest and most respected practitioners of medicine submitted to my examination a tapeworm which had been discharged from a young man, after the use of the Aspidium filix-mas. he physician, in giving an account of the case, stated that he had previously treated the patient for another affection, in which raw-beef sandwiches had been prescribed for food. After looking at the worm, I remarked that it appeared to be the Zia mediocanellata, a species which I had not before seen, and added that the patient had probably become infected from a larva swallowed with the raw-beef sandwiches. The specimen consisted of the greater part of the worm, broken into several pieces. Including some lost portions, it was estimated to have been upwards of thirty feet in length. Unfortunately, the head proved to be absent ; but, so far as characters could be obtained from the specimen, in the form of the segments, posi- tion of the genital orifices, and the condition of the ovaries, it Agreed with the description given of 7: mediocanellata, rather than with 7: soliam., From a want of acquaintance with the former, I did not feel entirely satisfied that the specimen actually belonged to that species. Subsequently, my friend brought to me the anterior part of the body, probably, of the same indi- vidual tapeworm. He observed that his patient continuing to complain, he had administered another dose of the male-fern, which was followed by the expulsion of the portion of the worm now presented. The head of the parasite was included, and it confirmed the view that it pertained to the Zienia mediocancllata. The case serves as another caution against the use of raw flesh as food. The description of the worm, as derived from the specimen, is as follows :—The head is white, without pigment- granules, obtusely rounded, unarmed with hooks, and unprovided with a rostellum, but furnished witha minute acetabuliform fovea at the summit. The four acetabula are spherical, and opaque white. The diameter of the head is three-fourths of a line. The neck, or unsegmented portion of the body immediately succeed- ing the head, is about four lines long by half a line in breadth. The most anterior indistinctly defined segments of the body, and those iinmediately succeeding them, but more distinctly separated, are about one fifth of a line long by two-fifths of a line broad. Ina more posterior fragment of the body, the flat and nearly square segments measure half a line long and one line broad, to one-third line long and two-and-a-half lines broad. A succeed- ing fragment exhibits segments three-and-a-half lines long by four lines broad, and two lines long by five lines broad. Many of the segments in this piece are irregularly separated laterally by deep, wide notches. In a succeeding long portion of the worm, the segments are wider behind than in front, and measure two, five, and three lines Jong by five lines broad. In a long piece of the posterior part of the worm, the segments are first four lines long and broad ; and in the last four feet of the same piece, the segments are clavate in outline, from six to ten lines long, and two and three lines broad. The genital apertures are conspicuous, and are situated behind the middle of the segments. They alternate irregularly. Thus, in the last two feet of the posterior fragment of the worm, the first two segments exhibit the aperture on the left margin ; the succeeding segment presents the anomaly of an aperture on both margins ; then follow three apertures on the right, next two on the left, then four on the right, then eight alternating in pairs, then one on the left, and soon. The ovaries are opaque white, and exhibit numerous closely crowded lateral branches. In the absence of pigment- granules to the head, and in the less robust character of the worm, the specimen differs from 7. mediocanellata as described by Kiichenmeister. The minute acetabular pit or fovea at the summit of the head is not mentioned by Kiichenmeister and subsequent observers as a character of that species. It is a point, however, that might be readily overlooked, especially if the parts of the head are obscured by the presence of pigment-granules.— Prof. Cope exhibiteda number of fishes from the Amazon above the mouth of the Rio Negro, which included some new and rare forms. Some of the latter were Doras brachiatus, Plecostomus scopularius, Roeboides rubrivertex, Myletes albiscopus, &e. Ue exhibited a specimen of Pariodon microps, Kner, describing the parasitic habits of Svegophilus and those ascribed to Vandellia. He thought the structure and colouration of the Pariodon indi- cated similar habits, and that it would be found to be an in- habitant, at times at least, of the cavity of the body of some other animal. - BOOKS RECEIVED Enc.isH.—Contributions tothe Flora of Mentone, Part 4: J. T Moggridge (L. Reeve and Co.).—Words from a Layman’s Ministry at Barnard Castle. — Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria, Vol. viii., Parts 1, 2; Vol. ix., Parts 1, 2. ForeiGn.—Nachtrag zum 6u. 7 Jahresbericht des Vereins fiir Erdkunde zu Dresden. (Through Williams and Norgat +.)—Die feierliche Sitzung der kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Wien, 30 Mai, 187t —Almanach der k Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Wien.—Oefversigt af k. Vetenskaps Akademiens Férhandlingar, PAMPHLETS RECEIVED EnGuisH.—Darwinism: Chauncey Wright.—The Cruise of the Norna : Marshal Hall.—The University of Durham College of Medicine, Syllabus for 1871-72.—The College of Physical Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne, Syllabus for 1871-72.—Observations on the Corona: Hercules Ellis.—Flinat: M. H. Johnson.—The Scottish Naturalist. October —Proceedings of the Meteoro- logical Society, No. 56.—The Portfolio, No 22.—Quarterly Weather Report of the Meteorological Office.—Journal of the Statistical Society for Sep- tember.—On the Faults in Ironstone Seams: R. L. Jack.—The Phcenix, Vol. ii, No. 14. -Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, Vol. ii., No. 3 — Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society, No. 31.—The Quarterly Journal for Microscopical science, October. AMERICAN AND CoLoniAL.—On the Influence of the Blue Colour of the Sky in developiog Animal and Vegetable Life; Philadelphia.—On the Eozéonal Limestones of Kastern Massachusetts: L. S. Burbank.—On the Coaracteristics of the Primary Groups of the Class of Mammals: Dr. Th. Gill.—The Canadian Naturalist, Vol. v., No. 4; Vol. vi., No. 1 —Proceed- ings of the American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, Jan.—June.— Extracts trom the Proceedings of the Lyceum of Natural History, New York.—Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, No. 7,—The Canadian Entomologist.—The Rural New Yorker, Vol. xxi., Nos. 21-24. ForeIGN.—Jahrbuch der k. k. geologischen Reichsanstalt zu Wien, 1871, April—June.—Georg Gottfried Gervinus : Emil Lehm mn.—Magazine d’Edu- cation et de Recréation, No. 162.—Sur la “loi de l'Evolution similaire des Phénoménes Météorologiques: M. A. Poéy. CONTENTS Pace HELMHOLTZ ON THE Axioms OF GEOMETRY. By Prof. W. STANLEY JEVONS © soc so, cc oy sm keg he) becuey UA MiReDn, CMC) oka enaaE LeiGxTon’s LicHen-FLora OF GREAT Britatn. By Dr. W. LAUDER Linpsay, F.R.S.E. . . SO eect 4 iA Psbite cs an eco Our) Book) SHEer. (2 Sycw sere ery Galen eines late 484 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR :— Geometry at Oxford.—Prof. W.T. THise-ron DyER . . . . . 485 Elementary Geometry.—W. D. CooLey ; Tuomas Jones. (With Diagrams). . . « - CeCe ee betes ah oc The Coming Eclipse.—Col J T. Tennant, F.R.S: . . . . . 486 British Mossesi— DS Moork, Balas... tee) 2s) pe pine mene Corrections —RicuarpD A. Proctor, FR.AS. mm... . . 487 A Universal Atmosphere.—Joun Brownina, F.R.A.S. os 487. The Lemperature of the Sun.—Jonn Batt . . ch ck ech ch CEG Miehtjiof Bilttertiiestus-si=)lee cede lus ct a: p cha Beene, Velocity of Sound in Coal.—D, JosepH . . . . . . - . « « 487 Prof. Newcomb and Mr. Stone.—R. A. Proctor, F.R,A.S. . . 487 SCIENCE ‘(AT THE UNIVERSIDIES)2) 0 (2) 0c ie ee) fete An Expe.osion (?) ON’ THE SuN. By Prof. C.A. Younc. . . . . 489 Tue Kra—ProGress or DEVELOPMENT. By Tuomas H. Potts 489 pNe New Form oF Cioup. (With Jilustration.) By Prof. ANDRE OEY Wee Tons oo Oto Heo Doe ose ExoGENOUS STRUCTURES AMONGST THE STEMS OF THE Coat MEa- a sures. (With Idlustrations.) By Prof. W. C. Wittiamson, F.R.S. 490 Nores SPeASes) Cc ceil ceistie: ue, “oust as\le sa, ule) arte ScrentTiric INTELLIGENCE FROM AMERICA . 2 © 495 Pror. Huxtey on THE Duties oF THE STATE Pree ry oy On THE STRUCTURE OF THE PAL#ozoIc Crinotps. By Prof. WyvitLe Tuomson, F.R-S. eines 495 On_THE RELATION OF AURORAS TO GRAVITATING CURRENTS. (HW7th Diagram.) .. Fi Pay ct oO OO Ome ee Tekan XTARS DOUBLY OBSERVED AT EIGHT BRITISH ASSOCIATION STATIONS IN ENGLAND ON THE NIGHTS OF THE QTH TO 12TH OF AUGUST, 1871. any evidence that a loud report, and other aérolitic phenomena perceived at a great distance, accompanied the occurrence, its unusu-lly disastrous effects may rather, doubtless, be ascribed to devastations produced by lightning of extraordinary violence. On the accompanying diagram the real heights of some shoot- ing stars are represented which were simultaneously recorded by observers of the annual meteor-shower in August last, at eight British Association stations in England. A. S. HERSCHEL Newcastle College of Physical Science, Oct. 16 Exogenous Structure in Coal-Plants PROF. WILLIAMSON criticises my want of certainty with respect to the exogenous mode of growth of extinct Lycopodiacez. But surely his reference to the Dixonfold trees does not prove more than that the diameter of their stems was greater near the roots than higher up. The same thing is true of many palms, but I think Prvf. Williamson would be the last person to say that it was evidence of ¢heix being exogenous. Nevertheless, as I have already said, I am inclined to think that Prof. Williamson is right in supposing that the stems ot extinct arborescent Lyco- podiaceze increased in thickness, although I do not see my way to asserting off hand that this was the case. Even admitting, with all Prof. Williamson’s confidence, that it was so, I can see no classificatory value in the fact to justify overriding reproductive characters in his new classification. I said in my former letter (and the argument still appears to me a good one) that this increase was in any case ‘‘ nothing more than an adjustment to an arborescent habit dropped when the arborescent habit was lost.” Prof. Williamson finds some difficulty in understanding this, and believes me to imply ‘‘ that these exogenous conditions were merely adventitious growths assumed fur a season and thrown off at the earliesr opportunity ; that they had no true affinity with the plants in which they were found.” He confesses that he sees no ground for so remarkable a conclusion, and I may certainly say that as faras I comprehend it, neither do I. What I did mean to imply was, that in comparing the stems of existing with those of extinct Lycopodiacez, allowance must be made for such adaptations of structure as would be likely to be correlated with enormous size. To make the matter clearer by an illustration :—Suppose we compare a nearly allied woody and herbaceous plant, say a lupin and a laburnum, we shall find in their stems (both ‘‘exogens”’) the same kind of diffe- rences as exist between the stem of a herbaceous Se/aginel/a and that of the nearly allied arborescent Lefidodendron. Yhe lupin may have had arborescent ancestors ; if so, it has dropped ail such adaptations of the structure of its stem to an arborescent habit as we find existing in laburnum. Assuming (what is of course o7/y an assumption) that Se/aginella is a descendant of Lepidodendron or its allies, the parsimony of nature has also sup- pressed in it all those peculiarities of stem structure which were merely correlated with vast size, and in Sv/aginel/a and recent Lycopodiacee we have the residuum. In Jsoetes, which is only a few inches high, there is a kind of lingering reminiscence of cir- cumferential growth. Prof. Williamson says that ‘‘herbs if they belong to the exogenous group are as truly exogenous in their type as the most gigantic trees of the same class. Size has nothing to do with the matter.” With these statements I altogether disagree. I look upon the terms exogen, endogen, and acrogen as alrogether obsolete from a classificatory point of view. Mohl pointed this out more than twenty years ago. Compare the following re- marks from one of his memoirs with Prof. Williamson’s: ‘* The course of the vascular bundles in the palm stem and in the one- year-old shoot of the dicotyledons is exactly similar, and the conception of a different mode of growth, and the division of plants into endogens and exogens formed on it is altogether opposed to nature.” Size, in fact, has everything to do with the matter. Itis the persistent growth of the ends of the branches which makes the strengthening of the main stem by circumferential growth a mechanical necessity. Palms not being branched do not require the voluminous stem of an oak, and they exhibit on an enlarged scale only the structure of a one-year-old herbaceous shoot. But in the dragon-tree of Teneriffe an ‘‘endogen,” which becomes extensively branched, there is a true circumferential growth of the main stem, which increases far? Aassiz with the development of the branches. All herbaceous stems, on the contrary, among flowering plants, whether belonging to the exogenous or endogenous group, have practically the same type of structure. Where is the exogenous type in the stem of the common artichoke, or in /vrula communis, figured by De Candolle in his ‘‘Organographie Végétale,” pl. 3, fig. 3, ** pour montrer a quel point elle simule les tiges de mono- cotylédones” (endogens) ? I think these remarks make it plain that circumferential (which is a preferable expression to exogenous) growth in stems is simply a necessary accompaniment of a branched arborescent habit. As far as the affinities of plants are concerned, it is purely acci- dental and of no classificatory value. Zzfines being herbaceous and Laburnum arborescent does not prevent their being placed in the same tribe of a natural family. Since Mohl has shown that one-year-old (herbaceous) stems conform to the endogenous type, while such woody stems as Ladbwrmum possesses are of course exogenous, it is clear that Prof. Williamson’s views would overthrow all the work of modern systematists, and bring us back, as I pointed out in my former letter, to the primitive division of plants into trees and herbs (not trees and sirwés as Prof. Wil- liamson makes me say). ‘The interpretation of the actual structure of the stems of the extinct Lycopodiacez is of course another matter. Prof. William- son illustrated his views at Edinburgh by referring to Lepidoden- dron selaginoides ; every botanist who took part in the discussion, however, objected to his explanation. It may be true that this is only one form of such stems, but of course I can hardly be ex- pe-ted to be acquainted with the unpublished material which Prof. Williamson still has in hand. There is, I think myself, good reason for believing that Lefidodendron, Sigillaria, and Ulodendron all belong to a common type of stem structure ; differences in fragments of different age of growth must be ex- pected and allowed for. Of course, as I do not accept the existence of a pith in these plants, the pith or medullary rays must be rejected as well. Mr. Carruthers has shown, I think, conclusive reasons for disagreeing with Dr. Hooker with respect to the spaces which he identified with those structures. I was already familiar with the view of these s'ems taken by Prof. Williamson in his last paper. Those who are interested in the matter must judge for themselves who is right. Oct. 26, 1871 | This communication has run on to so great a length that Iam unable to touch uron other points in which I find myself totally disagreeing with Prof. Wiliam on. I cannot, however refrain from expressing my astonishment at the persistence of the histo- logical views implied by the description of the *‘cambium,”’ or growing cellular tissues of plants, as *‘some protoplasmic ele- ment,” or again as ‘‘some protoplasmic lsyer.” Similar ex- pressions were used by Nehemiah Gr-w about 200 years ago, and employed for some time by writers subsequent to him. At the present I imagined their interest was wholly historical. W. T. THISELTON DYER THE points at issue between Prof. Williamson and myself re- main in the same position as at first. He has not yet answered one of my objections. He still holds that in Lepidodendron we have a vascular medulla, outsite which is a series of fibro- vascular bundles which are not closed, but go on forming new tissues by means of a cambium layer like a dicotyledonous stem. From my own observations, and from the study of recent Con- tinental authorities, I have no hesitation in stating that the central ‘‘medulla” of Prof. Williamson consists of the united closed fibro-yascular bundles, while the investing cylinder is the modified primitive tissue which increases in diameter by means of the mercstem layer of Nageli. If Prof. Williamson will refer to Sachs’ Lehrbuch, Ed. 2, p. 397, he will find good reasons given for the statement there made, that /svéfes contains 20 cam- dium in the stem ; but that the stem increases in the same way as Draceéna, t.e. by a meristem layer in the primitive tissue. As long as Prof. Williamson believes in a central vascular medulla in these Lycopodiaceous stems, all his other conclusions must likewise be false. W. R. M‘Nas Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, Oct. 21 {*,* We would suggest that this controversy be now closed, until the publication of Prof, Williamson’s new material.—ED.] Blood-Spectrum IN the account of the Progress of Science in Italy in NATURE for October 12, Mr. W. Mattieu Williams says that Prof. C. Campani has shown that the spectrum of an ammoniacal solu- tion of carmine is undistinguishable from that of blood, and that perhaps I should be able to tell whether any difference can be distinguished by more minute examination. In my first paper on this subject, so long ago as 1865*, I alluded to this simi- larity, and in subsequent papers + I have shown how the colour- ing matter of blood can be distinguished from that of cochineal, and even a small quantity recognised when mixed witha rela- tively considerable quantity of taat dye. I have always argued that in such inquiries we must not rely on the spectrum, but compare the action of various reagents. On adding a little boric acid to an aqueous solution of blood, no change takes place in its spectrum, whereas that of cochineal is com- pletely altered. This effect is not produced in the case of carmine suspended in water, but the absorption-bands of blood are at once removed by deoxidising the solution with a ferrous salt, which, on the contrary, has no effect inthe case of carmine orcochineal. Weak acids decompose hcemoglobin into hzematin, which vives entirely different spectra, but they do not cause any permanent change in the colouring matter of cochineal or car- mine. In my opinion there is no more probability of an expe- rienced observer mistaking these substances for blood, because the ammoniacal solutions give nearly the same spectrum, than of achemist confounding aluminium bronze with gold, because they are of nearly the same colour. H. C. Soxsy Broomfield, Sheffield, Oct. 2 Are Auroras Periodical ? THE following note on auroras is transcribed from the /owa Instructor and School Fournal for April, 1866. As it suggests a hypothesis similar to that proposed by Mr. Wilson, in your journal for September 7, it may not be destitute of interest. DaniEL KIRKWOOD Bloomington, Ind., Oct. 4 “© The Aurora Borealis of February 20, 1866 ‘¢ Those who witnessed the grand auroral display of the 20th * Quat. Fourn. of Science, vol. ii. p. 208. nd + Medical Press and Circular, New Series, vol. xii, p. 67; Monthly Micros. Fourn., vol, vi. p. 15. NAPORE 595 inst., and especially those who have kept a record of similar ex- hibirions, may have remarked the frequency with which the phenomena have occurred about the same epoch, viz, from February 15 to February 23. Some of the most brilliant that have occurred at this period during the last century are the fol- lowing :— 1773 February 17 1848 February 20 1784 a 2 1851 95 18 1794 ” 15 1852 ” 18 1838 An 21 1866 20 20 Besides the February epoch, any extended list of auroras will indicate two or three others, the most remarkable of which is that of November 13—18 (See Olmsted’s paper in the ‘ Smithsonian Contributions,’ vol, viii.) Fifty-three brilliant auroras have been observed since 1770. Of these, an accidental distribution would assign but ove to the interval between the 13th and 18th of November ; whereas e7g/¢ of the number have actually occurred at that epoch. Are such coincidences accidental, or do they war- rant the conjecture that, as in the case of shooting stars, there are particular periods at which the grand displays of the phenomenon most frequently occur ?” Forms of Cloud THE form of cloud represented by Prof. Poéy in his figure a, in this week’s NATURE, is very similar to that described by the Rev. C. Clouston, LL.D., in his ‘‘ Explanation of the Popular Wea- ther Prognostics of Scotland,” published by A. and C. Black in 1867, and also in Dr. Mitchell’s paper ‘‘ On the Popular Weather Prognostics of Scouland,” Edin. New Phil. Journal, Oct. 1863. Dr. Clouston says that, ‘‘when properly developed it was always followed by a storm or gale within twenty-four hours. It is called ‘ pocky cloud’ by our sailors.” He gives a sketch from which, as he says, “it will be seen that this is a series of dark, cumulus-looking clouds, like festoons of dark drapery, over a considerable portion of the sky, with the lower edge well defined, as if each festoon or ‘pock’ was filled with something heavy, and generally one series of festoons lies over another, so that the light spaces between resemble an Alpine chain of white-peaked mountains. It is essential that the lower edge be well defined, for a somewhat similar cloud, with the lower edge of the fe-toons fringed, or shaded away, is sometimes seen, and followed by rain only.” Dr. Clouston concluded his notice by saying, ‘‘this cloud is well known, and much dreaded by Orkney sailors,” Rosert H. Scotr Meteorological Office, London, Oct. 20 Elementary Geometry IT is scarcely worth while for an anonymous writer to defend his opinions ; but since a sentence in my letter of September 21 still continues to elicit remarks, I may be allowel to add an ex- planation of my meaning. I stated that ‘‘no child is capable of taking in a subject, especially if it involves logical thought, ex- cept by very slow degrees ; and must at the beginning commit much to memory which he does not comprehend.” And I called this ‘‘a fact.” Mr. Wormell says in reply, that the purpose which geometry serves is not the exercise of the memory, and that it is useless if not understcod. I entirely agree with him, and my words, if fairly interpreted, do not convey the contrary opinion. In your last issue Mr. Cooley writes, that my principle, that “4 child must of necessity commit much to memory which he does not comprehend,” appears to him totally erroneous, and not entit'ed to be cilled a fact. But surely the order of Nature with children is to possess themselves of empyrical knowledge by the exercise of memory, and subsequently to get to comp:ehend what they have thus acquired. Would Mr. Cooley wait until he had made a child comprehend the principles of the decimal scale, before he taught him to add up two rows of figures, and to say, “ five and seven are twelve ; put down two, and carry one ” ? If he condescends to the usual course of a “hearer of lessons ” in this one instance, he acts upon the admission of my principle. To apply this to geometry (and perhaps I may be borne with if I use Euclid in illustration): I fancy that many a boy a¢ the beginning understands the three first propositions, but not the whole of the fourth. My plan would be, not to keep him at it till he did, but to let him learn it fairly well by rote, and go on, applying the results of the fourth by an act of faith. The second time he went through the book, if he had been decently taught, 506 NATURE [ Oct. 26, 1871 his difficulties would vanish, and he would already know the proposition. All that I contend for is, that the new book on geometry ought to be capable of such usage. If it contains little more than the chief steps of the solutions, and those disguised (to the unpractised and tottering mind) under symbols, it will not satisfy the want now felt. A FATHER The Beef Tapeworm As an entozoologist and correspondent of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, I request permission to correct an error recorded in the report of the Academy as given in your columns (at p. 500) this week. Ir. Leidy is represented as having stated that ‘*the minue acetabular pit or fovea at the summit of the head [of Zwzéa mediocanellata] is not mentioned by Kuchenmeister and subsequent observers as a character of that species.” I beg to remark that I both figured and described this supplementary sucker-like structure in the first edition of my small work on ‘* Tapeworms,” published in 1866 (p. 33 e seg ). At least two other observers have figured and described this central depression, not only in the aduit but also in the measle or cysticercal stage of the worm. Lven Bremser recognised it, but his description was for a time overlooked. 84, Wimpole Street, London, Oct. 21 T.S. CoBBpoLp Winter Fertilisation In the first number of NaTURE, (for Nov. 4, 1869,) I ventured on a hypothesis, jound:d on a series of observations, that plants which flower in the winter have their organs of reproduction specially arranged to promote self-fertilisation, The following fact, which has just come under my notice, appears to confirm this theory. Planis belonging to the order Caryophyllacee are, as a rule, strongly protandrvus (see my paper in the Journal of Botany for October 1870), the anthers discharging their pollen at so long an interval before the maturing of the stigma as to render cross-fertilisation almost inevitable. The other day, Oct. 21, I came across a late flowering patch of Sve//avia aguatica Scop., in which the anthers were discha ging their pollen simul- taneously with the maturing of the stigmas, each of the five styles being curled in a sirgular manner round one of the stamens, so as to bring the stigmatic surface in actual contact with the dehi-cing anther. This occurred in several flowers that were just opening, and there was abundance of seminiferous capsules on the plants. ALFRED W. BENNETT Velocity of Sound in Coal Your correspondent will find in Prof. Tyndall’s beautiful work on ‘‘ Sound ” the data required for the exact determination of iis velocity in different media. I believe that in coal it will be found to be between six and seven times that in air, or about 7,000 feet per second. If Mr. D. Joseph places his ear against the solid coal of the **rib” or side of the ‘‘ heading” or gallery, at a distance of some twenty to thirty yards from a collier at work, he wiil hear two sounds for each blow of the workman’s pick or mandril—the first being transmitted through the coal, the second more slo«ly through the air, the impression being almost irresistible that two persons are at work. This is probably the origin of the legend, common in more than one coal district, of a collier who always worked alone, did more work than his fellows, and whose diabolical assistant was often heard but not seen. Cay: Changes in the Habits of Animals Your correspondent Mr. Potis in the last number of NATURE furnishes us with a few interesting facts regarding the Aca. In a peper which I read about three years ago to the Dumfries Natural History Society, entitled “ The Influence of the Human Period on the Sagacity of Animals,” and subsequently in a letter published in Narurr, vol. i, on the ‘‘ Mental Progress of Animals,” I endeavoured to show from general considerations, and from the few facts which we possessed on this subject, that the habits and instincts of animals were not so fixed and definite as might be supposed. The general principle for which I con- tended was that whether we considered the globe to have received its human inhabitants according to the laws of evolution, or in some miraculous manner, the arrival of the human race pro- duced great modifications and changes of surrounding circum- stances. These changes were in the direction of increasing the fertility of all vegetable productiuns capable of sustaining life, and at the same time securing their use entirely for the human family. Hence arose, in the vicinity of man, two new factors ; the superior attraction of better food for all kinds of animals, and at the same time the extinction of such animals whose greed was not overruled by sufficient wariness or cunning to become successful thieves. Hence a probable gradual increase in these qualities in the animals maintaining themselves against man. Since my attention was drawn to this subject, we have had some interesting observations on modifications of swallow’s nests by Pouchet, and a discussion as to the validily of his conclusions by Noulet,and now Ihave read with pleasure Mr. Potts’s observations. Most likely the progress of development in the carnivorous habits of the Kea will meet with a check now that shepherds are alive to its depredations ; but without the influence of the human period we can scarcely suppose that such development would have begun, I recollect a case of change of habits in weasels. They multiplied so thickly in a parish in the south of Dumfriesshire that some hungry philosopher among them took the initiative in sucking the blood from the cattle. Suspicion having been aroused, the fact was proved, but its discovery was fatal to the weasels, for the whole country-side arose against them, and all but extirpared them in that quarter. It is very interesting to observe what modifications are being produced in the habits of various species of sca-gulls since Glasgow, by its enormous in- crease of commerce, has wrought great changes »n the River Clyde, filling it with all kinds of garbage. The conditions of existence having been tavourable, the guil issteadily pa-sing more and more time inland ; ascending tributaries of the Clyde, and alighting in flocks on fields that used to have him very seldom. A pew amusement within my own recollection has been afforded the river passengers during the summer months in feed- ing these sea mews, &c., by throwing overboard food to them, and their increased tameness and boldness of approach in follow- ing the river steamers within the last thirty years have been fre- quenuy commented on, J. SHaw Oct. 23 A Plane’s Aspect Mr. LAuGHTON has hit the nail on the head. ‘‘ Aspect” is exactly the word wanted. The aspect of a plane is the direction of its normal ; and ‘“‘ parallel planes are defined as those which have the same aspect.” Two aspects determine one direction, and two directions determine one aspect. Mr, Laughton deserves the ‘hanks of geometers for suggesting so good a word. Rugby, Oct. 23 J. M. WILson THE words ‘‘aspect”’ and ‘‘slope” have already a use in re- lation to the position of planes. They indicate two elements which /ogether fix the position. Neither of them, taken alone, can indicate the position of a plane, unless a new and artificial meaning be assigned to one or other. Thus if I speak of the ‘aspect’ of one of the faces of a roof as southerly, I have done something but not all that is necessary, towards describing the position of that face; if I add further that the ** slope” is 30° T have definitely assigned the position. Again if I speak of the “*slope” of Saturn’s rings as 28° (the plane of reference being ecliptic), I have done something towards the description of their position ; if I add further that their ‘‘aspect” is toward such and such a degree of the sign Gemini, I fully assign their posi- tion in space. And so on. In the preceding sentences I have used the words ‘‘slope” and ‘‘aspect ” as they are already understood. I apprehend that I have also used the word ‘ position” as it is already understood, and that no other word could properly be used in the same sense in descriptive writing. I can see no reason why “position” should be dismissed from the position it has so long occupied, nor why ‘‘aspect” and ‘‘slope” should be regarded in a new and unfamiliar aspect. It chances that I have long since had occasion to consider the question suggested Jast month by Mr. Wilson. In each of twelve books which I have written during the past six years, I have had repeated occasions to c nsider the slope and aspect, that is, the ‘* position” of many important astronomical planes. eS Oct. 26, 1871 | NATURE 507 In a large proportion of the essays I have written, the same sub- ject of plane position has had to be considered and described I am, therefore, somewhat seriously interested in opposing as well the disuse of the word “ position,” which no one can misunder- stand, as the use of the words ‘‘aspect,” ‘‘slope,” ‘‘tilt,” &c, in a sense not at present assigned (nor properly assignable) to them, RicHp. A, Proctor Sea-water Aquaria I HAVE read with much gusto your article upon the Crystal Palace Aquarium, Iam induced by it to put forward a caution with regard to the construction of rock-work in tanks. Several weeks ago, casually looking over a heap of Bangor slaty rock, on the road bordering the Brighton Aquarium works, and being used for the rock-work of tanks, my attention was attracted by some bright green patches upon some of the stones, which appeared to me to be carbonate of copper, but was probably silicate. Looking further at one with a lens, I imagined that I could also distinguish particles of pea- cock ore. On attempting to purloin a specimen, I was very properly stopped from so criminal an act by the Cerberus in charge. I wrote to the chairman of the company, stating that, not having examined the stone, I might be only contributing | a mare’s nest to their zoological collection, but that if it con- tained much ‘copper the fish would be in danger. I understand that upon receipt of my letter some rock was sent up to Dr. much sulphide of copper, and that the pretty green rock was therefore unfit for tank rock-work. I think this will serve as a caution to the constructors of aquaria to examine all material which is to be in contact with water most | carefully before using it. There are so many minerals which would be deleterious that I strongly advise an analysis and report in the case of every untried rock. The accident of my passing a heap of stones has saved the company, with whichI am not in the least connected except as a fervent well-wisher, from a large expenditure and a serious scrape. Allow me to ask those who are accustomed to the manage- ment of tanks, whether hydraulic pressure upon a small and strong one would be likely to assist in maintaining life in any of the deep-sea organisms, and whether it would be useful to make recesses for those loving darkness, with the axes opposite the plate glass side, so that a bull’s-eye lantern could occasionally throw light upon their actions and mode of life ? Brighton, Oct. 21 MARSHALL HALL ON HOMOPLASTIC AGREEMENTS IN PLANTS ye the recent meeting of the British Association I pointed out in a short communication the difference that existed between mimicry in animals and what has been spoken of under that name amongst plants. The distinction was sufficiently obvious, and must have oc- | curred to everyone who had given the matter any consi- deration, but my object was to try to raise a discussion upon the whole subject as exhibited in plants. I fancy it is hardly sufficiently understood how com- monly this agreement of facies occur in plants widely differing in other respects. I will give a few illustrations of it. Humboldt remarks (“ Views of Nature,” p. 351) : “Tn all European colonies the inhabitants have been led | by resemblances of physiognomy (/adztws, facies) to apply the names of European forms to certain tropical plants, which bear wholly different flowers and fruits from the genera to which these designations originally referred. Everywhere in both hemispheres the northern settler has believed he could recognise alders, poplars, apple, and olive trees, being misled for the most part by the form of the leaves and the direction of the branches.” Nor has the popular eye alone been deceived by these resem- blances. Schleidenstates(“The Plant,” p. 255) that Australia has in common with Europe a very common plant, the daisy, yet Dr. Hooker has pointed out (Flora of Tasmania, pl. 47) that the plant intended by Schleiden is the very | similar but distinct Bvachycoma decipiens Hook. fil. Again, true flowering plants belonging to the very curious family Podostemacee have been figured as liverworts and other cryptogamic plants (Berkeley, Intr. to Crypt. Bot., p. 5). Many other instances of similar errors might be given.* Since I read my paper, I have met with an essay by Schouw, in which he enumerates facts of the same kind. “ There is still,” he says (‘‘Earth, Plants, and Man,” p. 61), “another kind of repetition which I might call habitual repetition, or denominate #zémzcry, if this expression was not at variance with the subjection to law which exists throughout nature, but to comprehend which our powers are oiten insufficient.” After various illustrations he pro- ceeds :—“In the genus J7u/ista we have the remarkable sight of a compositous flower, with the tendrils of a leguminous plant.” (This by an accidental coincidence was one of the instances which I, myself, used at Edin- burgh.) “In Begonia fuchsioides the leaves are similar to a Fuchsia, and very different from the other forms of leaf among the begonias, and the colour of the blossom likewise reminds us of the fuchsias. We have another most striking example in certain Brazilian plants, which although possessed of perfectly developed flowers and | fruits, mimic, as it were, in their leaves and stems, groups Percy, whose report, I am told, was to the effect that there was | a 5 ; eee of plants of much lower rank.” (He is alluding to the Podostemacee mentioned above.) “ Laczs fucotdes re- sembles certain seaweeds so much, that it might be mis- taken for one by a person who did not see the flowers. Mniopsis scaturiginum strikingly resembles a Funger- mannia.” I suggested that when a plant put on the characteristic facies of a distinct natural family, it might conveniently be spoken of as a pseudomorph, having in view an obvious analogy in the case of minerals. I do not, however, now think on further consideration, that this term, although convenient, includes all the cases. In small natural fami- lies it is not always easy to recognise any general habit or facies at all, and in the case of plants belonging to different families where this is the case, but having a similar habit, it would be purely arbitrary to fix the | pseudomorphism on any of them. Again a// the indi- viduals of distinct groups of plants might have a similar habit, and the same remark would apply. The difficulty is, however, got over by speaking of the plants in these cases as zsomorphic. My friend, Mr. E. R. Lankester, has pointed out to me that agreements of this kind may all come under what he | has termed homoplasy (Ann, and Mag. of Natural History, July 1870). This is the explanation he gives of this expression :— “When identical or nearly similar forces, or environ- ments, act on two or more parts of an organism which are exactly or nearly alike, the resulting modifications of the various parts will be exactly or nearly alike. Further, if, instead of similar parts in the same organism, we suppose the same forces to act on parts in two organisms, which parts are exactly or nearly alike and sometimes homo- genetic, the resulting correspondences called forth in the several parts in the two organisms will be nearly or exactly alike. I propose to call this kind of agreement /omo plasis or homoplasy. The fore legs have a homoplastic agreement with the hind legs, the four extremities being, in their simplest form (¢.g. Pvotevs, which must have had ancestors with quite rudimentary hind legs), very closely similar in structure and function. . . . Homoplasy in- cludes all cases of close resemblance of form not traceable to homogeny.” The resemblances, therefore, above described between the vegetative organ of plants with no close generic relations, may be described as homoplastic. The difficulty * Perhaps one of the most striking is the Natal cycad Stangeria paradoxa having been published and described by Kunze asa species of Lomaria, a genus of Ferns. 508 NATURE [ Oct. 26, 1871 still, of course, remains to show /ow the homoplasy has been brought about. In some cases, as in the homoplastic forms of American Cactacez and South African Euphor- bias, or in the stipular bud scales of many wholly un- related deciduous trees, the nature of the similar external conditions may possibly be made out with some correctness. Again, Dr. Seemann has pointed out that by the rivers in Nicaragua and in Viti, the vegetation, although composed of very different plants, puts on the willow form (“ Dottings by the Roadside,” p. 46). A phenomenon true of two distant places accidentally contrasted, might be expected to obtain more generally ; at any rate, among our indigenous riparian plants Lythruwm Sacicaria and the willow-herb are, as their names indicate, additional illus- trations. The band of vegetation that fringes a stream is always densely crowded with individual plants, and it is easy to see that elongated and vertically disposed leaves would be most advantageous, exactly as they are to the gregarious plants of meadows and plains. The homo- plastic agreement of riparian plants may be therefore a direct result of selective effort due to the position in which they grow. In other cases the operation of similar external mould- ing influences is not so easy to trace. It might, perhaps, however, be imagined that plants would hereditarily re- tain the effects when the influences had ceased to operate, and no new ones had come into operation pre- cisely adapted to obliterate the work of those that preceded them. Suppose, for example, that willows got their habit and foliage from ancestors that were exclusively riparian, then any descendant that happened to be able to tolerate situations with less abundant supplies of moisture, would not necessarily lose their characteristic foliage on that account. Such races fhight be expected to occur near rivers subject to periodic droughts, since under these con- ditions any others would be likely to perish. Under such circumstances we should have cause and effect no longer in contiguity ; the riparian habit surviving the riparian situation. I suggested at Edinburgh that possibly similar habits in plants might be bronght about by afferent causes. This was only asuggestion, and probably what has just been said is a truer account of the matter. At any rate the illustration I gave of my meaning has been quite mis- understood (as, for example, in the last number of the Popular Science Review). It is well known that there are a certain number of plants indigenous to the British Isles, which are found at a considerable height upon mountains and also upon the sea-shore, but not in the intervening space. In the latter situations they contain more sodium salts than in the former, and inasmuch as these salts are destructive to many plants, those that compose a strand flora must be able to tolerate them, and this of course is an advantage, because many of their competitors are poisoned off. Similarly plants of moun- tains must have a similar advantage over others in ability to tolerate mountain asperities uf climate. Now, suppose a mountain submerged ; its flora and certain portions of that of the strand come to coincide. Then if we suppose the mountain gradually to emerge, some of these plants will spread downwaids under the uncovered surface, and travel over the whole of the interval that ultimately separates the mountaintop and the strand. Why, then, do they not remain there? Simply, I believe, because they are elbowed out by other plants which, nevertheless, cannot tolerate the conditions of life either on the moun- tain or the shore, and leave these, therefore, as refuges which they are unable to invade. It is possible that the action of similar soil constituents might help to bring about homoplastic agreements in plants. The sug- gestion is not, however, one that occurred to me to make. My object was simply to show how two perfectly different causes might produce the same effect, namely, that of giving immunity from competition to a small group of plants. Except as an illustration of this point, the matter was quite irrelevant to the subject about which I was speaking. W. T. THISELTON DYER ON THE DISCOVERY OF STEPHANURUS IN THE UNITED STATES AND IN AUSTRALIA HE time has now arrived when a full statement of the facts relating to this interesting parasite. Stepha- nurus dentatus, should be made more generally known ; for not only is the progress of helminthological science likely to be checked by delay in this matter, but, in the absence of definite information, the several merits of the original discoverer and describer of this entozoon are likely to be altogether ignored. I therefore record the facts and inferences in the order in which they have recently come under my notice. On the roth of January last, through the firm of Messrs. Groombridge. I received an undated communication from Prof. W. B. Fletcher, of Indianapolis, Indiana, U.S.A. In that letter Dr. Fletcher announces that he has “ found a worm” infesting the hog, and he helps one to realise its abundance by adding that he obtained it “in nine out of ten hogs” which he examined. After recording some other important facts respecting the tissues and organs which were most infested by the parasite, Dr. Fletcher remarks that he cannot find any description of the worm in the work on Entozoa issued by the publishers above men- tioned, nor in the writings of Von Siebold and Kiichen- meister, and he therefore encloses specimens for my determination, requesting a reply. As I have already stated in my first letter recorded in the British Medical Fournal (for January 14, p. 50, where many other particulars are given which I need not here recapitulate) I was instantly struck with the “strongyloid character ” of the fragmentary and shrivelled up specimens, and I may also add that it at once occurred to me that I had had some previous acquaintance with a scientific description of the worm. Proceeding, therefore, to turn over a series of helminthological memoirs, for many of which I stand indebted to the late veteran, Dr. K. M. Diesing, of Vienna, I soon had the good fortune to find the desired record. The memoir in question forms part of the “ Annalen des Wiener Museums” for 1839, the full title being “ Neue Gattungen von Binnenwiirmern, nebst einen Nachtrage zur Monographie der Amphistomen.” As this work is probably little, if at all, known in the countries now necessarily most interested in the history of this entozoon, I cannot, perhaps, do better than transcribe Dr. Diesing’s brief notice of the original dis- covery, together with his description of the external characters presented by the worm. After naming the parasite Svtephanurus, on account of the coronet-like figure of the tail of the male, and giving a technical description of the species, he continues as follows :—“At Barra do Rio Negro, on the 24th of March, 1834, Natterer discovered this peculiar genus occurring singly or several together in capsules situated amongst the layers of fat, in a Chinese race of Sus scrofa domestica. Placed in water or in spirits of wine, they stretched themselves considerably, and almost all moved up and down.” “The males measure from ten to thirteen lines in length, the females from fiiteen to eighteen lines, the former being scarcely a line in breadth at the middle of the body, whilst the Jatter are almost a line-and-a-half in thickness. The curved body thickens towards the tail, is transversely ringed, and when viewed with a penetrating lens, is seen to be furnished with integumentary pores. The oral aperture opens widely, and is almost circular ; it is sup- plied with six marginal teeth, two of which, standing opposed to one another, are larger and stronger than the rest. The tail of the male, when evenly spread out, is surrounded by a crown of five lancet-shaped flaps ; the combined flaps being connected together from base to Oct. 26, 1871 | NATURE 599 apex by means of a delicate transparent membrane. The single spiculum situated at the extreme end of the tail, projects slightly forwards, being surrounded by three skittle-shaped bodies. The tail of the female is curved upon itself, rounded off, and drawn out at the extreme end into a straight, beak-shaped point, whilst to both sides of the stumpy caudal extremity of the body, short vesicular elevations are attached. The female generative opening occurs at the commencement of the second half of the body. “ Judging by its external characters this genus is most closely allied to Strongylus.” The above description is supplemented by a more lengthened account of the internal organisation of the worm; this part of the record displaying in an espe- ‘cial manner those powers of accurate observation which so fully characterised the great systematist in helmin- thology prior to the time when he was deprived of his eye-sight. Having communicated to Prof. Fletcher my views re- specting the true history and identification of S/ephanurus, he was pleased tosupply me with some further particulars. Thus, (after receiving my reply) in his second communi- cation (dated from Indianapolis, February 22), he says: “TY at once renewed my researches, and was rewarded by finding the little saw-like teeth, upon a six-sided jaw, and, if I mistake not, two larger teeth or hooks, I also re- moved the lungs, heart, and liver, entire, from several hogs (just killed by shooting in the head) and found the worm, as before stated, in the liver, in all the hepatic vessels, and also in the vena cava. Insome cases I found the eggs in abundance in the pelvis of the kidney, and in the urine, even when I could discover no cysts or worms about them.” Dr. Fletcher then alludes to the circumstance that he had since his first letter to me placed himself in correspondence with Prof. Verrill, who, it appears, had previously examined the worm. Prof. Fletcher also obligingly enclosed Prof. Verrill’s paper, extracted from the American Fournal of Science and Aris of September 1870, and, jin so far as I may be guided by its contents, it would now appear that the very first specimens which were obtained in the United States were the “five” examples sent by Dr. M. C. White, of New Haven, U.S., to Prof. Verrill, who adds :—“ In the second instance, at Middleton, Conn., Dr. N. Cressy found large numbers of the worms in the fat about the kidneys of a young Suffolk pig, brought from New Jersey.” The title of Prof. Verrill’s paper is, “ Description of Sclerostoma pinguicola, a new species of entozoa from the hog.” At this point I pause to remark on some of the more practical questions connected with Svephanurus, for it must be quite obvious that so large a parasite, compara- tively speaking, must, when present in great numbers, give rise to a great amount of disease, even if it should not ordinarily prove fatal. Dr. Fletcher, indeed, does not hesitate to write as follows :—“ It is my opinion that this parasite is the cause, in some way, of the hog cholera, which has created such sad havoc within the past ten years, over the pork-producing parts of America, One farmer told mea few days ago that within a month his loss alone from this cause was over one hundred head ; and sometimes, in one neighbourhood, in a few days time, thousands have perished, although this season is nota cholera year, as our farmers say. I advised one farmer to burn or bury the dead animals ; but he informed me that he believed that fewer hogs die of the disease after eating the dead animals than those kept from them, Unfor- tunately, in this State there is no law guarding the spread of disease, neither is there any reward of reputation: or gain for pursuing any investigation that would bring pork and beef packers into disrepute. I myself could not get a pig’s kidney or beef’s liver in our city market, because I made investigations in some Texas cattle (being cut up in our market) which damaged their sale a few years ago.” In a third letter Dr. Fletcher tells me that greater facilities for examining the carcases of hogs had since been accorded him through the liberality of a Liverpool firm of pork packers, who had already killed 75,000 hogs during the summer season, 2.¢., up to the date of the first week in July. In hot weather the slaughtering is conducted in ice- houses. These practical observations by Dr. Fletcher appear to me to be of the highest importance, even though it should eventually turn out that there is no immediate connection between the occurrence of Stefhanurus and the hog cholera epidemics. That this opinion rests upon sub- stantial data seems probable from the circumstance that we have now not only received evidence of the occurrence of Stephanurus in Australia, but we are further apprised that the pigs which harbour it die of the disease super- induced by their presence, As I have already stated, in my second letter, published in the pages of the Aredash Medical Fournal, our earliest intelligence on this point rests upon the evidence furnished by a series of unnamed slides transmitted from Sydney to the President of the Royal Microscopical Society of London. Through the . kindness of the Society’s able Secretary, Mr. Slack, F.G.S., I was permitted to-examine, identify, and name all the specimens, and it was then that I recognised Szephanurus amongst the number, On the 4th inst, Dr. Morris’s paper, which accompanied the specimens, was read tothe Society. In that paper the author, like Prof. Verrill, expresses his belief that he has found a new entozoon, “its habitat being the fat surround- ing the kidney of the pig.” He speaks of it as occurring both in the “ free and encysted state, the encysted being its final stage of existence,” and, he adds, “its solid parts ultimately disappear, leaving a greyish brown fluid con- taining thousands of eggs.” Those who desire further particulars in reference to the parasitism of pigs and sheep in Australia should consult Dr. Morris’s paper, which will appear in the forthcoming November number of the Monthly Microscopical Fournal, Dr. Morris speaks of the pigs as dying from some mysterious disease, and thinks “it is possible that this worm or its broed may be the cause.” In some cases their death takes place quite suddenly, and this he supposes to be due to peritonitis set up by the swarming and migrations of the progeny. Be this as it may, it is interesting to notice the remarkable corsespondency of the conclusions arrived at by Dr. Fletcher and Dr. Morris independently. It will probably not be difficult to ascertain hereafter whether or not the maladies respectively termed “Hog Cholera” and “Mysterious Disease” are one and the same disorder ; but whatever happens in this respect, it is now quite clear that this parasite, hitherto little regarded, and for many years past persistently overlooked, is extraordinarily pre- valent in the United States, and, perhaps, equally so in Australia, it being further evident that its presence in the flesh of swine is capable of producing both disease and death. The statement of the worthy American farmer that the swallowing of infested flesh by a pig does not necessarily involve the pig-eating hog in a bad attack of a so-called “Cholera disease” requires to be further tested, and it also remains to be proven whether or not the Stephanurus be capable of passing through all its developmental changes from the egg to the adult form within the body of the bearer without having at some time or other gained access to the outer world. The com- paratively large size of the ova, which I find to be about zg0 ) or more than four times the size of that of Trichina, is not without significance ; but as yet we are unacquainted with the larval stages of growth. If no intermediary bearers are necessary to its development, we ought not to have to wait long for a complete record of the life-history of Stephanurus dentatus, T. S. COBBOLD 510 NATURE [ Oct. 26, 1871 BALL ON MECHANICS* “PES object of this book is to “prove the elementary laws of mechanics by means of experiments ”—a method the exact opposite of that generally adopted. According to the usual method, a few very general prin- ciples are assumed as derived from experimental data, a group of intermediate principles is then obtained deduc- tively, by the aid of which the action of forces in particular cases can be analysed. The particular cases may be such as have an interest from their bearing on practical ques- tions, but they are only examples of a general method applicable to innumerable other cases. There are therefore two distinct objects for which mechanical experiments may be made—viz, either to verify the fundamental principles,.or to verify the deductions drawn in particular cases. Experiments of the former kind are absolutely essential to the existence of the science. Unless, for instance, the conditions of the action of the force of friction are determined by ex- periment, no deductions as to cases into which that force enters have any but a theoretical value. The same is true in all similar cases ; such questions as, whether quantity of matter is proportional to weight, whether gravity at a given station is sensibly a constant force, whether the elasticity of solid bodies follows Hooke’s law, and if so within what limits, can be answered by experi- ment only. Such questions, on the other hand, as the tension of a tie-rod under given circumstances, the rela- tion between the weights which keep a given lever at rest, aa the relation between the power and the weight in a block and tackle, the form of the surface of a revolving liquid, admit of exact answers by deduction from the proper data, and, of course, the answers may be tested by experiment. Such experiments clearly have a different object from those of the former class. They have, indeed, this in common, that experiments of the latter kind also serve to verify funda- mental principles, but they do so indirectly. It is, however, from the teacher’s point of view that their value will be found greatest. In teaching the elementary parts of mechanics perhaps the greatest difficulty experienced is to make the learner feel that the diagrams drawn on the black board re- present facts, that, for instance, the conclusion deduced from a triangle is really applicable to a crane. Put the ex- periment side by side with the deduction, and it will be seen that the experiment cannot fail to bring home to the mind of the learner that his reasoning relates to things and not merely to abstractions. Let CB (Fig. 1) represent the jib or strut, and AB the tie- | rod of a crane, the line AC being vertical. Let a weight P hang from A, and let it be required to determine the forces transmitted through the tie and the jib. P can be re- solved into two forces acting along BC and AB produced, and an inspection of the figure will show that these forces | bear to P the same ratio that the lines BC and AB bear to AC, and that the force along BC is a thrust, and that along AB atension. This analysis is perfectly general. % Experimental Mechanics : a Course of Lectures delivered at the Royal College of Science for Ireland. By Robert Stawell Ball, M.A. With Illus- trations. (London and New York: Macmillan and Co., 1871.) We will now give Mr. Ball’s experiment in illustration of the same question :—“‘A piece of pine BC, 3/ 6” Jong and 1” x 1” in section (Fig. 2)is capable of turning roundits support at the bottom B by means of a joint or hinge ; it is held up by a tie AC 3/ long, which is attached to the support exactly above the joint. AB is 1’ long. From the point C a wire descends, having a hook at the end, on which a weight canbe hung. The tie is attached to the spring balance, the index of which shows the strain. The spring balance is supported by a wire strainer, by turning the nut of which the length of the wire can be shortened or lengthened as occasion requires. This is necessary, because when different weights are suspended from the hook the spring is stretched more or less, and the screw is then employed to keep the entire length of the tie at 3’. The remainder of the tie consists of copper wire” (p. 29). Mr. Ball then goes on to notice that when a weight of 2olbs. is placed on the hook, the strain, as determined by the spring balance, is 6olbs., thus verifying the analysis of the case given above. As an example of an experiment of the former class we will take the following,—it is the form in which Mr, Ball TENT Fic. 2. gives Galileo’s experiment of dropping bodies from the top of the Tower of Pisa. The figure (Fig.3) isso perfect that it scarcely requires explanation. Solong as the current is in action, the horse-shoe G is magnetic, and a ball of iron F remains suspended from it. When the current is broken G is no longer magnetic and F falls. In this manner, by including the wire round both horse-shoes in the circuit, a ball of iron and one of wood, into which a flat-headed nail has been driven, can be kept suspended, and then by breaking the circuit they can be let fall at exactly the same instant, they are seen to reach the cushion | at the same instant, and are thus shown to fall through equal spaces in the same time. Mr. Ball describes and discusses the experiment at some length, and shows how it proves that at a given station the attraction of gravita- tion on different bodies is proportional to their masses. The above examples will give a better notion both of the contents and illustrations of the book than any long description. We may say, however, that the book con. tains a clear and correct exposition of the first principles of mechanics, and illustrates, by well-chosen experiments, all the points in the subject that can be fairly called elementary. The figures reproduce all the circumstances of the experiments with so much exactness that with Oct. 26, 1871] moderate care the reader will understand the points illus- trated nearly as well as if he saw the experiments them- selves. In great part Mr. Ball has devised these experi- ments himself, and thus in the well-worked field of elementary mechanics he has introduced much that is original in treatment, and in some parts—particularly in his lecture on friction—there will be found something FIG. 3. more. On the whole the work is one that will amply repay perusal, both by teacher and student, and is a most valuable supplement to works on the theory of mechanics. Nor must we take leave of the volume without adding that its general appearance—due to paper, printing, and illustrations —is truly beautiful, and, in fact, we cannot callto mind any English book of the same class which will bear comparison with it in these respects. J. F. TWISDEN ON THE BEST FORM OF COMPOUND PRISM FOR THE SPECTRUM MICROSCOPE ie studying the spectra of coloured solutions and solid substances by means of the spectrum microscope, It is most important to employ prisms haying a suitable NATURE 511 amount of dispersion. It would be a very great mistake to suppose that the result is better with a very wide dis- persion. This, of course, makes the spectrum larger, but very greatly impairs the definition of the absorption-bands. Everyone who has had experience with an ordinary microscope must be well aware that a particular magni- fying power is best for each particular class of object or kind of structure, and that in some cases nearly all the important characters would be lost by employing too high a power ; but at the same time too low a power would be equally disadvantageous in other respects. This analogy holds good in the case of the dispersion of prisms. The power ought to be regulated by the character of the ab- sorption-bands. If they are dark, narrow, well-defined, and lie close together, as in the case of partially opaque crystalline blow-pipe beads of borax containing deposited crystals of oxide of lanthanum with oxide of didymium, a somewhat powerful dispersion is not only admissible, but quite necessary to separate some of the bands. If, how- ever, they are broad and faint like those seen in the spectra of many of the colouring matters found in animals and plants, a powerful dispersion spreads them over such a wide space, and makes the shading off so gradual, that the eye can scarcely appreciate the extra amount of absorp- tion ; whereas, when a lower dispersive power is used, a well-marked absorption-band can easily be seen. This is more especially the case with impure mixtures. I have found that when it was requisite to examine a mixed, somewhat turbid, coloured solution to detect, if possible, the presence of some substance which, when alone, gave a spectrum with distinct absorption-bands, no trace could be recognised by means of a prism of high dispersive power ; but it could be detected without any difficulty with a lower. In carrying on practical investiga- tions it is far more important to be able to succeed in such a case than to exhibit on a large and more imposing scale the spectra of a few substances which give dark and well- defined bands. There can be no doubt that it is a great advantage to have a number of prisms of different disper- sive power, so that in all cases the most suitable may be used; but at the same time some observers might not wish to have more than one, and thus it becomes impor- tant to decide what amount of dispersion is the best for the generality of cbjects—is sufficiently great to divide narrow, closely-placed bands, and yet not so great as to prevent our seeing broad and fairter. No magnifying power whatever is applied to the spectrum itself in the instrument now under consideration. As described in some of my former papers,* the com- pound, direct-vision prisms first made for me by Mr. Browning were composed of two rectangular prisms of not very dense flint glass, and three of crown glass, one being rectangular, and the others of an angle of about 75°. This combination gives a dispersive power, which shows faint bands very well ; but is not enough to divide the narrow and close bands seen in the spectra of a few substances. Mr. Browning then made prisms of similar construction, only that very dense flint glass was employed; This combination gives about double the former disper- sion, which divides narrow and close bands admirably, but sometimes shows broad and fainter bands so very badly that they can scarcely be recognised. It thus ap- peared to me that, if only one compound prism be sup- plied with the instrument, the best dispersive power would be intermediate between these two extremes. At the same time much would depend on the particular purpose to which the instrument was applied, and also, to some extent, on the individual differences between different observers. Mr. Browning has described + the plan that he pro- poses for the measurement of the position of absorption- bands by means of a bright line, seen by reflection from the surface of the prism, moved backwards and forwards * Popular Science Review, vol. v., 1866, pp. 66—77; Brit. As. Report, 1865 (pt. 2), p. 11. . a + Monthly Microscopical Fournal, vol. iii. p. 68, 512 by a micrometric screw with a graduated head. My ob- jection to the original construction was that the bright line was photographed on a small piece of glass, and the background was so far from being black as to much im- pair the spectra of substances that will not transmit a bright light. 1 suggested that in place of this glass plate asmall piece of tin-foil should be used, having a very minute hole in it. This shows far brighter than the line in the photograph, and the back-ground is quite black ; and thus the bright dot can easily be seen even when in the brightest part of the spectrum, and there is nO ex- traneous light to impair the faintest absorption-bands The only important objection to this method of measur- ing their position is, that a very slight movement in the apparatus, due to the loose fitting of moveable parts, alters the readings, and that the value of the measurements, as read off by the micrometer, depends on so many vari- able particulars, that nearly every instrument might have a different scale. The chief objection to my interference scales * is the difficulty of making all agree absolutely, but when accurately made they have not the above-named disadvantages. I therefore still adhere to that plan, but at the same time I have found the bright dot arrangement very usejul, not only as an indicator in showing spectra to others, but also asa fixed point in comparing, different spectra, or in counting the bands of the interference scale. Possibly without such help some observers might find this difficult, and would prefer in all cases to measure the posi- tion of bands by means of the graduations on the circular head of the micrometer, and therefore I was anxious to devise a prism that would have a dispersive power inter- mediate between the two extremes already mentioned, and at the same time have the upper face inclined at an angle of 45° to the axis, so that the bright dot micro- meter might be employed conveniently. To accomplish this, Mr. Browning made for me a prism composed of two rectangulars of crown glass, one rectangular of very dense flint, and one of less dense, cut at such an angle as to give direct vision. This combination gives what I consider to be as good a medium dispersion as could be wished, and at the same time enables us to measure the position of the bands with the bright-dot micrometer as accurately as is requisite in nearly all practical applica- tions. Subsequent trials have shown that the same advan- tages may be secured in a more satisfactory manner by replacing the less dense flint glass prism by two, one of flint and the other of crown, of such angles as give direct vision for the whole combination of five. The dispersion is very nearly the same as that of two prisms of ordinary flint glass of 60° angle. I have been thus careful in explaining the advantages and disadvantages of various arrangements, because the successful use of the spectrum-microscope depends so much on such particulars, and because so many who have not had experience in the practical working of the instru- ment seem anxious to see a wide spectrum, and overlook the practical importance of being able to recognise obscure absorption-bands. My own experience of this question agrees with that of most of my friends who have worked with the instrument, and yet I am quite prepared to believe that a different amount of dispersion might better suit some observers, and to admit the truth of the German saying, “ Eines schickt sich nicht fiir alle.” H. C. SORBY NOTES RirE in years and in honours, his work done and his fame world-wide, amid the regrets of all ranks of his countrymen, Sir Roderick Murchison has gone to his rest. It is nearly a year since he was seized with an illness which disabled him from further active work. Yet in the interval he has shown all his old interest in the affairs of which he has so long been the * Proc. Roy, Soc., vol. xv. p. 434. NATURE 2 ee SS ee [ Oct. 26, 1871 heart and soul, keeping up his intercourse with the world of science by reading, and with many of his associates by personal interviews at his own residence, and by correspondence. To the last his wonderful memory remained true, even to trifling details of place and date. Within the last few weeks, however, the disease made sad progress, and though he continued to enjoy frequent carriage exercise, his physical strength became less able to withstand any malign effects which the chills of autumn bring with them. On Thursday last he was seized with bronchitis, and gradually sank under the attack, till he died at half-past eight on Sunday evening, the 22nd inst. We shall offer next week a fuller reference to Sir Roderick’s Jife-work and scientific influence. For the present, and ere the earth closes over all of him that is mortal, let us only say that in him Science has lost a hard-working and distinguished cultivator, as well as an in- *fluential patron, and that to a narrower circle of mourners his loss is also one of a kindly large-hearted friendship. WE have to record the death, on Saturday last, at the age of seventy-nine, of Mr. Charles Babbage, the eminent mathema- tician and mechanician. The most important events of his life, as well as some of the eccentricities of his character, are familiar to the public through his autobiographical volume, ‘‘ Passages in the Life of a Philosopher.” Born in 1792, he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1810, and was transferred to St. Peter's the following year. At his B.A. degree he did not take honours in mathematics, not having specially pursued that subject of study as a student, and was understood to have been disappointed at not being elected a fellow. In 1828 he was howeyer elected Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge, a position once held by Sir Isaac Newton. He published no less than eighty volumes, but his claim to public notice rested chiefly on his invention of the Difference Engine, on which he spent immense labour and a large sum of money. Notwithstanding his eccen- tricities and his failings, Mr. Babbage was a mathematician and an inventor of whom England may be justly proud. Tue English Government Eclipse Expedition sailed this morning for Ceylon in the A/i7zepore from Southampton, Mr, Lockyer in charge, expecting to reach Point de Galle on Noy. 27. They hope to confer with the Indian observers as soon as possible, and plan a concerted campaign. The experience of the last Expedition necessitated that the whole of the instruc- ions should be rewritten; and the Eclipse Committee of the British Association, consisting of the following gentlemen :—Sir William Thomson, L.L.D., F.R.S., President, Prof. J. C. Adams, D.C.L., F.R.S., GB. Airy, F.R.S., Astronomer Royal, Prof. Clifton, F.R.S., Warren de la Rue, D.C.L., F.R.S., Dr. Frankland, F.R.S., Captain Douglas Galton, C.B., F.R.S., George Griffith, M.A., J. R. Hind, F.R.S., W. Lassell, F.R.S., President R.A.S., Lord Lindsay, J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S., General Sir Edward Sabine, K.C.B., President R.S., General Strachey, F.R.S., W. Spottiswoode, LL.D., F.R.S., Colonel Strange, F.R.S., Prof. Stokes, D.C.L., F.R.S., and Dr, Thomas Thomson, F.R.S., have had very hard work to get the arrange- ments completed, in which they have been most zealously assisted by the Government, and by the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Boat Company. Lord Lindsay placed at the disposal of the Expedition the whole of his valuable instruments, and has sent a photographic observer at his own expense. Several members of the Expedition have voluntarily given up a month of their time before starting to perfect themselves in spectroscopic and other observations at the Royal College of Chemistry, a most commendable example to others in similar situations. We have now only to wish the Expedition a prosperous voyage, and better fortune with regard to weather than was experienced in Sicily last year. WE have to announce the return of Mr, Gwyn Jeffreys from Oct. 26, 1871 | North America. He examined all the principal collections of shells in the United States and Canada, and especially those made in the deep-sea explorations of the Gulf of Florida and Gulf of St. Lawrence. The former was in the charge of Dr. Stimpson at Chicago ; and Mr. Jeffreys was entrusted with specimens (some of them unique) of all the species which appeared to him the same as certain undescribed species dredged by him in the depths of the East Atlantic during the Porcupine expeditions of 1869 and 1870. These specimens may be the only ones saved from the Museum of the Academy of Sciences at Chicago, which it is greatly feared was destroyed by the late deplorable confla- gration. Several species of North American land and fresh- water shells will also be found to inhabit the eastern hemisphere, although bearing different names. Through the kindness of Prof. Baird, Mr. Jeffreys had an opportunity of dredging on the coast of New England in a Government steamer ; and he everywhere received great hospitality and attention. He particularly acknow- ledges his obligation to Mr. Anthony, Prof. Agassiz, and Prof. Shaler, of Cambridge ; the Hon. S. Powel, of Newport, R.I. ; Prof. Baird, of Washington ; Prof. J. C. Draper, of New York ; Mr. Binney, of Burlington, N.J. ; Dr. Isaac Lea, of Philadel- phia; Dr. Stimpson and Mr, Blatchford, of Chicago ; and to Principal Dawson and Sir W. E. Logan, of Montreal. Les Mondes records the death of M. Henri Lecocq, Professor in the Faculty of Sciences at Clermont Ferrand, eminent both as a botanist and geologist. THis lifehas been spent in encourag- ing and assisting the cultivation of the sciences to which he especially devoted himself ; and by his will he has devoted his property to the same end. He leaves to the town where he resided the sum of 150,000 francs, of which 50,000 is bestowed on the botanic garden established by him, 50,090 to the main- tenance of water-supply and fountains, and 50,000 to the establish- ment of covered markets. M. Lecocq leaves besides to the town all his collections of natural history, zoology, botany, geology, and mineralogy, as well as all the cabinets which contained them. Mr. ALFRED HENRY GARROD, scholar in natural science of St. John’s College, Cambridge, and formerly Demonstrator in Physiology to Prof. Humphry, has been appointed Prosector to the Zoological Society of London. There is probably no other post in the world which affords opportunities for the study and advancement of animal physiology and comparative anatomy equal to those enjoyed by the possessor of this office, owing to the extraordinary extent of the Society’s vivarium in the Regent’s Park. Mr. Garrod, we understand, will not enter upon his duties until the beginning of the new year. Mr. Davipson, of King William’s College, Isle of Man, has been elected a Scholar in Natural Science at Sidney Sussex Col- lege, Cambridge. A SCHOLARSHIP is announced at Balliol College, Oxford, on the foundation of Miss H. Brakenbury, ‘‘ for the encouragement of natural science,” of the value of 7o/. for three years. This is open to all candidates who have not exceeded eight terms from matriculation. The examination begins on Tuesday, November 21. Papers will be sentin (1) Mechanics and Physics, (2) Che- mistry, (3) Physiology, but no candidate will be expected to take up more than two subjects at the most. There will also bea practical examination in the above subjects. Further information can be obtained from the tutors, WE understand that the next number of the Contemporary Review will contain an important article by Prof. Huxley in com- ment on some portions of Mr. Mivart’s ‘*Genesis of Species.” THE following are among the Publishers’ announcements of scientific works for the approaching season :—From Messrs. Long- NATURE n.ans :—The Royal Institution, its Founder and its First Professors 213 by Dr. Bence Jones, Hon. Sec. ; Spectrum Analysis in its Applica- tion to Terrestrial Substances and Physical Constitution of the Heavenly Bodies, familiarly explained by Dr. H. Schellen, with Notes by William Huggins, LL.D, D.C.L., F.R.S, 1vol. 8vo. with coloured plates and other illustrations; a Smaller Star Atlas, for the use of schools and junior students of Astronomy, by R. A. Proctor, B.A., F.R.A.S., in twelve circular coloured maps and two index maps, with an introduction showing how the stars may be recognised and their motions studied and understood ; Popular Lectures on S -ientifi- Subjects, by Prof. Helmholtz, trans- lated by H. Debus ; Elements of Materia Medica and Therapeutics, being an abridgement of the late Dr. Pereira’s Materia Medica, and comprising all the medicines of the British Pharmacopceia, together with such others as are frequently ordered in prescrip- tions, and required for the use of medical practitioners, edited by Robert Bentley. From Mr. Murray :—The Principles of Geology, or the Modern Changes of the Earth and its Inhabitants considered as illustrative of Geology, by Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., F.R.S., 11th edition, thoroughly revised, illustrations, Vol. 1 ; The Metallurgy of Copper, Zinc, and Brass, including Descriptions of Fuel, Wood, Peat, Coal, Charcoal, Coke, Fire-Clays, by John Percy, I’. R.S., new edition, revised, many illustrations. From Messrs. Macmillans :—A Treatise on the Origin, Nature, and Varieties of Wine, being a complete manual of Viticulture and (Enology, by J. L. W.- Thudichum, M.D., and August Dupré, with numerous illustrations ; the Ministry of Nature, by the Rev. Hugh Macmillan; a series of Science Primers, under the joint editorship of Profs. Huxley, Rosco>, and Balfour Stewart ; the following will be ready about Christmas : Introduction, by Prof. Huxley ; Chemistry, by Prof. Roscoe; Physical Science, by Prof. Balfour Stewart. From Messrs. Bell and Daldy :—Alpine Plants, containing more than one hundred coloured illustrations of the most striking and beautiful Alpine flowers, with descine- tions by D. Wooster. From Messrs. Deighton, Bell, and Co :— The Desert of the Exodus, Journeys on Foot in the Wilderness of the Forty Years’ Wanderings, by E. H. Palmer, M.A., Fellow of St. John’s College, with maps and illustrations from photo- graphs and drawings taken on the spot by the Sinai Survey Ex- pedition, and C. F. Tyrwhitt Drake. From Mr. Goodwin :—A new and greatly-improved edition of What are the Stars? a treatise on Astronomy, by Mary Storey Lyle. From Messrs. Rivingtons :—Elementary Statics, by Hamblin Smith, 3rd edition, revised and corrected ; Geometrical Conic Sections, by G. Richardson, M.A., Assistant-Master at Winchester College, and late Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge; Analytical Geometry of Two Dimensions, by H. E. Oakley, M.A., late Fellow and Senior Mathematical Lecturer of Jesus College, Cambridge, H.M. Inspector of Schools. From Messrs. Cassells :— Elementary Astronomy, by Richard A.Proctor, B.A., F.R.A.S., with nearly fifty original illustrations ; Elementary Geography, by Prof. D. T. Ansted, M.A., F.R.S., Examiner in Physical Geography in the Department of Science and Art, illustrated with original diagrams. WE are glad to learn that the Rev. E. Smith and Mr. Irving are busy with a new and complete flora of the neighbourhood of Nottingham, which we hope will ultimately include the whole of that county. The work is being done under the auspices of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Nottingham. Dr. PETERMANN has written to several German papers to announce the success of a new German Arctic Expedition. According to a telegram received by him a few days ago, and since confirmed, Lieutenants Weyprecht and Payer have pene- trated to 79° N. latitude, and have actually discovered the open Arctic Sea, which has been so long searched for, They employed a Norwegian sloop, and penetrated northwards be- tween Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla, and they report an open sea from 42° to 60° E. lorgitude, and that but li:tle ice was 514 to beseen northward. By these results the anticipations of Dr. Petermann, who long ago recommended an expedition to the North of Spitzbergen, are fully borne out. THE number of entries at the London Medical Schools is this year unusually large, University College taking the lead with the largest number of fresh entries. We understand that the means of instruction at this admirable school are further enlarged by sup- plying the only disadvantage at which it has hitherto laboured—a deficiency in the number of beds. In future the students at this institution are to have the privilege of attending the clinical in- struction at Middlesex Hospital. Mr. W. R. S. RAtston is to give the Ilchester Lectures at Oxford this term. They will take place on November 4, 11, and 18, and will be upon Russian Mythology and Folklore. Tue first Evening Lecture at the London Institution, Finsbury Circus, will take place on Thursday, November 2, at half-past seven, the subject being ‘‘ Michael Faraday: the Story of his Life,” by J. H. Gladstone, Ph. D., F.RS. TEE Council of the Hackney Scientific Association will hold a Conversazione on November 7, at 7.30 P.M., at their Rooms, The Tabernacle, Old Street, N.E. On Saturday a meeting of the Senatus Academicus of the University of Edinburgh was held for the purpose of considering what steps should be taken in regard to the admission of the female medical students to the examinations. After a long dis- cussion the Senatus adopted a resolution to the effect that no further difficulties were to be placed in the way of the ladies as regarded either matriculation or preliminary examination. Weare glad to learn that at Marlborough College 205 boys are studying Science, and about three-fourths of these have two lectures a week. Thus since the commencement of the half no form has had more than seven lectures on one subject. The following averages were obtained out of amaximum of 100 marks for each subject :— Sixths and Upper Fifth—Chemistry. . . ee) (O5f53 Upper Voluntary (from the three Fifths)— Chemisty: y 55°94 % Magnetism 66°91 Upper Shell Form— Chemistry oo Te od 64°20 Upper Fourth, A— 5 ooh owantpein oe Gas Upper Fourth, B— 56°29 Lower V oluntary (from three preceding) — Magne tism O18 5 Modern School : Upper Division—Chemistry. . 53°04 53 Middle Division— “5 me 30570 A Lower Division— 5 53°45 no Upper Division—/ Magne lism 72°40 x Middle Division— 9 ea SAS Mr. HENRY WALKER states, ina letter to the Daily News, that interesting relics of the Glacial period are now to be seen at the Finchley Station, on the Highgate and Edgware Railway, en the branch line to Barnet, where the boulder clay is now being revealed in a section of nearly thirty-feet deep. The clay seems , to have a maximum thickness of nine feet, and is rich in fossils | drifted hither from the liassic, oolitic, and chalk formations of the north. abundance, Pror, Core has latimpkin and Marshall).—The School Arith- metic: Cornwell ani Fitch (Simpkin and Marshall).—Partial Differential Kquations; an Essay: S. Earnshaw (Macmillan and Co.).—Thoughts on Life Science : E. Thring (Macmillan and Co.). American.—FEarthquakes, Volcanoes, and Mountain Building: J. D. Whitney (Cambridge, University Press). : Foreign —Physique Socia'e. ou essai sur le développ2nent des facultes de homme: A. Quetelec (Brussels, Muquardt) —Anthro ométrie, ow mesure des différentes facultés de I'homme: A. Quetelet (Brussels, Mu- quardt).—Medizinische Jahrbiicher: S. Stricker. DIARY MONDAY, OctToBEr 30. Lonpon InstiTuTION, at 4.—On Elementary Physiology (I.): Pruf, Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S. THURSDAY, NovemMBer 2. Lowpon InstiTuTION, at 7.30.—On Micha’l Faraday ; the Story of his Life: Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F R.5. Cuemicat Society, at 8.— On Anthraplavic Acid: W. H. Perkin. Linnean Society, at 8 —On the Origin of Insects: Sir John Lubbo-k, Bart., #.R.S.—Notes on the Natural History of the Ilying Fish; Capt. Chimmo —On a Chinese Gall, allied tothe Europeau Artichoke Gail: A. Miiller, F.L.S. CONTENTS Pace ScigNGE IN-AMERICAS 2 “lM” 5. 5 qeeneemtoey tate eres one Our’ Book SHELF = . ies Meuse jo’ (8 yiemp fyererehe enka mnt LETTERS TO THE EDITOR :— The Sun's Parallax.—Tue Gost oF JOHN FLAWSTEED, M.R. . 503 The Marseilles Meteorite—Prof. A. S. Herscuer. (With WOT Ts Cte) ee ee Pree Ch euieece Ge cur ol oe og Exogenous Structure in Coal-Plants.—Prof. W. T. THIsELTON Divers Prof eW., Ri N Abate ycenal ai ta: cel ali icte ie ted ins Sore Blood-Spectrum.—H. C. Sorsy, F.R.S. re tcp = ak 505 Are Auroras Periodical ?—Prof. DanieL KirKwoop . . . - ~ 505 Forms of Cloud —Ropert H. ScoTT . - . » « «© 2 «© « » 505 Elementary Geometry ).. .-.. ~.« a se Su) (eeeteeeels & olen 505 The Beef Tapeworm.—Dr. T. S. Coppotp, F.R.S. . . . « « 506 Winter Fertilisation. —ALFrep W. Bennett, F,L.S. . . . +. +. 50 Velocity of Sottadian) Coals sc) “)igauean ual ofoiss ten Ue) co gate Changes in the Habits of Animals.—J. SHAw . ee nh + 506 A Plane’s Aspect.—J. M. Wirson; RicHArp A. Procror, Re AC Sate) | sete c Sree eee SOM Sea-water Aquaria.—Dr. MArsHAatt Hatt Fn CoM cine On Homoptastic AGREEMENTS IN PLAnTs. By Prof. W. TutseL- TONODYER\. 0) Jc) Seo) oe V5) OR Gaite tie Le se) inf tne et ee mC Ca On THE DiscoveRY OF STEPHANURUS IN THE UNITED STATES AND IN AUSTRALIA, By Dr. T. 5. Coppotv, F.R.S. . . . . 508 Bact on Mecuanics. By Rev. J. S. Lwispen. (With Jilustrations.) 510 On THE Best Form or Comrounp PRISM FOR THE SPECTRUM IMIGROSCOFE. “By, HiC, Sorsy, FSRSS.0) <0 ce) cen) ae) (ee D0 SO e ee ie See POISON GTLGMShG ooo E07 THOUGHTS ON THE HIGHER EDUCATION OF WomeEN. By Principal DAWSON, EAR Sete. she co ret ie ere) ee) eect ire eS Recenrt RESEARCHES ON FLIGHT. By Dr. J. Murte, F.Z.S.. . . 516 INSTRUCTIONS FOR OBSERVERS AT THE ENGLISH GOVERNMENT Ecxipse ExprgpiTion, 1871 1) Phe Ree . 516 HistotoGy: Lhe Auditory Organ of Gasteropoda . . . 518 SCIENTIFIC) SERTALS ae ie ic) lac @ eae Q 518 SocteTIES AND ACADEMIES . 519 Books RECEIVED. ° + 520 Diary . : 520 NOTICE We beg leave to state that we decline to return rejected communica- tions, and lo this rule we can make no exception. Commutica- tions respecting Subscriptions or Advertisements must be addressed to the Publishers, Nov to the Editor, . Ee Ath Bis ‘uu